Eco-Design in Electrical Engineering - Eco-Friendly Methodologies, Solutions and Example For Application To Electrical Engineering (PDFDrive) PDF
Eco-Design in Electrical Engineering - Eco-Friendly Methodologies, Solutions and Example For Application To Electrical Engineering (PDFDrive) PDF
Eco-Design in Electrical Engineering - Eco-Friendly Methodologies, Solutions and Example For Application To Electrical Engineering (PDFDrive) PDF
Jean-Luc Bessède
Editor
Eco-design
in Electrical
Engineering
Eco-friendly Methodologies, Solutions
and Example for Application to
Electrical Engineering
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
Volume 440
Eco-design in Electrical
Engineering
Eco-friendly Methodologies, Solutions
and Example for Application to Electrical
Engineering
123
Editor
Jean-Luc Bessède
Châteauvilain
France
v
vi Contents
vii
Part I
Methodologies and Standards
Overview of Eco-design Applications
on Various Types of Electronic Product
Development
Keywords Eco-design principles Energy consumption Life cycle analysis
(LCA) Product environmental impact Functional unit Continuous improvement
Product redesign Type III environmental declaration PEP ecopassport
1 Introduction
When product design starts with global architecture choice, eco-design principles
can be applied upstream, and the range of “play” is the largest. In this case,
eco-design recommendations orient design to privilege modularity, interchange-
ability, anticipate maintenance, increase recyclability, and of course reduce energy
consumption.
Eco-design principles have been applied when designing the CCP4U500 elec-
tronics rack architecture. CCP4U500 is the Controller for an Urban Railway
Overview of Eco-design Applications on Various Types … 5
Signaling Platform allowing Safety Train Fleet Control and Supervision. The
architecture is based on a modular design capable of adapting the equipment to
different types of Urban/Mainline rolling stock. This adaptability constraint led to
designing a product composed of carefully distributed devices in the train, con-
nected together through an Ethernet network.
It has been decided to develop for this product the functionality of a “sleeping
mode”. During its use, the product consumes 515 W, versus 65 W in stand-by
mode. With a lifetime of 20 years, an operating time of 77.9%, an annual con-
sumption of 3516 KWh, and an active consumption 7.6 h a day, the stand-by mode
allows globally savings of 54% in energy consumption.
A Life Cycle Assessment has been performed on the product according to ISO
14040 [3] and ISO 14044 [4] standards. A resulting type III communication has
been published, in the frame of PEP ecopassport® program.
For designs “from a blank page”, concepts and options are initially almost
unlimited. Eco-design principles can be fully applied, and when only a few solu-
tions remain, individual environmental impact assessment is performed, through a
life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, using the Environmental Improvement
Made Easy (EIME©) software.
The final concept choice is driven by a sound decision-making process with a
matrix integrating the environmental impact. Its contribution is defined by customer
expectations in terms of environmental commitment and project specificities.
The development of the Cut Shield Cabling Adapter started from scratch.
The CSCA product answers the need to cut the shields of Ethernet cables (com-
munication network) between two cars or between two coupled trains. This cut is
necessary to avoid residual currents and therefore to prevent the risk of fire, but
cutting the shields has the disadvantage of reducing the network immunity to
electromagnetic interference. The CSCA product’s role is to ensure the protection
of Ethernet network against electromagnetic interference when the shields cut is
performed.
Several design options were envisioned, with differences significant enough to
prevent an obvious choice. A detailed environmental impact assessment has been
performed between the “design finalists”. In parallel, a prototype has been built for
each of the solutions. The comparative Life Cycle Analysis elected one of the
concepts as highly beneficial, with significant reduction of the majority of the
environmental impacts, and no impact displacement.
The other criteria, such as ease of mounting, assembly time, cost, etc. were
added to the decision-making process matrix, as well as the environmental impact.
6 L. Vanessa and B. Melanie
The “greenest” solution was chosen, reducing the energy consumption needed
for the product manufacturing by 77%, representing an 88 MJ savings, equivalent
to the energy of more than 10,000 AA rechargeable LR06 stick batteries (1.2 V).
The choice of this concept also reduced by more than 85% the product carbon
footprint, amounting to almost 10 kg of CO2, as well as water pollution by 87%,
equivalent to 633 m3 of water which would have been required to dilute toxic
elements that would have been dumped into water at all stages of the product life
cycle. This corresponds to the water consumption of more than 10 persons in one
year (all water-use purposes considered).
In this case, eco-design principles were used to choose between design options.
A type III communication has been published on this product with PEP ecopass-
port® program.
It can occur that eco-design principles cannot be applied upstream during a product
development, or that design constraints are so high that they allow only a very limited
window of action to improve the developed product environmental performance.
For these low-freedom designs, numerous elements are usually frozen at an early
stage in the development. In this case, some light improvements or optimizations
can be proposed.
EVC2 is an electronics rack with a safety speed-measuring mission, reading the
ground beacons, assessing the actual speed when the wheels spin thanks to the
accelerometer, and giving the appropriate stopping instructions.
Eco-design “golden rules” have been browsed when its design was already
advanced. It has been chosen to decrease the back cover thickness, to have a mass
and environmental footprint decrease. This reduction led to a weight gain of 2.4%
on the mechanical parts, improving the environmental performance by *2.4% on
all indicators of the EIME software on the mechanical part.
In this case, eco-design principles were applied in late design stages but could
lead to a better product environmental performance.
7 Conclusion
References
Abstract For decades, Schneider Electric has been committed to playing a key role
in the environmental challenges we are facing. Schneider Electric has always been a
step ahead in environmental protection and recognized for our environmental
actions and the results in our products and activities. For our products, we closely
monitor compliance with regulations and directives, and extend applications
beyond geographical areas when appropriate. The purpose of this paper is to present
an overview of the eco-design process implemented in the Schneider, and especially
on the management of hazardous substances.
Keywords Eco-design Hazardous substances Supply chain Energy Life
cycle analysis (LCA) Product environmental impact PEP ecopassport Green
premium Eco label
1 Introduction
2 No Bad Ingredients
The Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive prohibits the use of six
specific substances, plus four types of phthalates, that until recently were commonly
used in other electrical equipment. However, RoHS requirements differentiate
between electrical and nonelectrical equipment, and manufacturers can take
advantage of numerous exemptions. For example, small amounts of lead are
acceptable in specific applications, even though lead is one of the six hazardous
substances singled out by RoHS.
We view the current RoHS requirements not as minimum requirements, but
rather as leading the way for the world’s future collective health and welfare.
Therefore, our goal is to not include any substance identified by RoHS as being
hazardous in any of our products. That means we do not take advantage of the
additional allowances offered for nonelectrical equipment and, insofar as possible,
we want to avoid exemptions.
Even though RoHS compliance is absolutely required only for products made or
sold in the European Union, we recognize that RoHS provides the strictest envi-
ronmental regulation of this type in the world. Therefore, we apply this same
approach to all of our products worldwide, which means everyone benefits.
In what product the substance is used, reason for including the substance in the
list, minimum threshold for declaration.
The database is updated as soon as a substance is expected to be regulated,
allowing users of the standard to update their requirements towards suppliers.
Our ambition is to address potential impacts through every phase of our products’
life cycles. This means addressing product manufacturing and the related resource
extraction, transportation throughout the value chain to end-users, installation in
specific processes and operations, usage, and additional impacts created during
product disposal, recycling, and/or degradation. The last life cycle stage is con-
sidered by the EEE industry to be an important issue to be addressed, especially
with regard to both the impacts associated with hazardous substance emission and
the potential for a circular economy, which would lead to resource preservation and
an overall reduction of environmental impacts, including climate change.
Another organizational issue identified is customer access to environmental
information so that buyers can have complete confidence in the specific product as
well as in their ability to use the information as part of their own sustainability
initiatives. This brings incremental value to companies at all stages of their supply
chains. The only way businesses can comply with regulatory and consumer pres-
sure is through comprehensive knowledge of the products and materials they use,
and by making the right business decisions with that information. Access to sus-
tainability information is critical to a company’s long-term growth and product
strategy.
Given these considerations, our ecolabel has been built on the following
objectives:
Ensure our partners and customers that the use of hazardous substances in
products is being managed with awareness, aiming for a reduction to a minimal
level;
14 C. Garnier et al.
8 Conclusion
References
1. IEC 62430, Environmentally conscious design for electrical and electronic products
2. IEC/PAS 62596:2009, Electrotechnical products—Determination of restricted substances—
Sampling procedure—Guidelines
3. ISO 9000:2005, Quality management systems—Fundamentals and vocabulary
4. ISO 14020:2000, Environmental labels and declarations—General principles
5. ISO 14024:1999, Environmental labels and declarations—Type I environmental labelling—
Principles and procedures
6. ISO 14025:2006, Environmental labels and declarations—Type III environmental declara-
tions—Principles and procedures
7. ISO 14040:2006, Environmental management—Life cycle assessment—Principles and
framework
8. ISO 14044:2006, Environmental management—Life cycle analysis—Requirements and
guidelines
9. ISO 14062:2002, Environmental management—Integrating environmental aspects into
product design and development
10. ISO 14001:2004, Environmental management systems—Requirements with guidance of use
11. ISO 14006:2011, Environmental management systems—Guidelines for incorporating
eco-design
SWOT Analysis of the ISO 14006
Application. A Practical Case and Its
Consequences on Ecodesigned Products
Keywords Environmental management system (EMS) ISO 14001 ISO 14006
SWOT Continuous improvement Life cycle assessment (LCA) Environmental
analysis Return on experience (REX)
1 Introduction
3 EMS in Place
The following paragraphs are focusing on certain steps of the EMS deployment,
constituting Villeurbanne return on experience.
4 SWOT Analysis
The ISO 14006 [2] principles setting which began in 2012 were awarded by a
certification in 2014, and led to a significant return on experience on different
themes:
Weaknesses: The skills on LCA realization shall be strong and it remains dif-
ficult to assess aspects not taken into account by LCA tool (semi quantitative
approach).
Opportunities: As the environmental analysis method is well established, it has
now a better recognition of the results and can be deployed on other Alstom
activities (trains and other sub-systems).
Threats: The results shall be reviewed periodically and the cut criteria are for the
moment defined arbitrarily.
4.2 On Processes
Strengths: Robust tools are in place and new tools are emerging (golden rules, LCA
software, assessment method, regulatory watch). A communication strategy is
defined for the results (PEP ecopassport©).
Weaknesses: Development cycle is long in railways (long time to have REX).
Capacity to innovate in the design is limited because of use of standard parts.
Opportunities: Ecodesign approach is a leverage for innovation, golden rules
are enriched progressively by the REX. Ecodesign ideas involve many actors
(mechanic, thermal, hardware engineers).
Threats: Difficulties to push for new ideas in case of redesign (because a part of
the design is kept).
SWOT Analysis of the ISO 14006 Application. A Practical Case … 21
Strengths: Roles and responsibilities are defined. Skills are covered with a training
plan. Stakeholders are defined, and management is involved (thanks to the man-
agement review). Steering committee members are pushing for the topic.
Weaknesses: Activity is seen as a new constraint. As it is new, there is a high
need to promote it by internal communication. Customer recognition of the
approach is sometimes uncertain (because of new approach and new standard).
Opportunities: Stakeholders can be actors of ecodesign ideas. Villeurbanne
maturity can also help customer to progress on knowledge (green washing avoided).
Threats: AFAQ evaluation is not well known in railway sector. Sometimes
tenders do not consider EMS.
4.5 On Budgets
5 Conclusion
References
sectors are quite different in terms of materials, processes and logistic chains.
Secondly, there is also a lack of common standards giving a frame for environ-
mental issues. Finally, the exploitation of results from EEE environmental decla-
rations can be difficult. The notion of study perimeter, functional/declared unit and
reference service life time are different in the two sectors. Therefore, how to
compare two products set by a declared unit while they do not work the same
amount of hours? For instance, two different types of EPDs in compliance with the
EN15804 can make the comparison possible between two luminaires (IBU). As the
first EPD does not inform the same number of operational hours as the second does,
it remains impossible to find a common basis from which comparing these lumi-
naires. Some global issues also remain. The different applications of the EN15804
so far have led to divergences in terms of comprehension of the standard and to the
addition of specific requirements. A declaration established in one country is not
necessarily usable in another one. In order to overcome those difficulties, a
European-wide non-profit organization, the Eco Platform, is currently working on
ensuring mutual recognition and compatibility between programs and regulations.
Their work gathers European environmental program members and users in order to
discuss and solve the issues. Another approach that might lead to a better har-
monisation is the upcoming building LCA and environmental declarations. As
architects and contractors in the building sector will perform LCA of whole
buildings, they will use building equipment environmental declarations.
Compatibility and modularity of those assessments will then become a strong
requirement, and the declarations conforming to those principles will have an
advantage during the suppliers and materials selection. Therefore the market could
shift due to this incentive and the contractors could define the required format de
facto. On a larger scale, actual harmonization works are in progress to limit the
differences between the EN15804 standard and the PEF/OEF guidelines. The
outcome of this work is still uncertain. In conclusion, there used to be no common
framework for the building product EPDs in Europe. The EN15804 standard has
provided a first step into this harmonization. It has, and it will replace as it goes
along previous formats of documentation. Nevertheless, it has appeared that this
standard still doesn’t lead to a full compatibility between declarations, notably in
the EEE sector, and does not allow the use of compatible declarations to globally
conduct the LCA of a building yet. But the harmonization is still ongoing with the
Eco Platform work and EN 15804 standard evolution, and the environmental
program declaration as well as the regulation might evolve within the next few
years. This evolution may possibly bring new difficulties along a better harmo-
nization. In this context, it is important for EEE sector companies performing LCA
and environmental declaration to keep up to date with the latest evolutions so to
anticipate the future regulatory and market needs.
1 Introduction
1
International Organization for Standardisation.
2
«Fiches de Déclaration Environnmentales et Sanitaires» standing for Environmental and Health
Declaration Formats.
3
“Institut Bauen und Umwelt” standing for Institute Construction and Environment.
4
Environmental Product Declaration.
5
Product Environmental Profile.
6
Electronic and Electrical Equipment.
7
Product Category Rules.
26 E. Lees-Perasso et al.
This chapter aims at identifying the main obstacles to be overcome so to apply the
EN 15804 standard for EEE declarations. The main problem to be addressed is that
this standard is mainly expressed for and by people from building material world;
this is thus a sectorial problem. For building materials, there are usually less
materials, processes and sub-contractors involved for manufacturing the product,
the life cycle variability is not as important as for EEE (as implementation scenario
described for instance in the French DTU8); there is thus a better knowledge of life
cycle parameters that influence the product environmental impact. That is unfor-
tunately not the case for EEE, as there is a multimaterial approach and a widely
extended use of subcontracting manufacturing phases of components or
sub-assemblies to international providers. This fact is emphasized by the difficulty
for manufacturers to get access to information with plenty of suppliers and inter-
mediaries in such an international context.
As it is often the case when dealing with numerous industries, sectors and
competitors, there is a lack of common standards giving a frame for environmental
issues. It should harmonize EPD and make it more accessible by industrials. As a
consequence, environmental information can be more easily compared, irrespec-
tively of the countries, or the format of documentations.
Finally, the third main category of problems concerns the exploitation of results.
Intrinsic characteristics of the standard pose a problem as regards as its application
for EEE, especially for results interpretation. There are commonly three types of
perimeters based on LCA, grouping different steps, proposed by the standard. The
only mandatory perimeter is from cradle to gate (from step A1 to A3). Then, the EN
15804 gives the ability to choose between a functional (as presented in the ISO
1404X series) and declared unit.9 There is no longer a performance dimension
which can be a drawback as regards as the comparison of several products [3, 4].
Then, this standard introduces the notion of Reference Service Life, i.e. an esti-
mated lifespan for a product. However, this notion should refer to the ISO 15686
standard which does not take into account EEE. Last but not least, this standard
introduces different statuses concerning the end-of- life of waste and the D module,
aiming at informing the eventual benefits and charges from recycling [6].
As it can be guessed from above, there are cross-sectorial and standard intrinsic
problems that need to be addressed in order to apply the EN 15804 for EEE. This
can be overcome thanks to the creation of a complementary documentation to
support EEE environmental declaration. This documentation could be considered as
complementary Product Category Rules (PCR).
Then another problem arises: how to compare two products set by a declared
unit while they do not work the same amount of hours? For instance, two different
9
Declared unit: quantity of a construction for use as a reference unit in an EPD for an environ-
mental declaration based on one or more information modules [3].
Network for Building Purposes Equipment Environmental … 27
types of EPDs in compliance with the EN15804 can make the comparison possible
between two luminaires (IBU) [7, 8]. As the first EPD does not inform the same
number of operational hours as the second does, it remains impossible to find a
common basis from which comparing these luminaires. If we consider that the
Builder knows the type of lighting he wants (illumination level, light colour…) then
he will need to compare luminaire systems that are sums of EPD and comple-
mentary information. A need to describe the parameters of energy consumptions
appears, informing for instance the lifespan, the power absorbed in a given mode of
use, etc. [9]. In this way, the two previous luminaires can be part of a luminaire
system that is configured by the light designer who is assessing the Luminaire
system LCA.
The different applications of the EN15804 so far have led to divergences in terms of
comprehension of the standard and additional specific requirements to each envi-
ronmental program and regulation. For instance, the French DHUP decree has two
additional impact indicators. Those differences still lead to incompatibility within
the European environmental declaration global scheme: a declaration established in
one country is not necessarily usable in another one.
In order to overcome those difficulties, a European-wide non-profit organization,
the Eco Platform, is currently working on ensuring mutual recognition and com-
patibility between programs and regulations. Their work gathers European envi-
ronmental program members and users in order to discuss and solve the issues.
Though, while it aims at ensuring the harmonisation of building equipment dec-
laration, it does not specifically take into account the EEE sector, therefore it might
not address the abovementioned problematics.
Another approach that might lead to a better harmonisation is the upcoming
building LCA and environmental declarations. As more and more architects and
contractors in the building sector will want to, or will have to perform LCA of whole
buildings, they will use building equipment environmental declarations.
Compatibility and modularity of those assessments will then become a strong
requirement, and the declarations conforming to those principles will have an
advantage during the suppliers and materials selection. Therefore the market could
shift due to this incentive and the contractors could define the required format de facto.
On a larger scale, actual harmonization works are also in progress to limit the
differences between the EN15804 standard and the PEF/OEF (product/organisation
environmental footprint) guidelines/ILCD recommendations. Though as the
requirements differ widely, and due to the fact the PEF/OEF rules are still under-
going a pilot phase, the outcome of this work is still uncertain. The use of indicators
in perpetual update and translating different stakes will raise some problems as well.
In addition, the use of indicators recommended by ILCD engenders some diffi-
culties in regard to the synchrony between indicators and EPDs updates. A lack of
28 E. Lees-Perasso et al.
4 Conclusions
References
Abstract Today industries from the electric and electronic sector are facing the
challenge of improving the environmental performance of the product (eco-design).
Various corporate attitudes and their related policy conduct industries to launch
different solutions for eco-designing their product and services. Various strategic
needs for environmental improvements therefore emerge. In addition important
amount of eco-design methods are available. The challenge of planning which eco-
design method to be used for a specific need is thus considerably increasing over
time. This research therefore aims at providing a mechanism to generate some
relevant eco-design options or some sets of methods for answering to the specific
corporate orientations chosen. Existing eco-design methods used in the
electric-electronic sector have been carefully analyzed and various ‘interactions’
between the actions followed in those methods have been identified. From this
analysis, this research provides a new network of eco-design actions allowing
company to explore different solutions and roadmaps for reaching concrete
eco-design requirements. The company is able to select the solutions that best
follow its eco-design needs depending on its specified strategic constraints and their
dynamic operational context. Meanwhile, a framework was proposed to guide the
company to consider these different eco-design options within its specific context.
This method has been used on a case study, which has demonstrated that its ability
to efficiently support the company in reaching eco-design goals.
1 Introduction
solutions include life cycle analysis methods, covering different life cycle stages,
and some methods that is aiming for different purpose, such as “design for X”,
where X stands for: disassembly, improving the recyclability, material selection,
optimizing the use and treatment of natural resources, etc. In 2010 [7] has collected
more than 500 scientific contributions covering different problems faced only
during the recovery process. Facing the vast numbers of methods, a first question
would be: “does the link between the environmental aspect and method can be
absolute”. In other word, “does a concreted environmental topic could be achieved
by using different kinds of eco-design methods?” In fact, the answer is yes. For
example, to answer the requirements of WEEE directive and to optimize the
recyclability of EE product, beside of the classic method of “design for recycla-
bility”, lots of others are always available, such as the “design for disassembly”,
“design for remanufacturing” and “design for material selection”. Here, the different
methods used could be considered as the different strategic options. In addition, due
to the informational interactions between different eco-design methods, some part
of a method can be directly used in another one. For instance example is that
“design for disassembly” can then embed “design for recyclability” methods to take
the recyclability of the parts disassembled. Meanwhile, the typical example is the
eco labeling system. Eco-labeling methods propose efficient ways to communicate
the environmental performance of a product. But several authors indicated that
although the communication is out of the scope of the product strategy, the criteria
of eco-labeling can still be directly used as a creditable checklist for guiding the
eco-design [6]. In this example, the final result of this method is not useful. Only the
intermediate information are picked out and valorized.
However, if the research scope is broadened from the pure product design to the
whole corporate activities, this kind of interactions becomes ubiquitous. An
example can be taken from the duplex links between the product LCA and the
classic environmental management system-EMS ISO 14001. The results of the
environmental review of EMS might generate a particular specification of product
eco-design, because the material inputs and the tooling used in factories have been
decided by the design. In this case, eco-design is no longer for a classic
improvement of the product performance, but for the optimization of the production
process. So, instead of being the classic LCA inventory the results of environmental
review of EMS becomes the main input to launch the eco-design process. Inversely,
the primary data from manufacturing site and the real environmental improvements
furthermore optimize the data quality of eco-design and encourage innovation.
Similar examples have been collected. Zhang [14] indicated for instance several
interactions between different methods for designing, manufacturing, purchasing,
and the communicating. In [12] seven cases are summarized pointing out that the
product environmental innovation can be considered as an additional, nonetheless
important, performance metric for organizational environmental management
system.
The above discussion indicated that all environmental options (i.e. methods) are
not independent. Answering to a strategic need could require the combination of
different methods. The relevance of this combination could as well optimize the
32 F. Zhang et al.
Fig. 1 Explorative tracing the trajectory for eco-design objective: “Optimization of the
recyclability of a product” (extract of [15])
Dynamic Eco-design Strategic Options for Electric-Electronic … 33
activities are normally out of the corporate scope. The company can sign a specific
contract with suppliers to optimize the “taking back” system for its product.
In this model, each branch shows an independent eco-design option (action
process). Each of these branches can replace another branch. The redundancy of the
branches ensures the robustness for treating this specific problem: “the recyclability
improvement of electric and electronic devices” required by the WEEE directive, as
well as the new recovery economy models. For example, if the company selects a
trajectory (e.g. “collaboration with suppliers” in this example) this redundant design
can quickly allow performing a variety of other possible backup options to fulfill
the final objective in urgent cases, such as considering the lack of suitable suppliers.
So the multiple possible data connection pipes (the interactions among different
actions) and multiple contributions of trajectory enhance the robustness about the
fault-tolerant ability of the program implementation [10]. It is necessary to mention
that the above “applicable scenarios map” provides several possible trajectories, and
these trajectories are not strictly independent. It means that the possibility of
regrouping the different trajectories provides a great flexibility to plan an adapted
corporate program to the company.
Thirdly, these above explored options are not only the general dashboard of the
trajectories. In fact, behind each action described through the cartography, sets of
operational resources, tools and recommendations are also proposed. These infor-
mation can support the company to easily evaluate the operability of each trajectory
and to integrate the selected trajectory into the corporate process. Such as, due to
the WEEE directive, the waste of EE devices were treated by several recyclers. But
the detailed data about the collection and the treatment of its product are unavailable
for the company. So in order to optimize the recyclability of EE devices, the
cartography recommends some scientific researches and case studies [3, 9]. This
action seeks to guide the collaborations of the designers with these recyclers.
From the Sect. 3, this paper illustrated that the eco-design activities need to be
compatible with other corporate strategies. An ideal eco-design strategy can
cooperates with other strategies to provide a systemic solution to make the
achievement of both economic and environmental aspects together. In order to
analyze this compatibility, it is necessary to explore the different potential solutions
within the different technical and operational structures. Section 2 demonstrated
that based on a depth analysis, a cartography of environmental actions allows the
company to finding out the various numbers of solutions for reaching a critical
eco-design objective. The different definitions about the technical topics, the
responsibilities of stakeholders, and the operational flows provide the data to
analyze the compatibility and the possibility of cooperation. The next Fig. 3
illustrates a framework to support the eco-design program.
This framework defines a general process to harmonize the new eco-design
options with other corporate strategies. This framework includes 4 different
36 F. Zhang et al.
modules: the first module explores all possible strategic options of eco-design. The
cartography of environmental actions is considered as a database to support this
exploration. Within this database, the company could easily translate the eco-design
objectives into some different series of eco-design actions and related definitions
about required capacities, and responsibilities of stakeholders, as well as the related
working flow. The second module is created to translate the principal corporate
strategies into sets of key elements or indicators (KPIs). This translation aims to
simplify the discussion and allows the comparison with the new eco-design options.
Within these two inputs, the third module focuses on the options compatibilities.
In general, the corporate environmental managers might consider some following
criteria:
The computability with the corporate strategic definition of environment:
today, for the environmental issues, each company has its private definition.
According to [13] four different types of strategic definitions about environmental
issues have been defined. Some companies consider environment as a barrier for
their business development. So there are a few budgets or supports to launch
eco-design practices. Facing this definition, the simplest or cheapest eco-design
strategic options need to be prioritized. However some other companies consider
the environmental issue as a new opportunity for their technical innovation. So they
wish to develop some new competences to take some advantage out of it. Facing
these needs, the different options should be selected and highlight the ones that
would bring some key technologies or which could produce the suitable results.
The compatibility with the KPIs of other strategies: if the new eco-design
actions can be aligned to other corporate strategies, the company can significantly
reduce the operational cost and the risks associated to those actions. For instance the
marketing team could be pushing projects dealing with modular ways of selling the
Dynamic Eco-design Strategic Options for Electric-Electronic … 37
products and their services. In this case the “design for upgradability” method could
be considered as a better solution for addressing the product end of life instead of
“design for recycling” methods. Meanwhile, if the company is re-auditing suppliers,
the new requirements about the sustainable supplier could be embedded into this
project. And the results of this embedment could directly support the achievement
of the related eco-design strategy.
The compatibility with previous environmental plans: due to the relationship
between different eco-design options, sometimes, the results of previous eco-design
data may be inherited by the next need. This inheritance can directly reduce the
operational cost and risks. The eco-label exemplifies this situation: company “A”
wants to be certified in type I eco label (ISO 14024) to communicate on the
environmental results of its products. However, due to the limited of categories of
covered products by the standard this company cannot find out any suitable label
system in France (i.e. its products could only covered by a foreign label system).
With the support of environmental cartography, the company finds out that some
type III eco label (ISO 14025) would fulfill its needs. Meanwhile, some simplified
LCA have been released by its designers. Therefore, by proceeding to the type III
eco labelling the company just has to modify its Product Category Rule (PRC) in
order to answer the needs of labelling system.
The compatibility with parallel eco-design programs: sometimes, there are
multiple eco-design programs launched together in company. Some come from
corporate level, while others would come from project level. The manager in charge
of making the eco-design plan (either on corporate level or project level) therefore
needs to consider the compatibilities of these programs. Basically, due to the rela-
tionship between the eco-design options, the common actions for multiple objectives
can simplify the operational cost and encourage the motivation of stakeholders.
Once the suitable eco-design options have been selected. The last module
(number 4) is to create support for the company to define the working process and
the responsibilities of each stakeholders. The dashboard with sets of KPIs system,
the methods of validation system, and the collaborative platform need to be care-
fully designed.
This framework and the related cartography of environmental actions had been
tested into a French SME to define a suitable eco-design program. This company is
an electric and electronic company producing lighting decorations for festivals.
The company objective at the beginning was to “optimize the recyclability rate of
its product” for being WEEE directive compliant. With the support of the cartog-
raphy, a holistic scenarios map has been proposed to deal with this consideration.
Similar with the above example (shown in Fig. 1), there principal scenarios were
proposed: 1—Design for recyclability, 2—Collaboration with recycler and 3—
Collaboration with suppliers. Other branches, such as the “design for disassembly”,
“design for upgradability” and “design for remanufacturing” have been also pro-
posed to complete the solutions.
Based on these potential solutions, a set of discussions has been organized with
the CEO, the purchasing manager, and R&D managers. The objective of these
38 F. Zhang et al.
5 Conclusion
Today industries from the electric and electronic sector are facing the challenge of
improving the environmental performance of the product (eco-design). Various
corporate attitudes and their related policies conduct industries to launch different
solutions of eco-design. In addition important amount of eco-design methods are
Dynamic Eco-design Strategic Options for Electric-Electronic … 39
available. The challenge of planning which eco-design method to use for a specific
need is thus considerably increasing over time.
This research therefore aimed at providing a mechanism to generate suitable
eco-design options or a set of methods for answering to the specific corporate
orientations.
The existing eco-design methods used in the electric-electronic sector have been
carefully analyzed and various ‘interactions’ between the actions followed in those
methods have been identified. From this analysis, this research now provides a new
network of eco-design actions for company, allowing them to explore different
solutions and helping them to elaborate roadmaps for reaching some concrete
eco-design requirements.
The results from this research have highlighted that the harmonization with the
eco-design options and other corporate strategies is a key element to make deci-
sions. The company is equipped to select the best solutions depending on its
specified strategic constraints, as well as the whole dynamic operational context,
and of each solutions taken in this context. This research illustrated a framework to
guide the company in the consideration of these different eco-design options within
its special context. Four compatibilities with other corporate activities have been
highlighted. Within this framework and the proposed environmental cartography
[15], a case study in a SME demonstrated that this method therefore efficiently
supports the company in reaching eco-design goals.
References
1. Baumann H, Boons F, Bragd A (2002) Mapping the green product development field:
engineering, policy and business perspectives. J Clean Prod 10(5):409–425
2. De Bakker FGA, Fisscher OAM, Brack AJP (2002) Organizing product-oriented environ-
mental management from a firm’s perspective. J Clean Prod 10(5):455–464
3. EPA (2001) IEMS implementation guideline, United States, 2001, http://www.epa.gov/dfe/
pubs/iems/iems_guide/index.htm. EPA, Implementations guide for small business recycling
cooperatives, www.nerc.org/documents/coop/nerc.pdf
4. Erlandsson J, Tillman AM (2009) Analysing influencing factors of corporate environmental
information collection, management and communication. J Clean Prod 17(9):800–810
5. Hallstedt S, Ny H, Robèrt KH, Broman G (2010) An approach to assessing sustainability
integration in strategic decision systems for product development. J Clean Prod 18
(8):703–712
6. Houe R, Grabot B (2009) Assessing the compliance of a product with an eco-label: from
standards to constraints. Int J Prod Econ 121(1):21–38
7. Ilgin MA, Gupta SM (2010) Environmentally conscious manufacturing and product recovery
(ECMPRO): a review of the state of the art. J Environ Manage 91(3):563–591
8. Jørgensen TH (2008) Towards more sustainable management systems: through life cycle
management and integration. J Clean Prod 16(10):1071–1080
9. Korean Electronic Association (2008) Guidance for methodology of calculation of
recyclability rate, the proposal for IEC TC111 HWG 4, 2008
10. Pardo RJH, Brissaud D, Zwolinski P (2011) Contribution to the characterisation of eco-design
projects. Int J Sustain Eng 4(4):301–312
40 F. Zhang et al.
C.M.A. Nayar
Keywords Energy-security
Renewable energy
Energy-neutral/energy+
buildings Life cycle cost Recycling of CO2 Hydricity
1 Introduction
India’s economic progress with equity will depend largely on its capacity to ensure
energy security (electricity). i.e., adequate supply of electricity at affordable prices
to the entire cross section of the society. Any meaningful discussion on this subject
is possible only if we accept the fact that India needs a judicious mix of different
sources for power generation. It will be necessary to define this judicious mix in a
short term, medium term and long term scenario bearing in mind India’s require-
ment for fulfilling its vision of development, India’s possibilities and the focus for
sustainable development.
An ideal mix of installed capacity should correspond to 30% from fossil fuel and
30% from nuclear and 40% from renewable sources. Around 15% of the electricity
generation will be from renewable sources and the rest almost equally divided
between fossil fuel and nuclear. However, India has almost sealed the fate of
nuclear energy by passing the Nuclear liability act making suppliers of equipment
also liable for the collateral damages. No responsible supplier (foreign or domestic)
will accept such a clause and hence I do not expect nuclear energy to contribute
more than 10% of the total generation in the foreseeable future (it was around 3% in
2012). This would also mean that fossil fuel will contribute more than 75% of the
total electricity generated in India for another two or three decades. CO2 emission
from fossil fuel based power plants is a very important aspect to be considered.
India has made a commitment to UNFCCC that India will bring down the carbon
intensity (CO2 emission in metric tonnes divided by GDP in million $) by 33–35%
by 2030 in comparison to 2005. However, India’s CO2 emission will go up
Renewable Energy, an Essential Element in India’s Energy … 45
considerably during this period. I expect the global CO2 emission in 2030 to be
around 60 billion tonnes (around 34 billion tonnes in 2014). In my view, the only
way to contain the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere will be to recycle CO2 in
the atmosphere and at source of production as well as the CO2 in the oceans.
A technology breakthrough is a must for achieving this objective.
There are several definitions for renewable energy and I would like to take the
following definition for the purpose of this discussion.
Any energy resource that is naturally regenerated over a short time scale and derived
directly from the sun (such as thermal, photochemical, and photoelectric), indirectly from
the sun (such as wind, hydropower, and photosynthetic, biomass), or from other natural
movements and mechanisms of the environment (such as geothermal and tidal energy).
Major renewable sources in India will be Hydro, Solar, Wind and Biomass. Hydro
electric energy is the single major source of renewable energy which has been
exploited since long and the adoption of other forms of renewable energy has been
recent. The following figures give the status as in 2012 (reference World bank data.
US EIA data).
World India
Total Electricity generation Billion Units 22,700 1127
Hydro energy Billion units (% of total) 3769 (16.6) 129 (11.4)
Other renewable energy Billion units (% of total) 1519 (6.6) 51 (4.5)
The discussion will remain positive if we try to establish the right place for power
generation from renewable sources without trying to denigrate other forms power
generation. Unfortunately, the whole debate in India is highly polarized and this
distorts the real issue. While it is the right of any citizen or group of citizens to
oppose or support any form of power generation based on his/her conviction, the
merits of renewable energy should not be mixed up with such partisan discussions.
In my view, renewable energy has its place and the efforts should be to find this
place with the available technologies and expected technological evolutions in the
foreseeable future. This has to be done with public support. Cost of production and
continuous availability of energy are important matters which could stand in the
way of public support and we have to find innovative solutions in a pragmatic way.
46 C.M.A. Nayar
The notion of “life cycle cost” is becoming increasingly popular and this should
become the standard practice for calculation of the cost of electricity for accounting
purposes as well as for comparison purposes. Life cycle cost would include the cost
of managing a product from “cradle to grave” i.e., cost of acquisition, cost of
operation, cost of managing the end of life including decommissioning, disposal
and decontamination of the site. Recovery of value from the decommissioned
product should be undertaken in an environment-friendly manner. Any meaningful
comparison of cost of production of electricity from different sources will be
possible only on the basis of life cycle cost. However, I must say that I do not find
such an approach in India so far and this could be true in several other countries as
well. I hope it will change and selling price of electricity will correspond to the real
life cycle cost. While it is normal for the Govt to offer capital subsidy, higher
depreciation limits and tax concessions for promoting new technology, it will be a
wrong step to provide subsidy for the selling price of any product including
electricity.
The key elements will be energy (electricity & hydrocarbons) and water. Needless
to say that basic infrastructures for education, transport, health care and commu-
nication are vital for any development. Even after 65 years as a Republic, 15% of
the Indian villages do not have electricity at all (12th Plan report). Even a large
number of the “so called” electrified villages do not provide electricity to a large
majority of the people in the villages. In such a scenario, it is impossible to imagine
that the Govt will be able to provide adequate quantity of electricity from the Grid
to these villages in the next twenty or thirty years. The only way in which electricity
could be provided to these villages will be through renewable energy sources and
off-grid distributed power supplies. The actions of the Solar Mission of the Ministry
of Renewable energy are in the right direction and it is necessary to activate all the
possible avenues of power generation from renewable energy sources; biomass,
geothermal, syngas, bio-fuel, mini hydro, wind turbines, solar etc. The full potential
should be achieved by 2040 in a step by step manner. Biomass facilities should
make use of all the bio waste including excrements from the animals and even
human beings. The electricity requirement in the villages will be for household
consumption, industrial use for Small and Medium scale industries (including cold
storage) and commercial use as well as for common facilities for the community. In
fact, Small and Medium Scale Industries should become the backbone of India’s
development similar to what is happening in Germany. While the solar panels
should provide the energy during day time, power generation from bio fuels, bio-
mass and syngas and pumped storage system should provide energy during night
time.
The total energy consumption for house hold purposes of 240 million families in
2040 could be estimated to be around 720 billion units (240 million 3000 units)
with a distribution of 60% for the 160 million rural house holds (2600 units per
household) and the remaining 40% for the 80 million urban households (3600 units
per household). In my view, the entire requirement for the household consumption
in the rural India should come from renewable energy source, meaning 430 billion
units. This should be through a combination biomass, solar, wind, syngas, hydro
(including pumped storage). It will also be necessary to explore the possibility of
using solar concentrators for adopting “Hydricity (hydrogen + electricity)” using
the latest developments in technology.
The manner in which India handles the demands of urban Indian household
should be different. All the new houses and flats should be compelled to have solar
panel installations from 2020. In view of the lack of space, it may not be workable
to mount enough number of solar panels for making the urban houses energy
48 C.M.A. Nayar
neutral. I would, therefore, propose that 50% of the requirement of the urban
households should be met from renewable sources. All the surface level car parks
should be compelled to have solar panels on the roof. Cities should also be
equipped with “Syngas” based power plants using carbon-based waste generated by
households. The total electricity generated in this manner in the urban area should
correspond to around 170 billion units. In this scenario, India will have 600 billion
units (430 + 170) from renewable energies for household use. It is also my view
that all the industrial and commercial buildings built after 2020 should be energy
neutral for their requirement of electricity for lighting, heating and air-conditioning.
The requirement for industrial purposes should continue to be from conventional
thermal power plants.
Recently, there has been an integrated approach to solve the problems of housing
in Rural India along with the basic amenities of electricity, gas, water and sanitation
and I am attaching the details of a 55 square metre energy neutral home designed
and developed by a well known architect in Kerala Mr. N. Mahesh. The waste
including the toilet waste is used for producing biogas for use in the house. The
electricity is generated by a 500 kW solar panel system with battery and produces
around 65 kWh per month for use in the house. The walls are made of bricks made
from fly ash from coal based boilers. The roof is made of ferrocement sheets. The
estimated cost is around Rs. 5,50,000 (around 7500 Euro). It will be possible to add
additional solar panels for pumping water if required. It will also be possible to
mount a solar water heater on the roof top.
11 Conclusion
(a) Energy Security (both electricity and hydrocarbon) will be a major element in
India’s march towards prosperity and in that process, claiming her rightful place
in an emerging multi polar world. India has to adopt sound principles of sus-
tainable development in her own interest. India, a nation blessed with natural
resources and intellectual assets should have a strategy of its own for her
development through creation of wealth in the Rural India and drawing strength
from her domestic market.
(b) India has to fix a target for per capita consumption of electricity taking into
account her growth trajectory as well as for ensuring that all citizens in the
whole cross section of Indian society will be able to have a decent life-style.
I fix this per capita at 3000 units per year in 2040 based on a bench mark study
taking into account India’s needs.
(c) India’s growth trajectory will have to take the whole Rural India in the fold.
Rural India should be capable of contributing 50% of the GDP in 2040 and
should enjoy the fruits of prosperity. India is, today, the biggest producer of
fruits, milk and vegetables and the second biggest producer of wheat and rice in
the world. The output of these products will multiply by 10 by 2040 and Indian
citizens should have the purchasing power to consume these products in a
society where no one will have the problems of malnutrition.
(d) It is in this background, I have tried to define the importance of Renewable
energy and its possibilities as well as its limitations. It is my assessment that the
full exploitation of renewable energy will help India to meet the total
requirement of electricity in the rural house holds estimated to be at 430 billion
units in 2040 with a judicious mix of all forms of renewable energy (elec-
tricity); solar, wind, small hydro, biomass, bio fuel and pumped storage.
(e) McKinsey estimates that India will be awfully short of water by 2030 with
supplies only at around 70% of the demand. Solar energy could provide
pragmatic solutions for desalination of sea water through the classical “reverse
osmosis process” or through the “Humidification and dehumidification
process”.
(f) India has to take the lead for a global research for recycling CO2 and for
production of hydrogen as a fuel to replace hydrocarbon in an economically
viable manner.
Making Compatible Energy Planning
with Urban Decision-Making:
Socio-Energy Nodes and Local
Configuration
1 Introduction
In France, the eco-district concept has gained popularity in the last 15 years as a
sustainable concept for implementing low-carbon and renewable energy standards
in urban planning. The notion widens the range of technologies for decision-makers
and is required for construction stakeholders to combine their skills with these new
technologies.
Energy transition has largely been scrutinized from a technological or sectoral
perspective: the technological perspective focuses on the engineering and economic
G. Debizet (&)
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, PACTE, F-38000 Grenoble, France
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Tabourdeau
CNRS, PACTE, F-38000 Grenoble, France
e-mail: [email protected]
2 Definition of a SEN
District heating, solar panels on top of buildings, geothermal heat pumps or biomass
heating inside buildings or small hydroelectric systems cannot be considered as a
part of the incumbent energy networks since the energy sources and the
decision-makers differ from the large historical technical systems [5]. For the same
reason they usually cannot be considered as an extension of building energy sys-
tems either. Hence, we suggest to treat these elements as all or part of a
Socio-Energy Node (SEN).
A SEN is a group of physical elements which collect, convert and/or supply
energy and are built by the same decision-maker [6, 7] in interaction with other
stakeholders and socio technical rules. District heating systems are not the only kind
of SEN: internal building supply chains (electricity and heat indeed gas) are built by
the same decision-maker (a real estate company), so they may be seen as two other
SENs (one for electricity and one for heat). Both public and private networks can be
considered as SENs too, connected to other SENs. Therefore, groups of SENs make
up the energy system(s) of the city. It is important to underline that the SEN is
distinct from innovation: within a SEN, there can be either no specific innovation or
deep changes.
The SEN concept is based on socio-technical concepts like the Actor-Network
Theory. The SEN is partly located within one or more energy-supply chains (energy
Making Compatible Energy Planning with Urban … 53
Recent papers focus on heating demand and the key role of district heating
systems for energy transition to more efficient and diversified energy systems
[12–16]. With more stringent climate policies and the necessity to reduce energy
consumption in existing building blocks, the research question has moved to the
economic feasibility of district heating because of possible trade-offs between
energy efficiency and fossil free district heating [17–19]. The second issue is
electricity supply and particularly smart grids—ICT, smart meters,
demand/response, storage, etc. [20, 21]. The other focus concerns electricity alone
with still limited research on smart energy systems taking account of heat, elec-
tricity, cooling, gas, storage, energy efficiency [22–24]. Most of them concern the
global (national) level or a specific project but some authors are clearly interested in
the possibilities offered by smart energy systems for the supply of urban areas [25]
or districts with near 100% renewable energy [26]. It therefore addresses the eco-
nomic feasibility of an energy system but does not explore the social involvement
and business models of each stakeholder. The diversity of resources and of geo-
graphical scales and also, the links to energy saving by consumers favour inter-
mediaries: there could be new business models and/or new stakeholders. The
business model concept enables to represent how organizations participate in such
collective projects by proposing, creating and delivering value to the market. The
value chain of business models is usually developed according to a horizontal
coordination, usually implemented in sustainable innovation [27]. However this
coordination requires agency [28, 29] which is not an equal role for the various
stakeholders. Hence the main actors of a business model mobilize a value chain
including other business models with their own agencies.
Our second hypothesis is that the value chain of a business model for an
urban energy system depends on other inter-connected business models.
Energy planning must consequently take account of value created by the various
business models in the energy supply chain (and loops).
The climate change emergency requires rapid and local changes in energy supply.
We have focused on energy innovations within eco-districts. The present work used
eco-district case studies to identify changes in energy planning practices.
The eco-district idea gradually took shape at the end of the 20th century. The
Aalborg Charter in 1994 was a turning point in its definition and recognition [30,
31]. The idea is widely used in French-language literature, especially since the
French ministry of environment initiated the “EcoQuartier” award in 2009 [32]. The
eco-district brings sustainable development principles into urban planning, by
integrating energy efficiency, generation of renewable energies, ecological
improvements, etc. Eco-district is a plastic term encompassing many practices and
allowing us to question urban planning. In France the eco-district approach is used
Making Compatible Energy Planning with Urban … 55
1
This article mobilizes results of the research project « Ecoquartier NEXUS Energie » (Eco-district
NEXUS energy), co- funded by ADEME (French Environment and Energy Management Agency),
and led by the laboratory PACTE-CNRS (coordination Gilles DEBIZET), the federative research
structure INNOVACS, the laboratory EDDEN (UPMF), the INES (CEA) and Grenoble Ecole de
Management: http://www.nexus-energy.fr/.
56 G. Debizet and A. Tabourdeau
Fig. 2 SENs around a district heating SEN, Fontaine and Nanterre, France
Fig. 3 A ‘smart grid’ virtual SEN added to usual power SENs, Issy, France
Hence, the intermediary SEN (centre Fig. 4) is connected to various SENs (inside
buildings). Building with or without solar panels is a type of SEN.
(3) In non-continuous supply chains (woodfuel for instance), the resource is con-
veyed in its original form (wood) to its place of consumption and then con-
verted into heat in a boiler. Intermediary SEN operator buy volumes of energy
instead of power. There is no wood-energy sector as such in France [39], hence
stakeholders belong to very different socio-political arenas and are not subject
to powerful public regulation since the supply chain is non-continuous. Gas and
fuel delivered by trucks encounters the same issues. A such supply chain could
be considered as a SEN.
(4) Wastewater and geo-thermal heat recovery are usually located close to the
intermediary SEN since conveying heat over long distances is expensive. Heat
transfer is limited by the rated power capacity. Extracting heat from wastewater
depends on the waste collection network. Geothermal rated power requires the
approval of local/regional authorities, in line with state environmental standards
and procedures. Such system could be a specific SEN or a part of the inter-
mediary SEN (centre of Fig. 4).
(5) SENs interact with city and communities through economic and environmental
effects. The use of local and renewable energies instead of fossil fuel (or
remotely generated electricity) is a means of creating jobs and retaining wealth
Making Compatible Energy Planning with Urban … 59
locally, while preventing air pollution. Avoiding GHG emissions is also a way
of demonstrating solidarity with the global community. The local authority
usually approves (or not) the implementation the intermediary SEN and affects
its design. City and communities shape a local configuration relative to the
intermediary SEN.
By connecting these SENs and configuration, the intermediary SEN has both
economic (labour, capital) value and environmental impacts (GHG and particle
abatement). While SEN is usually part of energy supply chains, it interacts with a
local configuration. The SEN notion may help planners to combine urban
planning/project and energy generation from renewable sources, and therefore
energy transition.
This paper proposes energy planning methods, drawing on the SEN concept.
Neither the city nor its energy systems can be built according to a determinist
top-down planning; Transformations of city and energy systems are—and have to
be—actually aligned. This tendency is being reinforced by the massive
60 G. Debizet and A. Tabourdeau
References
28. Genus A, Coles A-M (2008) Rethinking the multi-level perspective of technological
transitions. Res Policy 37 (9):1436-1445
29. Boons F, Lüdeke-Freund F (2013) Business models for sustainable innovation:
state-of-the-art and steps towards a research agenda. J Clean Prod 45:9–19
30. Boutaud B (2009) Quartier durable ou éco-quartierc? Cybergeoc: Eur J Geogr. http://
cybergeo.revues.org/22583
31. Souami T (2011) Ecoquartiers secrets de fabrication. Analyse Critique d’exemples Européens.
Les Carnets de l’Info. Collection «Modes de Villec»
32. Grudet I, (2015) Le “moment écoquartier” en France: expérimentations et labellisation. in
Debizet and Godier Architecture et urbanisme durables: modèles et savoirs, Cahier RAMAU
7 Ed. La Villette. pp 22–37
33. Debizet G, Blanchard O (2015) Énergies en (éco)quartier. Innovatio 2. http://innovacs-
innovatio.upmf-grenoble.fr/index.php?id=207. Publié en ligne le 02 février 2015
34. Debizet G, Gauthier C, Labranche S, Menanteau P, Ambroise-Renault V, Blanchard O,
Blanco S et al. (2014) Energy coordination in eco-districts: the multi-disciplinary NEXUS
project. In: Proceedings of the 9th conference on sustainable development of energy, water
and environment systems. Venice-Istambul, SDEWES2014.0295, pp 1–16. https://hal.
archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01133254
35. Blanchard O, Debizet G (2015) Écoquartier, systèmes énergétiques et gouvernancec: une base
de données bibliographique. Innovatio 2. http://innovacs-innovatio.upmf-grenoble.fr/index.
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Une Première Comparaison France-Europe. Revue de l’Energie 622. ISBN: 9782710810414
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infrastructures: an introduction. In: Shaping urban infrastructures: intermediaries and the
governance of socio-technical networks, Earthscan. Simon Guy, Simon Marvin, Will Medd
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en Auvergne et Rhone-Alpes. Ph.D. Doctorate, Université Grenoble Alpes
A Tool to Optimize the Energy Flows
in a Smart Building with Technic
and Environmental Criteria
Resume A tool is currently being built that will allow to compare different control
solutions of future Net Energy Buildings (also called Smart Buildings). The first
step of this work, which is presented here, is to build an optimization tool and to
validate it on various scenarios mainly based on technical criteria, but also being
able to evaluate environmental impacts for the different components in a prelimi-
nary manner. The long term objective is to decide at one point in time whether to
consume electricity from the grid or to use local productions means, like PV panels
or energy storage, based on technic, economic and environmental criteria.
Keywords Optimization Demand-side management Flexibility assessement
Smart buildings Environmental impacts
The environmental profile of products and services that meet our individual and
societal needs is shaped by design activities. To achieve a more sustainable
development, any system should deal more effectively with environmental issues in
the design as well as any social and economic aspect that could come in addition to
the pre-existing technical ones, as symbolized in Fig. 1a. But actually the inte-
gration of environmental objectives in the design process is still very confused.
Although not yet fully embraced by the industry, the principle of life cycle of
products is widely recognized as a useful framework designed to understand the
links between the needs of society, economic systems and their consequences on
the environment.
The life cycle of a product or a service includes all activities from extraction of
raw materials, manufacturing and use to final disposal of any wastes, as remem-
bered in Fig. 1b. It also encompasses assessing the impact of the use of energy and
(b)
(a)
Fig. 1 Life cycle assessment and sustainable development. a The principle of sustainable
development [1]. b The life cycle of any product or service [2]
All these advances are interesting for the grid operators, in order to increase the
controllability of the power flows. But is there an environmental benefit of intro-
ducing more flexibility into households for that purpose compared to the use of the
already existing grid architecture, which is able actually to provide the necessary
power with a very low structural environmental and economic cost? The objective
of the present work is to investigate this issue.
The considered system is presented Fig. 2a where all blocs (solar, storage and grid
connection) are subject to assessment after optimizing the energy fluxes involved in
an operation previously defined in various usage scenarios. These scenarios depend
on the consumption power, the load profile, and other characteristics regarding for
example the storage capacities and the presence (and size) of the grid connection.
An optimization block must generate mid-term production, storage and con-
sumption plans minimizing different cost criteria and taking into account predicted
information about future consumption, energy prices, local photovoltaic
(PV) production, and technical restrictions related to the system architecture and
non-linear behavior of some of its components.
The objective is to assess the environmental impacts of this system based on the
integration of different components (especially the PV panels, the storage compared
to a grid connection) in order to fulfill the useful service defined as “providing
electricity to a household during five year”.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2 The system and its optimization. a The considered system. b Optimized load curves as a
support for the analysis
66 V. Debusschere et al.
3 System Assessment
3.1 Pv Panels
Even though no pollution is emitted during the transformation of solar energy into
electric energy, the manufacturing, the operation and the processing at the end of
life do have an environmental impact, like any other industrial product [7]. In PV
panels technologies we can distinguish the following main families:
The silicon industry. Historically, this is the first series developed. Started in the
50s, it still offers, at present, one of the best compromises between efficiency and
cost. Mono and polycrystalline silicon technologies are available in that industry.
The thin films industry. These technologies are based on materials with a high
absorption coefficient of the solar spectrum to reduce the thickness of the layer of
semiconductors.
Other promising technologies such as organic materials, nano-crystalline mate-
rials or structures multi-junction suggest excellent future performance and are now
at the stage of research [8].
A Tool to Optimize the Energy Flows in a Smart Building … 67
Most systems are built on a building or an urban infrastructure. Those systems have
no other direct impact on the local environment than the visual modification of the
landscape. This alteration could be positive or negative, since the visual aspect is
subjective.
Photovoltaic systems on the ground do have an impact on the landscape.
Moreover, the installation of a PV farm on the ground has direct consequences on
the local natural environment: hydraulic erosion, modification of the biotopes, etc.
The main risk on the local ecosystem is the removal of wildlife when the field has to
be railed in. In this case, the solution is the implementation of ecological corridors.
One of the fears concerning panels built on the ground is the competition with
agriculture, but studies have shown that if solar panels equivalent to 10% of the total
installed capacity in France in 2020 were built, the occupied surface would be around
2200 ha, which would only represent 0.0075% of the useful agricultural area.
Moreover, panels could be built on uncultivated grounds. Hybrid installation could be
also considered, mixing agricultural structures and energy production systems [9].
A photovoltaic system mainly consists in modules and inverters. The rest is made of
classical components and electrical connections whose recycling is not specific.
After separating the cables, junction boxes and wire ropes, the recycling of modules
made of crystalline silicon can undergo thermal or chemical treatment. The recycled
cells can then either be reused for the fabrication of new modules or melt for the
fabrication of silicon ingots.
energy expenditure due to aluminum and silicon (40%). It causes the generation of
chlorinated wastes, of sludge containing silicon and gas and effluent from the use of
chemicals.
The results of the analysis of the life cycle is that the energy is the major impact,
with about 30,000 MJ of primary energy per kWp or 2500 kWh. To characterize
the environmental effects of a photovoltaic system, relevant indicators are the
energy payback time, which is about 3 years, and the greenhouse effect, which is
about 70 g of CO2 eq/kWh for France.
Life time of batteries strongly depends on the use conditions and the number of
charge/discharge cycles. In order to last the battery life up to 10–15 years its State
Of Charge (SOC) has to be kept above 50%. The three following parameters are the
most influent for battery life time:
• Resistance to high temperatures,
• Sulphation of lead plates,
• Manufacturing defects and under-sizing.
Batteries are composed of heavy metals which are toxic and can be very harmful
for the environment. Some of these materials are non-renewable at human scale.
Therefore, recycling is the main concern when talking about environmental impact
of batteries.
The European rule 2006/66/CE sets that at least 65% of the average weight of
the battery has to be recycled. Also, putting it into landfill has been strictly for-
bidden. In France the collect of batteries is organized according to the extended
producer responsibility since 2001 for private households and since 2009 for
industrials. There are two organisms which are responsible for batteries collection:
COREPILE and SCRELEC. Collection of lead-acid batteries has been self–fi-
nanced in France for some years because lead is a very valuable product. Used
lead-acid batteries have to be considered as dangerous waste during transportation.
A Tool to Optimize the Energy Flows in a Smart Building … 69
(a)
(b) (c)
As an example, the optimized load curves obtained in the scenario A are pro-
posed in Fig. 2b. The total energy required from the grid over the five years
simulation resulted from the computations is also proposed in Table 1.
4 Inventory Analysis
Usually in a Life Cycle Analysis, the inventory of the environmental impacts and its
assessment are two different steps. As this was the very first step of our study, we
used the Bilan Produit software, freely proposed by the ADEME, which has now
the name “based impact” [11]. Both steps are then conducted at the same time in
this software, leading directly to the results.
We conducted our life cycle assessment over a period of 5 years. Therefore we
can consider that household appliances will not be replaced. So the three main
sources of environmental impact for our system are the electricity supplied by the
grid, the PV panels and the battery. We defined the functional unit for these three
contributors in Table 2.
In order to get the environmental impact of each contributor, we need to compute
first the environmental impacts of one unit and multiply it by the quantity of the
contributor to the global functional unit. Values for each indicator are then the sum
of the three contributions.
For the storage means, we modeled a 100 Ah battery whose lifetime is 10 years and
that will be used for 5 years. The functional unit coefficient is then equal to 0.5.
The production phase has been modeled thanks to the information on the
components of a typical battery from a study on material needs and raw material
costs of batteries [5].
We also took into account the replacement of batteries. We considered a max-
imal number of charge/discharge cycles of 1000. Based on the optimized load
curves, we assumed that the number of cycles is equal to 0.5 per day for the three
scenarios. We get the number of replacement of the batteries during the study
period (5 years) through the Eq. 1.
365 5
numberreplact ¼ ð1Þ
1000=number of cycles per day
5 Results
As the functional units for the battery, the PV panels and for the electricity from the
grid do not fit with the quantities of our model, we had to multiply the environ-
mental impacts of one functional unit by normalization coefficients.
For comparison purpose the results are then normalized for all environmental
indicators. We set the scenario A as reference and the other results are given from
this standard.
The radar chart on the Fig. 4 shows these impacts comparison. We observe on
the radar graph that the normalized results are bigger of a factor two for the scenario
C, which corresponds to the ratio between the electricity taken from the grid of the
two scenarios (A and C). We can deduce from this observation that most of the
environmental impacts come from the electricity consumption on the grid.
Similarly, the scenario B also shows that the electricity grid is the most impacting
factor since it has the highest electricity demand and the highest impacts.
72 V. Debusschere et al.
This comparison leads to the need to better consider the impact of the two other
components, PV panel and storage before going further on the use of this tool,
especially regarding self-sufficiency of houses.
The simulation tool is able to run an optimization on variable load curve and to take
into account estimation of environmental impacts for its components and to validate
the comparison of the solutions on a numerical basis. From an algorithm point of
view, all components modeling are independent and can be improved separately
based on further works. The size of the various components (PV panels, storage,
grid connection) remains fixed at the moment, but could also be taken into con-
sideration directly in the optimization as variables. Based on the preliminary
modeling the tool is operating efficiently and will allow multiple investigation in
energy management in the future, especially for comparison on the control of
energy sources for Smart Buildings.
Some hypotheses have been made in order to get these first results. The
methodology (through an optimization then a comparison of solutions) will not
change, but in order to go further, changes have to be made, listed below.
A Tool to Optimize the Energy Flows in a Smart Building … 73
The first approximation we made at the very beginning of our study concerns the
choice of the system. Up until now, the house and every electric appliance it
contains is only taken into account through the load curve. It could be improved
considering more precise model of the loads, and a thermal modeling of the house.
The solar profile for the three scenarios (using an arbitrary coefficient), should also
be changed depending on the season for example. This will allow to conduct more
representative optimization, considering for example a few typical weeks instead of
a typical day.
Considering an actual aging of the components (especially the battery) instead of
just replacing it after a fixed number of cycles is also to consider in future works.
Finally, the very next step concerns the environmental impacts, especially for the
solar panel and the battery. More generally, the optimization have to rely on a more
precise modeling of the environmental impacts in order to be able to choose
between scenarios and possible solutions, without compromising on the sensitivity
of the results. Moving to a commercial environmental impacts database is to be
done as a very next step.
However, our study is the first step of a more complete evaluation of environ-
mental performances, which could be developed based on the strong basis of the
software able to evolve through the better definition of its components.
Based on that modeling, in order to better qualify the self-sufficiency of houses,
through iterative improvements of the models, the local energy control will be
optimized and compared between different technologies and usage, in the context of
Smart Buildings.
Acknowledgements This work has been partly founded by the French ANR project Paradise.
References
1. Keoleian GA, Menerey D (1994) Sustainable development by design: review of life cycle
design and related approaches
2. Menke DM, Davis GA, Vigon BW (1996) Evaluation of life-cycle assessment tools
3. Debusschere V, Leon Garcia WR, Basu K, Bacha S (2014) Bilan sur cycle de vie des flux
énergétiques dans les bâtiments résidentiels incluant de la production et du stockage,
Confrege
4. Life Cycle Inventories and Life Cycle Assessments of Photovoltaic Systems—Report
IEA-PVPS T12-02:2011
5. Rydh CJ, Sanden BA (2005) Energy analysis of batteries in photovoltaic systems—Part I:
performance and energy requirements. Energy Convers Manage 46: 1957–1979
6. Cardonnel C (2012) Analyse du kWh d’électricité français, millésime 2012, 15 Oct 2013
7. Miquel C, Gaiddon pour (2009) B l’Hespul; Systèmes photovoltaïques: fabrication et impact
environnemental; Juillet 2009, p 35
74 V. Debusschere et al.
A. Ilo
Abstract This paper presents for the first time a unified LINK-based architecture
for power systems, which provides the harmonization of power system physics and
market rules. It is based on the holistic technical model of power systems “Energy
supply chain net” and on the corresponding holistic power market model. The last
one is illustrated by means of the actual Austrian electricity market. Furthermore,
we show how the unification of the market and grid in the same flow diagram
increases the uptake of demand response also in the residential, commercial and
small business sectors. Their price driven demand response is described in detail.
1 Introduction
Demand Side Management (DSM) and Demand Response (DR) are processes
which try to modify the electricity consumption shape of customers. DSM was
coined following the 1970 s energy crisis and since than it is continuously used by
electricity utilities as an instrument on increasing efficiency and shaving peaks [1].
It includes almost medium to long term countermeasures. With the technology
progress and the rise of distributed generation are opened other perspectives on
demand shifting and the reduction of total energy consumption. DR rose and have
been dedicated to short-term load reduction in response to a signal from the power
grid operator, or a price signal from electricity market.
Indeed nowadays, there is a very slow uptake of DR, particularly in the resi-
dential, commercial and small business sectors [2]. The proposed structures are
quite complicated and requires big data exchange [3, 4], which causes the increase
in the complexity of system operation etc.
A. Ilo (&)
TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
e-mail: [email protected]
This paper recommends for the first time a new simple structure, named unified
LINK-based architecture, which under others enables DR process in the residential,
commercial and small business sectors. The new operational architecture is based
on the LINK-Paradigm and the technical and market holistic models. The last one is
illustrated by means of the actual Austrian electricity market. DR is described by
means of the load reduction in response to a price signal from electricity market.
2 Holistic Model
The integration and the effective use of all available resources on the grid is pos-
sible only under a global view of power systems [5]. Figure 1 shows an overview of
overall power system models. Figure 1a shows the LINK-paradigm, which is the
cornerstone of “Energy Supply Chain Net” overall model. LINK-paradigm is
defined as a composition of an electrical appliance (be a grid part, producer or
storage), the corresponding controlling schema and the LINK interface [6].
Figure 1b shows the holistic, technical approach of power systems called “Energy
Supply Chain Net” [5], which is conceived in two axis:
1. Horizontal
In the horizontal axis are set interconnected High Voltage Grids (HVG), which
actually are operated from Transmission System Operators (TSO).
2. Vertical
In the vertical axis are set Medium Voltage Grid (MVG) and Low Voltage Grid
(LVG), which actually are operated from Distribution System Operators
(DSO) and customer plants.
Power grid is arranged in autonomous parts as links in a chain net. Per definition a
“Energy Supply Chain Net” is a set of automated power grids, intended for chain
links, abbreviated links, which fit into one an-other to establish a flexible and
reliable electrical connection. Each individual link or a link-bundle operates
autonomously and have contractual arrangements with other relevant boundary
links, link-bundles, and suppliers which inject directly to their own grid.
Recently power systems are perceived as assembly of four main components [7]:
1. Power plants (i.e. electricity producer);
2. Storage;
3. Grid and
4. Prosumers.
Based on LINK-paradigm, prosumers are conceived of a combination of the three
first main power system components and are characterised by a new definition as
follows.
Demand Response Process in Context of the Unified LINK-Based … 77
Fig. 1 Overview of overall power system model: a LINK-paradigm; b “The energy supply chain
net” model; c Customer Plant details; d Overall electricity market model
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of contractual relations and information exchange among market
participants in case of unified LINK-based architecture
Definition Storage Operator, StO is a natural or legal person that provides and
stores electric energy to or from other natural or legal persons.
StO must participate to a balance group, have supply and storage contracts with
the prosumers, and receives the individual meter readings from the grid, where it is
connected.
Demand Response Process in Context of the Unified LINK-Based … 81
The activation of the residential, commercial and small business sectors, which
join the real-time pricing demand response through already concluded contracts,
may be triggered at any time. Their degree of participation in the demand response
process may be different depending on the time of the day, duration interval, price
value, etc. Let’s assume that conditioned from weather and the minimal load
consumption there do exist a surplus of the electricity in the market, which causes a
price decrease. Figure 4 shows the information flow during price driven demand
response. The new, reduced price is sent via the aggregator through the market
interface M to the House Management Units (HMU), [6], of each customer.
Figure 5 shows a detailed view in customer- and low voltage level of the infor-
mation flow by a price reduction signal. HMU after having calculated the possi-
bilities of demand increase in the house, sends a request to increase the
consumption by 0.4% via the technical interface T to the boundary node A1L of
LV_Link_1. After receiving the request for the new set point, Low Voltage
Grid-Link System Operator B (LVSO-B) check power flow limits in the own
Grid-Link. In the case that the power exchange in the boundary node A2M with the
Medium Voltage_Link_2 is affected, he should pass over the request on to the
Medium Voltage System Link-Grid Operator-A (MVSO-A). After have collected
all incoming requests MVSO-A calculates power flow in the own Grid-Link. Based
on calculations results he sends on to the High Voltage Grid-Link System Operator
(HVSO) a flow increase request of 0.6% in the boundary node BH. After have
collected all incoming requests HVSO performs all necessary calculations—i.e.
power flow, n-1 security, etc.—After having checked all limits HVSO approves the
new set points and notify MVSO-A. The last one approves the new set points in
boundary nodes A2M and B2M and notifies LVSO-B. The last one approves the
new set points in boundary nodes A1L, and A2L and B2L and notifies the respective
HMUs, which execute the demand increase.
Fig. 5 Detailed view of the information flow by a price reduction signal (customer and low
voltage level)
Demand Response Process in Context of the Unified LINK-Based … 83
The one flow diagram of demand response in emergency- and price driven cases
enable residential, commercial and small business sectors to perceive transparent
energy prices and to contribute in the reliable and efficient operation of electric
power system.
5 Conclusions
The unified LINK-based architecture merges producers, storages, grid and market
into one single structure. Prosumers and Storage appliances are newly, more pre-
cisely defined. The market LINK-based model is extended with new actors and their
old roles are redistributed. The demand response for residential, commercial and
small business sectors is described in a unified flow diagram. Demand response can
be triggered from the grid operator in emergency cases or market through different
price incentives.
References
1. Gellings CW, Parmenter KE (2016) Demand-side management. In: Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy Handbook, 2nd edn
2. Strbac G (2008) Demand Side Management: benefits and challenges. In: Energy policy, 36(12):
4419–4426
3. Raab AF, Ferdowsi M, Karfopoulos E, Unda I, Skarvelis-Kazakos S, Papadopoulos P,
Abbasi E, Cipcigan L, Jenkins N, Hatziargyriou N, Strunz K (2016) Virtual power plant control
concepts with electric vehicles. In: Intelligent System Application to Power Systems (ISAP),
2011 16th International Conference September:1–6
4. Etherden N, Vyatkin V, Bollen HJ (2015) Virtual Power Plant for Grid Services using IEC
61850. In: IEEE Transaction on Industrial Informatics, pp 1–11. doi:10.1109/TII.2414354
5. Ilo A (2013) The energy supply chain net. Energy Power Eng 5:384–390 (Scientific Research
Publishing) [Online]
6. Ilo A (2016) “Link”—the smart grid paradigm for a secure decentralized operation architecture.
Electric Power Syst Res 131:116–125. http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?
PaperID=34182
7. Ilo A (2016) Minimization of exchanged data on the TSO-DSO cross border by application of a
new operation architecture. In: CIGRE International Colloquium, 2–3 November, Philadelphia,
USA:1-6
8. E-control (2013) The Austrian electricity market. In: https://www.e-control.at/documents/
20903/-/-/f007c31e-b6b9-48a1-83a1-53212aae5365
Part III
Components
Eco-design in Oil Immersed Transformers
Abstract All electrical products, and even all products, have an impact on the
environment because of its production, its activity and the end of its active life.
Power transformers are one of the most important components of the electrical
system and the impact they produce has to be taking into account because of the
materials they are composed by and their losses or efficiency. The New European
Regulation 548/2014 on eco-design of power transformer fixes the maximum
admissible losses and so the efficiency, but all the rest of the aspects related to the
impact of transformers should be taken into account State of the art Power
Transformers need to take into account: (a) consumption of natural resources used in
the manufacturing, (b) environmental impact of the manufacturing process itself,
(c) Use of eco-friendly insulation oils, preventing potential contamination of water
and soil, (d) Energy losses in service, (e) Contribution to an efficient use of energy in
a smart, highly penetrated for renewable generation network, (f) Minimum envi-
ronmental impact of the end of life process and valorization of dismantled compo-
nents. The paper considers how some of these aspects are taken into account in a
modern, state of the art power transformer design. ORMAZABAL manufactures a
wide range of dielectric liquid immersed distribution and power transformers,
compliant with all of the requirements in current international regulations and with a
range of powers from 25 to 5000 kVA and insulation levels up to 36 kV. In addition,
its portfolio includes special transformers up to 72.5 kV and 10 MVA [1].
Keywords Transformers Eco Design Environmental impact Life cycle
Efficiency Resources Smart grid Renewables
1 Introduction
Distribution and small power transformers are those which function is connecting
the medium/high voltage distribution grid to the medium/low voltage one to satisfy
the consumers demand in the proper voltage levels.
This work is focused on a type of transformers extensively used: oil immersed
transformers.
Transformers environmental impact analysis has three main parts:
• Life cycle analysis. Environmental impact of the product taking into account
the whole life cycle. It is the impact produced when an additional unit of the
product is created. This paper is going to focus in this part in the existence of the
product itself not to its activity or service. It involves the raw materials
extraction, manufacture of components, manufacture of product, waste landfill
and recycling.
• Activity environmental impact. It is related to the energy consumption of the
product (losses in the transformer case) and the emissions (noise, radiations, oil
leakages…). This part is related to the New European Regulation 548/2014
regarding the efficiency in transformers.
• Importance of the distribution transformer in smart grids and distributed
generation integration. New smart distribution transformers with on load
voltage regulation and monitoring will be needed to allow the development of
the smart grids and the integration of the distributed generation.
The application of the distribution and small power transformers is mainly within
urban areas for domestic consumption, industrial customers in industrial areas
and rural areas. With given secondary voltage, distribution transformers are usually
the last in the chain of electrical energy supply to households and industrial
enterprises [2].
Oil immersed transformers are composed mainly by the following parts:
1. Windings. Of copper or aluminum. They have two parts:
(a) Medium voltage coils. Because they work with lower currents and higher
voltages they are made of copper or aluminum insulated wire and additional
insulation of cellulose.
(b) Low voltage coils. Because they work with higher currents and lower
voltages, they are usually made of copper or aluminum band and cellulose
insulated turns.
2. Magnetic core. It is made of ferromagnetic metal such as iron. Laminated
magnetic cores are made of thin, insulated iron grain oriented sheets (there is an
alternative core technology called Amorphous still not used extensively in
Europe).
3. Tank and structural components. They are made of iron. The tank is made by
welding parts to the fins (refrigeration elements). The structural components
normally are used in the magnetic core as the jokes. The tank also includes paint
and painting threatments.
4. Pressboard. It is normally structural insulation, normally in sheets and press-
paper in rolls.
5. Oil. Transformer oil, or insulating oil, is a fluid that is stable at high tempera-
tures and has excellent electrical insulating properties. Its functions are to
insulate, suppress corona and arcing, and to serve as a coolant. There are several
types of transformer oil [3]:
(a) Mineral oil. It is a highly-refined oil from petroleum, a by-product in the
distillation of petroleum from crude oil. It has a density of around
0.8 g/cm3. Mineral oil is a low toxicity fluid and is 25% biodegradable.
However, the low fire point, at 150 °C, requires additional protection (and
costs) for buildings and equipment to reduce fire risk.
90 P. Cirujano and E. Otegui
To simplify this study we are going to focus the environmental impact of the
transformer in copper, steel and oil.
The impact of copper extraction is due to erosion, loss of biodiversity, con-
tamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining pro-
cesses, forest logging, and affection to health of local population. Ore mills generate
large amounts of waste, called tailings, which are perhaps their largest environ-
mental burden. 99 tonnes of waste are generated per tonne of copper. These tailings
can be toxic [6].
Eco-design in Oil Immersed Transformers 91
The manufacture of components from raw materials consists of the following parts:
• Insulated Copper wire. Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce
the diameter of a wire by pulling the wire through a single, or series of, drawing
die(s) [12–14].
– CO2 eq emissions: 0.39 MT CO2 eq/MT of Cu wire
• Copper band laminated. Rolling operations are mechanically similar for both
aluminum and copper. The primary purpose of a nonferrous metal rolling
operation is to reduce the gauge (thickness) of the metal work piece and form it
92 P. Cirujano and E. Otegui
into a useful shape. The two basic types of rolling processes are hot and cold
rolling which are used in most nonferrous rolling industries. As stated previ-
ously, hot rolling reduces metal ingots to medium gauge where further reduction
takes place via cold rolling to strip, foil, and light-gauge sheet sizes. This section
discusses both hot and cold rolling processes and the equipment employed
during those operations [15].
– CO2 eq emissions: 0.78 MT CO2 eq/MT of Cu band
• Steel production. Steel mills turn molten steel into blooms, ingots, slabs and
sheet through casting, hot rolling and cold rolling [16]. An integrated steel mill
has all the functions for primary steel production but we focused here in
roughing rolling/billet rolling (reducing size of blocks) and product rolling
(finished shapes).
– CO2 eq emissions: 0.85 MT CO2 eq/MT of cold rolled steel aprox [17]
• Core sheet production. It is a particular application of the steel production seen
in the previous step but Ecoinvent database gives a difference of about 4–5% of
increase in emissions of Electrical Grain Oriented Steel (GOES) than regular
iron [18].
– CO2 eq emissions: 0.9 MT CO2 eq/MT of GOES aprox
• Oil refining and treatment
– CO2 eq emissions: 0.4 MT CO2 eq/MT of oil aprox [19]
• Rest of Raw materials. It is going to be considered that the CO2 equivalent
emissions of the rest of raw materials production implies a 10% of increase over
the main raw materials production.
The main environmental impact in this part is the production of the transformer tank
because the rest of the processes are assembling steps.
Tank manufacturing involves:
• Cleaning. The iron is treated to remove oils and lubricants and also particles
creating residues.
• Welding.
• Painting. Depending on the use of water paintings or dissolvent paintings its
impact is different.
During the transformer production phases there are several with a higher con-
sumption of energy like curing and drying processes, cutting steel sheet and filling
under vacuum, but the impact compared to the materials extraction and components
manufacturing is much lower. We are going to consider an increase of 10% of MT
CO2 eq over the whole result.
Eco-design in Oil Immersed Transformers 93
Most natural resources and emissions in the end of life scenario have negative
value, as those are reclaimed as environmental profit.
The final resources are materials to recycling and energy resources:
• Coal (energy resource)–3 kg/kVA
• Cu (material resource)–0.07 kg/kVA
• Fe (material resource)–0.8 kg/kVA
• Gas (enery resource)–0.25 kg/kVA
• Oil (energy resource)–1.21 kg/kVA.
Taking into account the explained before regarding the environmental impact of the
transformers due to the raw materials consumption and the CO2 equivalent emis-
sions in the transformation of the raw materials, in the manufacturing activity and
the emissions due to the losses on service, it is necessary to know the positive
impact also of the transformers to facilitate the connection to the network of dis-
tributed generation.
Distributed generation reduces the amount of energy lost in transmitting elec-
tricity because the electricity is generated very near where it is used, perhaps even
in the same building. This also reduces the size and number of power lines that must
be constructed.
Solar PV and wind power both have intermittent and unpredictable generation,
so they create many stability issues for voltage and frequency. These voltage issues
affect mechanical grid equipment, such as load tap changers, which respond too
often and wear out much more quickly than utilities anticipated, and especially as
closer as possible to the generation point. This implies voltage compensation in
distribution transformers [20].
ORMAZABAL, concerned with solving these problems, has developed the
product transforma.smart; smart transformers with an on-load tap changer (OLTC)
capable of regulating the low voltage. This smart transformer keeps the voltage
stable in distribution grids by compensating fluctuations in MV and dynamically
reacting, at low-voltage, to distributed generation and load changes.
The innovative design of the ORMAZABAL OLTC, OLATC, allows a compact
smart transformers design keeping a similar footprint to that of conventional
transformer [21].
This ORMAZABAL solution, focused in sustainability, is a basic tool for
renewable energy integration, CO2 footprint reduction, reduction in raw materials
and ready to work in combination with biodegradable vegetal dielectric liquids.
This solution is also focused in reliability because its maintenance free, proven
vacuum bottles technology, balance mechanical operation and service life equiva-
lent to an off load tap changer transformer.
The first range of this smart transformer reaches 800 kVA and 24 kV.
5 Conclusions
losses reduction implies a CO2 eq emissions increase in the first steps of LCA
because of the higher need of raw materials for this losses reduction [20]. The
increase of CO2 emissions per transformer manufactured is around 20% but this is
compensated in the first year of service. In 30 years of expected life, 40–50 Ton of
CO2 eq emissions will be reduced just in no load losses in a 630 kVA transformer,
comparing an DoCk and a AoCk [22].
Two important contributions of ORMAZABAL transformers difficult to be
assessed are:
• Positive impact in CO2 eq emissions reduction using vegetable oil in its
ORGANIC transformers instead of mineral oil
• Positive impact in CO2 eq emissions reduction by the possibility of integrating
distributed renewable generation reducing the grid impact of voltages
unbalances.
• Positive impact in CO2 eq emissions reduction designing transformers her-
metically sealed and integral filling with less amount of iron and oil than the
ones with rigid tank, radiators and expansion tank.
References
15. Control of Voc Emissions From Nonferrous Metal Rolling Processes Control Technology Center
Sponsored BY: Emission Standards Division Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711 Air and
Energy Engineering Research Laboratory Office of Research and Development U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
16. http://www.steel.org/learning/howmade/howmade.htm
17. Environmental Product Declaration and Safety Information Sheet Cold-rolled steel plates,
sheets and coils–www.ruukki.com
18. Methodology Study Eco-Design of Energy-Using Products, Methodology Report Final –
28-11-2005 – VHK for European Comission
19. Oil Refinery CO2 Performance Measurement Prepared for the Union of Concerned Scientists
Technical analysis prepared by Communities for a Better Environment (CBE) - September
2011
20. Distributed Generation - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation
21. CA-459-EN-1510_FY_EuW ORMAZABAL transforma.smart brochure
22. Comparisons of life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions explained - 2008 Sovacool survey
Low Inductance Fuses for Protection
and Disconnection in DC Networks
Topologies for electrical equipment are generally organized around a DC bus, fed
by one or several sources and supplying power to inverters. In case a
semi-conductor in an inverter goes faulty, a short circuit occurs in this inverter fed
by the capacitor located ahead of the inverter (so called internal short circuit).
Moreover, as the inductances between all the parallel inverters, through the DC bus,
are very small, capacitors of these inverters may start to feed the short circuit within
a short time (total or external short circuit). Then the fuse in charge of internal
protection within the faulty inverter will also have to bear actions from parallel
capacitors (Figs. 1 and 2).
A third case concerns feading by the up-stream side of the bus (up-stream fed
short-circuit) (Fig. 3).
When the first semi-conductor components came out at the end of the 50’s, they
were included into converters as simple as diode-bridges. At that time, engineers
were confronted with their certain weakness under short-circuit conditions. So they
introduced the thermal constraint that semi-conductors must be able to withstand
without deterioration:
Z
I 2 :dt
On both side of the Atlantic Ocean, companies that would merge years later into
MERSEN, developed ultra-fast fuses to stop the current before any damage to the
electronic component, i.e., diode or thyristor. Later, during the 80’s, new
semi-conductors emerged, the most common ones being GTO’s and IGBT’s. The
latter presented the advantage of reducing losses at commutation and on-state
voltage and therefore watt-losses. On the other hand, the permitted thermal con-
straint of these components was decreased and fuse protection of their junction
became difficult.
Nevertheless, even if it is not possible to guarantee full protection of an IGBT
under short-circuit, it is absolutely crucial to ensure that its failure will not cause a
more dramatic deterioration of the equipment as a whole. Particularly, an explosion
of the IGBT-case would damage other components, completely destroy the
installation and lead to long downtime, large operating losses, and even more
danger to people. Under these conditions, the fuse takes over and ensures excellent
protection—providing it is correctly designed and characterized. As early as 1985,
MERSEN published a specific method for characterization and selection of fuses for
VSI-converters in Technical Leaflet NT SC 120.
The principle of this method is founded on the beside circuit diagram, consid-
ering that in case of short-circuit in the downstream leg, and because of the very
low inductance l, capacitor C will be discharged very quickly, i.e., with a very high
di/dt, MERSEN’s engineers defined and calculated specific characteristics for the
protection fuse:
• Upm, the maximum value of Up that the fuse can accept, Up being the voltage
across the capacitor at the end of the fuse prearcing-time
• The pre-arcing I2t.
100 J.-L. Gelet and J.-F. De Palma
3 Determination of Upm
Since 2012, IEC-standard 269-4 has introduced the concept of a fuse for VSI
applications, i.e., designed for inverters fed by a voltage-controlled source. This
standard requires checking the VSI-voltage-rating of these fuses by tests under
current I1, in DC conditions, with time constant between 1 and 3 ms (See IEC
269-4, Table 106). These conditions required by IEC standard are slightly different
from actual conditions in case of fault-current in VSI-inverters. Mainly, in an actual
VSI-inverter the value of Up can be much lower than the value E of the DC power
supply, whereas in case of operation in DC conditions and low time constant s, Up
is at the level of the DC power supply voltage, including ripple factor1.
Then, considering only the DC power supply voltage can be very pessimistic if
prearcing-time is long enough to ensure a high voltage decrease. That leads to
choice a higher rated voltage fuse, i.e., geometrically longer than expected and then
introducing a high inductance value in the circuit. In order to have a better
knowledge, MERSEN developed a specific high di/dt test bench with following
performance data.
1
In order to partly take into account the fact that the given value of the DC-voltage is generally the
RMS value of the rippled trace, Table 106 of IEC-269-4 requires that the mean value of recovery
voltage is in the range 110+5% of the rated voltage.
Low Inductance Fuses for Protection and Disconnection in DC … 101
Fig. 7 General overview of the high di/dt test bench at MERSEN’s Saint-Bonnet de Mure Lab
(France)
5 MERSEN’S Research-Program
Fig. 11 State of S1 State of S2 Current in the fuse Voltage across the fuse
Also, calculation of electro-dynamical forces has been run, together with LAEPT
at Clermont-Ferrand. These forces should explain decrease of prearcing I2t of fuses
under high di/dt as observed under some test-conditions. Another matter rises
concerning the mechanical behavior of silver or copper under high
deformation-speed and at high temperature. A specific study is carried out by
LAMCOS from INSA-Lyon using Hopkinson’s bench.
106 J.-L. Gelet and J.-F. De Palma
6 Conclusion
Since three decades, MERSEN has gained a lot of experience about the protection
of inverters. A heavy knowledge is also available about the operation of a fuse,
especially concerning the intimacy of arc versus granular medium and the induc-
tance calculation of conductive elements. Because the energy of a capacitor is much
lower than that can deliver a network through a transformer, it is expected that sizes
of the fuses will be drastically shrunk, mainly in their length. That will reduce the
value of the additional inductance due to the fuse and allow to solve a large quantity
of cases of safety. As claims professor Stoke at ICEFA-Conference (International
Conference on Electrical Fuses and their Applications) which was hold in Gdansk,
in September 2003: “Modern electric fuses are marvelous devices for protecting life
and equipment from potential power of uncontrolled electricity. Since the coming of
electricity in the 1870s, they have been in front line for electrical defense. Indeed, it
is fair to say that without the virtually fail-safe protection of the electric fuse there
would be no modern electrical industry. Electricity would be regarded as far too
dangerous for widespread use.” Once again, that will be confirmed.
Bibliography
3. Stokes AD, Sweeting DK (2003) Electric arcing burn hazards. ICEFA, Gdansk
4. Gelet JL, Perbet P, Almaksour K, Andre P, Bussiere W, Memiaghe S, Rochette D, Clavel E
(2010) Modelling of electrical fuses by Portunus, InCa3D and a thermal solver. CEDRAT flux
users conference, Chavannes de Bogis
Environmental Criteria for the Selection
of Underground Transmission Cable
Conductors
Abstract The results of major LCA studies show that under the assumption of
European power mix, power losses dominate the cable impacts in nearly all cate-
gories, contributing with up to 96% to climate change for example. Therefore, it is
relevant to focus primarily on the reduction of losses. Dealing with underground
cable systems, it is essential to properly select the conductor for the expected
service in the grid, because the metal core determines the amount of losses during
the lifespan of the power link. Based on the scenario of a typical French under-
ground circuit, the paper presents the calculations of cable losses, and illustrates a
method to assess the optimal economic conductor taking into account the entire life
span of the system, leading also to the best environmental solution with minimised
losses. The French TSO has been developing models and methodology over the last
decade in order to perform LCA on transmission systems. Leading the Cigré
Working Group B1.36 [8], RTE has contributed to establish in 2015 a methodology
dedicated to LCA for underground cables. In addition, a case study was carried out.
This significant work allows the transmission system operators to identify the main
environmental impacts of underground cables, their sources, as well as improve-
ment targets. Electricity losses are identified as responsible for the main impacts
(climate change for instance), while the extraction and the manufacturing phase of
the metal components represent the outlines of mineral depletion impact. To
overcome those environmental issues, different alternatives have to be compared,
both to reduce losses and the mineral depletion. The study field needs to be
extended to a more global scope, in order to integrate the whole benefits of the grid.
The authors review and discuss their approach, results and works in progress within
their company, with a common aim of the improvement of energy efficiency.
Keywords Underground cable systems Aluminium Copper Conductor size
Design criteria Current rating calculation Losses Global cost Life cycle
assessment European platform on LCA
Environmental impact Climate
change Energy policies Metal depletion
1 Introduction
The losses are proportional to the conductor resistance and to the square of current
rating R.I2. Since they represent the major part of the environmental footprint, a
special attention is paid to the conductors themselves. For underground cables, only
two metals are operated: copper and aluminium Fig. 1.
A few variations such as enamelled wires of copper or oxidised wires of alu-
minium are preferred in alternative current (AC) conditions, in order to mitigate the
skin and proximity effects of large cross-section conductors. The AA 1370 alu-
minium grade is chosen for its purity (at least 99.7% of pure aluminium) [2].
According to Table 1, a ratio equal to 1.64 between aluminium and copper elec-
trical resistivities requires bigger conductors when aluminium is chosen.
The calculation of the maximum permissible current rating in the steady-state
operation of a cable system is given by a series of standards published by the
International Electrotechnical Commission. First, the direct current (DC) resistance
R0 at 20 °C of standardised conductors (up to 2500 mm2) is given by [3]. Then, a
Environmental Criteria for the Selection … 111
basic correction is applied to take into account the effect of the temperature, to get
the DC resistance R’ at the operating conditions. The final value of the AC resis-
tance R is obtained with analytic formulae to assimilate the ys skin and yp proximity
nonlinear effects.
Table 2 Present range (2014–2016) of conductor sizes (mm2) for new cable systems on the
French grid
Copper 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000 2500
Aluminium 630 800 1000 1200 1600 2000 2500
112 F. Lesur et al.
Enamelled and oxidised copper conductors have been used for improved cable
ratings since 2011 for 1600–2500 mm2 conductors. The regular 1600 mm2 copper
size has even been discarded in 2014.
The cable rating is calculated below according to IEC 60287 standard [4] for
each conductor and a typical French installation in (semi-)urban area: cables laid in
PVC ducts embedded in concrete with a trefoil geometry. Note: the result highly
depends on the conductors’ position (depth and axial distance) and on the
assumptions of the thermal conditions. More than the values themselves, the reader
will be interested in the relative performance of the conductors (aluminium, copper,
enamelled copper) (Figs. 2 and 3).
Plastic ducts are extensively used. Touching high-density polyethylene (HDPE,
with excellent fault containment if the thickness is sufficient) are installed in narrow
trenches in rural area. Thin PVC ducts embedded in concrete with spacers are
preferred in urban area to prevent any risk of third-party aggression. In both cases,
cables can be easily removed for repair or upgrading. Civil works are carried out
once and for all, with very few disturbances and environmental impact to replace
P
200
H
L
Environmental Criteria for the Selection … 113
2000 Cu
2500 Cu
630 Al
1200 Al
1600 Al
2000 Al
2500 Al
1600 CuE
2000 CuE
2500 CuE
Fig. 3 Current ratings of present new conductors installed in France (according to configuration
and thermal conditions of Fig. 2)
the cable system. This is also the guarantee to recover the cables at the end of life
and to recycle the components. Contrary to overhead lines conductors, the ones of
insulated cables are not oxidised by decades in free air. The material is therefore
potentially highly valuable.
Cables generate dielectric losses in the insulation layer and induced losses in the
metal screens and armours. The operation in DC mode saves these losses.
Figure 4 shows the distribution of the calculated losses for a 2000 mm2 Cu cable
system operated at the maximum current rating (1375 A) in the conditions specified
by Fig. 2. Due to the significant axial distance between cables (ducts with spacer),
21,6%
Conductor losses
(AC part)
67,6%
25
20
15
630 Al
10 2500 Al
1600 CuE
5
2500 CuE
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Current raƟng (A)
Fig. 5 Total losses dissipated per cable (W/m) (according to configuration and thermal conditions
of Fig. 2)
the proximity effect yp is linked to only 1% of the total losses versus 20.6% for the
ys skin effect. The assessment would be more balanced for touching cables.
Figure 5 shows the total losses for the cables recently installed in France (ex-
treme values of the 630–2500 mm2 aluminium and 1600–2500 mm2 enamelled
copper ranges) as a function of the current rating (A), in the conditions specified by
Fig. 2. Curves end at the steady-state permissible current rating, leading to the
maximum temperature of the insulation material (90 °C for XLPE = cross-linked
polyethylene). The order of magnitude is 30 W/m per cable, and is reached well
before for small (resistive) conductors.
RTE yearly statistics show that underground cables systems are operated more
than 95% of the time at a current rating lower than 60% of the maximum rating.
According to the parabolic R.I2 shape of the curves, it means that the losses are well
under their maximum value (approximately one third). The remaining 5% match with
peak values and most constraining conditions (e.g. severe winter period with
extensive use of electrical heating). An insulated cable is therefore operated in con-
ditions leading to “acceptable” losses. This point is essential, considering that power
losses dominate the cable environmental impact. The closer to the maximum point the
cable is operated, the higher the environmental footprint and operation cost are.
The current rating of a cable system is assessed according its thermal behaviour.
The cable is designed to withstand the maximum temperature of the insulating layer
in any operation modes. Most of the time, the engineer opts for the closest con-
ductor size allowing the required operating temperature, on the safe side within a
Environmental Criteria for the Selection … 115
wide range of standardised sizes. Up to now, this way of selection led to the
minimal investment cost. However, the global cost of a power link depends also on
the actualised cost of losses. A bigger conductor (more expensive at the purchasing
date) may generate sufficiently lower losses than the thermally designed conductor
to become significantly cheaper after a few decades, taking into account the cost of
losses. This calculation is described in the IEC 60287-3-2 standard [5], leading to
the proposal of the most cost-effective conductor size. The following example
illustrates the methodology (Fig. 6).
Let us assume a scenario where the cable system has to transmit 700 A. Data are
plotted on a graph as a function of the conductor size (two colours are used,
respectively for aluminium and copper conductors): CT = CI + CJ, with the
investment cost of the installed system (CI), the actualised cost of the losses (CJ)
fitted to the specified current rating, and the total cost (CT).
Fig. 6 Investment cost + actualised cost of losses = total cost during the economic life
(according to configuration and thermal conditions of Fig. 2). (Note no data on the left axis, in
order not to influence actual markets!)
116 F. Lesur et al.
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
01/2000 01/2002 01/2004 01/2006 01/2008 01/2010 01/2012 01/2014 01/2016
Fig. 7 London Metal Exchange values of conductor metals for the last past 16 years
The investment costs increases obviously with the conductor size (more metal),
while the cost of losses decreases (less electric resistance). The combination of both
trends leads to U-shaped curves with an optimal conductor size.
In the example, 1600 Al is the cheapest conductor to transmit 700 A during
50 years, according the considered scenario, while 630 Al would have been
selected from a strict thermal design point of view (Fig. 7).
The engineer has to take into account the noticeable uncertainty linked to the
input parameters, during the expected system economic life of several decades:
price of Joule losses (€/W.h), annual increase of load (%), annual increase of cost of
energy (%), annual discounting rate (%), etc. However the methodology is a useful
prospective tool for decision-making.
The optimisation is not only of economic nature, but plays also a favourable role
in terms of environmental impact. A Jicable paper [6] discusses the numerous
additional technical advantages of such a policy: fewer losses and less risk of
thermal ageing, limited risk of thermal runaway due to uncontrolled soil drying,
larger safety margin to face load peaks or unexpected hot spots, margins for
overloads, etc. Once again, fewer losses help in limiting global warming.
Main results [8] show that the use phase (and especially power losses due to
transmission activity) generates the most of environmental impacts (climate change,
fossil depletion, fresh water eutrophication, acidification). The sensibility to the
electricity mix has to be studied, due to its high influence. The metal depletion
impact is mostly due to underground cable manufacturing.
The limits of the principle existing studies are relative to the fact that only a
portion of the network (the project studied) is considered, and indeed is independent
of the global system. The “classic” benefits of a network are not taken into account
(pooling effect). Therefore the influence of the project (in particular on the dis-
patching modification) could be considered as negligible while they are not.
Most of the time, the power load is not considered. It means that congestion
situations in the network are not taken into account whereas many infrastructure
projects are required to solve them. Congestion reduction enables to use fewer
thermal power plants responsible for the main greenhouse emission gas of the
electric system.
Moving towards the energy transition raises two issues regarding the European
energy policy. The energy transition involves more and more renewable energies.
In order to give maximum value to these new power sources, the network needs
some improvements (and sometimes reinforcement) to connect new areas of power
generation to consumers with evolving habits. As the public calls into questions the
needs of transmission infrastructure projects increasingly, it is really important for
TSOs to be able to quantify and explain the contribution of their infrastructure
projects to the fight against climate change.
For example, the new underground power link between France and Spain
improves the access of the scheduled 30 GW of Spanish renewable energy to the
European market. This interconnection increases the value of renewable energy for
the community, while 1 million tCO2eq can be saved every year [9].
Sharing the environmental challenges is not only a factor of better acceptance,
but also a real stake to match the expectations for a new model of society.
TSOs and cable manufacturers shall work in close collaboration in order to
improve those LCA studies (data collection, hypothesis for the life cycle inventory,
identification and comparison of alternatives…), leading to the best solution for a
sustainable business.
References
1 Introduction
In the past, the use of dry-type transformers was only possible in the distribution
grid since there were no products available for voltages >36 kV. Dry-type power
transformers for the 52 kV voltage class were introduced about a decade ago. They
are meanwhile used in a number of utility and industrial installations and have
proven their high reliability. The next level in voltage has recently been achieved
when ABB introduced the HiDry72 transformers. These are dry-type power trans-
formers for the 72,5 kV subtransmission voltage level. CIGRE already published in
2013 the brochure “Guide for transformer fire-safety practices” applying to power
transformers rated >10 MVA and 66 kV [2]. A survey on transformer failures
concluded that, assuming 50 years lifetime, one out of 20 transformers catches fire
during its life.
HiDry72, the dry-type power transformer for the 72.5 kV subtransmission
voltage level, offers all general features of dry-type transformers. The major benefit
being the lack of flammable liquids, as used in oil-filled power transformers. The
dry-type transformer is non-explosive and self-extinguishing. In case of an external
fire, its combustible mass is much smaller and much less smoke is created. Their
installation and application is simple and fast. They have high strength against
short-circuit or other mechanical loads and require less maintenance.
With the above advantages, the HiDry72 is therefore ideally suited for inner-city
and underground installations. It can be installed in any building. When combined
with GIT switchgear equipment, it will allow for future, simpler and compact
substation designs [3].
The availability of an oil-free (dry-type) on-load tap changer has supported the
introduction of the HiDry72 transformer product in the market. The first installations
of HiDry72 transformer were presented at CIRED 2013 [4].
One important aspect to consider is the EcoDesign required by the European
Union that has finally concluded in the EN50629 “Energy performance of large
power transformers”, Um > 36 kV or Sr > 40 MVA. It is the first time there is an
international requirement about efficiency in dry-type power transformers, and the
HiDry72 transformers fulfill the requirements indeed.
The base for the development of the 72.5 kV dry power transformers were the
well-established ABB medium voltage transformers in VCC technology; however,
the higher voltage level, a higher rated power, and an increased range for voltage
regulation lead to several technical challenges. An excellent understanding of the
underlying physics and intensive use of FEM based simulations in combination
with experimental testing were required for materializing a reliable new product [5].
HiDry72: The Oil-Free and Safe Power Transformer … 123
Fig. 1 Development of 72.5 kV dry-type power transformer: electric field simulation with electric
stream lines, stray losses in structural components and busbars, and testing beyond the limits
The dielectric stress within a dry-type transformer is withstood by solid and air
insulation. Due to the higher permittivity of the solid insulation, the electric field in
the solid material is reduced and air becomes the main insulator. The dielectric
strength of air is therefore the limiting factor and defines maximum electric fields
and minimum insulation distances.
Magnetic stray fields can cause eddy currents in the windings which can become
very significant with increased power rating and growing cross section of the
conductors. The larger stray fields also create additional eddy losses and hot spots at
unexpected locations. These eddy losses strongly depend on the winding design.
When the OLTC is connected at its minimum position and part of the winding turns
are “deactivated”, the magnetic stray fields and eddy currents are especially strong
and local hot spots can easily be generated (Fig. 1).
Although there is no IEC/ANSI standards for this product, HiDry72 fulfils the
same partial discharge level as the standard requires for transformers up to 36 kV,
(maximum 10 pC at 1.3 Un). This guarantees that no degradation of the insulation
due to PD is taking place and that the transformer will have a long lifetime.
Both oil filled and dry-type transformer technologies have industry standard loading
guides to help estimate overloading capabilities. Oil power transformers follow the
loading guide IEC 60076-7 and the HiDry72 follows the one for dry-type trans-
formers (IEC 60076-12, or IEE C57.96™). All of these standards show how the
124 M. Berrogaín et al.
Fig. 2 Installation of HiDry72 (12 MVA) in the bay (left). GIS installation (right)
126 M. Berrogaín et al.
Fig. 3 Fontenova stadium overall view (left). HiDry72 (25 MVA) and OLTC installation (right)
Fig. 4 Enclosure for outdoors (left). Unloading of HiDry72(16 MVA) with the enclosure (right)
sensitive area and it is equipped with an OLTC (also oil-free) with voltage steps of
±7 1.67%. The transformer was delivered and installed in the enclosure
(IPX4D) and with the OLTC mounted on the transformer (Fig. 4).
4. Outdoor 69 kV Substation for Gas combined cycle PP
Another oil-free power transformer is in the US where Wildcat Point will be one of
the cleanest natural gas facilities of its size in Maryland (belonging to Old
Dominium) and will generate approximately 1000 MW. The customer needed two
The latest installation is located in Spain, where Enel-Endesa has chosen the
HiDry72 transformers for safety reasons. They chose the Hi Dry72 technology
because the 4 transformers are in urban substations in the downtown of Sevillecity,
close to livings and hospital (Fig. 6).
Figure 7 shows one of the four units 34 MVA 66/22 kV, including also OLTC
(± 8 125%), YNyn0, installed in the substations and subject of dimensional
restrictions of the substation. One of these transformers was short-circuited tested in
CESI (2014) passing the test at first, showing an excellent reliability of the product
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 7 HiDry72 (34 MVA) installed in the substation (left). One of the units 34 MVA was
withstand short-circuit tested in CESI (Milan, 2014)
128 M. Berrogaín et al.
By choosing HiDry72 ABB provides a solution with a superior safety for people
and environment, almost maintenance-free and with a very easy installation
Bibliography
1. Murillo R, Tepper J, Roy C, Smajic J, Nogués A (2011) Dry-type transformers for the
subtransmission level CIGRE SC A2&D1 Joint Colloquium 2011, Kyoto, June 2011
2. Petersen A et al (2013) Working Group A2.33 CIGRE, Guide for transformer fire safety
practices CIGRE brochure 537, June 2013
3. Carlen M, Berrogain M, Cameroni R, Spiranelli M (2014) Dry-type subtransmission
transformer: compact and safe indoor substations CIGRE, Paris, Aug 2014
4. Berrogain M, Carlen M (2013) Dry-type transformers for subtransmission, paper 1140,
CIRED, Stockholm, June 2013
5. Carlen M, Berrogain M, Quilez A (2014) Dry-type transformer innovation: HiDry72 for
subtransmission lines, paper, CIDEL Argentina 2014, Buenos Aires, Sept 2014
6. Carlen M, Berrogain M (2013) Dry-type subtransmission transformer installations and
potential grid interactions, CIGRE SC A2 & C4 Joint Colloquium 2013, Zürich, Sept 2013
An MgB2 HVDC Superconducting Cable
for Power Transmission with a Reduced
Carbon Footprint
A. Marian (&)
Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies (IASS), Potsdam, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Ballarino S. Giannelli
European Laboratory for Nuclear Research (CERN), Geneva, Switzerland
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Giannelli
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Catalan G. Escamez G. Vega C.-E. Bruzek
Nexans France, Clichy, France
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Escamez
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Vega
e-mail: [email protected]
C.-E. Bruzek
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Dittmar C. Haberstroh
Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Haberstroh
e-mail: [email protected]
Keywords BEST PATHS High-power transmission lines HVDC MgB2
cables Superconducting links
1 Introduction
One of the main outcomes of the recently concluded EU FP7 e-Highway 2050
project [1] was the identification of the ‘electricity highways’ required in 2050 in
order to facilitate investment decisions in the coming years. Five scenarios were
F. Grilli
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Holé
ESPCI ParisTech, Paris, France
e-mail: [email protected]
F. Lesur C. Poumarède
Réseau de transport d′électricité (RTE), Courbevoie, France
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Poumarède
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Tropeano
Columbus Superconductors S.p.A., Genoa, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
An MgB2 HVDC Superconducting Cable for Power Transmission … 131
MgB2 wires twisted around a flexible multi-strand copper core. The external
diameter of such a conductor is 9–17 mm.
A cryogenic cooling system that allows the cable to operate in helium gas in the
range of 15–25 K and at 20 bar will be developed as part of the demonstration
activity. Thus, the cryogenic envelope will consist of multiple concentric tubes.
Firstly, the conductor will be inserted into the inner helium-cooled cryostat whose
outer wall is lapped in high-voltage insulation. Secondly, the inner cryostat is
housed in an outer flexible cryogenic envelope, which is cooled by liquid nitrogen
acting as a thermal shield. This helps keep thermal losses at an acceptable level. The
insulating tapes will therefore be impregnated with liquid nitrogen in the fashion
currently employed for oil-impregnated conventional cables. The material foreseen
for the electrical insulation is polypropylene laminated paper (PPLP) tape.
As a certain degree of flexibility is needed for the cable installation, corrugated
tubes will be used for the cryogenic envelope. Such tubes are routinely manufac-
tured in hectometer lengths, delivered on drums and can be joined on site for
multi-kilometer-long systems. Appropriate cooling machines that are optimized for
this type of application are already commercially available. For the demonstrator, a
refrigerator capable of delivering 120 W at 20 K and circulating gaseous helium at
20 bar is under procurement. It should be noted that the overall required cooling
power is determined mostly by the current leads and by the cryostat thermal leak
from room temperature, since the AC losses of a DC system are greatly reduced
when compared to an AC cable.
In contrast to the cryostats and the refrigeration system, mainstream solutions are
not available for testing the HV insulation performance for operation in DC mode.
Instead, a dedicated experimental setup will be developed for this purpose by
ESPCI ParisTech. Measurements [6] will be conducted while the cable is under
high electric stress of up to 60 kV in liquid nitrogen at a pressure of 5 bar and at
variable temperatures. Given these harsh environmental conditions, the new test
station should not only validate the insulation structure of the proposed
BEST PATHS cable, but could also open the door for new cable structures and
insulation studies.
Innovative solutions are also needed for designing and optimizing the cryogenic
electrical terminations, since this will be the first instance where a flow of cold
helium gas at 20 bar is injected at HV in association with high current. The heat
inleak at 20 K should be as low as possible for a cost-competitive and robust
concept. Thus, the proposed design will include a hybrid current lead for the current
injection, and a special insulated line for the helium gas injection. The latter will be
installed in parallel to the current lead and will connect the electrically grounded
cooling machine to the cable conductor at 320 kV of electrical potential.
The simulation task in the project will be carried out by several partners led by
KIT and is dedicated to analyzing the electromagnetic behavior of the MgB2 cable
conductor, especially with respect to transient events. To this end, a numerical
model that solves the time-dependent Maxwell’s equations by using the
finite-element method will be employed [7]. The model is able to reproduce the
An MgB2 HVDC Superconducting Cable for Power Transmission … 133
precise geometry of the MgB2 wire at the level of the individual filaments and
incorporates highly non-linear characteristics of the materials from which the cable
is made.
The reliability and availability of the system are of key importance for its
acceptance by transmission system operators. Therefore during the second half of
the project, specific vision studies for very long systems (>100 km) will be con-
ducted to investigate the future technologies for the cryo-envelope and for possible
cooling systems operating with gaseous helium or liquid hydrogen. The level of
system availability is dependent on the cooling power and on the redundancy of the
cryogenic fluid management systems, which can have a significant impact on the
investment costs for the system. Moreover, minimizing the number of cooling
stations is essential for an efficient operation over very long distances and for
decreasing the investment costs.
These results will be used for an economic viability analysis of the proposed
superconducting HVDC cable solution, taking into account not only the cost of the
cable itself, but also estimated costs for the substations and civil engineering. The
socio-economic assessment will also include a comparison with resistive cables and
with solutions based on high-temperature superconductors for relevant case studies.
Fig. 1 The HVDC cable design for a 3 GW power link based on the MgB2 superconductor
100%
90%
80%
Armoring+sheath
70%
Outer cryo
60%
Dielectric part
50%
40%
Inner cryo
30% Cu wires
20% MgB2wires
10%
0%
More precise modeling of the system will be carried out over the duration of the
project. Besides including the manufacturing energy consumption, the next steps
will encompass the assessment of the use stage, the analysis of the complete system
including joints and terminations, and a comparison with HVDC conventional cable
systems.
LCA studies of standard resistive cables identified electricity losses as the pri-
mary cause of environmental impact. For instance, it was shown that under the
assumption of the current European power mix, power losses dominate the impact
of cables in nearly all categories, accounting for up to 99% of their global warming
contribution [10]. To amend this, an effort must be made in the initial design phase
to minimize electrical resistance. Moreover, the mutual heating effects among the
cables of a circuit and between adjacent circuits increase losses (about 30 W/m per
An MgB2 HVDC Superconducting Cable for Power Transmission … 135
cable at full load) and lower the power rating. A target of 5 GVA can be achieved
with a minimum of four parallel extruded cable bipoles (up to 2500 mm2 copper
at ±320 kV). However, their installation requires a large amount of raw materials
and significant excavation work, along with increased traffic at the site during
installation. In order to supply more power, the axial distances between cables and
between circuits have to be increased, resulting in a larger right of way. Due to this,
current development efforts are focused on bringing the thermal losses of super-
conducting cables to an acceptable level when compared to the Joule losses of
resistive cables. If this challenge can be met, the compactness of the MgB2 solution
holds real potential as a design with a low global environmental impact.
4 Conclusions
References
1. e-HighWay2050 Project results (2015) Europe’s future secure and sustainable electricity
infrastructure. Available: http://www.ehighway2050.eu/e-highway2050
2. Ballarino A et al (2016) The BEST PATHS Project on MgB2 superconducting cables for very
high power transmission. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 26:5401705
3. Giannelli S, Ballarino A, Bordini B, Hurte J, Jacquemod A, First measurements of MgB2
cables operated in He gas up to 35 K, CERN Internal Note 2015-03, EDMS Nr. 1476839
4. Cigré Technical Brochure 538 (2013) Recommendations for testing of superconducting
cables, Working group B1.31 convened by Lindsay D
5. Braccini V, Nardelli D, Penco R, Grasso G (2007) Development of ex situ processed MgB2
wires and their applications to magnets. Phys C: Supercond 456:209–217
6. Holé S, Ditchi T, Lewiner J (2003) Non-destructive methods for space charge distribution
measurements: what are the differences? IEEE Trans Dielectr EI 10:670–677
7. Brambilla R, Grilli F, Martini L (2007) Development of an edge-element model for AC loss
computation of high-temperature superconductors. Supercond Sci Technol 20:16–24
8. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2006) ISO 14044—Environmental
management—Life cycle assessment—Requirements and guidelines
9. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2006) ISO 14040—Environmental
management—Life cycle assessment—Principles and framework
10. Jorge R et al (2012) Life cycle assessment of electricity transmission and distribution—Part 1:
power lines and cables. Int J Life Cycle Assess 17:9–15
Part IV
Materials, Substances
g3—The Alternative to SF6
for High-Voltage Equipment
Abstract Since the 1970s, transmission and distribution network relies on SF6
technology because of its remarkable arc quenching properties and dielectric
insulation. However, with its high GWP of 23,500 and an atmospheric lifetime of
3200 years, the SF6 insulating gas has significant environmental impacts if it leaks
into the atmosphere. In a first part, the paper draws up a status of the regulatory and
financial constraints on SF6 in the world. In a second part, the paper develops how
Grid Solutions, a joint venture between GE and Alstom, has addressed this envi-
ronmental issue, by developing, together with the 3M Company, a SF6-free solu-
tion. The result is a gas mixture named g3 (green gas for grid), based on 3M
NovecTM 4710 and CO2. This new gas mixture reduces the global warming
potential by 98% compared to SF6 with only minor design modifications by respect
to typical SF6 design. It is a technically and economically viable alternative to SF6,
which let foresee a major revolution in the high-voltage technology. Finally, the
paper describes the first applications of this g3 mixture to 420 kV Gas-Insulated
Lines (GIL). Indeed, at this voltage level, GIL represents on average 50% of the SF6
installed mass in a global high voltage substation. SF6-free GIL can thus bring a
quick and massive reduction of SF6 mass installed by utilities. The environmental
benefits of this new technology is provided though the results of a complete Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) that has been carried out to compare SF6 and g3 tech-
nology. This LCA shows that the use of g3 in the 420 kV GIL allows to consid-
erably reduce environmental impact on Global Warming but also on all other
environmental indicators (ozone depletion, acidification, metal depletion, etc.),
compared to the SF6 technology.
Keywords SF6 Regulations Gas insulated switchgear Gas insulated line
GIS GIL Alternative gases Environmental impact Carbon footprint
Eco-design
1 Introduction
Since the 1970s, transmission and distribution network relies on SF6 technology
because of its remarkable arc quenching properties and dielectric insulation.
Nevertheless, SF6 has the major drawback of presenting a global warming
potential (GWP) of 23,500 (relative to CO2 over 100 years), and it has a lifetime in
the atmosphere of 3,200 years. As a consequence, it is considered as one of the
gases presenting the most potent greenhouse effect [1]. One kilogramme of SF6
released into the atmosphere has therefore the equivalent global warming impact as
23.5 tons of CO2.
In 1997, at the third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 37 countries have committed them-
selves to a reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions of 5% from 1990 levels
by the year 2012. This agreement subsequently became known as the Kyoto
Protocol and listed 6 GHG for which emissions need to be limited, among them
SF6. Since this date, to comply with this target, policy makers are developing more
and more regulations and taxes, which have led industry to seek alternatives to SF6.
The target of this paper is to present how environmental pressure on SF6
associated with company’s clean grid programme has push Grid Solutions to
development a viable alternative to SF6 for high-voltage equipment.
To achieve its Kyoto target, the European Commission has adopted on 17 May
2006 the Regulation (EC) No 842/2006 on certain fluorinated greenhouse gases
(commonly called F-Gas Regulation).
This Regulation lays down specific requirements for the different stages of the
whole life cycle of F-Gases, including SF6: from production to end of life. Thus, it
affects producers, importers, exporters, manufacturers of products containing
F-gases and operators of the equipment. This regulation has been replaced by
Regulation (EC) No. 517/2014 that came into effect on 1st January 2015. Main
obligations for high-voltage equipment containing SF6 are the following:
– Prevention of emissions (Art.3)
– Obligation to check leakage detection systems (Art.5)
– Obligation to recover SF6 (Art.8)
g3—The Alternative to SF6 for High-Voltage Equipment 141
Since years, GE’s Grid Solutions has been integrating the environment into the
design of its products. For the specific gas-Insulated substations (GIS) applications,
the eco-design approach is to reduce the global environmental impact over its whole
life cycle, from the extraction of the raw materials until the end-of-life with due
consideration of all environmental indicators.
SF6 is obviously impacting the environmental performance of the GIS. The
life-cycle assessment (LCA) performed on a GIS shows that SF6 emissions can
represent between 60 and 80% of the total Global Warming impact of the substation
over its whole life. Used materials and power losses during the use phase have a
high contribution on the other indicators.
Through its clean grid programme and in order to limit the SF6 emissions, Grid
Solutions has implemented several actions to monitor these aspects during the
development of the GIS products. Reduction of SF6 quantities and of seal length is
carefully monitored through key performance indicators. Selection and validation of
optimum technologies of gaskets [3] are key to ensure tightness during the lifetime
of the equipment. Development of state-of-the-art monitoring system in GIS sub-
stations has facilitated early detection and prediction of any abnormal leakage. In
order to limit any risk of SF6 emission during site installation, the factory assembly
of maximum of components is an optimum solution and it has been implemented
during the past years on GIS from 72.5 kV up to now 420 kV [4].
These improvements in the design of GIS are beneficial to limit the emissions of
SF6 and proven experience in service gives full satisfaction to the utilities when
dealing with SF6 obligations like reporting.
One step further of the clean programme is to deal with replacement of SF6, as
detailed in next chapters.
g3—The Alternative to SF6 for High-Voltage Equipment 143
Aware of the environmental issue of SF6, Grid Solutions has researched for four
years an economical green SF6 alternative solution for high-voltage switchgear. The
objective was to find a gas that:
– meets all the very tough specifications for HV switchgear (high dielectric
strength, good arc quenching capability, low boiling point, high heat dissipation,
compatibility with existing switchgear materials, easy handling, design com-
pactness, etc.)
– has a low global warming potential (GWP) and no impact on ozone depletion
– has a low toxicity (at least similar to SF6 one).
When looking for alternatives available on the market, either the dielectric strength
was too low (with negative consequences on dimensions and therefore on invest-
ment costs), either their GWP were still too high, either they did not meet health
requirements.
Finally, Grid Solutions has developed an SF6-free solution which meets all these
needs. The solution is a gas mixture based on CO2 and 3M NovecTM 4710
Dielectric Fluid from the fluoronitrile family. It was specially developed by 3M for
that purpose and referred to by the name g3 (green gas for grid) [5]. With a GWP of
327 compared to 23,500 for SF6, g3 reduces the global warming potential by 98%
compared to SF6 with only minor design modifications by respect to typical SF6
design. It is a technically and economically viable alternative to SF6, which lets
foresee a major revolution in the high-voltage technology.
The first application of this g3 mixture is the 420 kV Gas-Insulated Lines (GIL).
Indeed, at this voltage level, GIL represents on average 50% of the SF6 installed
mass in a global substation. SF6-free GIL can thus bring a quick and massive
reduction of SF6 mass installed by utilities.
To give a practical example of the huge quantity of SF6 that a GIL can contain,
Fig. 2 illustrates the Jebel Ali M 420 kV GIL project in United Arab Emirates,
energized in 2009. The cumulative one-phase length of this GIL is about 13 km. It
contains 73 tons of SF6, equivalent to more than 1700 tons of equivalent CO2. With
g3 solution, this quantity would have been reduced by 98%.
Without any doubt, g3 bring a considerable environmental benefit on climate
change. In order to have a global view on the environmental impact on this solution
over the whole life cycle of the product, a complete Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) has been carried out. It compares SF6 and g3 technology on all environ-
mental indicators: global warming, but also ozone depletion, acidification, etc.,
considering the design adaptations needed until the end of life of the product [6].
144 E. Laruelle et al.
The functional unit under study is one 100 m long section of 420 kV, 4000 A,
T155 GIL, suitable for ambient temperature up to −25 °C with 2 direction changes,
as presented on Fig. 3, and with the assumption of an operational life of 40 years.
The scope of the study can be summarised as followings:
• Raw material used
• Factory assembly
• Transportation from factory to customer site
• Use during 40 years, considering electrical losses, emissions in the air and
during maintenance activities
• End-of-life with gas recovery, transportation and recycling of recyclable
materials.
g3—The Alternative to SF6 for High-Voltage Equipment 145
The following Table 1 summarizes the various data of this environmental study.
Results of the environmental comparison are shown on Fig. 4. As normally
performed for such study all environmental indicators have been considered. This is
the only correct methodology to compare the environmental impact of two tech-
nologies from a global view, ensuring that no pollution transfer occurs.
The results of this LCA show that the use of g3 in the 420 kV GIL is consid-
erably reducing the environmental impact compared to the use of SF6 technology.
There is a huge reduction of 96% on Global Warming indicator and there is an
average reduction of 14% on all other environmental indicators (ozone depletion,
acidification, metal depletion, etc.).
146 E. Laruelle et al.
6 Conclusion
During last ten years, regulatory pressure has been growing on SF6 due to its high
impact on global warming. Grid Solutions has a proactive policy to cope with these
new challenges and to reduce impact of human activity on climate change. Grid
Solutions has worked intensively to optimise the design of their GIS in that field
and also to find an alternative solution to be used in its high-voltage equipment. g3
represents the first economical green alternative to SF6. Its GWP is 98% lower than
SF6 one, and its environmental benefits has been proven by a complete LCA
performed on the 420 kV GIL. It will be the first g3 product to be energised and that
will happen in the UK mid of 2016. The availability of this new green gas alter-
native introduces the potential for a tremendous reduction in the tons of CO2
equivalents deployed in this technology worldwide and is expected as a major
breakthrough in high-voltage technology.
Bibliography
Etienne Barbier
Abstract SF6 is a very safe gas, which will continue to be used for years. Due to
its hudge GWP SF6 has to be mastered, recovered and retreated for reuse—
Greenway, an eco label issued by Inventec helps to have a more responsible
management of SF6 i Recycling allows to drive the gas from cradle to cradle.
1 Introduction
E. Barbier (&)
Inventec, Vincennes Cedex, France
e-mail: [email protected]
process of unique and innovative circular economy which was to make available to
its consumer customers GHG returnable recovery packages that would be processed
through recycling and regeneration unit.
The organization of recovery and recycling operations for fluorinated refriger-
ants really appeared three years later, through the signing of an agreement by the
then Minister of Environment, Mrs. Ségolène Royal, the President of ADEME, and
major producers and distributors of fluorinated gases.
1.1 DIA 4
Analyses processed by the laboratory on the products on arrival, and also on the
treated product have been put in place to ensure a consistent level of quality.
SF6 Management from Craddle to Craddle Advantage … 149
1.2 DIA 5
After the recovery process, INVENTEC decided to support his clients not only to
collect and regenerate the used SF6 but also to take in account the global SF6 chain.
Based on the INVENTEC eco label called Greenway INVENTEC decide to
implement a new leak reduction approach with a unique connection system from
the SF6 packaging to the Client installation.
With this quick connection system for SF6 called “Clip’n use” with a flat face
sealing, emissions during disconnection and connections operations are less than
10−3 cm3/s, and we can estimate that a user working with Clip’n use connector
avoids to issue approximately 300 kg of SF6 per year, or about 7000 tons of CO2
equivalent per user. Dehon group, decided to go further and to implement a con-
tinuous sustainable development approach. While maintaining our solutions at a
high level of technical and economical performance, we also define our products by
their key impact parameters on health and environment.
If our engineers improve, significantly, 1/3 of parameters without degrading any
of the other, we give the Greenway “label” to this product. If we do not improve
further the product within the next 5 years, we take the label off.
The objectives of Greenway are clear: more impact in the processes but less
impact on health and environment, this is the future of chemicals for high tech
industries …
150 E. Barbier
1.3 DIA 6
Greenway approach is in the frame of health and safety protection, and technical
performances. Greenway also covers our services; we apply this approach to SF6
recycling programs with our SF6 customers.
Despite SF6 use in a close and airtight chamber, responsible action to reduce
emissions is necessary at each steps of use: tests, maintenance, end of life. This is
particularly important as there the substitution is just having the first steps and the
actual equipment will keep alive for many years.
2.1 DIA 8
SF6 is still used in several fields: MV/HV/UHV transformers and breakers, radars,
particle accelerators, electronic microscopes…
SF6 is filled or recovered in many steps of the operations: Tests, failure, dis-
mantling, controls, transfer equipments…
The challenge in that field is the following one: despite of increasing quantity of
gas insulated systems, we have to decrease the quantities which will be consumed.
2.2 DIA 9
of plasma. The SF6 density is very helpful to reduce the electrical damages in the
switchgears application.
After several electric arc the SF6 re composition is not complete and some
various decomposition products could be produced. Some of them like SO2 or
S2F10 could be toxic or corrosive. When some levels are reached indicated in the
IEC standards, or internal decision at the customer, the used SF6 need to be taken
away and replaced.
At the beginning of the SF6 story the main way was to replace the use SF6 by
new product and exhaust or destroy the used SF6.
To reduce the carbon foot print of the SF6 production but also the foot print of
the destruction of used SF6 destruction INVENTEC decided to implement a
recovery and regenerating process.
It was the first circular economy process implemented for the SF6 application.
2.3 DIA 10
What are the key points where we have to be very sensitive? Substitution/RE
USE/IMPROVEMENT OF THE PROCESS.
A lot of efforts have been paid in order to find alternative gases. The substitution of
this gas is just starting and tests are done on industrial level—mostly based on
mixtures. INVENTEC provides its services to its customers in the following fields:
packaging, transport legislation, packaging, treatment of waste products, elabora-
tion of mixtures.
The reclaiming center must have the required agreement to process such gas. In the
case of our company, INVENTEC has got
• A plant classified Seveso high level (which means the presence of high risks
products and of skilled workers trained in the processing of these gases)
• And a state authorization for the activity of trading and processing of waste.
Different ways of analyzing the gas on site are available.
The multi analyzers allow checking on site the content in H2O/HF/purity/SO2.
With hygrometers you can check the moisture content (chilled mirror or
capacitive sensor). These on site analysis are processed after the purification step
152 E. Barbier
made by the gas transfer unit. If the impurities contained in the gas are not
acceptable for its re use in the equipment, it has to be send back to the reclaiming
center.
The reclaim of used SF6 has to be done:
• In dedicated packaging with steel valves because brass is not compatible with
corrosive gases. This operation has to be done with dedicated equipment,
including a high vacuum of the systems in order to minimize the losses at the
atmosphere.
• The polluted gas must be transported by dedicated transport companies.
• All these operation are done within the frame of administrative procedures, with
specific documents which have to be filled such as:
– Identification of waste
– Certificate of acceptance issued by our company
– Document for the follow up of industrial waste.
Before processing, the used product, it is necessary to know precisely what con-
taminants are present in the polluted SF6 and in which quantities for each
contaminant.
Therefore the first step is to analyse the polluted gas.
INVENTEC’s laboratory is equipped to analyse SF6 on the liquid phase as
stipulated in IEC 60376 recommendations.
The following analyses are performed.
Purity/Water content/Air/Acidity in HF/S2F10/Non volatile residues (oil) Oil
content.
These analyses are performed before the treatment of SF6 in order to determine
whether the product can be retreated or not.
If the product can not be retreated according to the impurities, it is sent to
specialized companies which have the authorization to destroy it by incineration.
We must say that more than 90% of the quantities received for treatment are in
the frame of these data.
Once the product has been received at INVENTEC reclaiming center and ana-
lyzed, we proceed to the purification of the gas.
As far as air is concerned, when its content is too high (more than 10,000 ppm
wt): the non condensable gases are separated from SF6 by distillation.
As far as the other contaminants are concerned, the gas is processed through a
large column filled with Soda ash/Activated alumina/Active charcoal/Molecular
sieves/Tissue rings/Filters.
SF6 Management from Craddle to Craddle Advantage … 153
A study has been processed by us during 1 year in order to determine the quality
of adsorbents that have to be used/quantity of each component/thickness of each
layer/speed of transfer of SF6/pressurization level for transferring SF6 through the
column.
At the exit the product is re analysed in order to make sure that we get a gas that
meet the IEC 60376 standard.
As a conclusion we can say that after several years of experience, qualitative,
quantitative and financial advantages have been issued.
Qualitative advantage in terms of purity: the recycled SF6 has really to be
considered as a real product which matches the electricity request in terms of purity.
Quantitative advantage—recycling the gas allows re-using it and saves quantities.
Financial advantage the reprocessing of SF6 allows to
• Avoid destruction cost
• Pay less than new product.
In terms of equipment, several improvements have been made with the gas recovery
units for a better recovery and filtering SF6 on site. We can now achieve depression
until 1 torr which minimizes the quantity of gas rejected at the atmosphere. This
equipment allows a filtering of the impurities until 0.1 microns and to dry the gas
until 12 ppm wt, but in limited quantities.
INVENTEC issued the Clip’n use valve which allows reducing leaks during
connections and disconnections operations.
Many progresses have been done on the gas transfer units—the level of 1 Mbar
vacuum can be reached quite easily.
At least INVENTEC takes care of the gas contained in the end of life HTA
cells—and reprocess it as well.
This is one of INVENTEC contributions to protect the environment.
5BIOP a Biocomposite for Electrical
Application
W. Daoud (&)
D&D Intelligence, Montpellier, France
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Courtheoux
Institut Charles Gerhardt Montpellier, Montpellier, France
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Depeyre
IUT de Nîmes, Nîmes, France
e-mail: [email protected]
F. Fesquet
Matériau INGENIERIE, Saint-Martin-de-Valgalgue, France
e-mail: [email protected]
1 Introduction
On the last ten years, the biopolymers were considerably developed. All industrial
sectors work on the subject. The first applications were initially interested in the
packaging and building and then widened to the automotive, electrical equipment,
sports equipment, etc. These areas are heavily consumer plastic of materials that are
not produced locally. Production of biomaterials in the world will be increased
fivefold by 2020 (JEC Composite Magazine No. 73) (Fig. 1).
Based on this observation, we performed a project of reducing the environmental
impact and costs relating to such materials. The FiveBiop project is to develop a
range of biopolymers composed of bio sourced matrix and wild plant fibers. The
matrix can be from the polymerization of sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, starch, etc.
Fillers commonly used are glass and carbon fibers, silica, and more recently flax
fibers and hemp. However, these fibers are industrialized and require significant
transformation phase. It is therefore to propose an alternative solution using natu-
rally available fiber and abundant way. Indeed, there are a variety of unexploited
plant fibers present in large quantities in the Mediterranean: palm alfa, raffia, kenaf,
etc. Currently, the use of these fibers is limited to domestic use, crafts and paper
industry. The existing deposits are very important especially for alfa. This is why
we focused on this category of fibers. Indeed, it is assumed biomaterials higher cost
than synthetic materials and use of food resources. The use of wild fibers reduces
the cost of the material while preserving arable land. The purpose of this project is
to develop a more environmentally friendly and economical material.
This work was conducted in collaboration with IUT Nîmes (Technology
University Institute), SKZ, Eco-presence with the support of Languedoc-Roussillon
Region.
78%
80%
60%
40%
22%
20% 12%
0%
2010 2020
Biocomposite Composites
2 Alfa Fiber
The alfa Latin name is Stipa tenacissima. This is an herb and is a member of the
grass family. It is a permanent plant that does not disappear in the winter and grows
independently, forming webs. Due to the low water consumption alfa is endemic in
the western Mediterranean region, a rather dry region. The territorial distribution is
shown in the Table 1 (Fig. 2).
Alfa has an ecological, economic and social advantages. It does not need
insecticides or pesticides harmful to the environment and consumes water from the
atmosphere. Usually, the fiber structure is heterogeneous. Smaller parts in the fibers
are filaments or fibrils having lengths of 2–5 mm and diameters from 5 to 10 mm.
Alfa is received in sheets as they occur in nature. The first step is to dry in the
sun. After that, the sheets are sent to a carding operation. This operation aims to
obtain alfa fiber and remove foreign materials (Table 2).
The polylactic acid is biopolymer. PLA was discovered in 1932 by Carothers. The
production of PLA has numerous advantages including: (a) production of the lac-
tide monomer from lactic acid, which is produced by fermentation of a renewable
agricultural source corn; (b) fixation of significant quantities of carbon dioxide via
corn (maize) production by the corn plant; (c) significant energy savings; (d) the
ability to recycle back to lactic acid by hydrolysis or alcoholysis;
(e) the capability of producing hybrid paper-plastic packaging that is com-
postable; (f) reduction of landfill volumes; (g) improvement of the agricultural
economy; and (h) the all-important ability to tailor physical properties through
material modifications [1]. Briefly, PLA is based on agricultural (crop growing),
biological (fermentation), and chemical (polymerization) sciences and technologies.
It is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the United State Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) [2].
Extrusion is the first step in the implementation of the biopolymer. During extru-
sion, the polymer pellets are melted and the fibers are introduced as filler. The
compoud is an aggregate of PLA and Alfa fiber. The extrusion step optimizes the
dispersion of alfa fibers in the PLA. After that, the material is mixed within a
compounder.
1,00E+17
5,00E+16
0,00E+00
30 40 50 60 80 90
Temperature
increases, q decreases significantly in the vicinity of Tg (60 °C), but does not
decrease at higher Tg. In fact, these properties are comparable to PVC ones. So, it is
possible to assume that 5BIOP could be used as a dielectric material (Fig. 3).
The mechanical tests were carried out on a dynamic part of a low voltage electrical
switch for indoor use. They include tensile strength, flexion, mechanical shock,
flame spread, chemical compatibility, biodegradability. These test confirm that the
5BIOP could be used in some electrical applications (Fig. 5).
The Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 show the results of mechanical tests: flexion, tensile,
flame spread, biodegradability and chemical compatibility (Fig. 6).
PLA
PLA+10% alfa
Fiber volume %
80%
62%
57%
60%
40%
20%
0%
PLA PLA+10%ALFA
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Acetone NaOH Motor oil Ammoniac Acetic acid
PLA PLA+10%ALFA
Abiotic
depletion
100%
Terrestrial
Acidification
ecotoxicity 50%
PLA
0% PLA + 20% Alfa fibers
Fresh water
Eutrophication
aquatic ecotox.
Global
Human toxicity warming
(GWP100)
4 Environmental Properties
Biopolymers can reduce significantly the greenhouse gas emissions (Table 5).
The use of alfa fibers contributes to reduce the environmental impacts of PLA
polymer. The Fig. 11 shows better environmental performances of PLA with 20%
of alfa fibers [3]. The addition of alfa fibers allow to reduce up to 20% of envi-
ronmental impacts of PLA.
5 Conclusion
5BIOP composite is an innovative bipolymer. It uses natural alfa fibers without any
human intervention or additional treatment. The performed tests show that this
material can be used for indoor low voltage application. However, we do recognize
that these tests are not sufficient and should be improved with additional ones. In
another side, the 5BIOP present good greenhouse performances. But, we do realize
that it could have less good impacts in other environmental parameters as
eutrophication or air acidification.
References
1. Dorgan JR, Lehermeier H, Mang M (2000) Thermal and rheological properties of commercial—
grade poly(lactic acids)s. J Polym Environ 8:1–9
2. Jamshidian M, Arab Tehrany E, Imran M, Jacquot M, Desobry S (2010) Poly-lactic acid:
production, applications, nanocomposites, and release studies. Comprehensive Reviews in
Food Science and Food Safety
3. Shen Li, Patel MK (2010) Life cycle assessment of man-made cellulose fibres. Lenzinger Ber
88:1–59
State of the Art Process of End-of-Life
Treatment for SF6 Medium Voltage
Equipment
1 Introduction
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) gas is a well known insulating and breaking medium
used for decades for transmission and distribution equipment. It is also a very
powerful greenhouse gas with a GWP (Global Warming Potential) of 23,500 [1]. In
Europe, legislation requires owners of equipment to recover residual gases prior to
its disposal, as stated in Regulation (EU) No 517/2014 [2]. It is, however, mainly
for the environmental impact that special care must be taken during the disposal of
Medium and High Voltage Equipment. Owners of equipment should be aware that
not all end-of-life treatment processes are the same from an environmental point of
view. Although regulations and standards set rules and guidelines for this type of
service, modern technology, experience and knowledge enable us today to go
beyond regulations, namely a step further towards a greener, low carbon world.
The aim of this paper is to inform on the latest know-how and technological
progress for the disposal of MV equipment.
It will be necessary to analyze every step of the process in order to reach an
optimized and state of the art disposal process for SF6 Medium Voltage equipment.
From the moment the equipment is decommissioned up to its disposal, it will go
through the following 5 main steps:
• Transportation
• SF6 Recovery
• Dismantling
• SF6 Reclaiming or destruction
• Storage of cylinders containing used SF6.
2 Transportation
Before transporting the equipment from the location where it was installed to the
workshop where it will be dismantled, special care must be taken on how the
equipment is strapped to the pallet to avoid dangerous movements during trans-
portation. It is necessary to avoid equipment from tilting and dropping, because this
can create cracks in the SF6 enclosure and therefore leaks (Fig. 1).
It is advisable to gather as many units as possible in order to optimize trans-
portation and avoid unnecessary carbon emissions.
But why shall the equipment be transported away? Can’t it be treated on site?
This is because for MV equipment it is recommended to perform the dismantling
process in a closed but ventilated workshop, particularly for safety reasons.
During the recovery of gas, we will reach low pressures of the SF6 inside the gas
chamber. This can lead to implosion (particularly with stainless steel compartments),
with the risk of flying objects hitting workmen present in the workshop. Also,
performing this operation outdoors may disturb operators’ concentration level due to
wind, rain and other meteorological conditions.
It is universally accepted that SF6 presents no danger to life apart from the fact
that, since it is denser than oxygen, a prolonged exposure to an environment rich in
SF6 could lead to asphyxiation. This danger is avoided by adequate ventilation. An
O2 detector shall be available for the operator to inform about risks due to accu-
mulation of SF6.
State of the Art Process of End-of-Life Treatment for SF6 … 165
3 SF6 Recovery
International Standard IEC 62271-4 [3] states that residual pressure during recovery
should be below 2 kPa (20 mbar). Modern SF6 pumps can operate well beneath this
value, without the operator having to wait too much time. Let us compare the
amount of SF6 which we will avoid releasing to the atmosphere if 0.1 kPa (1 mbar)
had been reached instead, and most of all, its CO2 equivalent.
Let’s assume your equipment has an SF6 filling pressure of 130 kPa
(1300 mbar) absolute and the filled SF6 mass is 2.5 kg.
If recovery is processed up to 2 kPa (20 mbar) vacuum level, only 98.46%
of SF6 will be recovered from the equipment, which means 38.5 g lost per
unit. For 100 units, the equivalent CO2 emission will be 90 tonnes!
With 0.1 kPa (1 mbar) vacuum level, CO2 equivalent emission will be
reduced to 4.5 tonnes, with 99.92% SF6 recovery rate.
166 G. Zaccaro et al.
Fig. 2 On the left, Recovery rate of SF6 versus Vacuum pressure of recovery equipment. On the
right, CO2 emissions per year versus Vacuum pressure of recovery equipment. Both graphs have
been drawn by assuming 130 kPa (1300 mbar) initial pressure, 2 kPa (20 mbar) final pressure,
2.5 kg of SF6 initially inside the equipment and 100 units of equipment
The graph on the left of Fig. 2 shows how the recovery rate of SF6 increases
with decreasing vacuum pressure of the recovery equipment. It is therefore best to
reach a low vacuum pressure inside the obsolete equipment. On the right, the CO2
emissions increase as the vacuum pressure of the recovery machine increases. Once
again, it is recommended to reach the lowest possible vacuum pressure when
recovering SF6.
As stated in the paragraph on transportation, certain equipment may not with-
stand low pressure during recovery and may implode. Membranes, gaskets, welded
joints and even sheet metal compartments may not bear the pressure. As a conse-
quence, the recovery operation may not be completed and residual SF6 gas may
escape to the atmosphere. To avoid this from happening, specific cabinets exist. The
principle is to lower the pressure inside and outside the equipment at the same time.
Therefore it will be possible to reach low absolute pressures inside the equipment,
in order to evacuate all residual SF6 gas, and at the same time avoid stress on
mechanical sealing parts. Potential flying parts which could cause injuries will also
be avoided (Fig. 3).
Each equipment needs specific tools to connect the pump to the SF6 container.
The manufacturer has the best knowledge and experience of its products and will be
able to provide the right connections that will avoid leaks. Furthermore, it is nec-
essary to verify that the recovery equipment (i.e. the pump) is free of leaks. An SF6
leak detection unit, also called “sniffing probe”, can be used to perform a leakage
check during SF6 recovery. The tool shall be set at a threshold of 10−6 mbar.l/s.
In the European Union, SF6 recovery can only be performed by operators having
followed the specific training and holding a certificate released by an approved
State of the Art Process of End-of-Life Treatment for SF6 … 167
Fig. 3 A cabinet used for gas filling and recovery for MV equipment
certification body of a Member State. This measure, which came in force in July
2008 with the additional Regulation (EC) No. 305/2008, has been extended to other
activities in the most recent implementing Regulation (EU) No. 2015/2066 [4].
From the 1st July 2017, operators performing filling operations, installation of
manometers, transfer of SF6 between compartments and all other SF6 handling
operations, including of course recovery, shall also be certified.
4 Dismantling
Inside used SF6 equipment, there is a high probability of finding gaseous and solid
SF6 decomposition by-products, which are dangerous for operators in case of
contact, due to their toxicity and corrosiveness.
For this reason the equipment shall be handled and opened with care after
recovery of SF6 from the equipment. Any risk for the health of the operators shall
be avoided. The molecular sieve, an object whose main aim is to absorb humidity
contained in the equipment and SF6, will have absorbed a big part of the
by-products. It shall therefore be sorted and put in a specific bin for toxic sub-
stances. The inside of the SF6 tank must be cleaned with an industrial dry vacuum
cleaner (H dust class). The tank shall also be neutralized with a caustic soda
solution.
168 G. Zaccaro et al.
Once the SF6 is recovered from obsolete equipment and is pumped in correctly
labelled cylinders, there are 2 options to choose from for its future: reclaiming or
destruction.
Reclaiming gives a new life to SF6. Experience shows that in 99% of the cases,
the used SF6 which has undergone the specific treatment process (a series of fil-
trations) can be fully reused. In fact, the treatment process allows it to reach IEC
60480 [5] or even IEC 60376 [6] requirements.
Another choice is to proceed to SF6 destruction. There exist several processes to
destroy SF6; from discharge activation, like in the non-thermal plasma process [7],
to the decomposition at hot surfaces, to thermally activated SF6 reactions with
metals and metal oxides [8]. These processes transform SF6 in environmentally
compatible fluorides, sulphides and sulphates.
However, the most common is the destruction in high temperature dump com-
bustors (temperatures >1000 °C). Although this solution is economically favour-
able compared to reclaiming, it has several ecological drawbacks:
• The recycling loop is broken. There will be no reuse of the decomposed SF6
molecule. New, valuable resources will be pulled out of the earth, processed in
factories, shipped around the world, and then wasted in incinerators.
• Emissions: even the most technologically advanced incinerators release thou-
sands of pollutants that pose considerable risk to the health and environment of
neighbouring communities [9].
• Climate change: all incinerators emit carbon dioxide (CO2). According to the
U.S. EPA, “waste to energy” incinerators contribute far higher levels of
greenhouse gas emissions and overall energy throughout their lifecycles than
source reduction, reuse and recycling of the same materials [10].
• Energy: in order to reach high temperatures (combustion at 1000 °C and
post-combustion at 1200 °C), a considerable amount of energy will be needed.
The recommendation purely from an environmental point of view is to reclaim the
SF6 and close the SF6 life cycle loop.
Cylinders containing used SF6 should not be kept longer than 2 years before they
are checked and newly certified, in order to avoid any leakage. They must have an
orange or yellow strap around the bottleneck and should be properly labelled (check
with an SF6 gas recycler for the proper label codification). Once the cylinder is
emptied in order to recycle the SF6 gas, it should be cleaned inside and outside and
newly certified before using it again.
Cylinders leakage test should be performed frequently (frequency to be adapted
locally to the period of storage) to ensure leakage rates below 1 10−6 mbars.l/s
State of the Art Process of End-of-Life Treatment for SF6 … 169
during the whole period of storage (including during filling up of the drums at the
workshop).
SF6 cylinders are generally equipped with valves (DIN 477—Part 1: Type A, 1”
No. 8 [11]) and screw-in fittings, which are different from those used in containers
for new gas to prevent inadvertent filling and contamination of new SF6. The valves
are made of stainless steel to withstand corrosive decomposition products [12].
New generation “Zero Emission” coupling valves have been recently designed
to dramatically reduce SF6 loss during connections and disconnections. Thanks to
this new concept, the so-called “dead volume” loss is avoided (Fig. 4).
7 Conclusions
Modern tools, technologies and know-how are today available. This state of the art
end-of-life treatment for SF6 Medium Voltage equipment will increase the safety of
personnel while considerably limiting the environmental impact. All of the process
steps will contribute to it:
• Transportation: caution during handling and strapping of the equipment to avoid
tilting, dropping and damaging of equipment, and hence potential leaks.
• SF6 recovery: it is now economically possible to go beyond regulations and
standards to limit emissions. A recovery cabinet which reaches a vacuum
pressure of 0.1 kPa is the utmost technological standpoint. It is recommended to
perform the end-of-life treatment through the equipment manufacturer. The
operators handling the gas must hold a certification in Europe.
• Dismantling: the molecular sieve contains the most toxic substances. It must be
disposed of according to toxic wastes regulations.
• SF6 reclaiming or destruction: reclaiming enables up to 99% of the gas to be
reused in future applications. During destruction, although this is generally
economically more interesting, the ecological impact is higher since the recy-
cling loop is broken, leading to emissions of CO2 and pollutants.
• Storage of cylinders containing used SF6: regularly check the cylinders for leaks.
Avoid dead volume leaks thanks to “Zero Emission” coupling connections.
170 G. Zaccaro et al.
References
1. IPCC—Working Group I contribution to the IPCC fifth assessment report (AR5), Climate
change 2013: the physical science basis. Chapter 8: Anthropogenic and natural radiative
forcing—Final Draft Underlying Scientific Stockholm, 23–26 Sept 2013
2. Regulation (EU) No 517/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April
2014 on fluorinated greenhouse gases and repealing Regulation (EC) No 842/2006. Article 8
“Recovery”, §2
3. IEC 62271-4:2013. High-voltage switchgear and controlgear—Part 4: Handling procedures
for sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and its mixtures
4. Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2015/2066 of 17 Nov 2015
5. IEC 60480:2004. Guidelines for the checking and treatment of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) taken
from electrical equipment and specification for its re-use
6. IEC 60376:2005. Specification of technical grade sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) for use in
electrical equipment
7. Mok YS (2011) Destruction of fluorinated greenhouse gases by using nonthermal plasma
process
8. Gaseous dielectrics VIII, Vol 8 by Christophorou LG, Olthoff JK
9. Howard CV (2009) Statement of evidence, particulate emissions and health, Proposed
Ringaskiddy waste-to-energy facility
10. U.S. EPA. http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/air-emissions.html
11. DIN 477-1:2012. Gas cylinder valves for cylinder test pressures up to 300 bar—part 1: Valve
inlet and outlet connections
12. Solvay, The SF6-ReUse-Process: http://www.solvay.com/en/binaries/SF6-ReUse-Process-
254638.pdf
Validation of a New Eco-friendly
Insulating Gas for Medium and High
Voltage Equipment
Abstract This paper deals with the validation steps of alternative gases to SF6 for
high and medium voltage switchgear applications. It is focused on technical properties
of the potential candidates. SF6 is widely used for several decades in high and medium
voltage switchgear as insulating medium. Indeed, thanks to its excellent physical
properties, low toxicity and high stability, SF6 brought numerous advantages like
compactness, effectiveness, reliability, However, despite these very interesting
properties, this gas has a very high global warming potential (GWP = 22,800), and for
this reason, alternative candidates must be found to replace it. This paper proposes a
procedure to evaluate and validate potential candidates to replace it and gives an
overview of the main properties of the most interesting candidates.
Keywords SF6 alternative Insulating gas Electrical equipment Switchgear
GWP Validation Dielectric Environmentally friendly Toxicity
1 Introduction
SF6 gas is widely used pure in high and medium voltage applications thanks to its
exceptional physical properties including dielectric strength, stability, low toxicity
and so on, … However, because of its huge environmental impact, the use of SF6
gas will gradually decrease in the coming years. Indeed, the environment protection
is a point of attention for politicians, customers and high and medium voltage
equipment suppliers. Main manufacturers are strongly involved in this topic and
have published many papers [1–14]. However until today, the compromise between
performances, environment protection, size, toxicity and cost has not yet been
found and it clearly appears that it would be difficult to provide to users competitive
products without considering the validation of a new gas. This paper describes a
method to validate alternative gas to SF6.
Ideally the gas must be non toxic, non corrosive, non flammable nor explosive and
have a low GWP (Global Warming Potential) and a low ODP (Ozone Depletion
Potential). Additionally it must have a low boiling point to allow using it in suf-
ficient quantities at the minimal temperature of use.
Considering the expected properties listed above and in spite of the wide number
of chemicals available on the market, only a limited number of candidates have
properties suitable for their use in MV equipment (Table 1).
As a reminder, LC50 (50% lethal concentration) means that the concentration of
the chemical in air causes the death of 50% (one half) of a group of test animals
within a specified time.
3 Characteristics of G S
As SF6 has a very low boiling point (−64 °C), it can be used alone, except for HV
equipment with high pressure and very low operating temperature.
For medium voltage equipment the most common minimal temperature of use is
−15 °C. At this temperature, only CF3I, HFO1234zeE and HFO1234yf could be
used alone. The other candidates should be mixed with a buffer gas (CO2, N2, O2…)
in order to have a total pressure in the equipment always higher than atmospheric
pressure to easily detect potential leakage and avoid entry of polluted air.
The saturated vapor pressure as a function of temperature and the boiling point
of each gas of the gaseous mixture (in the case of mix) is an important parameter to
know. The Fig. 1 shows the evolution of the saturated temperature. The evolution
vapor pressure of C5F10O and HFO1234zeE as a function of the total pressure of
gas shall be defined on the range of temperatures (from the temperature of storage
up to the maximum temperature of gases in normal conditions). The condensation
temperature may also be relevant to know.
Once the mix is defined at ambient temperature, it is necessary to calculate the
global warming potential of the gas mixture taking into account the buffer gas. The
real impact on environment is given by the quantity of equivalent CO2 and depends
on the mass of gas inside the electrical equipment and its GWP (Table 2).
Fluoroketone C5F100, CF3I and HFO have a negligible CO2 equivalent impact
while fluoronitrile has an impact not so far from SF6 mixture with air. Indeed,
dielectric SF6 properties are not linear with % of air mixture, and then only 20% of
SF6 enables to reach 80% of dielectric property of pure SF6. This dielectric property
enables to reach dielectric performance on SF6 switchgear with slight modifications.
Fig. 1 Evolution of saturated vapor pressure some potential alternatives to SF6 as a function of
temperature
174
Table 2 Impact on the environment of the potential candidates to the replacement of pure SF6- for MV applications
Potential candidates SF6 (20%) + air C5F10O + air CF3I HFO1234zeE HFO1234yf CFO1233zd + air C4F7N + air
(80%)
Dielectric characteristics(BIL) in 0.8 SF6 0.85 SF6 1.2 SF6 1 SF6 1 SF6 0,9 SF6 1.2 SF6
direct line
GWP (Global Warming Potential) 12,910 0.6 0.4 6 4 4 1890
Eq tons CO2 (GIS: 250 L –1.3 bar 8.9 0.0005 0.0003 0.009 0.006 0.002 3.1
abs)
R. Maladen et al.
Validation of a New Eco-friendly Insulating Gas for Medium … 175
Then the candidate can be a gas used alone, used with a buffer gas or a mix of
different gases (for instance C5F10O + HFO1234zeE + dry air). In the latter case, it
is necessary to check if there is a reaction between these gases or not. This kind of
verification is especially of great significance when several fluorinated gases are
mixed together and then, when partial pressure at low temperature does not follow
the perfect gas law but another one such as the Raoult’s law [14] for instance. In
this case and depending on the selected molecules it is difficult to predict the partial
pressure of each component at low temperature as well as the insulating perfor-
mance of such mixture at the lowest temperatures. The Fig. 2 shows the evolution
of the saturated vapor pressure of a mix of 3 gases (C5F10O, HFO1234zeE, N2) as a
function of temperature.
In case of gas mixture, especially when the densities of the gases are different,
the homogeneity of the gases shall be checked. A proper way to check it consists to
fill a vertical pipe (for instance 2 m) at a given temperature from its bottom, in
starting by the less dense gases and continuing by the denser. The concentration of
the different gases is measured from both sides of the pipe. It can be considered that
the mixture is homogeneous when the different concentrations of gases measured
from the top and the bottom are identical.
The means to check the pressure of gas inside the tank (measured by pressure
sensor or densimeter) shall allow to detect any leakage for the whole temperature
range. The tank of switchgear and the safety features shall be designed taking into
account the pressure inside the tank on the whole range of temperatures, particularly
at the storage temperature, at the minimal operating temperature and at the maximal
temperature of gas.
The real concentration of the different components of the gas mixture is difficult
to calculate at the minimal operating temperature (Raoult’s law applies with pos-
sible liquefaction, adsorption of gases by molecular sieved and other materials like
silica,…) while these concentrations are necessary to determine the dielectric and
breaking capacities.
Dielectric tests at low temperatures are important because some candidates
showed a decrease of dielectric insulation properties at the lowest temperatures.
the configuration of electrical field and the kind of test (lightning impulse or
50 Hz), a dielectric withstand lower than SF6.
For instance, the mixture with C4F7N and dry air is, at −15 °C, better than SF6
in BIL test but it is the contrary at 50 Hz.
The mix HFO1234zeE + C5 K + air enables to reach a dielectric withstand
close to SF6 whatever the electrical field.
The insulating performance of a switchboard is not only driven by the insulating
distance in gas between two phases or between a phase and the earth but is also
sensitive along insulating material. This phenomenon is known as “flashover on
surface” (Fig. 4) and can, in some cases, be the weak point of the dielectric
withstand of switchgear.
Experiments done during the last years showed that the interaction between SF6
molecules and insulating polymers lead to a better behaviour than what was
observed with other candidates.
As this interaction is difficult to estimate, it represents an important input to take
into account during the selection of alternative gas to SF6.
The use of barriers (Fig. 5) is a common solution to increase the dielectric
withstand of a product without increasing its size. However, with some candidates,
it was observed that there were absolutely no benefits showing that the selection to
use this solution. This observation is an additional example of alternative gas to SF6
is not so obvious because numerous parameters shall be taken into account to
design compact switchgear.
Tests on apparatus:
Preliminary power frequency and lightning impulse tests are performed on
switchgear with SF6 as reference. In a second step, similar tests are made at the
Except for CF3I, temperature rise tests carried out on electrical equipment and
ageing tests conducted on materials did not show oxidation, corrosion and acid
attack by the gases.
The pure gas may react with the materials present in the electrical equipment. It may
be degraded itself and/or it may degrade the performance of the materials. The gas
mixture and materials were exposed at 2.5 bar and 115 °C (or 80 °C for elastomer)
during several weeks. Analyses of gas were done in order to determine whether or not
the gas mixture compatible. Tests (i.e.: tensile tests, mechanical impact, deformation
and the materials are under load, dielectric withstand in tracking, …) were performed
in parallel to check the potential degradation of the characteristics of materials.
It is interesting to perform several internal arc fault tests with different values of
current and duration because the by-products and their concentration, and as con-
sequence the toxicity, depend on the energy inside the switchboard.
180 R. Maladen et al.
For instance, 16 kA—(0.1 and 1 s) internal arc fault tests were performed on a
24 kV GIS filled with different gases. The gases after internal arc fault tests were
analyzed taking into account the humidity of air surrounding the electrical equip-
ment and used for toxicity studies.
This paper presents the candidates to replace SF6 as dielectric medium or dielectric
and quenching medium. In order to guarantee safety for operators during the total
life cycle of the apparatus (from manufacturing to the dismantling), in normal
conditions like in abnormal conditions (gas leakage, partial discharges and internal
arc fault), reliability and expecting life comparable to SF6 equipment, a program of
validation must be defined for the gas alone and for apparatus filled with this gas.
This validation does not concern only electrical performances but many other topics
such as corrosivity…toxicity, tightness, compatibility between materials and gas.
The ideal candidate is not yet found. Some mixtures of gases are not stable, others
generate very toxic by-products, are flammable or react very strongly with mate-
rials. The new gas should be a compromise between all these parameters which
shall be balanced with the GWP reduction.
References
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MATPOST, Lyon, France
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