Health Management

Home > Health > Health Management
The best fed and housed stock with the best genetic potential will not grow
and produce efficiently if they become diseased or infested with parasites.
Therefore good poultry health management is an important component of
poultry production. Infectious disease causing agents will spread through a
flock very quickly because of the high stocking densities of commercially
housed poultry.
For poultry health management to be effective a primary aim must be to
prevent the onset of disease or parasites, to recognise at an early stage
the presence of disease or parasites, and to treat all flocks that are
diseased or infested with parasites as soon as possible and before they
develop into a serious condition or spread to other flocks. To be able to do
this it is necessary to know how to recognise that the birds are diseased,
the action required for preventing or minimising disease and how to monitor
for signs that the prevention program is working.

Principles of health management

The key principles of poultry health management are:
1. Prevention of disease
2. Early recognition of disease
3. Early treatment of disease
As much as is possible disease should be prevented. It is easier and less
damaging to prevent disease than it is to treat it. However, it must not be
assumed that all disease can be prevented. Inevitably, some will get past
the defenses, in which case it becomes imperative that the condition be
recognised as early as possible to allow treatment or other appropriate
action to be implemented as soon as possible to bring the situation under
control to limit damage to the flock.

Disease
A disease is any condition that interferes with the normal functioning of the
cells, tissues, organs and the whole body systems. Diseases of poultry
have many causes and include:
1. Deficiencies of essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals or other
nutrients.
2. The consumption of toxic substances such as poisons.
3. Physical damage e.g. environmental extremes and injury.
4. Internal and external parasite infestations such as lice and worms.
5. Infectious disease caused by micro-organisms such as bacteria and
viruses.
Diseases that result from nutrient deficiencies, consumption of toxic
substances and physical damage are referred to as non-infectious
diseases. These diseases cannot be passed from bird to bird and members
of the flock must share a common experience for individuals to contract
these non-infectious diseases. In the widest sense, infectious diseases are
caused by microorganisms that include parasites, fungi, protozoa, bacteria,
mycoplasmas, chlamydia and viruses. These diseases are often also called
contagious diseases meaning that they can be passed from one bird to
another either directly or indirectly.
Direct transmission occurs when one diseased bird passes the cause of
the disease via direct contact to a susceptible healthy bird. Such passage
may be horizontal transmission (from one bird to another) or vertical
transmission (from parent to offspring) via the egg or sperm either inside
the egg or on the shell. Indirect transmission occurs when the causal
organism is passed from one bird to another via an intermediate host such
as insects, earthworms, snails or slugs, wild birds or animals or some other
object such as equipment, food or water, vehicles, people, respiratory
droplets, litter or faeces.

Causes of infectious disease

Organisms and microorganisms that have the potential to cause harm,
such as disease in animals, are called pathogens or disease vectors. There
are many different types of pathogens that may be transferred from one
bird to another or from one flock to another by many different means.
These pathogen types include:

 Viruses
 Bacteria
 Fungi
 Protozoa
 Internal parasites
 External parasites
Viruses
Viruses are the smallest pathogens and can only be seen through an
electron microscope. Viruses consist of an outer layer/s surrounding
special protein material similar to the genetic material of the cells they
invade. They can multiply and do harm only when inside the animal cell
and if they invade and damage enough cells, the animal can show signs of
that infection.
Antibiotics and other medications as a rule do not affect viruses and, as a
consequence, there are very few medications that can treat diseases
caused by viruses, although there are times when a drug may be used to
control secondary infections. The best way to manage diseases caused by
viruses is by quarantine and good hygiene to lower the challenge, and
vaccination to maximise the birds’ immunity to future challenges. Some
have the ability to survive for very long periods of time in the bird dander
and feather debris, litter and manure, insects and rodents.

Bacteria
Bacteria are single cell organisms with a nucleus and multiply by simple
fission, which means that one divides into two, and some can do this very
quickly inside the host or in a suitable environment. Some are very fragile
and do not survive long outside of the host while others may survive for
long periods even in a harsh environment. Many have the ability to turn into
spores by forming a very tough wall that protects them from most of the
materials used to kill them. These types of bacteria are much more
susceptible to these compounds when not in the spore form.
Bacteria may be described as being gram positive or gram negative. This
characteristic is to do with differences in their cell walls that affects their
staining for viewing under the microscope. Whether they are one or the
other also influences their response to certain chemicals, including
disinfectants.
Different types of bacteria harm the birds in two predominant ways:
1. Those that attack and damage the birds’ cells or spaces between the
cells.
2. Those that produce toxins or poisons that harm the birds.
There are several antibiotics and other drugs that are effective against
different bacteria. However, quarantine and good hygiene that lower the
numbers to be targeted by the drugs are the important first lines of defense
against these organisms.

Chlamydia
Chlamydia are a little larger than viruses. They live inside the cells they
infect particularly in the cells of the respiratory system. They can be treated
with antibiotics.

Mycoplasmas
These are single cell organisms slightly larger than chlamydia. They have a
cell wall and nucleus. The most commonly known disease caused by this
organism is Mycoplasmosis or Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD) caused
by Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Diseases caused by Mycoplasma organisms
respond to some antibiotics. These organisms do not survive long outside
of the host and good quarantine and hygiene procedures coupled with a
suitable house de-population period will provide good control.
Fungi
Fungi are organisms larger than bacteria and are considered to be
members of the plant kingdom. They multiply by forming spores that are
released and enter the local environment. When conditions are satisfactory
the spores start to grow to repeat the cycle.
Fungi harm the birds in two ways:
1. By being taken into the body e.g. in the respiratory system where they
start to grow.
2. By producing toxins or poisons e.g. in the food. When the birds consume
the contaminated food the toxin affects them. A good example of this type
of damage is aflatoxin produced by certain moulds or fungi that commonly
grow in peanut meal and some litter materials. Moulds or fungi are
resistant to nearly all antibiotics.
Protozoa
Protozoa are single cell organisms larger than bacteria. Protozoa have a
complex reproduction system that, in many cases, allows them to multiply
into extremely high numbers very quickly. A good example of protozoan
diseases is coccidiosis of poultry.
Protozoa generally harm the birds by destroying tissue. A number of
chemicals have been developed that can be used to treat birds infected by
the different protozoans. Others have been developed that interfere with
the protozoan life cycle and may be used as preventive treatments while
the birds develop a natural immunity. These preventive drugs are often
referred to as coccidiastats.

Internal parasites
Parasites are organisms that live off the host. Internal parasites in poultry
are multi-celled organisms that live inside the bird usually located in
specific organs. Most internal parasites, and particularly those found in
Australia, are visible to the naked eye.
While there are many different internal parasites found in poultry, only three
are likely to cause harm. These are:

 Large round worms

 Caecal worms
 Tape worms
External parasites
These parasites live outside of the bird. Some spend all of their life on the
bird while others spend only some time on the birds. Some cause harm by
irritating the bird while others are bloodsuckers that, in sufficient quantity,
will cause anaemia. Some of the bloodsuckers often carry organisms called
spirochaetes that they inject into the bird while feeding. The spirochaetes
may cause harm and tick fever is a good example that can kill many birds.
Prevention of disease
This aspect of poultry management must receive constant, close attention.
Failure to maintain a high standard will usually result in an unhealthy flock.
The basis of poultry health management is:
1. The isolation of the flock from disease causing organisms – quarantine.
2. The destruction of as many harmful organisms as possible – hygiene.
3. The use of an appropriate vaccination program – trigger the birds’
immune system.
4. The use of appropriate preventive medication programs – for diseases
for which there are no vaccines.
5. The use of a suitable monitoring program – to monitor for the presence of
disease organisms and the success or failure of the hygiene program or
the vaccination program.
Quarantine
The principle need is to maintain control over the means of entry by
disease causing organisms. These may enter by several routes:

 Poultry – introducing stock as day old chickens is considered to be the

lowest risk method of restocking a poultry farm. Older birds are more likely
to be diseased or at least carriers of disease, even if not showing signs.
 Wild birds/other animals – these often carry the causes of disease and are
likely to fly or move from one poultry farm to another if the farms are close
enough. The best way to prevent this is to ensure a suitable distance
between farms and a minimum of 5 km is recommended. A security fence
2 metres high and with a controlled entry gate should surround the poultry
farm and all sheds should be protected from entry by wild birds and all
other animals by secure wire netting.
 Wind – insects and dust carried on the wind from infected to clean farms
may also carry the causal organisms of infectious disease. The best way
to prevent this is to ensure a suitable distance between farms and a
minimum of 5 km is recommended. This distance is influenced by the
direction of the prevailing wind. Insects and dust travel further with the
wind than against it, and the presence or absence of barriers in the form
of hills and high vegetation that catch the dust or insects.
 People and vehicles – the most common visitors, including vehicles, are
very likely to be those that have had contact with other poultry whether
they be chicken delivery vehicles, feed delivery vehicles, service people
and their vehicles or neighbours in the same business. Entry should only
be given to essential visitors and people and vehicles should enter only
through a disinfectant wash facility and visitors through a shower/change
facility. Disinfectant footbaths and a change of footwear prior to entry to
each shed are also recommended. In some circumstances a shower and
change of clothing should be required prior to entry to all poultry house.
The organisation of staff around the farm is also of importance. Wherever
 possible, staff should be restricted to one location. However, in some
situations there is a need for staff to move from one shed to another. In
these cases the principle requirement is to do so in a way that carries the
least risk. This means that the normal practice is to move from youngest
to oldest flocks on the farm, leaving disease flocks, no matter their age till
last.
 Used equipment – no used equipment should be allowed entry to a poultry
farm. If it becomes necessary to allow such entry or to move equipment
from one house to another, it should be thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected prior to doing so.
 Food and water – when a diseased bird eats or drinks from a trough it will
leave behind contaminated food or water. While it is difficult to prevent this
within one pen, if possible, the choice of feeder and drinker may minimise
or slow down the transfer of disease from one bird to another. Under no
circumstances should open feeders and drinkers extend from one pen to
another. All drinkers and feeders should be kept clean even if they have to
be cleaned daily.
 Flies and rodents – in addition to the points raised in relation to distance
from other flocks to minimise the movement of insects and animals from
one farm to another, all fly and rodent populations should be controlled
because they can carry disease causing organisms and pass them on to
the stock.
Hygiene
The practice of good hygiene kills microorganisms, including those that
cause disease, and all farms carry populations of microorganisms.
Therefore, good hygiene practices are an important part of poultry health
management. There is an overlapping in the use of the terms quarantine
and hygiene.
Good hygiene practices include:

 The thorough cleaning of poultry houses and equipment after each flock
has been removed.
 The use of vehicle disinfection and wash facilities.
 The use of foot baths at the entry to each house.
 The provision of footwear at the entry to each shed.
 The use of clean litter material after washing the shed and not re-using
litter. Litter in the poultry house should be managed to maintain it in a dry
friable state without caking or being too wet.
 Removing all dead birds daily and disposing them in a recommended
manner.
 Maintaining all houses and ancillary buildings and surrounds in a clean
and tidy state.

Resisting disease
There are a number of factors that influence whether a bird will succumb to
a disease. These include:

 Genetic resistance of the birds: some genotypes are more resistant than

others to infection generally while there are those that are more resistant
or susceptible to specific diseases. For example, there are significant
differences between at least some genotypes in their resistance to
Marek’s Disease.
 State of well-being of the birds in the flock: birds that are well fed and
managed and kept in general good health will have a high level of well-
being. Such birds are more likely to fend off an infection than those that
have a low level of well-being. The immune system of unthrifty birds is
usually significantly weakened.
 Level of stress in the flock: stress in a poultry flock may be caused by
many situations including overcrowding, environment extremes, poor
quality food and nutritional deficiencies, harassment and failure by shed
staff to react in a timely manner to changing situations in the house.
Stress reduces the ability of the bird to fight infection by weakening the
immune system.
 The challenge or numbers of infectious organisms in the bird’s
environment: the greater the number or virulence (strength) of the micro-
organisms the more likely they are to defeat the birds’ defence and result
in a disease. Quarantine and hygiene are the main ways that the number
of potentially harmful micro-organisms are kept as low as possible.
 The level of immunity the birds have: this determines how well the bird
can fight invasion by specific infectious organisms. Whether a bird will
succumb to an infectious disease depends on the relationship between
the number of infectious organisms in the environment and the level of
immunity in the bird. The function of the immune system is to defend the
bird against invasion by specific infectious organisms.
Many disease outbreaks only occur because there are predisposing
circumstances that ensure the success of the invasion by the causal
organisms. Stress in the flock is a major factor in this regard. A high level of
stress reduces the bird’s ability to fight the invasion by disease causing
organisms. Stress, in this regard, may be environment extremes,
overcrowding, nutrient deficiencies (even marginal deficiencies), infection,
harassment or any other factor with the potential to stress the bird.
In some situations, a primary infection may reduce the ability of the bird to
fight invasion by other organisms called secondary invaders or subsequent
invaders. In many cases the bird is able to live without harm with the
secondary invaders until such time their defences are lowered by the
primary infection. It is in this situation that the secondary invaders cause
serious harm.
A good example of this situation is the disease, collibacillosis.
Collibacillosis is caused by a bacteria called Escherichia coli which is
endemic in the environment and, provided normal standards of hygiene are
practised and the bird is well nourished and managed, causes no real
harm. However, quite often, an invasion by the organism Mycoplasma
gallisepticum opens the way for the E. coli bacteria to become virulent, or
for more virulent strains to gain entry resulting in the disease collibacillosis.

Disease severity
From the point of view of flock health management, disease in poultry may
be one of two levels of severity:

 Sub-clinical: a sub-clinical disease is one where the signs are not obvious.
The birds do not appear to be sick but the infection causes slower growth
and/or lower egg production. Sub-clinical disease may predispose to
secondary invasion by other organisms. The only evidence that the birds
are infected is the lower production efficiency found on an analysis of
performance. In many cases this is not found until much of the financial
damage has been done.
 Clinical: a clinical disease is one where the signs that the birds are sick
are more obvious. They show the clinical signs typical of the disease with
which they are infected. Clinical disease not only affects the performance
of the flock but, in many cases, a number of the birds die or never recover
to their previous performance level and remain unthrifty.
In each case, affected birds and in many cases recovered birds, are
carriers that may be a source of infection for other stock with which they
have contact and may transfer the causal organism either directly or
indirectly to other stock not involved in this particular outbreak.

Vaccination
Vaccination is aimed at triggering the birds immune system to produce
antibodies to fight infection. While not all diseases can be vaccinated
against, all potential infectious disease threats should be identified and a
suitable vaccination program developed to help combat those that can.
Veterinary advice may be necessary to design a suitable vaccination
program for each farm.
The keys to effective vaccination are:

 The potency of the vaccine used and/or its suitability for the disease strain
to be controlled.
 The handling and storage procedures for the vaccine during travel and on
the farm.
 The use of the recommended application techniques.
 The adherence to the recommended program.

Preventative medication
Vaccines are not available to combat all disease threats. It may be
necessary to use a preventive medication to combat infection by some
organisms. Veterinary advice may be necessary to determine an
appropriate preventive medication program.

Monitoring program
It is not possible to see most infectious agents. Therefore, it is appropriate
to have a monitoring program. This may consist of:
1. Daily checks of the flock.
2. Regular on-farm and laboratory autopsies.
3. Blood sampling for laboratory analysis.
4. Exposing plates and taking swabs for laboratory analysis.
These techniques can be used to monitor the current disease situation
including the presence of parasites, the success or failure of cleaning
procedures and the success or failure of vaccinating procedures.

Recognising healthy and sick birds

A very important skill for all poultry stock persons to have is the ability to
differentiate between healthy and sick birds. It is normal when a flock is
diseased to find healthy birds and those with varying degrees of illness.
Therefore, it is necessary to be able to tell as early as possible when some
of the birds in the pen are sick.
While the manager may be able to identify some diseases from available
evidence, it is unlikely that they will be able to identify all. However, the
sooner a disease is noticed in the flock, the sooner appropriate action can
be taken. This may include initiation of a medication program, send
specimens to the laboratory for examination and diagnosis, and/or to call in
expert advice. Early action not only gives the manager a chance to cure the
condition but it may help prevent it spreading to other stock.
A healthy bird will:
1. Be active and alert.
2. Be normal size/weight for the strain, age and sex.
3. Have no lameness or paralysis.
4. Have no injuries.
5. Have no deformities.
6. Have no discharges from the nostrils or eyes.
7. Have no stained feathers around the vent.
8. Have no swellings.
9. Generally have good plumage related to the whether in a moult or in lay.
A sick bird will show some or all of the following signs:
  Isolation – sick animals usually seek a quiet place out of the way of
others.
 Hunched stance – sick birds often have a hunched stance with ruffled
feathers and eyes partially closed.
 Diarrhea – usually evidenced by stained feathers in the vent region.
 Paralysis – of the leg(s), wing(s) or neck.
 Sneezing and/or coughing; there may be nasal discharge.
 Blood in the faeces.
 Swellings – of the joints.
 Injuries.
 Loss of weight – this may be pronounced if the condition is a chronic one
e.g. Marek’s Disease.
 Unexpected changes to the food and water consumption – often the first
signs of illness.
 Slower growth or a drop in egg production.
It is normal to find a continuous low level of mortality and a small number of
unthrifty birds in the poultry flock. Even though this does occur, attempts
should be made to reduce even this “normal” mortality. Normal levels will
be in the vicinity of 4% to 40 days for meat chickens, less than 5% to point
of lay for layer and breeder replacements and less than 1% per 28 days for
layers and breeders.
Beak trimming is the removal of part of the top and bottom beak of a bird. It is also
called “debeaking”, although this term is inaccurate as only part of the beak is
removed. It is an animal husbandry practice commonly carried out in the poultry
industry. Farm managers have their flocks beak-trimmed to blunt the beaks enough
to prevent the occurrence of damaging pecking. Re-trimming may also be carried
out if a bird’s beak grows back enough to cause pecking damage. Birds are often re-
trimmed at 8–12 weeks of age to avoid this happening. Some non-trimmed adult
birds may need trimming if a pecking outbreak occurs.
Why is beak trimming done?

Bird seriously injured through pecking

Beak trimming is performed early in the life of commercial hens to decrease injuries
caused by cannibalism, bullying, and feather and vent pecking. Birds naturally peck
at the environment and each other to investigate and work out where they fit into the
flock (pecking order). This behaviour can become a problem in commercial
situations and many deaths have been recorded among untrimmed hens. Feather
pecking and cannibalism affects all birds in all production systems. When laying
birds are kept in systems that give the opportunity for aggressive birds to contact
many other birds, cannibalism and feather pecking can spread rapidly through the
flock and result in injuries and mortality. Mortality of up to 25–30% of the flock can
occur and cause huge mortality and morbidity problems as well as financial losses to
the farmer.

When is beak trimming done?

Infrared beak trimming machine (photo courtesy of Peter Bell)

Beak trimming is carried out at various ages depending on the preference of the
farm manager. The most common ages for birds to be beak-trimmed are:
 Day-old (most common)
 5–10 days old
 4–6 weeks
 8–12 weeks
 Touch up trim of adult birds (mainly in alternative systems)

Hot blade beak trimmer

Who does beak trimming?
Hot blade beak trimming is performed by contract teams, individual farmers and
some large poultry companies. The majority of birds are trimmed by contract teams.
Birds must be beak-trimmed by an accredited beak-trimmer to ensure that nationally
agreed standards are maintained and the welfare of the birds is not compromised.
The infrared treatment machine is installed by the supplier and leased by hatcheries.
It is monitored and controlled by the supplier via a communication system and on-
site computer.

How is beak trimming done?

An infrared beak trimming method, using a non-contact, high intensity, infrared
energy source to treat the beak tissue, is the most common method now in use.
Initially the beak surface remains intact but after a few weeks the sharp hook of the
beak erodes. Experiments have also been conducted using lasers for beak trimming,
however this technology is not used for beak trimming on farms. A hot blade beak
trimming machine, with an electrically heated blade, is another method that has been
commonly used in the past, now being surpassed by infrared.
Hot blade beak trimming versus infrared beak
treatment
Hot blade beak trimming Infrared b
Advantages Disadvantage Advantages
Beak trimmers move from farm to
farm-potential biosecurity issues Equipment located in clean
with personal hygiene and hatchery. Staff maintain high
Biosecurity equipment cleanliness. levels of biosecurity.
Bird Birds can be stressed from catching
catching and restraint on farm.
Different set up for
equipment when beak
Equipment trimming different ages  of Settings adjusted easily using
set up bird, shed type or location. Equipment located in hatchery. key pad on processor
Physical damage to the birds while
being handled for beak-trimming. A predetermined amount of Re
Exposed cauterised wound. beak tissue is exposed to a car
Experienced operators can Potential for bleeding from beak. defined amount of infrared ene
judge amount of beak to Excessive beak trimming can  energy. The exposed tissues imp
remove. Accurate beak impair beak function. Insufficient remains intact and there are trea
trimming minimises beak trimming results in beak no open wounds or blood the
Trimming problems later in bird’s life. regrowth. loss. in t
Birds can be re-trimmed at Re
Retrimming any age with the hot blade. hot
Quality assurance checks
on beaks have been
documented in an
accreditation program
Quality of referred to in Australian Qu
beak Code of practice for In-house quality assurance inc
trimming Domestic Poultry. program developed. for
 Records kept on beak Records kept on beak
trimming quality and bird trimming quality and bird
Records performance. performance.
Beak trimmers and
farmers evaluate In house records of beak
performance of birds after treatment and bird
Evaluation trimming. performance.
Open wound, re-trimming commonly practiced to control No open wounds; more reliable tr
Summary pecking. beaks regrow re-trimming require

Alternatives to beak trimming

Beak trimming has been banned in some European countries and others are
working towards banning the practice, following an EU welfare directive on the issue.
In some production schemes, for example, ‘Freedom Food Eggs’ (UK), infrared beak
treatment is permitted but not hot blade trimming. Even before the EU directive was
released, research was being undertaken to identify practical, effective and
affordable alternatives to beak trimming. Selective breeding strategies are
underway to produce strains that are not cannibalistic. In addition, a number of
nutritional, management and environmental strategies are being promoted as an
alternative to beak trimming. The alternatives have some potential to be effective in
various management situations, but there is no guarantee that cannibalism and
feather pecking will be prevented.
Genetic Selection
There are large differences in feather pecking and mortality in strains indicating the
potential for developing commercial strains that require less severe beak-trimming or
no trimming at all. Selection for low mortality reduces propensity of birds to develop
feather pecking and cannibalism. Molecular technology has the potential for
improving welfare by manipulating genes involved in the control of pecking
behaviour.

Light control
Chickens have colour vision and different colours and light levels affect chicken
behaviour. Green and blue light improves growth and lowers age at sexual maturity,
while red, orange and yellow light increases age at sexual maturity and red and
orange light increase egg production. Birds are calmer in blue light. For many years
it was practice to brood and rear chickens under red light to prevent cannibalism,
based on the concept that red light makes it difficult for a potentially cannibalistic bird
to see red blood vessels and blood on other birds. Currently, the most useful method
to prevent feather pecking and cannibalism is to house birds under very dim white
light. The birds cannot see each other well which is thought to reduce aggressive
behaviour among them. This requires light proof shedding, however low light levels
can cause eye abnormalities.
Use of devices to restricting vision and beak use
The use of spectacles (fitted to the nares of birds) controls feather pecking. It only
allows birds to look to the side or down but not directly ahead. Spectacles can only
be put on birds of pullet size or larger, cannot be used in cages and are easily
dislodged. Red contact lenses have been used for layers as an alternative to beak-
trimming. They cause eye irritation, eye infections, and abnormal behaviour and are
not retained well. Bitting devices have been developed for use in game birds, which
are held in place by lugs inserted in the nares. The use of fitted devices as a
preventative measure against feather pecking is not permitted in many countries.

Environmental enrichment
Environmental enrichment aims to increase desirable behaviours, reduce harmful
ones, sustain the birds’ long-term interest, and enable them to cope with challenges.
Enrichment involves increasing environmental complexity to encourage birds to
interact with their environment.

Practical enrichment devices to minimise feather pecking

A wide range of objects have been fitted to cages to enrich the environment for
poultry. The ‘Agrotoy’ (blue plastic frame with red and blue moving parts) reduces
aggression and mortality in caged layers. Likewise a small silver bell was found to
attract pecking. Cereal based ‘Peckablock’ also reduced the amount of aggressive
behaviour. Adult laying hens will peck at bunches of plain white propylene string,
which reduces both gentle and severe feather pecking.

Enriched rearing facility

Less feather pecking in layers is seen if farmers do their own rearing, provide
sufficient perch space, adequate drinkers and provide high quality litter. Stimulating
use of the range Infrequent and uneven use of the hen run is one of the main
problems in all free range systems for laying hens. Birds do not feel safe in an open
unroofed run area. When the range has cover, trees or hedges, birds are more
evenly distributed and risk of feather pecking is reduced.

Using shade with free range flock

Use of anti-pick compounds
Applying anti-pick compounds (commercial anti-pick, pine tar or axle grease) to
wounded areas reduces pecking. Likewise treating the everted vent of hens suffering
vent trauma with a stock wound spray can prevent other birds pecking at the vent.
Incidence of vent trauma can be reduced by raising flocks of birds with an even body
weight. A range of predator scents and other agents are being considered for use as
repellents against predators and may have application to prevent feather pecking in
layers.

Nutrition
The main strategy to prevent feather pecking is to provide an adequate substrate.
Substrate conditions during the rearing period affect the development of feather
pecking. Use of scratch grain is recommended. During the rearing period, placing
semi-solid milk blocks in the house, hanging green leafy vegetables and spreading
grass clippings can prevent feather pecking. An adequate amount of insoluble fibre
in the layer diet is important for minimising the outbreak of cannibalism in chickens.
Millrun, oat hulls, rice hulls and lucerne meal are effective sources of fibre. The
physical properties of the fibre modulate the function of the gizzard making the birds
calmer. Providing adequate calcium, manganese, arginine, zinc, protein, sulphur
amino acids (methionine and cysteine), trytophan, B group vitamins, thiamine and
dietary electrolytes minimises pecking mortality.

Beak abrasives
Abrasive materials applied to the feed trough may enable the bird to blunt the
hooked end of the beak while feeding and reduce the effectiveness of pecking. The
beak blunting technique can be applied to growing pullets and during the laying
period. Utilising the blunting procedure early in the rearing period may prevent the
formation of the hooked end of the beak.

Summary
When birds are not beak trimmed, increased incidences of mortality and morbidity
will occur due to cannibalism. Welfare problems associated with cannibalism can be
devastating. When performed correctly to industry standards, beak trimming has
advantages. These include reduced:
 Feather pecking
 Mortality
 Vent pecking and prolapse
 Bullying
 Stress on the bird
When beak trimming is not done correctly, birds can suffer from:
1. Reduced ability to eat and drink
2. Short and long term stress
3. Reduced social status
There are production techniques which may reduce the need for beak trimming,
although none of these can guarantee against an outbreak of damaging pecking and
cannibalism. These techniques include:
 Light control
 Devices to restrict vision
 Devices to restrict beak use
 Environmental enrichment
 Anti-pick compounds
 Nutritional amendments
 Beak abrasives

Beak trimming handbook

The Beak Trimming Handbook for Egg Producers: Best Practice for Minimising
Cannibalism in Poultry has been published through CSIRO Publishing (Spiral Bound
– ISBN: 0643092560 – AU $39.95). The Beak Trimming Handbook comprises eight
chapters which highlight pecking problems and cannibalism, beak trimming methods,
training and Codes of Practice, welfare issues and industry views on beak trimming.
There are 2-3 bulleted points at the start of each chapter to advise the reader what it
is about, with a list of management checks provided at the end of each chapter. Brief
supporting information to back up the management checks is given in the body of
each chapter.

Biosecurity & disease prevention

Home > Health > Health Management > Biosecurity & disease prevention
Biosecurity practices and farm hygiene are implemented on poultry farms
to reduce the risk of disease agents moving on to farms from outside
sources (eg wild bird populations or from other farms), the movement of
disease agents between sheds on the same farm, carry over of disease
agents from one batch to the next in the shed environment, and carry over
of disease agents from breeding flocks to their progeny via the egg.
Farmers take a range of precautions to prevent entry of diseases onto
broiler farms.

Australian National Farm Biosecurity Manual: Poultry

Production
The purpose of the manual is to establish a minimum set of biosecurity
standards, applicable to all poultry producers (including ratites). While the
manual was produced with commercial producers in mind, the principles of
good biosecurity apply to any poultry or bird-raising operation. Individual
producers and companies may wish to develop enhanced biosecurity
manuals, which should nevertheless incorporate these minimum standards
in addition to any specific company or industry sector requirements…Click
here to view

Biosecurity for Backyard Poultry Production

The increasing popularity of backyard poultry production as either a hobby
or a means of alleviating poverty in lesser developed countries has recently
received increasing interest. Village and backyard poultry production has
become an essential aspect of daily survival in countries such as South
Africa (see: David Farrell’s A Simple Guide to Managing Village Poultry in
South Africa) and the Pacific Islands (see: Sustainable Village Chicken
Keeping for Pacific Island Communities). For this reason, biosecurity is of
utmost importance in protecting flocks from deadly diseases and by
safeguarding valuable economic investments and community development.
Depending on the circumstances, if live birds (chicks) are purchased it is
essential that birds of different species or age are never mixed, due to the
varying immune abilities of different breeds and ages (deGraft Hanson,
2002). What one bird/breed may be immune to may be deadly to another.
Housing cleanliness and hygiene is essential in curbing disease spread.
Litter must be kept clean and dry at all times, wet or dirty litter can
contribute to pathogen development which can result in such diseases as
“breast blisters and foot pad dermatitis” (deGraft Hanson, 2002).
By following strict routine and biosecurity practices (see above) including
maintaining basic record sheets (eggs-laid, mortality, feed-consumed) the
backyard/village producer will also be able to observe when a disease
agent may have penetrated the flock. As implementing biosecurity is the
most cost effective disease prevention means available, by following these
three simple rules: “Isolation, Traffic Control & Sanitation” (Jeffrey), the
producer should effectively be able to minimise any preventable disease
outbreaks. It is also important never to share tools or equipment or accept
birds from neighbours (deGraft-Hanson). By effectively separating birds in
an enclosure, the likelihood of them coming into contact with pathogen
carrying animals or these animals accessing the flock can significantly be
reduced. Though wild-birds present a direct threat to biosecurity, it is
essential to ensure that household pets do not come into contact with the
flock. It is also necessary that the producer remember to disinfect their
hands/clothing and shoes after being in direct contact with other livestock
and family pets (deGraft-Hansona). Sanitation is highly important to
successful disease control. Choosing an effective sanitation product to curb
disease development depends on the producers individual circumstances
(such as cost, transport & degree of operation). Sanitation (disinfectant)
products can be broken up into:
 Phenols
 Hypochlorites (chlorine)
 Iodophors (iodine)
 Quaternary ammonium
 Formaldehyde gas
 Formaldehyde powder
 Alkali (lye)
 Chlorhexidine (Nolvasan)
(Jeffrey)
In choosing a sanitation product it is important to consider what type of
surface each is best suited for. Phenol is an effective agent in controlling
disease growth in organic environments, or in other words “dirty
environments”, whereas Hypochlorites and Iodophors are better suited to
sanitise processing areas such as benches, walls & foot-baths (Jeffrey). It
is recommended that the producer seek professional advice on which
sanitiser is best suited for their production needs.
An effective pest-control program is important to guarantee the success of
backyard and village poultry biosecurity. As rodents, in particular rats &
mice, are attracted to poultry feed combined with their ability to enter even
the most well fenced off areas, baiting is as important to biosecurity as is
good sanitisation (deGraft-Hansona).
Early detection and effectively being able to identify contagious disease
outbreaks is very important in implementing harm minimisation action.
Though biosecurity measures might appear to be functioning soundly, the
imminent risk of disease outbreak does not diminish. IMMEDIATE action to
further prevent the disease from spreading MUST be taken (including
quarantining visibly affected birds and contacting a Veterinarian or poultry
expert) should the flock at any time demonstrate any of the following
symptoms:
 Lack of energy and appetite
 Decreased egg production
 Soft-shelled eggs or misshapen eggs
 Swelling of the head, eyes, comb, wattles and hocks
 Purple discoloration of the wattles, combs and legs
 Nasal discharge
 Coughing, wheezing and sneezing
 Lack of coordination in mobility
 Diarrhea
 Sudden or excessive mortality without clinical signs
(Cunningham & Fairchild, 2009)
  Need a quick disease diagnosis?  Cost-effective rapid tests for a
range of poultry diseases are now available from the Asia Pacific Centre
for Animal Health.

Quarantine sign at entrance to poultry farm (Source: ACMF)

Risk from human movement

As people are considered to be one of the biggest risks insofar as carrying
poultry diseases onto chicken farms, particularly on their footwear, clothing,
hands and even vehicles, growers take a number of measures to minimise
the risks they pose. These may include:
1. Signage and gates at access points to the farm to discourage / prevent
unauthorised entry to the farm
2. Visitors and service providers to the farm must wear overalls and boots
provided by the farmer;
3. Provision of foot washing baths at the entrance of each shed for
disinfection of footwear prior to shed entry
4. Vehicle movements onto the farm are minimised, and vehicles or
equipment that may have visited another farm may be required to be
washed down before entry
5. Where people or vehicles must move between farms on the same day
without a thorough disinfection between farm visits, movements are
scheduled such that the youngest flocks are visited first and the oldest
last.
As wild birds can carry some diseases onto the farm, a number of
measures are taken to minimise the possibility of wild birds (or their
droppings) coming in contact with the chicken flock. These measures
include:

 wire netting the sheds so that they are bird proof;

 farmers (and their employees) are not allowed to keep any birds as pets;
 wild birds are discouraged from visiting the farm site, by ensuring that
there is no spilled feed left lying around and, where practical, no dams that
attract water birds;
 where the water that supplies the shed could be contaminated by wild
birds eg dam or river water, it must be sanitised.
Disease prevention
Farmers have a documented pest control program to reduce the risk of
diseases being carried on to the farm by rodents. Strict records are kept by
the farmer of the chickens’ health, growth and behaviour, so that any
emerging disease problem is rapidly identified and acted upon.
Disease prevention is an essential strategy for poultry producers. It is much
more beneficial to the birds and to the commercial poultry producer to
prevent disease from occurring rather than to rely on treatment. The agents
which sound biosecurity practices attempt to prevent include “bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, fungi, parasites, and any other agents capable of
introducing an infectious disease into a poultry flock” (deGraft-Hanson a).

Breeding stock (Source: Aust. Chicken Meat Fed.)

General husbandry
Healthy, unstressed birds have an active metabolism and effective immune
system to protect them against disease. Feeding birds appropriately with a
nutritionally balanced diet, maintaining a comfortable living environment
and minimising fear and anxiety in the birds will help the bird’s natural
protective mechanisms to function optimally.

Stock selection
Different genetic lines of poultry may vary in their ability to resist or recover
from some diseases. The choice of genetic lines resistant to disease
problems that have been known to occur in a particular poultry operation
can substantially reduce the costs of disease and other disease prevention
techniques.

Vaccination
Vaccines aid in preventing disease by stimulating the bird’s immune
system in such a way that it enhances the immune response when the bird
is subsequently exposed to a pathogen (or disease-causing organism).
Classically, vaccines have either contained a small live dose of a weak
form of the pathogen or a larger dose of a killed preparation of the disease-
causing organism. The weak forms of pathogens used in live vaccines can
either be naturally occurring or can be developed in a laboratory. If they
have been developed they are called attenuated vaccines. Live vaccines
tend to give longer immunity than killed vaccines because the live organism
can colonise and survive in the host for some time and stimulate a longer
and more effective immune response. New technologies are leading to
improved methods of developing vaccines. These include more efficient
methods for identifying the ways organisms cause disease and stimulate
an immune response in the host, as well as highly specific and effective
attenuation procedures.

Biological Risk Management

Vaccination
Home > Health > Health Management > Vaccination
Vaccination plays an important part in the health management of the
poultry flock. There are numerous diseases that are prevented by
vaccinating the birds against them. A vaccine helps to prevent a particular
disease by triggering or boosting the bird’s immune system to produce
antibodies that in turn fight the invading causal organisms.
A natural invasion that actually causes the disease will have the same
result as the bird will produce antibodies that fights the current invasion as
well as to prevent future invasions by the same causal
organisms. Unfortunately birds that become diseased usually become
unthrifty, non-productive or even die. An infection caused by natural
invasion will be uncontrolled and therefore has the possibility of causing
severe damage, however vaccination provides a way of controlling the
result with minimal harm to the birds.
Vaccines are generally fragile products, some of which are live but in a
state of suspended animation. Others are dead. All have a finite life that is
governed by the way they are handled and used. Handling and
administration procedures also influence the potency of many vaccines and
consequently the level of immunity the bird develops.

Scientists are developing a vaccine for avian influenza (Birds showing symptoms) Source: CSIRO

Types of vaccine
Live vaccine – the active part of the vaccine is the live organism that
causes the disease. As such, it is capable of inducing the disease in birds
that have not had previous contact that organism. Vaccinated birds, in
many cases are able to infect non-vaccinated birds if housed together.
Attenuated vaccine – with this type of vaccine the organism has been
weakened by special procedures during manufacture so that it has lost its
ability to cause the serious form of the disease. At worst, the birds may
contract a very mild form of the disease, however, the vaccine still has the
ability to trigger the immune system to produce antibodies.
Killed vaccine – with this type of vaccine the organism has been killed and
is unable to cause the disease, although the ability to trigger the immune
system remains. In many cases, the level of immunity produced by this
form of vaccine is weaker than that produced by live and attenuated
vaccines.

Vaccine production
Vaccines are produced mainly in three forms:
1. Liquid vaccine – it is in fluid form ready to use.
2. Freeze dried vaccine – the vaccine is stored as one pack of freeze dried
material and one pack of diluent, often a sterile saline solution. These
have to be combined before use.
3. Dust – where the vaccine is prepared for administration in the dry form.
Vaccines are sold in dose lots, the number of doses being the number of
fowls that may be vaccinated with that amount of vaccine when using the
recommended technique. In the case of many vaccines there are
differences in the disease organism strains that they are effective against.
It is important that the correct vaccine strain be used and this can only be
determined by veterinary advice.

Handling vaccines on the farm

Vaccines are fragile in many respects and require very careful handling to
ensure they retain their potency. Poor handling procedures will, in most
cases, result in a rapid decline of potency.
The important handling requirements on the farm are:
On receipt of the vaccine on the farm, check and record:
1. That the vaccine has been transported in the recommended manner
which is usually in the chilled or frozen state. Prolonged exposure to
atmospheric temperature will result in rapid loss of potency.
2. Type of vaccine – is it the vaccine ordered.
3. The number of doses – has the correct amount been delivered.
4. The expiry date of the vaccine – vaccines have a date by when there is a
significant risk that they will no longer retain their potency and will not
produce the immunity required. The expiry date is based on the vaccine
being handled and stored in the recommended manner.
 As soon as possible place the vaccine into recommended storage
conditions. Read the instructions to find out what these are. However,
freeze dried material should be kept at a temperature below freezing and
its diluent at a temperature just above freezing. Liquid vaccines are
generally kept at temperatures just above freezing.
 Remove the vaccines from storage immediately prior to their being used.
Only remove and re-constitute enough for immediate needs and repeat
this through the day if more is required. Do NOT mix what is required for
an entire day at the start of the day and leave it stand until required, as the
vaccine will rapidly lose it efficacy.
 Protect the vaccines after mixing by holding them in an ice bath. Place ice
in a small esky or similar container and place the container of mixed
vaccine in the ice. Some vaccines have a very short life once mixed. For
example, Marek’s Disease has a life of about 1.5 hours after mixing IF
HELD IN AN ICE BATH. It is much shorter if held in higher temperatures.
 Use the recommended administration techniques and do not vary these
without veterinary advice.
 Always clean and sterilise the vaccinating equipment thoroughly after use.
 Always destroy unused mixed vaccines after the task has been
completed. Some vaccines have the potential to cause harm if not
destroyed properly.
 Do not vaccinate birds that are showing signs of disease or stress.

Vaccination procedures
There are a number of ways that vaccines may be administered to poultry
and it is very important that the correct method be used for each vaccine.
To use the wrong method will often result in failure of the vaccine to
produce the desired immunity. Some of the methods require the operator to
handle every bird and, consequently are time consuming and stressful to
the birds and operator. Other methods involve administration by methods
much less stressful and time consuming. These methods include
administration via the drinking water or as an aerosol spray. The different
ways that the vaccines may be administered to poultry are below.

In-ovo vaccination
Using the method of in-ovo vaccination, the vaccine is administered into
the embryo before hatch.
In general, vaccines can be applied to five different areas of the egg: the air
cell, the allantoic sac, the amniotic fluid, the body of embryo and the yolk
sac. Vaccine uptake and therefore the immune response of the chicken
depend largely on the area of injection. While injection in the air cell has
been shown to be minor/not effective, injection in the body of the embryo or
the allantoic sac is effective. Therefore, the optimum period to inject the
embryo is in the late stage of development, i.e. the time between the
ascendance of the stalk of the yolk sac into the abdomen (about the time
when the chicken tucks its head under its wings) and external pipping.
During that late stage of development, the embryo is mature enough to
cope with the viral stimulus and the trauma induced by the penetrating
needle is unlikely to cause severe tissue damage. Signs of too early
vaccination include reduced hatchability, late death and increased number
of culled birds. However, if vaccination is done too late in embryonation,
the risk of egg shell breakage is significantly higher. Therefore, in
ovo vaccination is commonly performed between days 18-19 of incubation.
The system of a larger outer needle (penetrating the egg shell) that
contains an inner needle (penetrating the embryo) enables for strong but
careful penetration of the egg and minimizes trauma to the embryo. In
addition, the use of two needles reduces the likelihood of transferring
contaminants on the outer egg shell into the sterile embryo. The needle for
punching the egg shell should not penetrate the embryonic cavity (the inner
shell membrane, the chorio-allantoic membrane or air cell membrane).
While the penetration of the outer egg shell increased the relative pore
volume about 30%, the risk for increased gas exchange of the embryo
occurs.
Hygiene management including reduced air circulation, well maintained air
filters, adjustment to weather conditionsand well maintained hatchery
insulation has to be taken into account when performing in ovo inoculation.
Only strict management of these environmental factors can reduce the
likelihood of infections of the egg, especially with aspergillosis or other air-
borne pathogens. Continuous training of reliable staff is of highest priority
to prevent reduced hatchability and to maintain high hygienic standards. A
sterile environment and the usage of chlorine based sanitizers are crucial.
The storage and preparation of the vaccine in a separate biosecure area as
well as strict precautions in using sterile devices such as containers and
water should be implemented. While the cost of machine acquisition is
high, the investment can pay back by its advantages.
The advantage of commencing immunity development before hatch can
prevent young chicks from early infection after hatch. Since high tech
machines are used for in ovo injection, the volume and concentration of the
vaccine to be administered are highly standardised, reducing human error
and labour cost when compared to vaccination of chickens later in life.
Furthermore, vaccination of every single chicken can be ensured resulting
in better uniformity of the flock. Coming with this is improved animal welfare
due to less handling of birds later in life.
Currently Marek’s disease, Newcastle disease, infectious laryngotracheitis
and infectious bursal disease vaccines are routinely administered using in
ovo vaccination in various countries. In ovo vaccination does not interfere
with maternal antibodies that may still present in the embryo. In fact, it
increases the level of immunity and as a consequence one injection is
sufficient to offer life-long protection against the target disease.
Intramuscular injection
This method involves the use of a hypodermic needle or similar equipment
to introduce the vaccine into the muscle (usually the breast muscle) of the
bird. The task is sped up greatly by the use of an automatic syringe which
makes the technique relatively easy and doesn’t harm the bird. Care must
be taken to ensure that the correct dose is administered to each chicken
and the equipment should be checked regularly to ensure this.
Care must be taken to ensure that the needle does not pass through into a
key organ and that other unwanted organisms are not administered to the
bird at the same time by contaminated vaccine or equipment.
Contamination can be prevented by good hygiene and vaccine handling
procedures.

Subcutaneous injection
This method involves the use of similar equipment to that used for the
intramuscular technique. The main difference between the two techniques
is that, in this case, the vaccine is injected under the skin, usually at the
back of the neck, and not into the muscle. Care must be taken to ensure
that the vaccine is injected into the bird and not just into the feathers or fluff
in the case of very young chickens. The dose being administered should be
checked for accuracy frequently. Maintain good hygiene practices to limit
introducing contaminating organisms during the procedure.

Ocular
This method involves the vaccine being put into one of the bird’s eyes.
From here the vaccine makes its way into the respiratory tract via the
lacrimal duct. The vaccine is delivered through an eyedropper and care
must be taken to ensure that the dropper delivers the recommended dose.
If it is too little, the level of immunity may be inadequate, while if too much,
the vaccine may not treat the total flock but will run out beforehand.

Nasal
This method involves introducing the vaccine into the birds’ nostrils either
as a dust or as a drop. Always ensure that the applicator delivers the
correct dose for the vaccine being used.

Oral
With this method the vaccine dose is given in the mouth. From here it may
make its way to the respiratory system or it may continue in the digestive
tract before entering the body.

Drinking water
With this method the vaccine is added to the drinking water and, as a
consequence, is less time consuming and is significantly less stressful on
the birds and operator. Take care to ensure the vaccine is administered
correctly as there is much scope for error. The recommended technique
observes the following:

 All equipment used for vaccination is carefully cleaned and free of

detergents and disinfectants
 Only cold, clean water of drinking quality should be used
 Open the stopper of vaccine bottle under water
 The water present in the drinking trough should be consumed before
vaccination
 By ensuring that all birds drink during the vaccination phase, all should
receive an adequate dose of the vaccine
Cloacal
This method involves the introduction of the vaccine to the mucus
membranes of the cloaca with an abrasive applicator. The applicator is
firstly inserted into the vaccine and then into the bird’s cloaca and turned or
twisted vigorously to cause an abrasion in the organ. The vaccine enters
the body through the abrasion. The technique is time consuming and
stressful to the birds and care must be taken to ensure no contamination is
introduced with the vaccine particularly from bird to bird. As a rule, the
technique is not used on commercial farms.

Feather follicle
With this method the vaccine is introduced into the feather follicles (the
holes in the skin from where the feathers grow). The technique involves the
removal of a group of adjacent feathers or fluff in young chickens, and the
brushing of the vaccine into the empty follicles with a short, stiff bristled
brush. Good hygiene is necessary to prevent the introduction of
contaminant organisms with the vaccine.

Wing stab
With this method the vaccine is introduced into the wing by a special
needle(s). These needles have a groove along their length from just behind
the point. When dipped into the vaccine some of the vaccine remains on
the needle to fill the groove. The needle(s) are then pushed through the
web just behind the leading edge of the wing and just out from its
attachment to the body of the bird. Care must be taken to select a site free
of muscle and bone to prevent undue injury to the bird. Ensure that the
needles penetrate the layers of skin at the ideal site. A common problem is
for the vaccine to be brushed from the needles by fluff or feathers before it
is brushed into the follicles.

Spray
With this method the vaccine is sprayed onto the chickens (or into the air
above the chickens) using a suitable atomiser spray. The vaccine then falls
onto the chickens and enters the body of other chickens as they pick at the
shiny droplets of vaccine. A small quantity may be inhaled as well.

Monitoring
In the case of some vaccines, an important part of the procedure is to
ascertain whether the vaccine has worked, or “taken”. A good example of
this is fowl pox vaccine, which is administered by wing stab. Within 7 to 10
days after vaccination a “take” should appear at the vaccination site. This is
in the form of a small pimple one half to one centimetre in diameter. If the
take is larger and has a cheesy core, it indicates that contaminants have
been introduced either with the vaccine or with dirty vaccinating equipment.
A check for takes would involve inspecting approximately 100 birds for
every 10,000 vaccinated.
Another example of whether the birds are reacting satisfactorily to the
vaccination is the systemic reaction found in chickens vaccinated against
infectious bronchitis disease. In many cases the birds react approximately
5 to 7 days after vaccination by showing signs if ill health such as slight
cough, a higher temperature and lethargy. In cases where there are no
obvious signs of success, blood samples may be taken and sent to the
laboratory for examination. The usual test is for the presence of an
adequate number of the appropriate antibodies (called the titre) in the
blood. If the vaccination has been unsuccessful, it may be necessary to re-
vaccinate to obtain the desired protection.
Failure to find evidence of success could be because of:
  Faulty technique resulting in the vaccine not being introduced into the
vaccination site.
 Faulty vaccine – too old or not stored or mixed correctly. It would be
unusual but not impossible for the vaccine to be faulty from manufacture.
 The birds are already immune i.e. the immune system has already been
triggered as a result of parental (passive) immunity, previous vaccination
or other exposure to the causal organism.

http://www.poultryhub.org/health/health-management/

http://www.poultryhub.org/health/health-management/beak-trimming/

http://www.poultryhub.org/health/health-management/disease-prevention-biosecurity/

http://www.poultryhub.org/health/health-management/vaccination/