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oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences

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oxford
WA
Leo Conti | Mark Easton | Geraldine Carrodus
big ideas
Joanne Wilson | Richard Smith | Annie Wilson
ISBN 978-0-19-030766-0
humanities and
9 780190 307660 social sciences
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oxford Leo Conti | Mark Easton | Geraldine Carrodus
big ideas
humanities and Contributions by

Bernie Howitt | Bruce Dennett
social sciences
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM
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1
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© Leo Conti, Mark Easton, Geraldine Carrodus, Joanne Wilson, Richard Smith, Annie Wilson 2016
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Conti, Leo, author
Oxford big ideas. Humanities and Social Sciences 9 Western Australian curriculum / Leo Conti,
Mark Easton, Geraldine Carrodus, Joanne Wilson, Richard Smith, Annie Wilson.
ISBN 9780190307660 (paperback)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
Humanities – Textbooks.
Humanities – Study and teaching (Secondary) – Western Australia.
Education – Curricula – Western Australia.
Easton, Mark, author.
Carrodus, Geraldine, author.
Wilson, Joanne, 1964–, author.
Smith, Richard, author.
Wilson, Annie, 1964–, author.
001.30712
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contents
Contents by skill ............................................................................................ viii
Using Oxford Big Ideas Humanities and Social Sciences ............x
PART 1
Biomes and food security
Geography
Chapter 2
Growing food ...............................................................................................40
Concepts and skills
Chapter 1 2A What are biomes?
The geography toolkit ............................................................................ 4 2.1 The world’s biomes ........................................................................... 42
2.2 Forest biomes..................................................................................... 44
1A What are the geographical concepts?
2.3 The grassland biomes ...................................................................... 46
1.1 Geographical concepts .......................................................................6
2.4 The tropical forest biomes ............................................................... 48
1B What are the geographical skills? 2.5 Going with the flow in the rainforest ............................................. 50
1.2 Geographical skills ........................................................................... 12 2.6 Australia’s biomes.............................................................................. 52
1.3 Questioning and researching .......................................................... 13 2A Rich task: The Kokoda Trail ............................................................ 54
1.4 Analysing ............................................................................................. 18
2B Why do some biomes produce more food than others?
1.5 Evaluating ............................................................................................ 26
2.7 Where our food comes from ......................................................... 56
1.6 Communicating and reflecting ....................................................... 28
2.8 The importance of a climate ........................................................... 58
1C What is fieldwork? 2.9 Soil – more than just dirt ................................................................. 60
1.7 Fieldwork in geography .................................................................... 32 2.10 Food production in Australia........................................................... 62
2.11 Influencing crop yield ........................................................................ 64
1D What are the career opportunities for geographers?
2.12 High-tech farming.............................................................................. 66
1.8 Careers in geography ....................................................................... 38
2.13 Rice – the grain of life ....................................................................... 68
2.14 Rice growing in Java......................................................................... 70
2B Rich task: Growing rice in Australia .............................................. 72
2C How have biomes been altered by food production?

2.15 Alterations to biomes ........................................................................ 74
2.16 Changing vegetation......................................................................... 76
2.17 Changing water.................................................................................. 78
2.18 Changes to soil .................................................................................. 80
2.19 Spreading deserts ............................................................................. 82
2C Rich task: The impact of changing diets ..................................... 84

Chapter 3 4.5 How people influence interconnections .....................................141 P
Food security ...............................................................................................86 4.6 How technology influences interconnections ...........................144
H
4.7 Digital access around the world ..................................................146
3A What is food security?
4.8 Connecting with remote areas .....................................................148
3.1 Food security ...................................................................................... 88 C
4B Rich task: How the internet connects you to the world
3.2 Levels of food security in different places.................................... 90 every day ...........................................................................................150 C
3A Rich task: Food insecurity in the Horn of Africa......................... 92 T
4C How does trade connect people and places?
3B What are the main challenges to food production? 4.9 Global trade connections ..............................................................152 6
3.3 Challenges to food production....................................................... 94 4.10 Australia’s mining connections .....................................................154 6
3.4 Water scarcity ..................................................................................... 96 4.11 Multinational companies ................................................................156
6
3.5 Climate change .................................................................................. 98 4.12 Global connections inside your laptop .......................................158
6
3.6 Threats from non-native plants, animals and insects .............100 4.13 Connecting through food ..............................................................160
3.7 Competition for land .......................................................................102 4.14 Connecting through sport .............................................................162
3.8 The use of land for fuel instead of food .....................................104 4C Rich task: The geography of you.................................................164
3.9 Armed conflict ..................................................................................107
3B Rich task: Zero hunger by 2030? ................................................110
Chapter 5
The effects of global connections .............................................. 166
6
5A How does global trade affect people? 6
3C How can we improve food security?
3.10 Food security into the future .........................................................112 5.1 An interconnected world................................................................168
5.2 Benefits of global trade for people ..............................................170 O
3.11 Looking for answers .......................................................................114
3.12 Genetically modified food ..............................................................116 5.3 Benefits of global trade for people in Australia.........................172 C
3.13 Sustainable agriculture and innovation ......................................118 5.4 Benefits of global trade for people in the T
Asia–Pacfic region ...........................................................................174
3C Rich task: Food waste and food loss .........................................122
5.5 Drawbacks of global trade for people ........................................176 7
5.6 Drawbacks of global trade for people in Asia...........................178 7
Geographies of interconnection
5.7 The effects of globalisation on Indigenous peoples ................180
Chapter 4 5A Rich task: The global coffee trade...............................................182
An interconnected world .................................................................. 126 7
5B How does global tourism affect people and places? 7
4A How do people connect to places? 5.8 Different types of tourism...............................................................184
4.1 Understanding place ......................................................................128 5.9 Impacts of recreational tourism....................................................186
4.2 Connections to place .....................................................................130 5.10 Impacts of historical tourism .........................................................188 D
4A Rich task: Mental maps versus GPS .........................................134 5.11 Impacts of wilderness tourism .....................................................190 C
4B How are people and places around the world 5.12 Impacts of ecotourism ..................................................................192 T
interconnected? 5.13 The effects of tourism in the future .............................................194
8
4.3 What is a global citizen? ................................................................136 5B Rich task: Tourism at Gallipoli.......................................................196
4.4 How geographical features influence interconnections .........138
8
00_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_UB2_SI corrected.indd 4 5/05/2017 1:15 PM

PART 2 8B How did the Industrial Revolution affect the lives of men,
women and children?
History 8.11 Working conditions ........................................................................270
8.12 Living conditions .............................................................................272
Concepts and skills 8B Rich task: Working conditions for children
Chapter 6 during the Industrial Revolution....................................................274
The history toolkit ................................................................................. 202 8C What were the short- and long-term impacts of the
Industrial Revolution?
6A What are the historical concepts?
8.13 Short-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution .....................276
6.1 Historical concepts .........................................................................204
8.14 The emergence of socialism and trade unions .......................278
6B What are the historical skills? 8.15 Long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution .......................282
6.2 Historical skills .................................................................................212 8C Rich task: Population growth in Britain during
6.3 Questioning and researching .......................................................213 the Industrial Revolution.................................................................286
6.4 Analysing ...........................................................................................218
6.5 Evaluating ..........................................................................................218
Depth study 2: Investigating World War I
6.6 Communicating................................................................................222 Chapter 9
World War I (1914–1918) .................................................................... 288
6C What are the career opportunities for historians?
6.7 Careers in history .............................................................................226 9A What were the causes of World War I?
9.1 World War I: a timeline ...................................................................290
Overview 9.2 Background to World War I ..........................................................292
Chapter 7 9.3 Causes of World War I ...................................................................294
The making of the modern world................................................ 228 9.4 The outbreak of World War I ........................................................298
9.5 Australia’s entry into World War I .................................................301
7A What factors shaped the world from 1750 to 1918?
9A Rich task: Why Australians enlisted to fight ..............................304
7.1 Key features of the modern world from 1750 to 1918...........230
7.2 The Industrial Revolution ..............................................................232 9B How and where was World War I fought?
9.6 The nature of warfare in World War I .........................................306
7B What were the key events of World War I?
9.7 Where World War I was fought ....................................................309
7.3 World War I .......................................................................................236
9.8 The Western Front...........................................................................311
7.4 The significance of World War I....................................................240
9.9 Trench warfare ..................................................................................314
9.10 The Gallipoli campaign ..................................................................316
Depth study 1: Investigating the Industrial Revolution
9.11 The end of the war ..........................................................................320
Chapter 8 9B Rich task: Life in the trenches ......................................................322
The Industrial Revolution ................................................................. 242
9C What impact did World War I have on Australia?
8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial 9.12 The impact of war on Australian society....................................324
Revolution? 9.13 The impact of war on Australian women ...................................326
8.1 The Industrial Revolution: a timeline ..........................................244 9.14 The conscription debate ................................................................328
8.2 The Industrial Revolution in Britain .............................................246 9.15 Anti-German sentiment in Australia ............................................330
8.3 Why the Industrial Revolution began in Britain ........................248 9.16 The impact of war on Australia’s international relationships 332
8.4 Developments in agriculture .........................................................250 9C Rich task: Conscription ..................................................................334
8.5 Developments in cotton, wool and iron production ................252
9D How is World War I remembered and commemorated?
8.6 Developments in transport ............................................................256
9.17 Anzac Day and the Anzac legend ...............................................336
8.7 Significant individual: Isambard Kingdom Brunel ....................260
9.18 Other forms of commemoration ..................................................340
8.8 Expansion of factories and mass production ...........................262
9D Rich task: The Anzac legend today ............................................342
8.9 The spread of the Industrial Revolution......................................264
8.10 Later developments in technology and science ......................266
8A Rich task: Inventions of the Industrial Revolution ....................268
00_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_UB2_SI corrected.indd 5 3/11/2016 3:25 pm

Chapter 12
PART 3 Managing financial risks and rewards...................................... 398 P
Economics and business C
12A How can I save more and spend less?
Concepts and skills 12.1 Saving..................................................................................................400 C
12A Rich task: Am I spending too much?..........................................404 T
Chapter 10
The economics and business toolkit......................................... 346 12B What strategies can be used to increase financial rewards? 1
12.2 Investing ............................................................................................406 1
10A What are economics and business concepts? 12B Rich task: Playing the sharemarket..............................................410
10.1 Economics and business concepts ............................................348 1
12C How can individuals safeguard against financial risk? 1
10B What are economics and business skills? 12.3 Minimising financial risk – avoiding scams ................................412
10.2 Economics and business skills.....................................................352 12.4 Minimising financial risk –
10.3 Questioning and research..............................................................353 using your bank account wisely....................................................414
10.4 Analysing............................................................................................355 12.5 Minimising financial risk –
10.5 Evaluating...........................................................................................356 knowing your consumer rights......................................................416
10.6 Communicating and reflecting......................................................357 12C Rich task: A major financial decision – buying a car................418 1
10C What career opportunities are there in Chapter 13 1

economics and business? The changing work environment................................................. 420
10.7 Careers in economics and business............................................358 O
13A How do changes in the workplace affect people?
Australia and the global economy 13.1 The world of work is constantly changing .................................422 C
13.2 Enterprising skills in the workplace..............................................424 G
Chapter 11
13A Rich task: The job market outlook for the future......................426
Understanding the economy........................................................... 360 1
13B What are the roles and responsibilities of people in the 1
11A How does the economy work? workplace?
11.1 The Australian economy – an introduction ...............................362 13.3 Roles and responsibilities of employers and employees........428
11.2 Economic systems and their characteristics ............................364 13.4 Protecting workers from discrimination in the workplace.......432
11.3 Participants in the Australian economy.......................................368 13.5 Protecting workers from bullying and unfair dismissal............434
11A Rich task: The decline of the automotive industry 13B Rich task: Unfair dismissal.............................................................436 1
in Australia..........................................................................................372 1
11B How does Australia participate in the global economy?

11.4 Australia’s place in Asia and the global economy....................374
11.5 The global supply chain..................................................................380
11B Rich task: The rise of China as Australia’s largest C
trading partner...................................................................................384
A
11C How do businesses create a competitive advantage?
1
11.6 Gaining a competitive advantage.................................................386
1
11.7 Innovation in business.....................................................................390
11C Rich task: The importance of innovation in business..............394
1
1
00_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_UB2_SI corrected.indd 6 5/05/2017 1:15 PM

PART 4
Civics and citizenship
Glossary: Geography ............................................................................... 508
Chapter 14 Glossary: History ........................................................................................ 512
The civics and citizenship toolkit................................................ 440
Glossary: Economics and business .................................................. 515
14A What are civics and citizenship concepts? Glossary: Civics and citizenship.......................................................... 518
14.1 Civics and citizenship concepts...................................................442 Index ................................................................................................................ 521
14B What are civics and citizenship skills? Acknowledgements .................................................................................. 533
14.2 Civics and citizenship skills ...........................................................446
14.3 Questioning and research .............................................................447
14.4 Analysing ...........................................................................................449
14.5 Evaluating ..........................................................................................451
14.6 Communicating and reflecting .....................................................452
14C What career opportunities are there

within the field of civics and citizenship?
14.7 Careers in civics and citizenship ..................................................454
Our democratic rights

Chapter 15
Government, democracy and the citizen .............................. 456
15A What factors influence Australia’s political system?

15.1 Living in a democracy.....................................................................458
15.2 Australia’s political system .............................................................460
15.3 Political parties and policy developments ................................464
15A Rich task: Political spin ..................................................................468
15B What shapes our decisions at election time?

15.4 Election time .....................................................................................470
15.5 Counting the votes ..........................................................................472
15.6 The influence of social media .......................................................474
15B Rich task: The power of social media campaigns...................476
Chapter 16
Australia’s legal system ..................................................................... 478
16A What key principles support Australia’s legal system?

16.1 Understanding laws and why we need them ..........................480
16.2 How laws are made ........................................................................482
16.3 Australia’s legal system ..................................................................484
16.4 Undermining justice ........................................................................488
16A Rich task: Social media and the right to a fair trial ..................490
16B How does Australia’s court system work?

16.5 Types of legal disputes ...................................................................492
16.6 Court jurisdictions............................................................................496
16.7 The Western Australian court hierarchy .....................................500
16.8 The role of the courts .....................................................................504
16B Rich task: Marriage equality and the law ...................................506

contents
by skill
Geography skills History skills
Skill Chapter Page Skill Chapter Page

Developing geographical questions Chapter 1 14 Asking questions to guide a historical inquiry Chapter 6 213
Evaluating the reliability of websites Chapter 1 18 Analysing political cartoons Chapter 6 220
Planning, creating and delivering a Chapter 1 28 Creating a timeline Chapter 6 223
PowerPoint presentation Creating an audiovisual presentation Chapter 6 225
Creating a flow diagram Chapter 2 50 Creating and delivering an audiovisual Chapter 8 268
Estimating gradient and aspect on Chapter 2 54 presentation
topographic maps Using information from a range of sources as Chapter 8 275
Comparing patterns on maps Chapter 2 58 evidence in a historical argument
Describing patterns on chloropleth maps Chapter 2 68 Using graphs to communicate historical Chapter 8 286
information
Constructing an annotated field sketch Chapter 2 71
Evaluating the reliability and usefulness of Chapter 9 304
Estimating the size of features on a map Chapter 2 72 sources
Analysing secondary geographical data and Chapter 3 84 Identifying and locating relevant sources Chapter 9 323
drawing conclusions using ICT and other methods
Developing geographical questions Chapter 3 93 Identifying the origin, context and purpose of Chapter 9 335
Analysing complex maps Chapter 3 104 primary and secondary sources
Presenting an oral report to an audience Chapter 3 111 Identifying and analysing different historical Chapter 9 343
interpretations
Analysing satellite images Chapter 3 120
Preparing an infographic Chapter 3 123
Putting a mental map down on paper Chapter 4 134
Interpreting false colour satellite images Chapter 4 139
Conducting a survey and presenting the Chapter 4 150
results
Constructing a flow map Chapter 4 161
Collecting, recording and representing Chapter 4 164
primary data
Describe, explain and compare patterns on Chapter 5 182
maps
Interpreting qualitative data about Chapter 5 197
geographical issues and events

Economics and Civics and citizenship skills
business skills
Skill Chapter Page Skill Chapter Page
Developing a hypothesis Chapter 10 353 Developing civics and citizenship questions Chapter 14 447
Identifying the consequences of business Chapter 11 373 Identify and describe points of view, attitudes Chapter 14 449
decisions and values in sources
Reading and interpreting data tables Chapter 11 385 Analysing political cartoons Chapter 15 468
Being innovative in business Chapter 11 395 Developing a plan for action to respond to a Chapter 15 477
Conducting a survey and presenting the Chapter 12 404 civics and citizenship issue
results Preparing a written critical evaluation of Chapter 16 490
Using a game to understand the sharemarket Chapter 12 410 information and ideas
Conducting a cost–benefit analysis Chapter 12 419 Analysing different points of view Chapter 16 507
Searching for relevant and reliable information Chapter 13 427

online
Applying business knowledge, skills and Chapter 13 437
concepts to new situations
contents by skill ix

Oxford Big Ideas Humanities
Using
and Social Sciences
Oxford Big Ideas Humanities and Social Sciences is a brand-new series
developed and written to provide complete coverage of the Western Australian
Curriculum: Humanities and Social Sciences – Geography, History, Economics
and Business, and Civics and Citizenship – across Years 7–10.
Focus on inquiry
Each chapter of Oxford Big Ideas Humanities and Social Sciences is structured
around key inquiry questions from the Western Australian Curriculum. Each
unit of the text supports teachers and students as they adopt an inquiry-based
approach to the key learning areas in the Humanities and Social Sciences.
Geographies of
interconnection
An
The learning interconnected
world
sequence in each This is Gibraltar, a
tip of Spain in a body
British territory that
lies on the souther
of water that connec n
Ocean to the Mediter ts the Atlantic
chapter is clearly
ranean Sea. This
4
strategically significa means it is
nt for shipping betwee
the rest of the world. n Europe and
For this reason, dispute
territory have resulted s over the
in many wars over
years. the past 500
set out under key Though once heavily

from invasion, Gibralta
fortified to protect
its inhabitants
Stunning full-colour
r is now highly accessi
a busy international ble. It has
airport, container
harbour and is connec port, a cruise-ship
inquiry questions.
ted
almost 12 million tourists by road to Spain. It receives
chapter
a year. Connected
by trade, tourism, to the world
photography generates
transport and commu
illustrates how every nications, Gibralta
place on Earth is connec r
other place more
Students are
than ever before. ted to every
discussion and interest.

encouraged to
4A
Source 1 Gibraltar
is a compact country
4B
means it has been at the southern tip
a highly sought-af of Spain. Its coastal
ter territory over location and access
the course of history. to many
4C
countries
use their prior How do people conn

places?
ect to
How are people and
places
around the world How does trade
knowledge and
1 Gibraltar is famous
for a 426-metre high connected? connect people
Rock of Gibraltar
, which is a popular
rock, the
drawcard for
1 Describe some
of the ways in which
and places?
tourists. Do you think Gibraltar is
the people who live connected to other
sight of the Rock within places around the 1 Gibraltar has little
would regard it differentl evidence from this world using land that is suitable
picture. Are there
make predictions
visiting tourist would? y than a other likely and food productio for farming
connections that n. Where do you
2 In what ways are not shown in people who live there think the
might a resident this picture?
feel differently about get most of their
Gibraltar compare food from?
d to a tourist?
126 oxford big ideas
humanities and
at the start of each

social sciences
9 western australian
curriculum
new topic.
chapter 4 an interconne
cted world 127
Focus on engagement
Each unit of the Student book combines a range of engaging source materials
– such as photographs, videos, data tables, graphs and illustrations – with
supporting questions and activities.
2.4 The tropical

forest biome
Source materials It is estimated that
about half of all
The gifts of the rainfo
Rainforests have
provided humans
rest
with many resource
2A What are biomes?
and insect species the plant, animal ecosystem services
– such as
in the world live EASTERN AUSTRAL . Rainforests provide s 7B
for thousan
What were
ds ofthe keyThese
events of World War I?
Many of these are in tropical forests. IA: RAINFOREST
REGIONS many services, includin years. resources are known
among the wettest g the ones describe as
and are therefor places on Earth d in Source 3.
7.4 The significance of

e known as rainfore Ecosystem services
considered to make sts. They can be An overview of the significance of the wars to Australia
up the world’s richest Coen
the abundance biome and About 80% Topic
Impact of the of the9.18
of life can be astound CAPE plants we eat• Over 300 000 Australians served overseas during World War I, with around a quarter
photographs,
for example, research ing. In Brazil, began in the world's
World War I
wars on returned tropical of a million servicemen returning to Australia at the end of the war. Many returned with
ers found that a YORK
Cooktown Area of rainforests. Potatoes,
contained more single pond map soldiers and corn, rice, physical or psychological injuries. Their care and families’ financial responsibilities fell
fish species than PENINSULA Rainforest
exist in all of Europe’s civilians avocados, oranges, bananas, on women in the community. The government established a Repatriation Department sinregulate the
rivers. In Peru, a Cairns
coffee, chocolate Earth's temperatu
single tree was found Daintree and hundreds 1917 to provide health, compensation, housing and job training for veterans. re and
species; this is more to contain 43 ant rainforest of other foods are rainfall, and hold
much
than the total number Commemorating Topic rainforest
9.18 plants.
• Commemoration services on Anzac Day and Remembrance Day both linked of to World
the world's fresh
British Isles. One in all of the Townsville water.
infographics,
hectare of South the war War I
may contain over American rainfore
750 different types st • Aspects of commemoration services still linked to World War I
World one-fifth
War I left Europe devastated. In January
of trees and emerged as a modern, secular republicMackay after the About 25% of the
of all of the world’s Tropic of Capricor drugs we
1919, the victorious birds live in
rainfore st. Thisnations met at the Paris
explosion of life
Peace
the Amazon break-up of the Ottoman Empire. n
Rockhampton
Differentuse to treat illnesses,
Topic 9.17
from
• The birth of the Anzac legend and its significance today Rainforests in Africa,
Asia,
Conference
growing in conditio
France to come up withisadue
planto the ideal leukaemia
perspectives on to headache • South
Differing perspectives on the place of Gallipoli in defining Australia’s national identity
America and
ns that occur However, World War I was AND
QUEENSL not only a historically s,
come
the Anzac legend
from rainforest plants. Australia are home
and ensuring in
Check your learning

the in
political cartoons,
for rebuilding
TheseEurope peace tropics.
the significant event in Europe. Far way in Australia, Bundabergthe • Differing views on what Australia should most celebrate to
places experien Indigenous peoples.
ce the most stable Fraser Island
future.conditio
After months
ns on theof negotiations, the Treatyclimate events and experiences of the war had major effects
planet with Gympie
changes was
of Versailles signed on 28 Junevirtually
in rainfall, 1919. Thisno seasonal on our nation’s
SOUTH society and relationships with other Rainforest plants
temperature or Brisbane take in carbon
through
document officially
out the ended World War I available
year. Most and forced AUSTRALIA
sunlight countries. Australia had become a nation after dioxide and produce
oxygen. Products such as
rainfore days are the same in Lismore The Amazon rainforest
Germany st: hot and
to accept responsibility for starting the the Federation in 1901. Unlike alone is
activities accompany every

many other countries,
graphs – simplify
wet. It rains NEW SOUTH thought to produce toothpaste, golf balls,
often virtually every day, Coffs Harbour about
in torrentia
conflict. It also ordered Germany rubber tyres, paints,
between
l downpo pay reparations
urs.toThe temperature hovers
such as the United StatesWALES and France, the founding
Port Macquarie
one-fifth of the world's
oxygen. cosmetics, steroids
to the about 26°C and
Allied Powers. of the Australian nation was achieved without the and
32°C all year round. cork are all made
Adelaide Sydney people Source 3 A scarlet from
As a result of the war, the map of Europe was need for revolution. Instead, the Australian macaw flies over the world’s rainforest plants.
ACT Wollongong largest rainforest
redrawn. Four major European empires – the Austria– created a nation founded on the principles of – the Amazon. The
Amazon provides
difficult concepts unit, allowing students to

VICTORIA many ecosystem
Hungary Empire, the Russian Empire, the German Melbourne
modern democracy through peaceful means. The services.
Empire and the Ottoman Empire – were broken up events of World War I, such as the ill-fated L E Ginvasion
Check your learnin
END g 2.4
and a number of new countries were created in their of the Gallipoli Peninsula in 1915, are often Tropical rainforest
place. The ruling monarchies of these empires all
TASMANIA
described as our ‘coming of age’ as a nation and
Remember and unders
Subtropical rainforest tand
and engage consolidate and extend

lost power. The Russian Tsar was overthrown by a our ‘baptism
0 200 400ofkmblood’. InHobartmany ways, World War I 1 Use the map showing
Temperate rainforest the world’s biomes
communist revolution in 1917; Austria–Hungary provided an opportunity to create a national story describe the distributio (Source 4 on page
n of the world’s tropical 47) to
Source 2 2 What are some forests.
was broken up into a number of newly formed states that expressed our national character and identity.
Source: Oxford of the links between
University Press the world’s climate
including Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia; and Turkey rainforests? and
Australia’s rainfo
rests
reluctant learners. their understanding. These
Apply and analyse
Though much of
Australia was once 3 Describe the distributi
now there are only covered in forest, on of Australia’s
a few small pockets places and states rainforests. Refer
coast (see Source near the east and use compass to particular
2). Rainforests now 4 What are some directions in your
2.5 per cent of Australia make up only of the differences answer.
are graded according

’s remaining native rainforests? between tropical
surviving forest, forest. This and temperate
however, is a real
plant and animal Noah’s Ark for many
species, many of Evaluate and create
else in the world. which exist nowhere
There are more 5 Why do you think
plants in Australia than 1000 species the amount of rainfores
n rainforests, of of t in Australia has
so much? Conside
to Bloom’s Taxonomy –
exist nowhere else. which about 700 r both decrease d
These plants support Source natural processe
insect species, hundred thousands of Source 1 4AnTemperat
Anzac Daye rainforest
parade, commemorating
s are found
6 Whatsoldiers
Australian informati
whoon fought in World War I and allswars
from these
and since
human activities.
s of reptile and in the temperate pages would you
nearly 90 different bird species and climate zone. Like importance of rainfores use to explain the
Source 1 Tropical rainforests, they tropical ts?
rainforests cover types of mamma receive an abundanc
Queensland mountain the slopes of many rainforests of New ls. The subtropi rain and take in high e of 7 Clearing of rainfores
cal amounts of carbon
rainfall. The Daintree s and experience Australia’s highest
rainforest near Port also internationally
South Wales and
Queensland are Check
dioxide. yourthey
However, learning 7.4 makes the tropical
ts for farming, mining
and urban developm
same levels of biodiversdo not have the
catering for a range of

continuously surviving Douglas is the oldest recognised for their forest biome one ent
rainforest in the world. the world’s first direct links to ity as the tropical a How of the world’s most
flowering plants, rainforests. The temperate might the clearing endangered.
52 100 million years which occurred
about
Remember and understand
Tasmania and Victoria rainforests of Apply and analyse
in it or nearby?
of a rainforest impact
oxford big ideas
humanities 9 victorian ago. are characterised on people who live
curriculum by1 ferns covering
What European empires disappeared after World
b How might 4 Why do you think the Gallipoli campaign has been
the ground and tall trees, it impact
some of them among on
War I? the world’s tallest. away? described aspeople living‘coming
Australia’s in places
of that
age’are
andfurther
abilities and learning styles.

2 Why do so many Australians regard the Gallipoli ‘baptism of blood’? Do you think these descriptions
campaign as a significant event? are accurate? Justify your response.
3 What is the Treaty of Versailles? chapter 2 growing
Source 1 A parade of Australian soldiers at the trenches on the Western Front, following capture of Pozières on 23 July 1916 food 53
240 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 7 introduction to the industrial revolution 241
x oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum

Focus on concepts and skills
Complete coverage of all concepts and skills provided in stand-alone reference
‘toolkits’. All of these concepts and skills are also integrated throughout the text
so students can see them at work in context.
1.1 Geographical
concepts
Rich task activities Geographers use
concepts provide
seven key concepts
a framework to
every geographical
to help investiga
thinking geograph
te and understa
nd the world. These
Space
To most people,
but to a geograph
space means the
empty universe
,
the park was establish
used for business
ed? Are the building
or housing purposes
s mainly
inquiry. At times ically and will help er it has a different • spatial distribut ?
encourage students to
guide you through
other times you
may focus on just
you will use several
of these concepts
Geographers use
the key What weremeaning
8Cconcept the short-. and long-term impacts
how many building of ion – geo
the Industrial Revolution?
graphers may investigate
one. The seven at once, while at investigating the of space when s there are per square
• place key concepts in way that things kilometre, how
geography are: are arranged on
8C rich task • sustainability
• space
• scale
• environment
Step 5 Draw theand
Earth’s surface.
use change
They also investiga
te the ways people
the
situated
sparsely or densely
from each other, they are
and how sparsely
they live. Apply the skill
• interconnection y-axis and mark your chosen
the spaces in which intervals densely they are or
• change. skilldrill Geograp populated.
apply the knowledge and

with the appropriate numerical hers look labels (e.g. 10 million,
for patterns Further in
Population growth and in the way features Using the information Sourcetion
investiga 1, follow the steps outlined
20 million). structures are arranged, and a complex
would reveal that
there is
the concept of to create three bar graphs
networkin your notebook that show:
Using graphs to communicate space helps them of bridges, ferries, subways
Place Step 6 Write an appropriate y-axis to do title
this.beside
It hasthe y-axis walkway that link
main 1 the difference ins life women in and
in Britain during the
three expectancy of men
historical information element s: In fact,
the island toand
surround ing areas.
and an appropriate x-axis title underneath the x-axis. Britain in 1750Manhatt
and 1900 an Island in New
A place is a part • location – where York is one of the
For example, when graphing things
the information in the most densely
skills they have learned

of the Earth’s Sometimes, complicated numerical information are located on the populated places
Industrial Revolution
surface that is identifie surface 2 the difference
Earth’s than 26 000 in the number of babies on
thatEarth,
died at birthmore
with
d and given presented in writing or in tables can be difficult to first row of the table in Source 1, the y-axis title is people living in
meaning by people. • organisa in 1750 compared to 1900 every square kilometr
For example, the understand. Historians need to be able to read and ‘Population’ and thetion – h x-axis titleowisand ‘Year’.
why things are
New Yorkers would perceive e!
Serengeti – which
interpret this information and communicate it visually.
and managed on
the Earth’s
arranged
3 how manyaround more
them people were living and
in quite
use the
in towns in 1900
space
The Industrial Revolutionismeant
in Africa –
a vast ecosyste
the m Step 7 After • looking closely at your
spatial distribu
data, draw surfaceeachbybar. people livingto
compared
a different way
from someone
is a place. is famous Graphs can be a very effective communication form tion – th on1750.
a huge block in
transformation of countries’It populations from If the valuewhich falls between two of youremarked
shapes intervals
and patterns in an outer suburba
in each chapter to a new

for its enormou things are arranged Geographers also n area.
s plains filled with for historians. They can condense information, make on the y-axis, approximate where the correcton the Earth’s
value surface. investigate the ways
being predominantly
a range of wildlife.ruralPlaces
to being predominantly At first, you may
find you confuse use and change that people
aren’t a point clearly and concisely, and show relationships would of lie.place the concepts the space in which
urban. In England,
defined millions
by size, however of .people
They can
migrated and trends visually.
and space, as people recognise that different they live. They
be veryareas Step 8 Each graph
intercha often
should be uniquely numbered, for words use the groups of people use space
from farming large, to
likethe citiescontinen
a whole springing up Bar graphs are very useful for showing how
ngeably. To a geograph Extend in different ways
your understanding
and that this changes
or small, like a corner t, example, ‘Figureof1’.
concepts (Note that all otherer, however
images such as
, the examining, research over time. By
near the coal and iron fields. of The population of place
and interesting case study,

a library. and space are quite ing and describin
Your home and something has changed over time. Use the following diagrams, help pictures, photos and maps
you to rememb are alsoseparate
included . It may g how spaces
are used, geograph
Manchester, England,school
places for you, because
greware from 25 000
importa nt in 1772 steps when constructing a bar graph: in thisorganise
numbering series.)
er that places can
be divided and 1 Conduct some independent ers can Internet
furtherresearch
our understanding
d into spaces. Spaces also of the world and
to 303places
000 by 1850. Overallthey
where you live and
in Britain,
are the number Step 1 Decide upon a title for the bar graph. The differentcreating
purposeyour
are assigned with to find out why populations help manage
increased so rapidly
it into the future.
spend a lot Step 9 Whether s. own graph using
of cities
of with
time.populations of 50 000 or more rose during the Industrial Revolution, both generally
title should say what the graph is about in a For example
another source’s data, , aadapting their graph, or
place like your and within cities. Using the information you have
from three in 1785 tonatural
31 in 1860. By 1850, Britain school
event or issue.
Places can be very specific and concise way. For example, into different
reproducing their graph
spaces, as aeach
whole, you must quote is organised
(that is, with its own purpose gathered, write a 200-word historical explanation
had become
shaped bythethefirst nation in history to have a when graphing the information in the first row (cite) There are spaces .
Extend your understanding

environm ent and the source. Placefor thelearning
citation ,below the graph,
spaces for describing the population boom and the reasons
larger largely
urban unchang
than rural population.
ed by humans),
of the table in Source 1, the title ‘Population of spaces toiteat.
and precede by either
Larger‘Source:’
places, such(for an exactsports and
built (that is, construc or town or city, are as your suburb, why it occurred.
Britain between 1750 and 1900’ is more specific reproduction) or ‘Dataalso source:’ (when you have
ted by humans). Source 1 The town of Namche organise d into different spaces.
Each place is unique, Bazaar
than the title ‘Population
lies at theof Britain’, or the title There are spaces
with its own set base of Mount Everest. modified the original). for housing, spaces
characte ristics. of ‘Population between 1750 and 1900’. It is and spaces for sports for businesses,
Source 1 They and entertainment – a
would look for clues
activities challenge students

and their own function ll with
Britain The life of every 1750person 1900 alsos,more concise
question than the
much like a detective
titlebegin
‘The to
changing
ask .
influenced by place. and animal on Earth is
Population 7 million 37 million of thepopulation of Britain between . Why
the years 1750
are the sides Understanding
Places determin mountains so steep? Why are of the location,
with one e87%
our relationships planning of spaces patterns and
People living another.
in towns 13%Our closest relations andn1900’.
mountai peaks in a line?
the highest helps geographers
to be with peopleMen: 31 years
Life expectancy hips are likely Why are sense of our world. to make
in places that are Men: 45 years theStep
mountai
2 Determine
n peaks?the for thethere stripes
The environmental Women: 33 years physical
Women:ly 48near.
years By labels
seeking answers
x-axis (the in
photograph like
Geographers would
look at a
question to these
to conduct further research,

horizontal axis). The is usually used to this one of New
er x-axis
and social qualities s the geograph York City (see
Deathsall atinfluenc
birth e the 65% 15%of a place is aiming to explain, Source 2) and might
way we live. Climate, just describe
show items, categories or time periods.
, a place. Tonot examine it by using
types of plants and landscapes, concept of space the key
resources, transpor Geograp
determine the the
hers use labels, you need to consider the in the following
entertain
42 t networks, concept of place • location – they terms:
ment venues and conduct whenFor
workplaces all have data
ing you
any are using to make your
geograph graph. would observe that
impact on our daily a major ical inquiry. For Island is located Manhattan
lives. a geograph
example, whenNamche
er visiting graphing the information example ,
in the in the mouth of
or complete group work, to

35Geograp Bazaar would use and that land is the Hudson river
hers use the concept conceptfirst the limited. Clearly,
Skill drill activities guide

of place when they of place
row oftothe
helptable in Source 1, we have put
investigate what understa nd why space in the centre there is an open
a place is like, and
when they look
choose two
to live
labels on the
in this x-axis: 1750 and people
challeng 1900. of the city. Geograp
for28explanations ing environment hers might
Population (millions)
for what they see. how they overcom and identify that it has
For example, Step 3 Draw the e these
x-axis and mark where the bars been designated
a geographer visiting challeng es. They would recreation and enjoying as a space for
Namche Bazaar also investigate nature. They may
Everest
21 (see Source 1) would near Mount will be. the ways people have altered questions like, How ask
environment, and this
deepen their understanding

be interested in assess the environm big is the park?
forces that have the Step Determine the scale for theental (thesocial established? When was it
of4these y-axisand
and support students step

shaped these mountai impacts
ns. changes.
14 vertical axis). The y-axis is usually used to show • organisation – th
ey would conclud
the frequency of something happening or the many tall building e that there are
6 oxford big ideas s in a confined area.
7 humanities 9 victorian amount. Again, you need to consider the data buildings construc Were the
curriculum ted around a set Source 2 Manhatta
of an issue or skill being

you are using to make your graph. (For example, perimeter, after n Island in New York
densely populated is one of the most
by step as they learn and

places on Earth.
0 when graphing the information in the first row of
1750 1900
Year the table in Source 1, we have used a numerical
Population growth in Britain between 1750 and 1900 scale which goes from zero to 37 million). You
then need to choose an appropriate scale interval chapter 1 the geography
investigated.
Source 2 Graph showing population growth in Britain between toolkit 7
apply key skills.

1750 and 1900 (e.g. 1 cm = 10 million). Source 3 Manchester’s population grew rapidly between 1772 and 1850.
286 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 287
Digital support
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Large  Desktop  1440
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an easy-to-read format. A host of additional Big Ideas Humanities and
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8B
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8.4 Key groups in
Egyptian society
and multimedia links – are linked to each unit  Part 1: Geography Chapter 8Ancient Egypt
8.4 Key groups in

Egypt was well organised.
The society of ancient
a central government
Ancient Egyptians had
they also had a
and, from the 15th century BCE,
knew what their social
professional army. People shaped
Some of these roles were
 Part 2: History
in the book making them easier to access than
responsibilities were. were
and traditions. Some
by the society’s laws
beliefs. Other roles were
determined by religious
Egyptian society
as
wealth and abilities (such
determined by a person’s
and write).
whether they could read
hierarchy. At
Egypt was a hierarchy
The society of ancient
family: the pharaoh and his
the top was the royal
 Concepts and skills

poorest
were the slaves and the
family. At the bottom
of the poor farmers. They
jobs their fathers did.
ever before.
Men usually did the trades
like apprentices learn
learnt the skills a bit a person’s
the key to improving
today. Education was farmer,
merchant, or even a
position in society. A
 Overview
to read and write.
could do this by learning
Source 1 A stone head

Amenhotep III, made in
of pharaoh
the early
were at the top
Pages 236–237
igating
14th century BCE. Pharaohs
 Depth Study 1: Invest

in ancient Egypt.
of the social hierarchy
Check your learning 8.4

Apply and analyse
the ancient past

Remember and understand Compare and contrast
the roles of a chief priest
4
in order (from most Egypt.
1 Place these social roles and the vizier in ancient
to the values of
to least important) according
potter, merchant, Evaluate and create
obook assess is compatible with laptops, iPads,

ancient Egyptian society:
vizier, scribe. 2 as a guide to help
pharaoh, farmer, priestess, 5 a In groups, use Source
social role and standing think the social
igating
2 How might a farmer’s you draw up what you
 Depth study 2: Invest

learnt to read and write? might look like.
potentially change if he hierarchy in Australia today
as a class. Decide to
Begin Topic
all scribes in ancient Egypt b Discuss your findings
3 Explain why almost social hierarchies
were men. what extent your modern
and change
are an example of continuity
one ancient society

social hierarchy of
when compared with the
ancient Egypt.
tablets and IWBs, and access to content is

7 western australian curriculum
and social sciences
236 oxford big ideas humanities
 Chapter 8 Ancient Egypt
provided online and offline. 8A How did geography

of
influence the development
ancient Egypt? Resources
of
8B What shaped the roles
key groups in ancient Egypt?
ws ws
8.4 Key groups in
Egyptian society tn a
Teacher support is offered in digital format via 8.5 Pharaohs
8.6 Significant individual:

8.4 Compare female
8.4 Compare female rulers
Fold
8.4 Answers
8.4 Teacher notes rulers Answers
Teacher obook assess. Teacher notes, answers, Tutankhamun
Worksheet
Worksheet
8.7 Other key groups in ancient

Answers
Teacher notes
tests, additional worksheets, lesson ideas, Fold
Egyptian society
8B Rich task: Farming in

planning tips and assessment advice are provided ancient Egypt
and
8C How did beliefs, values
for every unit. Teacher obook assess allows practices influence ancient
Egyptian lifestyles?
teachers to manage their classes by assigning

 11 Ancient Greece
work, tracking progress and planning assessment.
 12 Ancient Rome
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01_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_FLCX_SI.indd 2 18/10/2016 8:57 am

geography
Concepts and skills
Chapter 1 The geography toolkit 4
Biomes and food security

Chapter 2 Growing food 40
Chapter 3 Food security 86
Geographies and interconnections

Chapter 4 An interconnected world 124
Chapter 5 The effects of global
connections 166

Concepts and skills
The
geography
toolkit
Geography is the study of the places that make up
the world around us. Geographers are interested in
how human activities and natural processes change
the Earth’s places, as well as the links between these
places. More than ever before, geographers help
other people understand how change affects people
and places and how this change can be managed.
Geographers have a sense of wonder and
curiosity about the world and this leads them to
ask questions about what they see and experience.
Geographers use a range of key concepts and
skills to answer such questions. Each of these
concepts and skills is a tool that you can use to better
understand your world. As you master each of these
concepts and skills you will gradually fill your toolkit
with a range of useful geographical tools. These will
help you better understand this amazing planet.
1A
What are the geographical
1B
What are the geographical
concepts? skills?
4 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 10 western australian curriculum

Source 1
1C
Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa’s highest peak
What is fieldwork?
1D
chapter
1
What are the career
opportunities for geographers?
chapter 1 the geography toolkit 5

1.1 Geographical concepts
Geographers use seven key concepts to help investigate and understand the world. These
concepts provide a framework for thinking geographically and will help guide you through
every geographical inquiry. At times you will use several of these concepts at once, while at
other times you may focus on just one. The seven key concepts in geography are:
• place • space • environment • interconnection
• sustainability • change • scale.
Place
A place is a part of the Earth’s surface that is
identified and given meaning by people. For
example, the Serengeti – which is a vast ecosystem
in Africa – is a place. It is famous for its enormous
plains filled with a range of wildlife. Places aren’t
defined by size, however. They can be very large, like
a whole continent, or small, like a corner of a library.
Your home and school are important places for you,
because they are places where you live and spend a
lot of time.
Places can be natural (that is, shaped by the
environment and largely unchanged by humans), or
built (that is, constructed by humans). Each place is
unique, with its own set of characteristics.
The life of every person and animal on
Earth is influenced by place. Places determine
our relationships with one another. Our closest
relationships are likely to be with people in places
that are physically near. The environmental and
social qualities of a place all influence the way
we live. Climate, landscapes, types of plants and
resources, transport networks, entertainment venues
and workplaces all have a major impact on our daily Source 1 The town of Namche Bazaar lies at the base of
Mount Everest.
lives.
Geographers use the concept of place when they questions the geographer is aiming to explain, not
investigate what a place is like, and when they look just describe, a place.
for explanations for what they see. For example, Geographers use the concept of place when
a geographer visiting Namche Bazaar near Mount conducting any geographical inquiry. For example,
Everest (see Source 1) would be interested in the a geographer visiting Namche Bazaar would use the
forces that have shaped these mountains. concept of place to help understand why people
They would look for clues and begin to ask choose to live in this challenging environment and
questions, much like a detective. Why are the sides how they overcome these challenges. They would
of the mountains so steep? Why are the highest also investigate the ways people have altered this
mountain peaks in a line? Why are there stripes in environment, and assess the environmental and
the mountain peaks? By seeking answers to these social impacts of these changes.

Space photograph like this one of New York City (see
Source 2) and might examine it by using the key
To most people, space means the empty universe, concept of space in the following terms:
but to a geographer it has a different meaning. • location – they would observe that Manhattan
Geographers use the key concept of space when Island is located in the mouth of the Hudson River
investigating the way that things are arranged on the and that land is limited. Clearly, there is an open
Earth’s surface. They also investigate the ways people space in the centre of the city. Geographers might
use and change the spaces in which they live. identify that it has been designated as a space for
Geographers look for patterns in the way features recreation and enjoying nature. They may ask
and structures are arranged, and the concept of questions like, How big is the park? When was it
space helps them to do this. It has three main established?
elements: • organisation – they would conclude that there are
• location – where things are located on the Earth’s many tall buildings in a confined area. Were the
surface buildings constructed around a set perimeter, after
• organisation – how and why things are arranged the park was established? Are the buildings mainly
and managed on the Earth’s surface by people used for business or housing purposes?
• spatial distribution – the shapes and patterns in • spatial distribution – geographers may investigate
which things are arranged on the Earth’s surface. how many buildings there are per square
At first, you may find you confuse the concepts kilometre, how sparsely or densely they are
of place and space, as people often use the words situated from each other, and how sparsely or
interchangeably. To a geographer, however, the densely they are populated.
concepts of place and space are quite separate. It may Further investigation would reveal that there is
help you to remember that places can be divided and a complex network of bridges, ferries, subways and
organised into spaces. Spaces also are assigned with walkways that link the island to surrounding areas.
different purposes. In fact, Manhattan Island in New York is one of the
For example, a place like your school is organised most densely populated places on Earth, with more
into different spaces, each with its own purpose. than 26 000 people living in every square kilometre!
There are spaces for learning, spaces for sports and New Yorkers would perceive and use the space
spaces to eat. Larger places, such as your suburb, around them in quite a different way from someone
town or city, are also organised into different spaces. living on a huge block in an outer suburban area.
There are spaces for housing, spaces for businesses, Geographers also investigate the ways that people
and spaces for sports and entertainment – all with use and change the space in which they live. They
their own function. recognise that different groups of people use space
Understanding of the location, patterns and in different ways and that this changes over time. By
planning of spaces helps geographers to make examining, researching and describing how spaces
sense of our world. Geographers would look at a are used, geographers can further our understanding
of the world and help manage it into the future.
Source 2 Manhattan Island in New York is one of the most densely populated places on Earth.

Environment Other environments have been so changed by
humans – largely for settlement and economic
In geographical terms, the key concept of activity – that very few natural features remain.
environment means the living and non-living These are known as built (or human) environments
components and elements that make up an area, and and include large cities, towns, suburbs and areas
the ways they are organised into a system. of farmland. For example, mountainous land in
Geographers are interested in investigating and the Philippines has been transformed into terraced
describing the relationships between people and the pond fields for rice farming by skilfully following the
environment. In particular they examine: natural contours of the land.
• the ways in which different groups of people Researching an environment also allows
perceive and use the natural environment and geographers to evaluate how people can best
why these perceptions differ interconnect with that environment, and identify
• the ways in which people change the environment potential risks for people interacting with that
and how these changes can be managed environment. For example, examining the landscape
• the impact of environmental hazards on people and height, as well as the ascent routes of Mount
and how the impacts of these hazards can be Kilimanjaro (see Source 3) in Tanzania allows
reduced. prospective travellers to know that, unlike with
Mount Everest, they don’t need to bring additional
The world in which we live is made up of many
oxygen for their climb, but they do need to follow
different environments. Some environments are
one of six official routes.
natural (or physical) such as deserts, grasslands,
mountains, coral reefs, forests, oceans and ice
caps. The natural environment provides us with Interconnection
basic resources for living such as food, water and
Nothing on Earth exists in isolation. All
clean air. Natural processes such as tectonic plate
environments and every living and non-living
movement, erosion and weathering have formed
thing are connected. Geographers use this concept
these environments over millions of years. In order
of interconnection to better understand the
for an environment to be considered natural its soils,
links between places and people, and how these
rocks, climate, plants and animals must remain
interconnections affect the environment and the way
largely untouched by humans. Today there are very
we live. These connections can be on a local level or
few natural environments left on Earth.
a global level.
Source 3
Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa is a popular place for climbers to interact with the natural environment.
01_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_FLCX_SI.indd 8 21/10/2016 12:04 pm

natural gas) are non-renewable. This means that if
we continue to use them they will one day run out.
Other resources (such as wind, forests, solar and
water) are renewable. This means that they replace
themselves naturally, or can be replaced to meet the
needs of society. Sustainability encourages us to look
more closely at renewable options and take greater
care of the Earth. Actions to improve sustainability
can operate at a number of levels:
• local – recycling of paper by individuals, schools
and households reduces the number of trees that
need to be cut down
• national – in Australia, the government has begun
to encourage sustainable use of energy by offering
Source 4 Container ships berth at the Port of Fremantle.
incentives to promote the use of solar panels
• international – organisations such as the Marine
Natural processes link places and people. For Stewardship Council (MSC) are working with
example, the water cycle links the water in the fisheries and retailers to promote responsible and
oceans with the land. When it brings rain to inland environmentally viable fishing practices around
areas, water flows across the land and into rivers and the world.
streams. Farmers rely on this natural link to provide
There can be debate surrounding the sustainability
the water they need to grow food.
of an environment, as people or organisations with
Links between places and people can affect the different interests may put forward different points
way people live. In turn, the way people live can of view. A tree-logging company may protest that
affect places. A relatively small change in one area their practices are sustainable because they re-plant
can have a great impact on another it is connected as much as they cut down. On the other hand, a
with. The melting of ice from a glacier at the top conservation group may be equally convinced that
of a mountain, for example, will affect the land at a forest cannot be sustained when its trees are cut
the bottom of the mountain. The extra water could down. New trees may take decades to grow, in which
potentially damage crops that are being grown there, time the ecosystem will have been altered. Many
or the changed conditions may benefit farmers. underdeveloped countries, such as Myanmar (Burma)
Human activities such as the movement of people, (see Source 5), face enormous challenges controlling
the use of the Internet, the production and trade of and monitoring forest clearance.
goods, and the flow of money within and between
different countries also link places and people.
The Port of Fremantle is Western Australia’s main
port for trade with other countries (see Source 4).
The ships that pass through here and the goods they
carry link dozens of countries around the world.
Sustainability
The concept of sustainability relates to the ongoing
capacity of the Earth to maintain all life. This means
developing ways to ensure the Earth’s resources
be used and managed responsibly so they can be
maintained for future generations.
Sustainable patterns of living meet the needs of
the current generations without compromising the Source 5 Logging in Myanmar (Burma) gives local
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. communities a source of income but leaves hillsides bare
Many of the world’s resources (such as oil, coal and and easily eroded by heavy rain.

Change
The Earth is constantly changing.
Some changes occur very rapidly and
are easy to observe, while others take
place over millions of years and are
almost undetectable to us.
The concept of change is important
in geography because it helps us to
understand what is happening around
us and to see the world as a dynamic
place. Change in both time and space
allows geographers to examine how
environments develop, transform or
disappear.
Change can be the result of natural
forces. For example, the Earth has
been shaped and changed by climate,
earthquakes, volcanoes and running
water over millions of years. It can
also be the result of human activity,
such as the building of a new bridge or
clearing of forest for farmland. Source 6 In preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, Newham,
Changes also take place on many in East London, was transformed from a suburb of derelict buildings and
polluted rivers into a vast sporting complex.
levels, from local through to global.
Local changes that happen quickly,
such as storm damage in your street,
are easy to observe and explain.
Regional or national changes resulting
from a bushfire or an earthquake can
also happen quickly and their effects
can be widespread, with devastating
impacts on places and people.
Observing and understanding
changes is an important part of any
geographical inquiry. Geographers
need to look at different types of
changes, why they have occurred, over
what time period they have occurred
and what further changes may take
place as a result.
Sometimes changes can be positive,
such as the regeneration of vegetation,
while other changes can have
negative consequences, such as the
pollution of waterways from industry.
Source 7 The resources and buildings for the London 2012 Olympic Games
Geographers play an important role in were planned with sustainability as a primary concern, adopting a Zero Waste
ensuring that change is managed in a Games Vision. The Velodrome in this photo was built using 100% sustainably
sustainable way. sourced timber.

Scale Check your learning 1.1
The concept of scale is used to guide geographical Remember and understand
inquiries. Geographers study things that take 1 List three natural environments and three built
place on many different spatial levels – meaning environments. Your answers can be drawn from
from small areas (such as a local park) to very the photographs in this section, or you can use
large areas (such as the use of oil and gas all over your own observations.
the world). They use the concept of scale to look
for explanations and outcomes at different levels. Apply and analyse
For example, a geographical inquiry on climate 2 Examine Source 5.
change may be carried out at a range of scales a What evidence of change can you identify in
(from smallest to largest) (see Source 8). this picture?
Some geographical studies investigate a large b How might this change impact on the natural
area. For example, something that affects a environment in this place?
whole country, such as a severe drought, would
c How might it impact on the people in the
involve a study at the national scale. If an event
nearby village?
or phenomenon affects the whole world, such as
3 Examine Sources 6 and 7.
climate change and rising sea levels, it would be
examined at the global scale. a Describe the arrangement of the sporting
facilities. Using the key concept of
It may be necessary to use different scales
sustainability, what factors do you think would
when studying the same thing. For example, as
need to be considered when planning the
mentioned above, climate change is occurring
development of this area?
globally and should be examined at the global scale.
However, it can be examined at other scales too. b What examples of interconnection can you
identify in these satellite images?
Source 8 Geographical inquiries can be carried out 4 Examine Source 2. With a partner, construct four
on a number of different scale levels. questions you could ask to investigate why so
Scale Example of climate change inquiry many people live in such a small space. Share
Local scale Electricity consumption in your your questions with your classmates.
neighbourhood (increased use of air 5 The geographical concepts are closely linked to
conditioning)
each other. For example, a geographer examining
Regional scale Coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef
the changes at Newham in preparation for the
National scale Frequency of extreme weather events
2012 Olympic Games would be interested in
across Australia
assessing the impacts and sustainability of
International Drought in Africa due to unreliable rain
scale these changes at the local scale. Describe some
Global scale Reduction in Arctic sea ice; rising possible links between:
temperatures throughout the world a environment and sustainability
b space and interconnection
c place and space..
Evaluate and create
6 Research the host city for the next summer or
winter Olympics. What changes are being made to
natural and human environments in preparation for
these games?
7 Choose one of the key geographical concepts
outlined in this section. Find a photograph in a
Source 9 The Great Barrier Reef off the coast of magazine or on the Internet that illustrates this
Queensland is the world’s largest coral reef system. concept. Explain your choice of photograph and
A geographical inquiry of the reef could be undertaken
at a range of scales. how you think it describes the concept for you.

1.2 Geographical skills
Geographers are investigators. They explore the world To become a better geographer you should try to
around them by asking questions about what they see. learn new skills as you continue to practice, use and
These questions begin an investigation that requires develop the skills you have already learned. It might
them to collect and analyse information and to help you to think of each of these skills as individual
communicate what they have discovered. To complete tools in your toolkit. For some geographical inquiries,
an investigation they need a set of skills such as you may only need to use one tool; for others, you may
drawing maps and cross-sections, surveying, sketching need to use many. As you develop each new skill you
and presenting information. Four sets of skills are used will have gained another important tool in explaining
to complete a full geographical inquiry. These are listed the natural processes and human activities that shape
in Source 1. our amazing planet.
Source 1 The four categories of skills used in a geographical inquiry
Questioning • Identify current personal knowledge, gaps, misconceptions, currency of information, personal perspective and
and research possible perspectives of others
• Construct, select and evaluate a range of questions and hypotheses involving cause and effect, patterns and
trends, and different perspectives
• Analyse and clarify the purpose of an inquiry using appropriate methodologies, ethical protocols and concepts to
plan for, and inform, an investigation
• Use a range of methods to collect, select, record and organise relevant and reliable information and/or data from
multiple sources that reflect the type of analysis that is needed (e.g. questionnaires, surveys, emails, tables, field
sketches, annotated diagrams), with and without the use of digital and spatial technologies
• Identify the origin, purpose and context of primary sources and/or secondary sources
• Use appropriate ethical protocols, including specific formats for acknowledging other people’s information and
understand that these formats vary between organisations
Analysing • Use criteria to analyse the reliability, bias, usefulness and currency of primary sources and/or secondary sources
• Analyse information and/or data in different formats (e.g. to explain cause and effect relationships, comparisons,
categories and subcategories, change over time)
• Account for different interpretations and points of view/perspectives in information and/or data (e.g. from tables,
statistics, graphs, models, cartoons, maps, timelines, newspapers)
• Analyse the ‘big picture’ (e.g. put information and/or data into different contexts, reconstruct information by
identifying new relationships, identify missing viewpoints or gaps in knowledge)
• Apply subject-specific skills and concepts in familiar, new and hypothetical situations
Evaluating • Draw evidence-based conclusions by evaluating information and/or data, taking into account ambiguities and
multiple perspectives; to negotiate and resolve contentious issues; to propose individual and collective action in
response to contemporary events, challenges, developments, issues, problems and/or phenomena
• Critically evaluate information and/or data and ideas from a range of sources to make generalisations and
inferences; propose explanations for patterns, trends, relationships and anomalies; predict outcomes
Communicating • Select a range of appropriate formats based on their effectiveness to suit audience and purpose, using relevant
and reflecting digital technologies as appropriate
• Develop texts, particularly explanations and discussions, using evidence from a range of sources to support
conclusions and/or arguments
• Deconstruct and reconstruct the collected information and/or data into a form that identifies the relationship
between the information and the hypothesis, using subject-specific conventions, terminology and concepts
• Compare evidence to substantiate judgements (e.g. use information and/or data from different places or times;
use tables, graphs, models, theories)
• Generate a range of viable options in response to an issue or event to recommend and justify a course of action,
and predict the potential consequences of the proposed action
• Reflect on why all findings are tentative (e.g. the changing nature of knowledge, changes in circumstances,
changes in values) S

1.3 Questioning and researching
Observe the world and its Developing geographical
geographical characteristics questions
Understanding our world begins by observing One of your greatest assets as a geographer is curiosity.
the processes that are taking place all around us. Geographers look at the world around them and ask
Geographers look at people, land, air, water, plants questions about what they see, experience or have
and animals and the connections between them to thought about. You may, for example, see a news
understand what is happening. They also seek to item about a volcanic eruption or hear a report about
investigate where, why and how natural, managed the world’s most liveable cities. Or you may visit the
and constructed environments are formed and centre of a large city on a field trip or a national park
changed. These observations often include identifying on holiday. As you begin to think like a geographer
any problems or issues that need to be investigated you will begin to ask questions about these events and
and resolved. places and these questions may be the starting point for
a geographical inquiry.
Is this a volcano?
Could it erupt?
Are there other mountains like this nearby?
Why is it so hot down here but there is snow
up there?
Is there more snow or less snow than in the past?
Why are there clouds near the top?
How does this mountain affect the climate?
How do people use this mountain?
Source 1 Asking questions is an important part of a geographical inquiry. This geographer is examining Mount Kilimanjaro,
off in the distance.

skilldrill C
G
Developing geographical A better geographical question would be to ask g
‘Does the amount of snow on the mountain change a
questions over time?’ This question opens up a whole new area h
You can learn to develop geographical questions that to explore, because the answer to that question will q
will help you begin an inquiry about a particular topic lead on to further questions and greater depth of
or place. Start your questions with the words ‘what’, understanding. Some other example questions are:
‘where’, ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘what impact’ or ‘what should’ • Is this a volcano?
when thinking about your topic. • Why is it green on the ground but there is snow on
Your questions should examine ideas such as: the mountain?
• Where is it? • How does it interact • Are the animals all eating the same things?
• How big is it? with other things in this
• Is there more or less snow than in the past? o
place? p
• What pattern or shape • How do people use the mountain?
is it? • How is it changing?
• Why is it like this? Is • How should people Apply the skill h
it like this because best manage this o
1 Why is ‘Does the amount of snow on the mountain
change? o
something else is at this change over time?’ a better geographical question
s
location? than ‘How much snow is there on the mountain?’
s
The very best questions open up an exciting area 2 Examine Source 5 on page 9, which shows forest s
for you to explore. Examine Source 1. A visitor to this clearing in Myanmar. Work with a partner to develop n
place might ask a simple question, such as ‘How much a set of geographical questions about this place. G
snow is there on the mountain?’. This is a question with a 3 Where could you begin to find the answers to your s
relatively straightforward answer. questions? i
I
i
Plan a geographical inquiry Planning an inquiry about Mount p
Asking geographical questions is a good way to

Kilimanjaro
develop a range of possibilities for further research Having chosen to investigate the key geographical E
and investigation. It is usually best to narrow your question ‘How does this mountain affect the climate?’, W
investigation by selecting one of the geographical it is time to consider what information you need to i
questions you have written as the basis for your answer this question and where you are going to locate o
inquiry. You should select a question in which you are the information. A good way to do this is to use a m
interested and that helps you to better understand the planning table (see Source 2). a
environment you are investigating. f
t
Source 2 Planning is a key stage in conducting a geographical inquiry. w
Key inquiry question Information needed Possible sources of this information n
How does this mountain Climate data, particularly temperature and Atlas map to locate towns and cities at various distances from r
affect the climate? rainfall for places at various distances from Kilimanjaro l
Kilimanjaro including the summit Encyclopaedia entry for the climates of Kenya and Tanzania
Online search for climate data for selected towns and cities
Observation of photographs and satellite Photographs and satellite images of Kilimanjaro from
images of the region throughout this chapter
Google Earth, including historic imagery
An understanding of the impact of Printed resources such as geography textbooks,
landforms on temperature and rainfall encyclopaedias and Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) books and
leaflets
BOM website
14

Collecting data If geographers undertake an inquiry that involves
consulting with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Good planning and preparation will ensure that your communities, they should be aware that there are
geographical inquiry will run smoothly, be relevant guidelines and protocols that should be followed. While
and give you the answers you are looking for. Once you these are not necessarily rules, it is important to know
have identified the issue, formulate your key inquiry that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have
question. You can conduct a sound, useful inquiry by distinctive regional and cultural identities that require
collecting and recording the information you think you respectful consideration for meaningful consultation.
will need to answer your key inquiry question. This may involve preferred terminology, cues for
Geographers find answers to their questions in cultural communication, and other means for making
many places. They may collect information themselves consultation harmonious and productive. If conducting
by interviewing people, taking photographs, making such an inquiry, it is advisable to do further reading,
sketches out in the field or conducting surveys and such as of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
questionnaires. This kind of information will generally Engagement Toolkit, which can be found online.
only be relevant to a particular inquiry and is called
primary data. Recording and representing
Often a geographer collects information that supports
his or her inquiry but has not been specifically collected geographical data visually
or designed by the geographer for the inquiry. This type
Geographers present the information they gather
of information is called secondary data. Secondary data
during their inquiries in a number of different ways.
sources include maps, graphs, statistics and websites that
They make maps, create graphs and tables or even draw
someone else has developed. One of the best secondary
diagrams to help them look for patterns in the data they
sources of information may be photographs from
have gathered. These tools help geographers analyse
newspapers and magazines, and satellite images from
and interpret the information they have gathered,
Google Earth. It is important to always evaluate any
and also present the information to other people (the
secondary sources for reliability, relevance and bias. This
general public, the government, the media) and help
is particularly true for information obtained through the
them understand the geographer’s findings.
Internet. Unlike a printed source such as a book or atlas
it can be very difficult to establish who has written and
published information online. Maps
One of the most useful tools that geographers use to
Ethics in geography process information is a map. A map is a simplified
plan of an area. Maps are drawn in the plan view
When conducting research and obtaining data for an
(directly from above) because this ensures the scale
inquiry, it is important for a geographer to be mindful
will be the same across the entire area. If maps were
of issues that are likely to raise ethical concerns. This
drawn from an angle, some parts of the mapped area
may include being aware of privacy concerns, ensuring
would look distorted and so it would not be an accurate
anonymity if required, and obtaining informed consent
representation of the area. When properly used, maps
from research participants. Geographers may also need
can reveal a great deal about our planet and the ways in
to outline where and how the information obtained
which we use it.
will be used or published, and special attention may
need to be given for relational data where geographical
references or co-ordinates might disclose a participant’s
location or identity.
Source 3 Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa

Topographic maps
A piece of paper only shows two dimensions: width in great detail, right down to individual buildings
and length. The Earth’s surface, however, has a third and rocks. They also show the height of the land
dimension: height. Cartographers (map makers) use a above sea level through the use of contour lines,
variety of methods to show this third dimension. which join together all places of an equal height. By
Topographic maps are one of a geographer’s most learning to interpret the contour patterns made by
useful tools. Because most topographic maps are these lines you can work out the shape and height of
drawn of a small region they can show that region the land that has been mapped (see Source 4).
ROUND HILL OR VOLCANO VALLEY
RIDGE SPUR
CLIFF PLATEAU
Source 4 Common contour patterns
Cartograms
You will have already seen cartograms in the course
of your geography studies. These are the maps that
look distorted and have areas that appear thinner
or more enlarged than they would normally be,
depending on what they are showing. Cartograms
are sometimes called ‘value by area’ maps, which
means the spaces on the maps are distorted to show a
representation of a value rather than land area.
For example, while Vietnam is a relatively small
country in terms of land area, it is the fifth largest rice Source 5 This cartogram shows the percentage of the
growing country, so it would be exaggerated to a much population living on more than US$200 a day. The distortion
greater relative size. The United States of America, shows that the United States has many more people living
on this amount than Asia does.
which actually has a much larger land mass than
Vietnam, is the 10th largest rice producer, so would There are various software programs available
appear much smaller than actual size on a cartogram. that can generate cartograms.

Digital maps and terrain models
There are about 6000 man-made satellites
orbiting the Earth. Many of these collect
digital data about the shape and height
of the land and transmit it back to
computers on the ground. This data is
then interpreted and can be used to draw
maps. Cartographers can use computer
programs to add colours to these digital
maps to highlight certain aspects of the
environment. In Source 6, for example,
the land has been shaded according to its
height. The data can also be manipulated
in other ways. In Source 7 it has been used
to create a side view of the landform being
mapped. This type of illustration is known 0 15 30 km
as a digital terrain model. Source 6 In this digital map of the Mount Kilimanjaro region, land has been
shaded according to its height above sea level. Shadows have also been
added to help map users understand the shape and height of the land.
Source 7 This is a digital terrain model of Mount Kilimanjaro and the surrounding area. The data was collected by a NASA
space shuttle and an orbiting satellite. Cartographers have exaggerated the height of the landform so that it appears twice as
high as it actually is.

Remember and understand 4 Use Source 6 to describe the terrain of Mount
1 What are the five sets of skills in a full geographical Kilimanjaro. Do you think Source 6 is more useful for
inquiry? this task that Source 7? Why?
2 Imagine that while watching the news on television Evaluate and create
this evening you see an item about a large 5 a Bring a copy of your local newspaper to class.
earthquake in China. Search through the newspaper, or think about
a How could this news item be the beginning of your local area, and identify examples of stories
a geographical inquiry? or issues that could be investigated as part of a
b Write a series of geographical questions about geographical inquiry.
this earthquake. b Choose one local issue and work with a partner
to develop a series of geographical questions
Apply and analyse
about it. Then, complete a planning table for one
3 For the geographical questions that you have of your questions.
written, develop a planning table similar to the one
shown for Mount Kilimanjaro (see Source 2).

1.4 Analysing
Once you have collected, recorded, evaluated and potential bias that may be influencing an interview
represented your information, it is time to make sense subject’s response. An interview that a geographer is
of it all so that you can reach some conclusions about conducting on the potential effects of turning local
the geographical questions that began your inquiry. parkland into an industrial park, for instance, would
Geographers look for order, diversity, trends, patterns, have very different responses from a representative
anomalies and relationships in their information. of the industrial developer than from a member of a
It can often help to classify information by sorting local wildlife conservation group. It is important for a
it into groups. geographer to evaluate this kind of bias, and remember
to ask questions about the motivation behind it.
Reliability When selecting secondary sources, such as maps,
graphs, photographs or other data, the geographer also
When undertaking an inquiry, geographers need to needs to ensure the data is reliable and unbiased. This
evaluate the sources they use for reliability and potential includes evaluating the creator of the data – is the data
bias, as well as usefulness. In the case of collecting data from a recognised source like a government body, such
from primary sources, such as interviewing subjects as the Bureau of Meteorology or a research agency like
directly on a topic, the information gathered will be the CSIRO? Is the data provided without bias? Or is it
reliable because it is gathered first-hand. It is therefore presented on a website for a company that might have
important for the geographer to keep in mind any a vested interest in influencing public opinion?
skilldrill
Evaluating the reliability of schools and universities, .biz by businesses and .mil
by military groups.
websites Step 4 If you cannot find out when the information
There is an enormous amount of material available online, was published or who published it, it is probably
but it is important to keep in mind that not all websites too unreliable to use in a geographical inquiry.
provide reliable information. You must be careful not Look for a more reliable source of information.
to naively accept that all information published online
is from a reliable source. Websites should be critically Apply the skill
evaluated for reliability by following these steps: 1 Common websites used for reference information
Step 1 Find out how old the information is. When was it include the CIA World Factbook, the Australian
first published? This will help you decide whether it is Bureau of Statistics, National Geographic and the
useful for your inquiry or not. United Nations Development Programme. Using the
Step 2 Find out who published the information. Is it steps listed above, assess the reliability of the data
possible they have a bias? You can often find out found on these websites.
more about the organisation publishing information Source 1
by going to their ‘home’ page or ‘about us’ page. This web
page offers
Step 3 Look at the extension at the end of the website
data about
address, as this gives you an important clue Tanzania.
about the origin of the information. For example, How can you
.com is used by commercial organisations such determine if
it contains
as online stores, .org is used by non-commercial reliable
organisations such as NGOs and welfare groups, information?
.gov by government departments, .edu refers to

Using the PQE method Q – Quantify
In this step, you need to add specific and accurate
PQE is a tool used by geographers to describe the data
information to define and explain the patterns.
they have gathered (particularly on maps) and to look
for patterns in this data. The letters PQE stand for Quantifying involves using statistics, amounts,
pattern, quantify and exceptions. sizes and locations to give specific details. For example,
rather than just saying, ‘The most forest is located in
P – Pattern the centre of the continent’, you would need to quantify
In this step, you need to give a general overview of any this statement. You might say instead, ‘240.3 million
patterns you may identify. hectares of forest has been recorded in Central Africa,
compared with 35.4 million hectares in East Africa’.
When looking at any form of data, look for things
that stand out or form patterns. A pattern may be a
E – Exceptions
group of similar features on a diagram, a concentration
In this step, you need to identify everything that does
of a particular colour or feature on a map, or a
not fit your patterns.
particular shape that is created by data on a column
graph. For example, when looking at a map of Africa Often, you may find that there are things in your
(see Source 2) you might say, ‘The forests seem to be data that do not fit into a pattern you have identified.
located mainly in Central Africa and Southern Africa’. These are called exceptions. They also need to be
identified and quantified. For example, you might say,
‘There are also forest regions located in North Africa
and West Africa’.
AFRICA: ENVIRONMENTS
M E D
I T
E R
R
A N
E A
S N
TAIN
M OUN S E A LEGEND
ATLAS Al Aziziyah
Cairo Desert
Open savannah
(mostly grassland)
Woody savannah
Tropic of Cancer (grassland with trees)
S a h a r a D e s e r t
RE
Forest
D
N ile
R iv
SE
Mountains
er
N iger
R iv
Cropland
er
Urban area
Sea floor relief
Country border
Disputed border
Largest city
R iver Town
AT L A N T I C Highest mountain
Equator
Lake
C ongo
OCEAN Victoria
Mt Kilimanjaro 5895 m
INDIAN
OCEAN 0
N
Na
mib
Kalahari Tropic of Capricorn

Desert
Desert
500 1000 1500 km

SCALE 1:50 000 000
Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area Projection
Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press

Graphs
In Years 7 and 8 you will have learned how to create
and interpret simple graphs, such as bar graphs, Compound column graphs
column graphs and pie charts. In Years 9 and 10 you A compound column graph, sometimes called a
will be working with more complex graphs. You won’t stacked column graph or stacked bar graph, is used
necessarily be creating these kinds of graphs yourself, by geographers to compare the parts of something
but you will be learning how to interpret them and with the whole. They are a more complex type of
make sense of the information they provide. Some of column graph in which each column is split into
these styles of complex graphs are described below. sections. The results are then stacked on top of
each other, in different colours or different shades
of a colour, so that results can be easily compared
Climate graphs (see Source 4).
Climate graphs show the general climate of Each column in a compound column graph
a place – what the weather is like overall in a represents a total, and each different coloured
certain location, graphing the average monthly segment represents a part that makes up that
temperature and rainfall over the course of a total. The graph in Source 4, for example, shows
year (or other set period of time) (see Source 3). the total increase in world population, from
Climate graphs combine line and column graphs. 1950 projected up to 2050. Of the total increase
Temperature is recorded as a line graph and in population, it is immediately clear that Asia,
rainfall is recorded as a bar graph. coloured light purple, has experienced and will
continue to experience the greatest growth. It is
also immediately clear that Oceania, coloured red,
°C Perth mm has experienced very small population growth in
comparison. Presenting the information in this
50 500 way means we can quickly see and compare a
number of figures that contribute to a total.
40 400 10 000
8000
Average temperature (°C)
Average rainfall (mm)
30 300
6000
20 200
4000
2000
10 100
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Year
0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D KEY South America
Oceania North America
and Caribbean
Month Europe Asia Africa
Source 3 A climate graph showing the average Source 4 A compound column graph showing the
monthly temperature and rainfall in Perth increase in world population by region, 1950–2050
(columns on the right provide projections)

Population pyramids
Population pyramids are horizontal bar graphs Population pyramids can also help geographers to
that show the proportion of males and females in identify the ways in which the population in a single
different age groups in a population. They can be country is changing over time. In these population
used in a number of ways. Most commonly, they pyramids of Australia’s population, for example, it
are used to compare the population structures and is clear that the percentage of Australia’s population
growth rates of different countries. A triangular- over the age of 65 increased between 1960 (see Source
shaped graph shows a population with a high birth 6) and 2009 (see Source 7). Geographers describe this
rate – that is, the population in that country is change as the ageing of the population.
growing – while a graph that tapers in (is narrower)
at the younger ages indicates a population that is
contracting or declining (see Source 5).
Male Age (years) Female Male Age (years) Female

80+ 80+
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Percentage of the total population Percentage of the total population
Source 5 Population pyramids showing growing (left) and contracting (right) populations
Male Age (years) Female Male Age (years) Female

80+ 80+
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Percentage of the total population Percentage of the total population
Source 6 Population pyramid for Australia, 1960 Source 7 Population pyramid for Australia, 2009

Scatter plots The percentage of original rainforest and population
Maps can be useful for showing growth rate for selected Asia–Pacific countries
70
a pattern but they don’t really Papua
explain that pattern. A special type 60
New Guinea
Indonesia Malaysia
of graph, called a scatter plot (or
Original rainforest remaining (%)

Laos
Myanmar
scatter graph), is a better way of 50 Cambodia
doing this. A scatter plot compares
two sets of data in a visual way so 40
Vietnam
that connections between them can
30 Sri Lanka
be easily seen. Scatter plots are also Thailand
called scattergrams. The following 20
India
Philippines
scatter plot compares the amount
Trend Bangladesh
of original forest cover remaining 10
line
in selected Asian countries with
their population growth rates. It is
0.5 1 1.5 2.0 2.5
essentially testing the theory that Population growth rate (%)
forests are more endangered in
countries where the population is Source 8 Scatter graph showing remaining forest and the population
growth rate.
growing rapidly.
Because most of the countries
lie close to the trend line in this graph it is possible remaining. Those countries that lie apart from the
to say that there is a relationship between the general trend such as Bangladesh are called outliers.
amount of forest in a country and the rate at which A geographer studying this graph might use it
its population is growing. Countries with the fastest as the beginning of a geographical inquiry into
growing populations have the most rainforest deforestation in Bangladesh.
Other graphic representations

In addition to maps and graphs,
Geographical diagrams
geographers use a range of other Geographical diagrams Rate of 14
visual representations to communicate are simplified drawings of snow melts 12

10
the real world. They allow 1900–2020
information they have collected. These 8
Area km2
6
include geographic diagrams, sketches, geographers to show the 4
tables, geographic photographs and features or characteristics 2

Glaciers 0
of places or things much
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2020
geographic information systems (GIS). Estimated line
These ways of presenting information more directly than Ice Year
allow geographers to communicate their describing them in words.

findings in the most clear and appropriate Certain interesting or
complex processes can also 1912
manner.
be easily explained and
demonstrated in a diagram,
and communicated quickly
and effectively by simple
visual representation (see
Source 9).
2002
Source 9 This diagram

shows the dramatic rate at
which snows have melted on
Mount Kilimanjaro.

Tables
Tables allow geographers to present and compare data by organising it under different headings. Tables can be
useful for presenting information over a range of time periods or locations.
Source 10 This table, based on data gathered by geographers in 2006, shows the change in area of seven glaciers (A–G)
on Mount Kilimanjaro, 1912–2003.
Areas Glacier Glacier Glacier Glacier Glacier Glacier Glacier Total
(10 3 m2) Area A Area B Area C Area D Area E Area F Area G
1912 5676 3 27 5011 811 372 158 12058
1953 3829 0 16 2156 493 181 0 6675
1976 2440 0 0 1409 209 113 0 4171
1989 1900 0 0 1168 147 90 0 3305
2003 1304 0 0 1025 132 49 0 2510
Geographical sketches
A geographical sketch can be an extremely useful
way of collecting information and presenting it
in a straightforward and immediate way. They are
often completed in the field (and are known as field
sketches) or are sketched from photographs. The aim
of a geographical sketch is to focus on those parts
of the environment that are relevant to the current
geographical inquiry. For example, a geographer
studying the role of waves in the erosion of a
coastline would sketch the rocks and landforms of
a beach while another geographer studying tourism
at the coast would sketch the buildings and roads
at the same beach. Sketches allow the geographer to Source 11 Field sketches are useful for capturing
simplify information to make it easier to understand. information quickly and directly.
Geographic information systems (GIS)

A geographic information system (GIS) is a way of
collecting, storing, presenting and using geographical
data. GIS encompasses collecting geospatial data – real-
world distance between landmarks, water depth,
height and width of buildings, layout of streets
and suburbs – and presenting it through digital
means. Smartphone apps like Google Maps and
Google Earth use GIS data to allow you to navigate
through the real world, using data that has been
gathered using computer technology. GIS has many
different applications and is used for planning,
telecommunications, transport and logistics, to name Source 12 Geographic information systems (GIS) gather
just a few. present real-world geographical data using computer
technology. Today, GIS can be found on almost every
smartphone in the form of apps like Google Maps and
Google Earth.

Using other methods to interpret Analysing false colour images
geographical data You may have heard the terms ‘false colour image’ or
‘false colour map’ before. The term ‘false colour’ does
not mean the colours used in an image are incorrect,
Analysing geographical photographs it just means different colours have been used to make
Landscapes can be photographed from several the image or map easier to interpret. The cartographer
different angles depending on the position of the or person working on the image has chosen colours that
camera at the time the photograph was taken. Each make some aspects easier to see or understand than a
normal ‘natural’ photograph or map would be.
angle makes some features of the landscape easier to
The colours used in a false colour image can be quite
see and interpret than other features, and so you need
exaggerated and unnatural-looking. This is because
to carefully consider at which angle the photograph
the colours of the natural features are too similar to
has been taken.
demonstrate a particular point or aspect. If someone
is trying to show where a muddy brown river meets a
Analysing satellite images
brown-coloured riverbank where there are brown rocks
A satellite image is taken from space. It allows us to and some brownish shrubs, they might decide to use
see large areas of the Earth’s surface. These images are false colour to clearly show where the different elements
often used to investigate patterns such as the streams are. In that case, they may decide to make the shrub S
and rivers that radiate from Mount Kilimanjaro. It areas bright green, the river neon yellow and the rocks i
is difficult, however, to see smaller features of the p
bright red, leaving just the river bank brown.
K
environment. You should examine the accompanying legend to s
interpret the colours used in a false colour map. v
t
Source 13 In this ground level photograph of Mount Source 14 In this oblique aerial photograph the camera
Kilimanjaro, the camera is being held by someone at the same is positioned above the landscape, but is angled towards the
level as the landscape being photographed. This angle allows scene being photographed (oblique means ‘at an angle’). This
you to clearly see the height of any object and the detail in allows you to see both the foreground and the background of
vertical surfaces. However, objects such as the mountain and the scene. You can also see both the height of an object and its
the tent hide the landscape behind them. width or area. Objects in the background, however, seem much
smaller than those in the foreground.

Source 15 In this vertical aerial photograph, the camera Source 16 This image of Mount Kilimanjaro was taken
is positioned directly above the landscape. This vertical (or by a satellite orbiting at 830 km above the Earth’s surface.
plan) view allows you to see the extent of any feature such as
Kilimanjaro’s crater. It is very difficult, however, to judge the
steepness of the mountainside or the depth of the crater. Plan
views are used for making maps, as the scale is the same over
the area shown and similar objects look the same size.

Remember and understand a The number of people living in Perth this year
1 Why is it important to assess the reliability of data? b Comparing an increase in food consumption
between countries over time
2 What do the letters PQE stand for?
c Rainfall levels in the Pilbara.
3 What is an oblique aerial photograph?
4 What are some of the advantages and Evaluate and create
disadvantages of using a vertical aerial photograph? 10 The oblique aerial photograph (Source 14) was taken
5 What advantages do scatter plots have over maps? in 1991 and the ground level photograph (Source 13)
was taken in 2009.
Apply and analyse
a How has the mountain top changed in this time?
6 Look at Source 2 on page 19. Use the PQE method
b With a partner, discuss some geographical
to think about Africa’s deserts.
questions you could ask to investigate why the
a Can you identify a pattern? mountain has changed in this time. Don’t worry
b Can you quantify this pattern? about the answers; just concentrate on writing
c Are there any exceptions in this pattern? some good questions.
7 Which type of photograph would you take on c Share your questions with the class. List three
a field trip? questions from the class discussion that you think
8 Some geographers are very interested in the amount could be the beginning of a geographical inquiry.
of snow and ice on Mount Kilimanjaro, as it has been d Where could you find information to help you
gradually declining for several decades. Which type investigate these questions?
of photograph do you think would be most useful to 11 Research the size of a country other than Australia
show the decline of the total area of the mountain’s over a 10-year period. Create a graph to present
snow and ice? your findings.
9 What kind of graph or usual tool would be best to
analyse the following data?

1.5 Evaluating
Drawing conclusions There are a number of methods to evaluate your
evidence. For example, the SHEEPT method can be used
Once you have collected and analysed your to evaluate the many factors influencing your data.
information, the next stage of a geographical inquiry
is to evaluate what you have learned in order to draw Using the SHEEPT method
a conclusion. In order to do this you must critically
SHEEPT is a tool used by geographers to help them
evaluate the information or data that you have
consider the many factors that may contribute to
collected. There are a number of factors that should be
the patterns identified in their data. When you are
considered in order to achieve this:
examining issues related to your inquiry, it is useful to
• Relationships – Considering the relationships, think about them in terms of these six factors and rank
patterns and trends between data sets is a very them in order of importance. This will help you reach
important part of drawing conclusions. For example, your conclusions. The letters SHEEPT stand for:
geographers have found that deforestation,
or decreasing levels of vegetation, on Mount S social (S) – factors relating to culture and people
Kilimanjaro corresponds to decreased levels of H historical (H) – factors relating to past events
rainfall at the base of the mountains. From this
E environmental (E) – factors relating to the natural
they might be able to conclude that deforestation
environment (including climate, landforms and
negatively impacts communities living around the
vegetation)
base of Mount Kilimanjaro.
• Ambiguities – Sometimes our analysis or research will E economic (E) – factors relating to the earning or
not provide any clear answers or reveal any distinct spending of money (including income earned from
trends. It is best to avoid drawing conclusions from industry and tourism and the cost of building a dam
ambiguous or vague data as this can skew our results. or highway)
• Different perspectives – It is important to consider P political (P) – factors relating to governments
different points of view and approaches to an issue. (including laws, regulations and policies)
Understanding as many perspectives as possible helps
to give geographers a broader knowledge from which T technological (T) – factors relating to the availability
to draw conclusions. It also prevents their evaluations and use of different types of technology (including
from being influenced or biased by one idea. the development of greener technologies, alternative
energy sources and GIS).
Source 1 Geographers critically evaluate information to draw conclusions about deforestation on Mount Kilimanjaro and its
negative impact on surrounding communities.

Predicting outcomes • emailing your local government representative or
Member of Parliament about the issue
If you have collected enough information during your • inviting an expert speaker to present at your school
research, you should be able to identify trends, patterns assembly
or relationships in your data. For example, when you • planning a campaign to raise money for the issue.
analyse your data of climate on Mount Kilimanjaro,
you might notice a yearly increase in the temperature.
If this temperature has increased every year for the last Check your learning 1.5
twenty years, you might predict that next year it will
rise again. Remember and understand
As we have learned, there are many factors that can 1 How can SHEEPT methods assist us to draw
change or influence an environment, so predictions conclusions?
will not always be correct. However, it is possible to use
2 Why is it important to consider many perspectives
a range of sources to make a well-educated estimate.
when drawing conclusions?
By identifying trends and patterns in your research,
geographers can learn more about an environment and Apply and analyse
what might happen to it in the future.
3 A company involved in logging the forests on
Mount Kilimanjaro has offered you a report on the
Planning for action environmental effects of deforestation. Why should
this not be the only research you draw conclusions
When you evaluate your research and predict outcomes,
from?
you may find that there is a problem and action is
needed in order to respond to the issue you have 4 Identify a popular place in your local town or city,
been investigating. For example, if a link is made such as a park, beach, shopping centre or other
between environmental damage and human activity, landmark. Using the SHEEPT method, in groups,
a geographer might develop a plan to minimise the brainstorm factors that you think might impact on
impact of human activity in order to protect the the number of visitors to that place.
environment.
Evaluate and create
There are a number of different ways that you can
take action to make a change. These include: 5 Conduct your own Internet research on the climate
around Mount Kilimanjaro and use the SHEEPT
• creating a fact sheet or multimedia presentation
about the issue to inform your class, school or method to think more closely about the factors
community that affect it. List at least one point for each of the
SHEEPT factors.
• using social media to raise awareness and gather
support
Source 2 Trends and patterns can be used to predict outcomes. For example, past climate information can be used to make
predictions about the changing climate of Mount Kilimanjaro.

1.6 Communicating and
reflecting
During a geographical inquiry you may discover • oral methods, such as reports, discussions and debates
something new that other people should know about. • audio methods, such as radio reports
It is important that you be able to communicate your • graphical methods, such as graphs, annotated
findings clearly and effectively. There are several ways photographs, sketches and satellite images
of doing this and you should select the method that • written methods, such as essays or other text-based
best suits your audience and purpose:
presentations.
skilldrill
Planning, creating and delivering

a PowerPoint presentation
Geographers often present their findings to an audience
in order to share the results of an inquiry and help others
understand how this impacts on their world. Using
PowerPoint is a good way of organising and presenting
your findings.
You may have found doing oral presentations a
little daunting in the past, but following these steps will
prepare you to give a PowerPoint presentation with
confidence. PowerPoint allows you to embed images
and provides a structure for outlining your key points
in a clear and concise way. You can then talk through
your presentation using the slides to both prompt and
support you – using visual aids captures your audience’s
attention and makes your presentation a lot more
informative, too.
Follow these simple steps and tips when planning,
creating and delivering the findings of a geographical
inquiry. Source 1 A PowerPoint presentation can be a
very effective way of presenting the findings of your
Plan your presentation geographical inquiry.
Step 1 Gather the findings of the research you have
carried out as part of your geographical inquiry. present only the most relevant parts and that these
This should include any written research materials are structured logically for the audience.
you have collected, the sources you have used, the Step 3 Know the requirements of your presentation.
results of any surveys or interviews, and a range of Your teacher will tell you how long your presentation
relevant images, graphs, maps or photographs. is expected to be and what key points need to
Step 2 Plan your presentation carefully so it has a clear be covered. It is important that you plan your
beginning, middle and end. It’s likely that you will presentation in line with these requirements. For
have a lot of information, so it’s important that you example, if you are required to talk for 10 minutes,

you might like to present around 10 PowerPoint through the key points of your presentation using
slides and talk to each one for around a minute. your cue cards and slides to support you.
Before you start creating your PowerPoint
Deliver your presentation
presentation, it is really useful to sketch out a rough
plan of what you want to cover on each slide. Have a Step 7 Before delivering your presentation, be sure that
practice on your own following your plan. Time how you’re confident that the technology you’re using
long it takes you to cover the information you plan is in good working order. Prior to class, check that
to fit on one slide. Plan the rest of your presentation everything is working as it should and that the screen
using this as a guide. you are projecting onto is ready and clearly visible
to the audience. If your PowerPoint presentation
Create your presentation contains any audio or video footage, check that your
Step 4 Once you have worked out the length of your speakers are working and audible to the audience.
presentation and the content you need to cover, it is Step 8 Deliver your presentation by working through the
time to create your slides. If you are not familiar with slides in the same way you practised. Here are some
PowerPoint, there are plenty of online guides to assist tips to help you deliver the best PowerPoint you can:
you. Here are some tips to help you create a clear
• Speak clearly – not too fast, not too slow. Vary your
and visually engaging PowerPoint presentation:
tone and pitch to make your presentation more
• Be sure you present the content in clear, concise interesting.
dot-point form, not huge slabs of information in
• One thing at a time – what is on the screen should
paragraph form. You do not need to put all your
be the thing you are talking about. Your audience will
findings up on the screen.
quickly read every slide as soon as it is displayed. If
• Do not fill up your slides with a lot of random pictures there are four points on the slide, they will have read
that only loosely relate to the content. Include visuals all four points while you are still talking about the first
that relate to the content on that particular slide. point. Plan your presentation so just one new point
• A common mistake is to have objects and text is displayed at any given moment. Click to go to the
moving on the screen in a way that just distracts the next point only when you are ready to talk about that
audience. Use graphics, sound, video, animations next point.
and transitions only if they add value to the point • Make eye contact with different members of your
being made. audience. Do not just look down at your cue cards!
• Use a design that ensures your audience can clearly Step 9 Invite the audience to ask questions and do your
see and read the slides. You need enough contrast best to answer them correctly. If you do not know the
between the text colour and the background colour answer, or are unsure, don’t just make something
on the slide, and make sure your font size is large up on the spot. You are better off being honest and
enough. offering to answer any questions at a later stage once
Step 5 Prepare a set of cue cards. When delivering you’ve researched the answer.
an audiovisual presentation to an audience do not
just stand up and read out the text on each slide. Apply the skill
Rather, you should be talking in a way that develops 1 Prepare and deliver a PowerPoint presentation on an
and expands the points on each slide. Carefully plan issue of geography that you find interesting. It could
in advance what you are going to talk about during be the local issue that you researched in the previous
each slide. Record this plan on cue cards, and refer section, or something you have noticed in the news.
to these cue cards during your speech to remind you Ensure you include some interesting visual elements,
of what to say. Cue cards are also a great support to such as photographs or graphs, as well as your key
have if you are prone to nerves! points.
Step 6 Practise your presentation. You can do this on
your own, or in front of a friend or family member.
You might feel a bit silly at first, but practising will help
you perfect your timing and get you used to talking

Reflecting The title of my geographical inquiry is:
The final steps in completing
My geographical inquiry set out to investigate:
a geographical inquiry are to
reflect on the results of your GENERAL POINTS My rating Comments
inquiry and the methods 1 2 3 4 5

I was able to complete all stages of my
that you used. This is an geographical inquiry.
essential step as it allows you
I was able to answer all my key inquiry questions.
to learn important lessons
from any mistakes that I was able to plan my inquiry effectively.
you have made and apply My maps, graphs, tables and diagrams were
these lessons in your next clear and accurate.
geographical inquiry. There I was able to analyse my data and reach a
are several ways to reflect on conclusion.
your geographical inquiry. I was able to communicate my findings in an
Reflecting involves looking interesting and appropriate way.
at what you have learned,
AREAS OF STRENGTH Comments
thinking about how it was
learned, and asking critical My areas of strength are:
questions about the way I'm getting much better at:
your geographical inquiry
AREAS NEEDING IMPROVEMENT Comments
was conducted. One of the
best methods to help you The part I found most difficult was:
reflect is to complete a self- I need the most help with:
evaluation checklist (see
IMPORTANT ISSUES HIGHLIGHTED BY MY INQUIRY Comments
Source 2).
The most important thing I learnt from
my inquiry was:
Responding Comments
As well as reflecting on This issue is important to me because:

the ways in which you
This issue is important to my community
conducted your inquiry, you /country/world because:
also need to respond to what
you found out. You may S
even decide that you need Source 2 A self-evaluation checklist is a very useful way of reflecting on the findings of your
to recommend some action geographical inquiry.
based what you found.
Geographers often use the information gathered • Does it bring more economic benefits than it costs?
and analysed in their inquiry for a specific purpose. Is it affordable in both the short term and the long
This could be to report on an issue and educate people, term?
to raise awareness of a potential problem, or to lobby • Does everyone affected by this plan of action benefit
local, state or federal government about a particular from its outcomes or just a few people?
concern. This can be done via various means, from
presenting official reports or studies, to using social
media and starting an online petition. The work you do Case study
as a geographer can contribute to your environment, and A geographical inquiry conducted on the lower slopes
responding and acting is an important part of this work. of Mount Kilimanjaro found that many schools lacked
If the results of your geographical inquiry lead a reliable supply of clean water for sanitation. Based on
you to recommend a plan of action, there are some this inquiry, the members of several non-government
important things to consider: organisations along with the local villagers laid
• Is it environmentally sustainable? Does the hundreds of metres of new pipes and installed tanks
plan impact in a negative way on the natural and taps so that children at the schools could wash
environment and natural processes? their hands before preparing food (see Source 3).

Source 3 Children at school near Mount Kilimanjaro using newly installed taps to wash their hands before preparing food

Remember and understand 6 What geographical questions do you think began the
1 Why is communicating an important part of a inquiry that resulted in the new taps in the Tanzanian
geographical inquiry? school shown in Source 3?
2 List three ways you could communicate the findings 7 Why is it important that an action plan for change
of your geographical inquiry. consider the issue of sustainability?
3 A self-evaluation checklist is one way to reflect on a Evaluate and create
geographical inquiry. What are two other ways? 8 Imagine that you are preparing a PowerPoint
4 Why are the findings of a geographical inquiry often presentation for your class on the decline of the
useful to the community? glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro. What are some of the
Apply and analyse main points you would raise in your presentation?
What images from this toolkit would you use to
5 What do you most enjoy about other students’ oral
illustrate these points?
presentations? What do you least enjoy?
9 Create a checklist to assess your map-drawing skills.

1.7 Fieldwork in geography
Why is fieldwork important? • investigating why things are where they are
• comparing different features to see if there is a pattern
A historian studying a period in the past will try to find • calculating amounts such as water flow, number
primary sources of information such as letters or diaries of different species of plants and animals, visitor
to better understand that period. For geographers, numbers
the field is an essential primary source of data. Books,
• analysing different forms of data
websites and maps can give you some information
• forming a more complete picture of the area you are
about a particular place but they are usually secondary
studying
sources of information. To really understand a
• communicating your findings.
landscape or issue you need to go and see it for yourself.
All these activities are aimed at developing and
A field trip can be a fun and exciting experience as
improving your geographical skills and understanding.
you spend time with your classmates in an interesting
place. As well as being fun, field trips are an essential
part of your geography course. This is because fieldwork: Fieldwork locations and inquiry
• helps you to better understand how the world
‘works’ as it builds a bridge between what you learn
questions
in a classroom and the world outside that classroom. Fieldwork can take place in many locations and for a
• teaches you new skills, particularly in collecting wide variety of purposes. The best locations tend to
information. Many of these skills, such as surveying be where change is happening before your eyes. Rivers
and digital mapping, are in demand in the and coasts are popular fieldwork locations because the
workplace. constant movement of water in these places changes
• allows you to learn about the world in a new and the natural environment, often resulting in a response
different way. Not everyone learns well by reading from people. Shopping centres, parks and city streets are
books or answering questions in the classroom. also popular because the constant movement of people
Many students learn more by completing practical, creates patterns, flows and changes.
hands-on activities such as fieldwork.
• gives you the opportunity to discover how other
people feel about their environment and to compare
this with your own values and ideas about your world.
• requires you to be organised and to work
cooperatively with other people.
The skills associated with fieldwork

The aim of all fieldwork is to enable you to develop the
skills of observation, information gathering, analysis
and interpretation of different forms of data and
communication of your results. The types of fieldwork
you conduct will differ according to your chosen topic
and the fieldwork site. All fieldwork is activity-based and
inquiry-based. You will be:
• identifying different types of environments and the
features within them
• describing what you see around you in geographical
terms
Source 1 You never know where fieldwork will take you!
• recording data from different sources These geographers are using a drill to examine the age of the
• sampling things like water quality and wind speed glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro.

Source 2 Examples of fieldwork locations and inquiry questions for a range of topics
Unit Fieldwork locations Inquiry questions
Biomes and food Local farm What crops or animals are grown on this farm? What makes this place suitable for this
security type of farming? How has the farmer changed the natural environment? What new
technologies is the farmer using? How does this impact on the farm’s productivity?
Rural urban fringe Is the city growing in this region? What are the main drivers of this growth? How has this
impacted on food and fibre production in the past? What evidence is there for changing
land use patterns?
Geographies of Local business How is this business connected to people in other places? How have new
interconnections communication and information technologies changed this business? What is the size
and shape of the region served by this business?
Major shopping centre How many businesses in this centre are foreign owned? Where are the goods offered
in the shops in this centre manufactured? Where do the customers who use this centre
come from? How is this shopping centre connected to people in other places?
Environmental River or stream What natural processes are shaping this riverine or coastal environment? How do these
change and natural processes impact on human activities? What human activities have changed
management Coast the natural processes and environment in this place? How have these environmental
changes been managed? How effective has this management been? What further
management strategies could be used to better manage change in this place?
Geographies of Two contrasting What are living conditions like in these two suburbs? What are the similarities and
human wellbeing suburbs differences? How can these differences be mapped? Why do these differences occur?
How can wellbeing be improved in these places?
Program to improve What are the aims of this program? Why does this program exist? How successful is the
wellbeing program in reducing inequalities in wellbeing? How could it become more successful?
Could this program be applied in other regions and places?
Source 2 provides examples of fieldwork locations principles such as people’s right to confidentiality and
and inquiry questions that can be the beginning of an the right to refuse to take part in a survey. If your class
investigation at some of these locations. is planning a field trip to a natural environment such
as a forest or beach, you will need to ensure you do not
Conducting successful fieldwork damage the environment by trampling on plants or
animals, or by dropping litter.
Fieldwork is a type of geographical inquiry, so whenever
you take part in fieldwork you will need to follow the Stage 3 Analyse data and draw
stages that are outlined in this toolkit. conclusions
Stage 1 Observe, ask questions and plan Analyse the evidence you have collected and look for
patterns or clues that will help you to answer your
Begin by looking at an issue or location and compile a inquiry questions. This is usually done in the classroom
set of related inquiry questions that you would like to where you can more easily draw maps and graphs to
answer. There are some suggestions in Source 2 to get interpret your information and reach some conclusions.
you started. Plan what information you will need to
answer your key questions, how you will collect it and Stage 4 Communicate your findings
what equipment and skills you will need.
Communicate what you have found to an audience in
Stage 2 Collect, record, evaluate and the form of a written report, an oral presentation or an
annotated visual display (AVD).
represent data
Plan your fieldwork so that you can collect the evidence Stage 5 Reflect and take action
and data that you will need. There is a range of
Think about your fieldwork findings and reflect on ways
geographical skills that are well suited to field work.
to improve your investigation process. Finally, decide
These include taking photos, drawing field sketches,
on a course of action, if this is appropriate. This should
conducting surveys and collecting data such as stream
take into account environmental, economic and social
and pedestrian flows. You need to consider ethical
factors.

Source 3 An inner city urban renewal project
• How are environmental changes in this region

A fieldwork example: inner city managed at present?
renewal • How can environmental changes in this region be
better managed in the future?
In the following example, the Year 10 geography class
After some discussion, the students decided on the
at Gumtree College are investigating an urban renewal
third question, but decided to modify it slightly to make
project near the central business district (CBD) in
it easier to study and measure. Their inquiry question
their capital city. Fifteen years ago the area was a vast
neglected industrial site of old docks, cranes, sheds
and railway lines. It has now been transformed into a
residential and commercial hub with apartment blocks,
office buildings, parks, shops, theatres, television
studios and a major sporting arena. The Gumtree
College students are investigating this area as part of
their studies of environmental change and management
of an urban environment.
Stage 1 Observe, ask questions and plan

Prior to their field trip, the students used the Internet
and a promotional DVD to learn more about the area.
Based on these observations they brainstormed a series
of geographical questions that could form the basis of
their inquiry. These included:
• How has this region changed over time?
• What are the causes of change in this region?
• What are the consequences of change on the built Source 4 Students completing a field sketch of an inner city
environment and on the natural environment? renewal project

became ‘What are the consequences of change in this
region on the built environment?’
It was decided that the class would spend one full
day in the region after travelling into the inner city by
train. Following the field trip they would then spend
time in class preparing a field report.
The students spent some time before the field trip
planning what information they could collect and
observe for their inquiry. They decided that they
could investigate previous land uses in the area by
accessing old photographs and maps. Then, while on
the field trip, they would look for examples of changing
land uses. This could include old buildings being
demolished, or the appearance of new buildings, roads,
bridges or other structures that were not in the old
photographs and maps.
Source 5 Students using old photographs of the region to
Stage 2 Collect, record, evaluate and observe change over time
represent data
The students researched the region and collected a Stage 3 Analyse data and draw
series of photographs that showed the ways in which conclusions
the region was used in the past and how these uses have
After completing their fieldwork, students returned to
changed over time. They found the National Library of
the classroom to make sense of the information they
Australia website (http://trove.nla.gov.au/) particularly
had collected and recorded. They used this information
useful. They printed some of these photographs and
to make a series of conclusions about changes to the
took them to the area when they visited on their field
built environments that have occurred over time. In
trip. Activities they completed on the field trip included:
order to do this, they:
• completing a field sketch of new housing
• constructed an overlay map to compare an old map
developments in a part of the area (see Source 4).
of the region with the map they drew while on the
• taking geographic photographs and comparing these field trip. They discovered that the shape of the river
with old photographs (see Source 5). The photographs banks had changed little and that previous land
they took included images of a new train station, reclamation areas had remained the same over the
new sports stadium, new roads and new apartment last 50 years. The rail yards had been moved to make
buildings. Some students also photographed an old way for the new sports stadium and the footprint of
goods shed and old wharf facilities. the new train station was slightly larger than that of
• mapping examples of land use changes on an the previous station. Many goods-handling areas and
outline map of the region. Included on the map buildings from the previous industrial land use had
were examples of buildings that have retained their been replaced with new apartment buildings and a
original use, old buildings that have changed use, large park. Roads from the CBD had been extended
new buildings and areas cleared for new buildings. into the new precinct and new tram lines had been
• selecting examples of change as case studies. Some added.
groups of students chose a new train station that • annotated their photographs of their case study
had replaced an old one, some chose a new sports sites to show how these sites had changed over time
stadium that had been built on an area previously and the impacts of these changes on other areas
used for rail yards, and another group selected a (see Source 6 on page 36). Students concluded that
goods shed that had been converted into restaurants. change had been uneven, with some areas changing
At each site, students listed the changes they little, while others had undergone large-scale and
observed and the impacts of these changes on dramatic changes. They also concluded that one of
surrounding areas. They also discussed the possible the driving forces for these changes has been the
reasons for these changes. Some completed a field growth of the population of the city, increasing the
sketch of their case study. demand for inner-city housing.

These buildings are mainly
residential providing homes important transport link between
for thousands of people. western suburbs and the CBD The Goods shed on Central Pier
has been changed into restaurants
and offices.
New building foundations
show that construction is
taking place in this area. street art ‘Cow in a tree’
recreation area
The bottom floors are usually

shops and bars showing that
this is also a commercial area.
Harbour Esplanade: previously an area used for railway lines
Source 6 An annotated geographical photograph completed as part of a geographical inquiry by students at Gumtree College
• concluded that the changes in this area have discussion forum, and several parents from the school
been largely positive as the area had become an community added their own memories about the region
unattractive wasteland prior to the urban renewal as it was in the past. The class discussed the differences
project. Some students felt that the area could be and similarities between each of the case studies.
improved to make it more attractive for people to
live there. They suggested that a school would be Stage 5 Reflect and take action
an asset in the area, as would more open spaces and Following the submission of their field reports students
recreation facilities like a water park or skate park. reflected on their findings and the methods they used
to reach their conclusions. They decided that the key
Stage 4 Communicate your findings inquiry question they had chosen was a good one,
Students completed field reports based on their although several students commented that it was
geographical inquiry. Each student was required to difficult to work out why change had occurred in this
complete a sketch book that included a range of visual place over time. They completed a self-evaluation
and written material. Examples of visual material checklist to reflect on the findings of their fieldwork (see
included an overlay map to show change over time and Source 1 on page 30) and the ways in which they could
a range of annotated photographs. Written material improve.
included reports on the ways in which the area has Many students felt that the overlay map was a very
changed over time and a description of the ways in good way to demonstrate how an area has changed
which it is expected to change over the next 20 years. over time and suggested that this technique could also
Groups of students delivered presentations on their be used on old photographs. The fieldwork was used
selected case studies. Most used ICT programs such as as the basis for a class discussion about the positive
PowerPoint and Prezi to present photographs of their and negative impacts of the observed changes on the
site. These were posted on the school website and natural environment.

Remember and understand photograph help the students to answer their inquiry
1 Why is it important to plan ahead for fieldwork? question?
2 What are some of the key advantages of fieldwork 6 What other information could the students have
for geography students? collected on their field trip to help them answer their
inquiry question?
Apply and analyse
Evaluate and create
3 Name a place you are familiar with that could be
investigated using some of the techniques used by 7 Year 10 students at another school studied change
the Gumtree College students. Work with a partner in rivers as part of a geographical inquiry into
to decide on a variety of inquiry questions that could environmental change and management. They
be used to guide a field trip to this location. planned a field trip to a local river (see Source 7).
4 Gumtree College students worked in groups to study a What inquiry questions could they generate to
guide their inquiry at this site?
individual sites. What are some of the advantages of
working in this way rather than as a whole class? b Work in a small group to describe the steps
you would undertake to explore one of these
5 Examine Source 6. How might this annotated
questions using fieldwork.
Source 7 This site is the planned location for a fieldwork trip to investigate environmental change and management of a river.

1.8 Careers in geography S
G
t
s
s
In recent years there has been a marked increase in the career is using geomatic engineering. This uses GPS,
T
number and range of jobs and careers that are linked GIS, 3-D computer images, surveying, satellite images
i
to geography. This is likely to continue well into the and photos in the field of engineering. It is one of
o
future, due to a growing awareness of how important Australia’s fastest growing ICT fields.
w
it is to understand our fragile environment. Many
employers are also becoming more aware of the many Career profile: Lucy Johnson –
skills that geographers have and the usefulness of these urban planner
skills in a wide range of careers.
Lucy Johnson uses her geographical skills to help create
Many geographers find that their skills and
and manage liveable spaces in a city council planning
expertise are in such demand that they can easily find
department. Residents and developers who wish to
employment all around the world. There are many jobs
change the ways in which their properties are used must
and careers that are linked to your study of geography
apply to Lucy and her fellow planners for permission.
at school. Some of these are listed in Source 1.
She assesses every proposal carefully to ensure that it
Source 1 Studying geography can lead to many interesting
does not adversely affect the natural environment or
and exciting careers. other local residents. ‘Some proposals are met with great
Working indoors Sharing Related opposition from residents, who are extremely passionate
knowledge opportunities about preserving their streetscapes and the character of
Urban planner Cartographer, both Studying hazards their neighbourhood,’ says Lucy. It is part of her job to
printed and digital and disasters find a balance between development and the protection
maps of the character of the neighbourhood.
Meteorologist and Teacher Studying climate Lucy believes that ‘town planning is crucial,
climatologist change
not just in creating physical environments, but in
GIS specialist Environmental Archaeologist
sustainably changing the way in which we use land and
educator
accommodate population growth. Our resources are
Transport planner Map editor and Agricultural scientist
librarian finite and we must ensure that future generations can
live and prosper just as we do’. She also believes career
Working with Tour guide Researcher
statistics such as opportunities in her chosen field are vast, varied and
census data increasingly more important. S
Geomatic/ Writer/editor Medical geographer/
geospatial engineer health services
planner
Regional planner Journalist Social data analyst
Geography analyst/ Travel consultant Developing new GIS
strategy consultant applications
Working indoors
Not all geography jobs involve working outside. New
information and communication technologies (ICT)
have increased the number and range of geography
careers that are completed indoors. Many of these are
involved with planning future strategies and changes
to the built environment. Planners are concerned about
the ways in which different parts of a suburb or city
fit together and the links between them. Like many
geographers, planners increasingly use GIS systems
Source 2 Lucy Johnson is an urban planner who helps to
and other ICT applications. A relatively new geography create liveable spaces in Melbourne.

Sharing knowledge
Geographers are good communicators who are used
to working in teams to solve problems and propose
solutions. Many geographers have used these and other
skills to share their knowledge with the community.
There are many career opportunities in education,
including teaching in schools and universities – even
overseas. Other geographers work in publishing, as
writers, journalists, editors or cartographers.
Source 4 These geographers are using a 3-D visualisation and

GIS to predict the most productive locations for oil drilling.

1 Why is the number of careers in geography likely
to increase in the future?
2 List three jobs you could do as a geographer if you
wanted a job where you could explore new ideas.
Apply and analyse

3 What geography careers in Source 1 are
connected to the concept of sustainability?
4 What skills do geographers have that make them
useful in helping communities recover from natural
Source 3 This Australian geography teacher is educating disasters?
Fijian kindergarten children about the importance of better 5 Why do you think a background in geography
nutrition and increased physical activity.
would be useful for an archaeologist?
Exploring new ideas Evaluate and create

6 Select one of the careers from Source 1 that
The inquiry and research skills that are part of your
interests you. Research this career and prepare
geography course (including observing, questioning,
interpreting, analysing and communicating) are in a one-page fact sheet that includes at least one
great demand in many industries. Many geographers picture. Include answers to the following questions
are also researchers who explore new ideas and propose in your career fact sheet:
new ways of thinking about the world in which we a What qualifications are needed in this career?
live. These geographers are making new and exciting b How does someone working this career use
discoveries in areas such as climate change, reducing geographical skills and concepts?
the impacts of disasters, the spread of diseases and food c What aspect of this career do you think is most
security. They are also in demand with mining and oil attractive?
companies around the world (see Source 4).

Biomes and
food security
Growing food
It may surprise you to learn that most of the world’s
people, including you, eat grass. It has been estimated
that there are about 50 000 edible plants in the world,
but of these, just 15 species provide 90 per cent of the
world’s food. Three types of plants – wheat, rice and
corn – make up over half of all food eaten each year
and they are all types of grass. Every day, foods from at
least one of these types of grasses will be consumed in
different countries all over
the world.
These hillsides in southern China have had flat ‘steps’
cut into them to create flat land for growing rice, which
is the most important staple food for more than half the
world’s population. Rice, like wheat and corn, grows in
the grasslands regions of the world. Grasslands around
the world share similar features and are therefore known
as a single biome.
2A
What are biomes?
2B
Why do some biomes produce
1 Grasslands are an important biome for producing more food than others?
food. There are about seven other main biomes on
1 What features of the landscape in Source 1 make
Earth. How many can you name?
this a productive area for the growing of food?
2 Grasslands have a climate that supports the
2 Virtually all of Australia’s rice is grown on the flat
growth of grass. What do you think are some of the
river plains of southern New South Wales. How will
features of this climate?
rice farming in this region differ from rice farming in
southern China?

Source 1
2C
chapter
2
These mountains in China have had ‘steps’ (known as terraces) cut into them to create flat areas for growing rice.
How have biomes been altered

by food production?
1 Describe the ways in which farming in this region of
China has changed the natural features such as the
shape of the land, the natural vegetation, the soil
and the water.
chapter 2 growing food 41

2.1 The world’s
Source 1 Types of biomes
Types of terrestrial biomes
(land biomes)
biomes
Colder and dryer Polar lands
Tundra
Boreal forest
Mountain vegetation
Temperate forest
In order to study and understand the different environments Grasslands
on Earth, geographers divide the planet up into a number
Desert
of distinct areas called biomes. Biomes share similar features
Warmer and wetter Tropical forest
(such as weather, climate, soil and landforms) and are classified
according to the types of plants and animals that live there. Types of aquatic Freshwater
Each biome has particular features that make it unique biomes Marine
(water biomes)
(i.e. different to other biomes). For example, one biome Coral reefs
might be hot and rainy most of the time, while another biome
may be cold and dry most of the time. These different weather
and temperature conditions mean that the plants and animals
that live in these different biomes have adapted in different
ways over time and interact with each other in unique ways.
Types of biomes
Not all geographers and scientists classify biomes in the same
Source 2 The tropical forest biome is home to a
way. Some use a simple classification system that includes just
huge variety of different plant and animal species
two biomes: because of warm temperatures and high rainfall.
• terrestrial biomes – those found on land
• aquatic biomes – those found in water Biome Characteristics
Others use a more precise classification system that divides Polar lands Very cold and dry, very little animal
life, almost no vegetation
these two main biomes up into as many as 15 separate
subcategories. The most common types of terrestrial and Tundra Cold, short growing seasons, no trees
aquatic biomes are listed in Source 1 and their locations around Boreal forest Cold, wet, filled with coniferous trees
the world are shown in Source 4. Mountain Cold and windy, low lying vegetation
vegetation that won’t be blown over
Temperate Mild temperatures and wet weather,
Features of different biomes forest lots of trees and animal life
Grasslands Vegetation is mainly grasses that
In certain biomes, such as tropical forests, there is an
support many types of animals. Can
abundance of plant and animal life. This is because the weather be very dry or very wet, depending on
conditions favour a huge variety of species. For example, a location
recent study of a Colombian rainforest, for example, found 596 Desert Dry, almost no plants, often located in
bird species, 150 different species of amphibians and more than the centre of a continent (away from
200 species of mammals. This explosion of life is due to the the coast)
year-round high temperatures and rainfall in the region. Tropical Warm, wet, lots of plant and animal
forest life
At the other end of the scale are the tundra and the polar
Freshwater Low levels of (or no) salt in water,
lands. These are the coldest biomes. The tundra biome circles
supports animal and some aquatic
the North Pole and because of its location, it has very low plant life
temperatures and short growing seasons. As a result, there Marine Made up of three zones that get
is very little plant diversity. In fact, the word ‘tundra’ means colder and darker as the water gets
‘treeless plain’. deeper. Most marine life exists closer
to the surface
The polar lands biome is even colder than the tundra.
It includes the continent of Antarctica, which contains virtually Coral reefs Found in warmer waters, often close
to land, filled with coral and aquatic
no native species of plants or animals. life that depend on coral (such as fish)
42 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum Source 3 Characteristics of the different biomes

2A What are biomes?
WORLD: BIOMES
AR C T I C OC EAN
AR C T I C OC EAN
Arctic Circle
Arctic Circle
E URO P E
E URO P E
ASIA
ASIA
N O RTH ATL A NTIC
N O RTH ATL A NTIC
AM E RIC A
AM E RIC A OCEA N
OCEA N
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Cancer
A FRI CA PAC I FI C OC EAN

A FRI CA PAC I FI C OC EAN
Equator
Equator
ATLANTIC
ATLANTIC SOUT H
O CEAN SOUT H
O CEAN I N D I AN O C E A N AMER ICA
I N D I AN O C E A N AMER ICA
Tropic of Capricorn
Tropic of Capricorn
AU STRAL IA
AU STRAL IA
0 1000 2000 km
0 1000 2000 km
Antarctic Circle SOU T H ER N OC EAN
Antarctic Circle SOU T H ER N OC EAN
AN TARC TIC A
AN TARC TIC A
L
LEEG
GEEN
NDD ::
TERRESTRIAL
TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
BIOMES
Polar
Polar lands
lands Tundra
Tundra Boreal
Boreal Mountain
Mountain Remember and understand
forest
forest vegetation
vegetation
1 What is a biome?
2 What is the difference between terrestrial
biomes and aquatic biomes?
3 What does the word ‘tundra’ mean? Where is
the tundra biome located?
Temperate Grasslands Desert Tropical

Apply and analyse
Temperate Grasslands Desert Tropical
forest
forest forest
forest 4 Where are the world’s tropical forests located?
Why do you think they are located in these
places?
5 Describe the distribution of different terrestrial
and aquatic biomes in Australia.
Evaluate and create

AQUATIC Freshwater Marine Coral reefs
reefs 6 Work with a partner to classify the eight
AQUATIC Freshwater Marine Coral
BIOMES
BIOMES
terrestrial biomes shown in Source 4 in order
from the biome with the most species to the
biome with the least species. Compare your
results with other groups in your class.
Were there some rankings you all agree on?
Were there others that no one could agree
on? Discuss the reasons for this.
Source
Source 44
Source 4 Source:
Source: Oxford
Source:Oxford University
OxfordUniversity Press
UniversityPress
Press

2.2 Forest biomes
There are two main types of forest biomes – WORLD: AVERAGE PAPER CONSUMPTION
boreal forest and temperate forest.
Boreal forest biome Western Europe

178.7 Asia
41.0 North
America
The largest biome on land is the boreal forest 229.0
biome. Boreal forest, sometimes called coniferous
World
forest, is made up of evergreen trees that have Average
Africa 54.71
needle-like leaves and cones, such as pine cones. 7.51
This biome is home to a low number of species of Latin
America
plants when compared to other forests in more 43.02
temperate regions or in the tropics. LEGEND

Footprint size proportional
The boreal forest biome covers vast areas in to annual per capita paper use
(kg/per person/per year)
the northern hemisphere, between the Arctic 0 2000 4000 km
tundra and the north of Europe, Asia and North
America. While the climate in these regions is
not as harsh as that experienced in the polar
lands or on the tundra, it is still cold enough to
limit the number of plant and animal species
The plants and animals that survive in this biome
that can survive, and winter is long. In fact, the
must be able to handle great variations in rainfall and
boreal forest’s longest season is winter. Average
temperature, as well as large areas of permanently
temperatures fall to about –15°C and snow is
frozen ground and poor soils.
common. In summer, which lasts only one to
three months, temperatures climb towards 20°C
and humidity is relatively high.
Threats to the forest
Boreal forests have provided many important
resources for people both in the past and the present.
Historically, wood for construction, heating and
cooking came from boreal forest trees. More recently,
boreal forests have supplied the increased global
demand for cheap wood and paper, spurred by
population growth and a change in global markets.
However, many boreal forests are under threat.
One of the main threats to the boreal forest biome
is the clearing of trees to make way for oil and gas
exploration. It is estimated that huge reserves of
petroleum products lie under the forests, and the
ever-increasing demand is pushing exploration into
these areas.
In Canada and Russia, forests are logged
extensively and many are being attacked by insect
plagues and acid rain. Forests are also at risk from
bushfires during the summer period. Climate change
is causing some forest areas to spread further north.
Rising temperatures in the Arctic region have seen the
Source 1 This paper mill is situated by a large body of
water. Paper is made by pulping woodchips from logs and edge of the boreal forest slowly advancing northward,
mixing the pulp with water. replacing tundra in some places.

2A What are biomes?
Source 3
The spectacular deciduous
trees in the town of Bright
in Victoria’s high country
are mainly oaks and elms,
native to England half a
world away.
Temperate forest biome

Between the tropics and the cold polar regions is a became smaller. Cities were formed on land that was
large zone that is neither excessively hot nor excessively once covered in forest, and trees were cut down to clear
cold. For this reason it is called the temperate zone. land and to provide fuel and building materials. The
The forests that grow in the temperate zone experience forests gradually disappeared from these places. This
a range of seasonal climate conditions. In winter, happened in Europe, then in Western Asia and North
temperatures may fall below freezing and in summer America. Currently, little temperate forest remains in
they can climb above 40°C. In some temperate forests, some of these places.
rain falls reliably throughout the year. In others, there However, as explorers set out from Europe to colonise
are more distinct wet and dry seasons. new lands, they often carried with them seeds and
Most of the world’s population lives in the temperate saplings of the trees with which they were familiar.
zone and this has had a huge impact on the temperate They planted these in the places they travelled to, such
forest biome over time. As the world’s population as Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, and in this
spread and grew, temperate forest biome areas gradually way temperate forest trees were spread around the world.

Remember and understand 6 What influence has this growth in demand for paper
1 Describe the temperature variations experienced in had on the world’s forests?
the boreal forest biome. Evaluate and create
2 How have trees from temperate forests spread 7 Examine Source 2, showing the average
around the world? consumption of paper by person in each continent.
Apply and analyse a Who are the biggest paper users? Who are the
smallest?
3 What are some of the differences between boreal
and temperate forests? What are some of the b Australian consumption is not shown on this
similarities? graphic. Draw the size you estimate Australia’s
paper footprint to be compared to one other
4 Use the map in Source 4 on page 47 to compare
continent. Explain how you decided on the size of
the distribution of temperate and boreal forests.
Australia’s footprint.
5 Why do you think the consumption of paper has
increased dramatically in the last 50 years?

2.3 The grasslands biome
In places that are too dry for forests and too wet for
deserts lies a biome dominated by shrubs and grasses
– the grasslands biome. In different parts of the world,
the grasslands biome is referred to by a few different
names. In Africa, grasslands are often referred to as
savannas. In North America, they are often called
prairies, and in parts of Siberia and south-eastern
Asia, they are often known as steppes.
Much of the world’s food and fibre comes from
plants and animals that live in the world’s grasslands.
Rice, wheat and corn, all grasses, provide the bulk of
the human population’s food, and many animals that
are farmed to provide meat and milk also live in the
Source 1 Elephants on the savanna in Africa
grasslands biome.
Much of Australia can be considered grassland
and many of our native animals, such as kangaroos,
wallabies and wombats, thrive in this biome.
In Africa, too, grasslands dominate, covering
more than half the continent. In this landscape the
grassland is dotted with individual trees, providing
little cover for the wildlife that live there.
These grasslands support a variety of plant-eating
mammals as well as predators that feed off them.
The animals living here have developed an amazing
array of physical and behavioural changes to adapt to
the challenges of the open environment. The zebra’s
stripes, for example, make it difficult for a predator
to see it clearly. The giraffe, one of the larger kind of
grasslands inhabitant, has evolved in such a way that
Source 2 A wild horse on the steppe in Asia
its long neck allows it to source food at the tops of
trees. Many other animals that live in the grasslands
are nocturnal, allowing them to avoid the main
heat of the day and venture out at night to hunt and
gather food. These animals include the prairie dog,
barn owl and gray wolf, which scout for food at night.
Smaller mammals also venture out in the cool of
the night, often when the moon is full or near full,
to allow them to better spot animals that may be
seeking them out as prey.
Many grasslands around the world have changed
greatly over time. Some of these changes are the
result of human activities, such as introducing
grazing animals to a grasslands environment. Grazing
animals such as cattle, sheep and goats compete with
native species for food and often trample the ground,
damaging the roots and soil structure. Source 3 A bison on the prairie in North America

2A What are biomes?
keyconcept: Change
The North American prairie
The prairies of North America were once dominated
by Indigenous American tribes, such as the Cheyenne,
Apache and Comanche tribes.
The Comanche lived in the grasslands in the region
that now includes Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas, in
the United States. They were typical of many of the
Indigenous tribes of North America. As their main food
source was bison, they followed the great herds across
the plains, as the bison travelled to find the best grazing.
When the bison stayed in one location to eat the plentiful
grass, the Comanche set up temporary villages. Then
they moved with the bison when better grazing lands Source 4 It is estimated that 30 million bison lived in North
were needed. The bison provided more than food for the America in the 1500s. Within 400 years this had fallen to
Comanche, their hides were used to make clothing and about 1000. In this photograph, taken in the 1870s, a pile of
bison skulls waits to be crushed for fertiliser.
the distinctive pyramid tents, called tepees.
Some tribes hunted bison by building fences that the tribes could move easily across the plains
from fallen logs, then herding the bison into a small following the gradual movement of the bison herds, the
area where they were killed with arrows and knives. grasslands now feeding both bison and horses.
Herding massive animals such as bison was difficult for But as European ranchers moved across the
tribesmen on foot. However, life for Native Americans prairies through the 16th to 19th centuries, the numbers
changed dramatically with the arrival of European of Native Americans and their way of life gradually
explorers, and their horses, about 400 years ago. disappeared. Much of the vast grasslands of the prairie
Many tribes, including the Comanche, quickly were turned into grazing land and farmland by the
realised the potential of the horse in their culture and European settlers. However, the open plains remain
soon became expert horsemen. As well as being faster an iconic image of American history and the American
and more nimble than a bison, the horse had one other pioneering spirit. For more information on the key
great advantage for the grasslands tribes. Like bison, concept of change, refer to page 10 of ‘The geography
horses are grazing animals that eat grass. This meant toolkit’.

Remember and understand 4 Examine the three images of grasslands (Source 1,
1 Why is the grasslands biome important for human Source 2 and Source 3) from different parts of the
populations? world. In which countries do you think each of these
photographs was taken? Give some reasons for
2 What changed the grasslands of North America?
your answers.
Apply and analyse
Evaluate and create
3 Examine the map in Source 4 on page 43 showing
5 Compare the images of the grasslands with the
the distribution of the world’s biomes.
pictures of a desert in Source 3 on page 52. What
a Describe the distribution of grasslands in each
are some of the main differences between the two
continent.
biomes? Explain why these differences occur.
b What relationship do you notice between
grasslands and human environments such as
cultivated land and urban areas?
c Why does this relationship occur?

2.4 The tropical forest biome
It is estimated that about half of all the plant, animal EASTERN AUSTRALIA: RAINFOREST REGIONS
and insect species in the world live in tropical forests.
Many of these are among the wettest places on Earth
and are therefore known as rainforests. They can be Coen
CAPE Area of
considered to make up the world’s richest biome and
YORK Cooktown map
the abundance of life can be astounding. In Brazil,
PENINSULA
for example, researchers found that a single pond Cairns
contained more fish species than exist in all of Europe’s Daintree
rainforest
rivers. In Peru, a single tree was found to contain 43 ant Townsville
species; this is more than the total number in all of the
Mackay
British Isles. One hectare of South American rainforest
may contain over 750 different types of trees and Tropic of Capricorn
Rockhampton
one-fifth of all of the world’s birds live in the Amazon
QUEENSLAND Bundaberg
rainforest. This explosion of life is due to the ideal
Fraser Island
growing conditions that occur in the tropics. Gympie
These places experience the most stable climate Brisbane
conditions on the planet with virtually no seasonal SOUTH
AUSTRALIA Lismore
changes in rainfall, temperature or available sunlight
NEW SOUTH Coffs Harbour
throughout the year. Most days are the same in the
WALES Port Macquarie
rainforest: hot and wet. It rains virtually every day,
often in torrential downpours. The temperature hovers Sydney
Adelaide Wollongong
between about 26°C and 32°C all year round. ACT
VICTORIA
Melbourne
LEGEND
Tropical rainforest
TASMANIA
Subtropical rainforest
Hobart Temperate rainforest
0 200 400 km
Australia’s rainforests
Though much of Australia was once covered in forest,
now there are only a few small pockets near the east
coast (see Source 2). Rainforests now make up only
2.5 per cent of Australia’s remaining native forest. This
surviving forest, however, is a real Noah’s Ark for many
plant and animal species, many of which exist nowhere
else in the world. There are more than 1000 species of
plants in Australian rainforests, of which about 700
exist nowhere else. These plants support thousands of
insect species, hundreds of reptile and bird species and
nearly 90 different types of mammals. The subtropical
rainforests of New South Wales and Queensland are
Source 1 Tropical rainforests cover the slopes of many
also internationally recognised for their direct links to
Queensland mountains and experience Australia’s highest
rainfall. The Daintree rainforest near Port Douglas is the oldest the world’s first flowering plants, which occurred about
continuously surviving rainforest in the world. 100 million years ago.

2A What are biomes?
The gifts of the rainforest

Rainforests have provided humans with many resources for thousands of years. These resources are known as
ecosystem services. Rainforests provide many services, including the ones described in Source 3.
Ecosystem services
About 80% of the plants we eat Rainforests regulate the

began in the world's tropical Earth's temperature and
rainforests. Potatoes, corn, rice, rainfall, and hold much
avocados, oranges, bananas, of the world's fresh water.
coffee, chocolate and hundreds
of other foods are rainforest plants.
Rainforests in Africa, Asia,

South America and
About 25% of the drugs we
Australia are home to
use to treat illnesses, from
Indigenous peoples.
leukaemia to headaches,
come from rainforest plants.
Products such as
Rainforest plants take in carbon toothpaste, golf balls,
dioxide and produce oxygen. rubber tyres, paints,
The Amazon rainforest alone is cosmetics, steroids and
thought to produce about cork are all made from
one-fifth of the world's oxygen. rainforest plants.
Source 3 A scarlet macaw flies over the world’s largest rainforest – the Amazon. The Amazon provides many ecosystem services.

1 Use the map showing the world’s biomes (Source 4 on page 43) to
describe the distribution of the world’s tropical forests.
2 What are some of the links between the world’s climate and
rainforests?
Apply and analyse

3 Describe the distribution of Australia’s rainforests. Refer to particular
places and states and use compass directions in your answer.
4 What are some of the differences between tropical and temperate
rainforests?
Evaluate and create

5 Why do you think the amount of rainforest in Australia has decreased
so much? Consider both natural processes and human activities.
6 What information from these pages would you use to explain the
Source 4 Temperate rainforests are found importance of rainforests?
in the temperate climate zone. Like tropical
rainforests, they receive an abundance of 7 Clearing of rainforests for farming, mining and urban development
rain and take in high amounts of carbon makes the tropical forest biome one of the world’s most endangered.
dioxide. However, they do not have the a How might the clearing of a rainforest impact on people who live
same levels of biodiversity as the tropical
rainforests. The temperate rainforests of in it or nearby?
Western Australia, such as these found b How might it impact on people living in places that are further
in Walpole-Nornalup National Park, are away?
characterised by diverse plant life and
towering trees.

2.5 Going with the flow
in the rainforest
skilldrill
skilldrill
A rainforest, like all ecosystems, is a very dynamic
place. Complex relationships between the climate
Creating a flow diagram
(including rainfall, temperature, wind, humidity Geographers use flow diagrams to show the
and sunlight), the shape of the land, soils, plants and movement, sequence or stages in a process. Flow
animals have developed over millions of years and diagrams can be created by adding text and arrows
keep the rainforest alive and flourishing. A change to an image, or by creating text boxes from scratch,
to any part of the ecosystem can have devastating joined by arrows to describe the flow of a process.
consequences for the whole ecosystem. The cross- Follow these steps to create a flow diagram.
section in Source 1 shows some of the flows of energy
Step 1 Decide on a process you want to describe.
(intangible sources of power or nutrition) and matter
For example, you might want to describe the life of
(tangible sources of power or nutrition) that exist in
an apple, from seed to compost stage.
a rainforest.
Step 2 Jot down the steps you wish to highlight
in the process. Try to keep each step clear and
Changes in the rainforest separate.
It might seem logical that rainforests must have a deep Step 3 Create a text box for each step, and write or
rich layer of soil to support the great trees and other insert your text in each box.
plants that flourish there. However, this is not the case. Step 4 Link each step with an arrow showing the
The heavy rain washes the nutrients of the soil deep
direction of the process. Read through your
into the ground where the roots of the plants cannot
diagram to make sure the steps are logical and
access them. The rainforest trees are able to survive in
that you haven’t missed any important parts of the
these soils because they have developed wide-spreading
process you are aiming to describe.
roots and because the warm temperatures in the tropics
allow leaf litter – dead plant material that has fallen to You can also create a flow diagram by adding your
the ground – to be quickly recycled into plant nutrients. arrows and text to an existing image, following the
When the rainforest plants are cleared to make way
process described here.
for farms, these nutrients are quickly lost and the soil
Apply the skill
becomes exposed to the heavy rain and tropical sun.
Farmers often find, contrary to expectation, that their 1 Follow the steps above to construct a flow diagram
plants do not thrive in these conditions as the soil of your own. Use the picture and labels of the
provides few nutrients which the plants need. rainforest in Source 1 to describe the flow of energy
and matter that would occur between the different
elements of the rainforest and the plants and
animals that inhabit it.

Remember and understand 2 What effect do you think there would be on the
1 Look at the illustration of the rainforest in Source 1 rainforest ecosystem if this interaction no longer
and identify an interaction that takes place between occurred?
animals and plants.

2A What are biomes?
50 m
Sun's energy
evaporates
water from
ground and
Heavy tropical rainfall
plants.
waters the plants.
EMERGENTS
40 m
Energy from the sun is

used by plants to grow.
30 m
Trees carry nutrients and water from

CANOPY
the forest floor to the canopy.
20 m
UNDER CANOPY
Birds and animals

distribute seeds.
10 m
Leaf and seed eaters take Little sunlight penetrates

Predators take their to the forest floor.
SHRUB LAYER
energy from their food.

energy from their prey.
Leaves fall to the forest floor, are broken down by

bacteria and used as nutrients by plants.
organic matter
0m
and leaf litter
SOIL
Heavy rain carries nutrients deep into the soil making

it largely infertile. This is called leaching.
BEDROCK
10 m
Source 1 Cross-section of a tropical rainforest
Apply and analyse Evaluate and create

3 Why are rainforest soils poor in nutrients? 6 What changes of movement in energy and matter
4 How have rainforest trees adapted to the poor soils would result if the trees and vegetation in Source 1
in the rainforest? were cleared to make way for farming land? Consider
5 Describe how water is moved through the rainforest. the living and non-living inhabitants of the ecosystem.

2.6 Australia’s biomes
Australia is one of the world’s largest countries. The
northern part of Australia lies in the tropics, while the
Australia’s deserts
southern part stretches towards Antarctica. The sheer Australia is the second driest continent in the world,
size of the land mass which spreads across much of the after Antarctica. The combined area of the 10 biggest
Earth’s southern latitudes means that there is a wide Australian deserts makes up about 18 per cent of the
variety of climates and landscapes that form many total land area of our ‘wide brown land’. We can also
biomes across Australia. describe Australia as arid or semi-arid because 70 per
Many of Australia’s original biomes have been cent of the continent receives less than 500 millimetres
changed by human activities. More than half of of rainfall each year. This low rainfall has resulted in
Australia’s total land area is now used for food large desert areas across much of Australia.
production, particularly sheep and cattle farming, Many people think of deserts as being entirely
covering 430 million hectares of land. This has composed of large sand dunes, with the occasional date
resulted in significant changes to vegetation, land palm or cactus the only sign of life. This image may
and water across much of the country. Source 1 shows come from movies, or pictures they have seen of deserts
Australia’s original biomes before they were changed around the world.
by human activities. However, while the Sahara Desert in Africa does have
date palms and sand dunes and most North American
deserts have cactuses, there are variations within the
desert biome. Some desert areas in Australia have large
areas of red dunes, for example, but some are covered in
vast areas of stones, called gibber plains (see Source 3).
In most of Australia’s desert areas, grasses and
low shrubs dominate the landscape (see Source 3). In
the tropical deserts north of the Tropic of Capricorn,
spinifex and tough Mitchell grass cover much of the
ground. South of the tropics, woodland deserts are more
common, with tough acacia trees, such as the mulga
and witchetty bush, in evidence.
AUSTRALIA: BIOMES
Source 2 About one-third of Australia’s total land area is used Source 3 Stony plains in the Simpson Desert
for cattle farming.

AUSTRALIA: BIOMES
2A What are biomes?
Kimberley, WA (grassland) Simpson desert, SA (desert)
120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E Daintree Forest, QLD

(tropical forest)
10°S
10°S
Ningaloo reef, WA
(coral reef)
20°S
20°S
C apricorn
Tropic of
Kosciuszko
National Park, NSW
Leeuwin-Naturaliste 30°S
30°S (mountain vegetation)
National Park, WA
(temperate forest)
LEGEND
Mountain vegetation
Temperate forest
(outside the tropics)
Grassland
0 300 600 km Desert

Tropical forest
(inside the tropics) 40°S
40°S Ocean
110°E 120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E

Remember and understand Evaluate and create
1 Why is there a wide variety of biomes in Australia? 5 The world biomes map (Source 4 on page 43) shows
2 What is the dominant natural biome where you live? large areas of desert, while the three images in
Describe some of the ways in which this has been Source 3 show us that there are significant variations
altered by human activities. in landscape within the desert biome.
a What are the limitations of describing places
Apply and analyse according to their dominant biome?
3 Compare Australia’s biomes in Source 1 with the b Why do you think there are such variations within
world’s biomes in Source 4 on page 43 and answer the desert biome?
the following questions. c Research one of the other biomes to find out if
a Which biomes do not exist in Australia? such variations exist in that biome’s regions too.
b Give a reason for each of these biomes being 6 Construct a collage or create a PowerPoint or Prezi
‘missing’ in Australia. display of Australia’s major biomes. Include at least
4 How has latitude influenced the distribution of one image of each biome.
biomes in Australia?

2A rich task Estimating aspect
The aspect refers to the compass direction that the slope
The Kokoda Trail is facing. This is also simple to work out by following
these steps.
Papua New Guinea is a country with vast Step 1 Using the information we found out when estimating
areas of rainforest. The forest covers the the gradient we can tell that the terrain slopes down
slopes of rugged mountain ranges such as from The Gap (at 2190 m) to Owens Corner (at 600 m).
the Owen Stanley Range. The Kokoda Trail Step 2 Imagine an arrow from The Gap to Owens Corner
crosses this range and was the location of and estimate the direction of this arrow using the
fierce battles between the Australian and north arrow. This arrow would be pointing south-west.
The aspect therefore is south-west.
Japanese armies in World War II.
The area is notable for steep mountainsides, Apply the skill
dense rainforests and heavy rainfall. This turns 1 Estimate the aspect and gradient of the slope between
the trail into a sea of mud and makes progress The Gap and Kokoda (241, 638).
along it very difficult. Many Australians attempt 2 Is this slope less steep or steeper than the slope
to walk the trail every year to achieve personal between Owens Corner and The Gap?
goals, which perhaps include gaining an 3 Estimate the gradient and aspect for the slope between
appreciation of the difficulties faced by the The Gap and Mt Kenevi (266, 584).
soldiers during the war. 4 Estimate the gradient and aspect for the slope between
The Gap and Mount Victoria (197, 635).
5 Provide three pieces of evidence that this landscape is
very rugged and mountainous.
6 Estimate the total length of the Kokoda Trail from Owens
skilldrill Corner to Kokoda.
Estimating gradient and aspect

on topographic maps
Estimating gradient (angle of the slope) and aspect Conduct some further research on the Kokoda campaign
(direction of the slope) is an important skill for and then complete the following tasks.
geographers to master. 1 Which of the world’s major biomes are shown on this
map of the Kokoda Trail area?
Estimating gradient
Using a topographic map, it is possible to estimate the 2 What is the relationship between forest and terrain in
gradient between two points, by following these steps. this environment?
Step 1 Determine the height of the two points. For 3 Explain why you think this relationship occurs.
example, examining Source 2, Owens Corner
(186, 530) is at 600 metres and The Gap (241, 588)
is at 2190 metres.
Step 2 Estimate the difference in height between these
two points (known as the rise): 2190 – 600 = 1590.
Step 3 Estimate the straight line distance (known as the
run) between these two points using the line scale.
This is 40 km or 40 000 metres in this example.
Step 4 Divide the rise by the run and multiply this by Source 1 The rugged terrain of the Owen Stanley Range,
100: (2190/40 000) × 100 = 5.5% slope. Papua New Guinea

2A What are biomes?
PAPUA NEW GUINEA: KOKODA TRAIL

Mt Douglas k Mambare
ee Kokoda
Oi
3668 m i Cr
10
River
vi
e Airstrip
k
Eb
00
ee
River
Mt Victoria
Cr
Dala Poope
Koiasi Kovelo
Cre
4072 m 00
20
Hoi
400 Pirive
ek
400
mo
63
k
Mt Service Sisireta
ee
Deniki
Ko
Cr
3801 m
k
Mt Musgrave
ee
3000 Gorari
Cr
3025 m Fa
la
Kepara
ek
1400
1800 Mt Thumb
Cre
Creek
ee
Mt McIlwraith
ek
3265 m 600
Cr
Kito
Cre
3058 m
62 ek i 1000
Cre ad 800
Eora
M
a
Asu
O
1600
Kaili
Mt Lotili
W
1653 m Isurava
ni
E
1200
Luwu
N
Alola
x rest house
S
9°00’S 1000
TA
61 Farisa
N
Creek
LE
Y
x Eora Creek, lean to shelter,
R
2000
Creek 1000
600
A
memorial plaque
N
80
0
G
60
NO RTHERN
E
r
ve
Ri x Templeton’s Crossing
Manumu
uoia
Mt Totola Ove
ia
Boridi PR OV I N CE
Rog
1558 m Mt Bellamy
59 2286 m
The Gap
400
Highest point on
track 2190 m
radio, telephone,
Mt Kenevi
Kai
rest house/guest house x Kagi
200
vai 3445 m
0
58 er
Hailago Riv
200 Launumu
Myola ek
Lake Myola Lake Myola No. 2 Ami Cre
r 1000 x rest house
me
No. 1
Rive Brigade Efogi
gu
Hill C
River
9°10’S
Fa
reek
Brown Enili
57
Menari E
C E N T RA L Naoro
Rive
mun
i
Creek
800 r
56
P ROV I N C E River
Uga Area of map

k
ee
Cr
Creek
Ed
ev Mt Shera
u
1472 m Naoro
Mt Ball Cusacks Twin Peak LEGEND
551 m 937m Principal road
55
River
Ofi
M Secondary road
a
Cr
ril
Ua-Ule ee AG
Eo
Tah
Cre Ioribaiwa k x grass UL
ek Kokoda Trail
u
e shelter
ldi River Ridge I R
Go x small shelter AN Other track/trail
Inimu
Riv
GE
Ioribaiwa Province/district border
er
54
Mt Mumkainala Location; Mountain peak
1232 m
9°20’S Go
1000
ldi 800 x Village airstrip; Kokoda Trail feature

e Imita Ridge
Liberi Bluff 100
0 Contour with value (interval 200 metres)
921 m
Owers Corner River
53 Ag Savannah
Hiwick 600 u
M
River Cr
ad
Cr
ee Mountain forest
a
ee
k Iar
k
a
Misted mountain forest
40
0
Bisiatabu Mission Eworogo k Lake/dam; Watercourse
52 ee
20 Wai Cr
La Fulimuti Creek
Ri
0 lok
ve
i Sogeri
r
Ri Scale 1:300 000

ve
r
Gerebu Hill
Mororo 1127 m kilometres 0 3 6 9 kilometres
Mt Verey Wright
Aie
51 Sirinumu
me
Griffiths Sugarloaf
Ad
Dam M
AD
Un eek
ai
Cr
da
U Riv
Ri
AD er
ve
U
r
RA
NG
50 E
9°30’S
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
147°30’E 147°40’E 147°50’E

2.7 Where our food comes from
Food is grown all over the world across many different animals they raise are influenced by a wide range of
biomes. The kind of food that is grown in a region will factors but mainly by the climate in which they live.
depend on the kind of biomes it is home to. In developed countries like Australia, the question
For many people in the world, the question of where of where food comes from is much more difficult to
their food comes from is easy to answer. Throughout answer.
the developing world, particularly in developing areas of In fact, very few people across the developed world
Africa and Asia, the majority of food comes from what would be able to tell you where their food comes from.
people grow or gather. People in these places spend This is because most people in these countries spend
much of their time planting, growing and harvesting little or no time growing food. They rely on people in
crops or looking after a few animals, like sheep, goats or other places to grow food for them. Many Australians,
cows. These activities provide them with virtually all of for example, buy their food at a supermarket. But
their food requirements, from milk and meat to grains where does a supermarket get this food from? Labels
such as rice, wheat or corn. The crops they grow and the on food give some indication, but these can be
misleading at times.
WORLD: ORIGIN OF SOME COMMON SUPERMARKET FOODS
1 Cornflakes, Wales 2 Apple sauce, 3 Chocolate hazelnut 4 Strawberry jam, 5 Baked beans, Italy
Belgium spread, Germany Poland
14 Dried 1 2 3 4
sultanas,
Turkey 5
14
11 6 Instant noodles,
Malaysia
10
6
9
LEGEND
8
Ocean
13 7
12
Land
Country border 7 Peach halves,
13 Fruit salad, 1 Country of origin Chile
Swaziland 0 2000 4000 km
12 Crumbed fish fillets, 11 Frozen cut beans, 10 Pickled onions, 9 Pineapple slices in 8 Choc mint slice
South Africa China India natural juice, Indonesia biscuits, Fiji

In a recent study, the origin of the home brand products were made or grown in Australia with
products sold in large supermarkets was studied in the rest coming from overseas. Source 1 shows the
detail. The researchers found that about 50 per cent origin of some common foods sold in Australian
of Coles’ products and 38 per cent of Woolworths’ supermarkets.
keyconcept: Space
Agricultural suitability
WORLD: AGRICULTURAL SUITABILITY
Limitations of climate such
as extremes in temperatures ARCTIC OCEAN
or low rainfall mean that
many regions cannot support
farming. Other areas may have NORTH
low soil fertility, be covered in EUROPE AMERICA
rainforest, be too mountainous ASIA ATLANTIC
PACIFIC OCEAN
or covered in ice caps. This OCEAN
AFRICA
means that the world’s farms
are concentrated in certain INDIAN LEGEND
SOUTH
areas where the soil, climate ATLANTIC OCEAN Agriculture suitability
AMERICA
Not suitable
and availability of water make OCEAN
AUSTRALIA Somewhat suitable
farming possible. Source 2 Suitable
ranks regions of the world in Completely suitable
terms of their suitability for 0 2000 4000 km
agriculture (i.e. completely Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press

suitable for agriculture to not
suitable at all). Geographers
use the key concept of space to better understand For more information on the key concept of space,
the patterns formed by agricultural use to make refer to page 7 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
recommendations for the future.

Remember and understand b Compare the map showing areas of the world
1 Why is it difficult for people in developed countries suitable for agriculture to the world biomes map
(Source 4 on page 43). Make some general
to know where their food comes from?
statements about which biomes are most
2 Using the scale provided, work out which
suitable for agriculture. Explain why you think this
supermarket item shown in Source 1 has travelled
is the case.
the furthest distance to be sold in your town or city.
Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse
4 What factors would be considered when making a
3 Examine Source 2 carefully.
map like Source 2 that show areas that are most or
a Explain why each of the white areas in the least suitable for farming?
following regions and countries may be
5 Conduct research online to work out why Australian
unsuitable for agriculture: Australia, South
supermarkets source a large proportion of their
America, North Africa, Central Asia.
products from overseas.

2.8 The importance of climate
More than any other factor, climate (especially rainfall In some places, farmers are able to use technology
and temperature) determines the type of farming that to overcome some of the limitations of climate. Many
is practised in a given location. Some crops, such as rice Australian farmers, for example, use water from rivers
and sugar cane, require warm temperatures and a reliable and dams to irrigate their crops rather than relying
supply of water. Other types of farming, such as sheep and on natural rainfall. Others pump water from natural
camel farming, can tolerate a wider range of temperatures underground water storages called aquifers. Others
and water supply (see Source 1). Farmers who share a use greenhouses so they can control the temperature
similar climate, therefore, tend to practise the same type of and humidity, allowing crops such as flowers and
farming. This leads to large regions of the Earth’s surface vegetables to grow throughout the year.
being farmed in the same way.
Source 1 A nomadic farmer herds his camels in Ethiopia.
skilldrill
Comparing patterns on maps (Source 3) relates to ‘hot desert’ on the climate

zones map (Source 2).
One of the most common ways that geographers
analyse and explain the world around them is by Step 4 Use an atlas map to find out the names of the
looking for patterns in geographical data. For example, places where this association occurs.
comparing patterns on maps they can examine the Step 5 Make a statement that sums up your
relationship between climate and farming. To compare associations. For example, rice farming is dominant
patterns on two maps, follow these steps: in places with a subtropical climate such as north-
Step 1 Look carefully at the first map, particularly the east India and southern China where it is warm all
title and legend, so that you understand exactly what year and has a dry winter.
it shows.
Apply the skill
Step 2 Repeat this for the second map.
1 Use Sources 2 and 3 to account for the distribution of:
Step 3 Look at each map carefully and note regions
a dairy farming
where there seems to be a correlation (relationship).
b commercial – extensive livestock farming
For example, in Sources 2 and 3 ‘little or limited
agricultural use’ on the agricultural regions map c the pattern of agriculture in South America.

WORLD: CLIMATE ZONES
LEGEND
ARCTIC OCEAN Polar: extremely cold all year;
nearly all snow and ice; less than
250 mm precipitation per year
Arctic Circle Cold wet: cold winters, cool to
hotsummers; moderate rain all year
Cold dry winter: cold dry
winters, cool to hot summers;
EU ROP E NORT H moderate rain all year
AS I A Cold semi-desert: hot in
A MER I C A summer, cold in winter; 250 mm
to 500 mm rain per year
ATLANTIC Cold desert: hot in summer,
OCEAN cold in winter; less than 250 mm
Tropic of Cancer rain per year
Mild wet: mild; rain all year
A FR I C A
PACIFIC OCEAN Highlands: cool to cold occuring
in mountains and high plateaus;
Equator snow cover increases with altitude
ATLANTIC Subtropical wet: warm;
INDIAN SOU T H rain all year
OCEAN A MER I C A
OCEAN Subtropical dry winter: warm
all year; dry winter
Tropic of Capricorn
Subtropical dry summer:
AU ST R A LI A warm all year; dry summer
Hot semi-desert: hot all year;
250 mm to 500 mm rain per year
Hot desert: hot all year; less
than 250 mm rain per year
0 2000 4000 km Tropical wet and dry: hot all
year; wet summers, dry winters
Tropical wet: hot; wet
for most of the year
WORLD: AGRICULTURAL REGIONS

LEGEND
ARCTIC OCEAN Agriculture
Nomadic herding
Arctic Circle
Shifting cultivation
Subsistence farming — mixed
crops and livestock
EUROPE NORTH Intensive — rice dominant
ASIA AMERICA
Commercial — grain dominant
ATLANTIC
Commercial — mixed crops
OCEAN and livestock
Tropic of Cancer
Commercial — extensive
AFRICA livestock
PACIFIC OCEAN
Commercial — intensive
livestock
Equator
Specialised crops
ATLANTIC INDIAN SOUTH
Dairy farming
OCEAN OCEAN AMERICA
Tropic of Capricorn Forestry
AUSTRALIA Little or limited agricultural use
0 2000 4000 km

Remember and understand Apply and analyse
1 How does the climate of particular places influence the 3 How might a farmer overcome the limitations of frost?
type of farming practised there? 4 Describe the distribution of nomadic herding in the world.
2 How do some farmers overcome the limitations of Account for this distribution using Source 2.
climate?

2.9 Soil – more than just dirt
Many parts of the Earth’s surface are covered in a thin, As rocks break down into finer and finer particles, the
fragile layer of soil. Plants grow in this soil that feed minerals within them become available to plants. Seeds
every animal on Earth, including you. But what is soil carried onto weathered rock by wind, water, animals and
and how are plants able to use it to grow? birds are able to germinate and send roots down into
Soil is a mixture of air, water, broken-down rock, and the new soil. As plants die and leaves fall onto the soil,
organic material such as tiny animals and plants. Soil they decompose and add to the fertility of the soil. This
is a non-renewable resource – it takes thousands, even allows other plants to flourish in the soil.
millions of years to form. The first step is the gradual Over time, soils form layers known as horizons.
breaking down or weathering of rock. Rock weathers These can be seen where a road has been cut through a
because it is subjected to physical forces and processes hillside. By examining the horizons, soil scientists and
such as freezing and thawing, the expansion of roots, farmers are able to determine how best to farm different
or because the rocks rub against each other in a stream areas. The horizons are labelled using letters so they can
or river. Movement of ice in a glacier, the flow of water be easily identified and compared. From top to bottom,
in a river or ocean, or the force of wind can all cause the horizons are O (organic matter), A, B, C and Rock
rocks to weather. (see Source 2). Some soils may have all the horizons,
Rocks are also weathered by chemical changes that while others may have only one or two horizons. By
occur. Water can dissolve minerals found in rocks, identifying which of the horizons are missing in the
reacting and forming new minerals which may then soil, the farmer will know how and when to treat it. For
break down the rock itself. Oxygen also combines with example, if the soil is lacking organic matter, mulch can
some minerals to wear away rocks and the slightly be added to increase mineral content and prevent water
acidic nature of rain can also help to dissolve rocks (see loss through evaporation.
Source 1).
Source 1 Like all rocks,

Uluru is under attack from
physical and chemical
weathering. The desert soil
in the foreground would
be partly made up from
weathered rock particles.
Only shrubs and grasses
are able to grow in this soil.

(O) organic matter mineral fragments organic matter

and organic matter Check your learning 2.9
1 Why are Australia’s soils generally
low in nutrients?
A horizon A horizon 2 Why is soil an important natural
resource?
B horizon
3 Why do many farmers need to
disintegrating rock
replenish the nutrients in the soil
C horizon C horizon with fertiliser annually?
Apply and analyse

rock rock rock rock 4 Look at Source 1. What physical
forces do you think are weathering
I II III IV Uluru?
Rock begins Organic matter Horizons form. Developed soil 5 Is soil a renewable or non-
to disintegrate. facilitates disintegration. supports thick
vegetation. renewable resource? Give some
Source 2 The development of soil horizons over time
reasons for your answer.
Evaluate and create

The challenge of Australia’s soils 6 Construct a flow diagram with
Australian farmers have to overcome the many challenges of a variable
boxes and arrows describing how
climate, with its extremes of droughts and floods. Perhaps the greatest soil is formed.
challenge faced by Australian farmers is the condition of the soil. As 7 Explore the soil profile in your
one of the world’s oldest continents, Australia also has some of the local area. Look for a place where
oldest soils on Earth. The constant weathering over millions of years a stream has cut down into the
has washed away many of the important nutrients and minerals and soil or a cutting has been made
our soils are among the world’s poorest. for a road or railway. Sketch the
As well as being much less fertile than other soils around the world, soil profile and see how many
many of our soils are much saltier than in other places. This is because of the horizons you can identify.
much of the continent was once covered by ocean, and though the Compare your profile to stage IV in
water has receded, the salt remains. Much of our soil is also composed Source 2. What are the similarities
of clay either at the surface or just below the surface. This restricts and differences?
water drainage into the soil and makes it difficult for the roots of
plants to penetrate.
Australian soils therefore are
generally low in nutrients, thin
and easily eroded. Australian
farmers have developed many ways
of dealing with these limitations.
The most obvious of these is
adding nutrients and chemicals
to the soil that are missing (see
Source 3). Farmers regularly test
their soil and will add fertiliser
containing those chemicals that
their plants need. As crops grow
they draw these nutrients from the
soil and so farmers must continue
to replace them, often applying Source 3 Fertiliser containing nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus is usually
fertiliser annually. spread using a tractor or truck.

2.10 Food production in Australia
There are more than 135 000 farms in Australia. Farms that require large areas of land – to provide
They can be classified in many different ways, for pasture for sheep or cattle, for example – fall under
example, those that grow crops and those that raise the classification of extensive farming. On the other
livestock. Another way a farm can be classified is by hand, farms such as poultry farms or those that grow
how large it is in relation to the amount of food or vegetables, can produce large volumes of food or fibre in
fibre it produces. a small area, and are classified as intensive farming.
Dairy Wheat
cattle
Meat: cattle Sugar cane

and calves
Barley
Livestock type
Sheep and
Crop type
lambs
Canola
Pigs
Sorghum
Chickens for
meat
Potatoes
Chickens for
eggs Oats
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Number of livestock on Australian farms (millions) Production (millions of tonnes)
Source 1 This graph shows the number of livestock Source 2 This graph shows the crops grown on Australian
on Australian farms by type. farms by type each year.
AUSTRALIA: LAND USAGE
LEGEND PACI FI C
Extensive grazing
I NDIAN O CEA N
Cattle for meat
O CE AN
Sheep for wool
South Johnstone
Intensive grazing
Cattle for meat
Sheep for meat and wool
Cattle for milk icorn

Tropic of Capr
Sheep for wool and cereal grains
Intensive cropping
Cereal grains
Fruit and vegetables
Sugar cane
Cotton, tobacco, nuts and other crops
Rice
Non-agricultural use
Northern Australia boundary

Yarra Valley
State border
0 500 1000 km

Should we grow more food

in northern Australia?
Farming in northern Australia, like farming everywhere,
is determined by environmental factors, particularly
temperature, soil fertility and water. The soils in the
north are among the world’s oldest and have been
subject to monsoonal downpours for millions of years.
This has leached many important minerals out of the
soil making it relatively infertile. Much of the soils of
the north are arid or semi-arid and the rain that does
fall tends to be seasonal rather than all year round.
These factors make intensive farming difficult. Cattle
farming, therefore, dominates in northern Australia,
covering 90 per cent of the land area and accounting for
30 per cent of the nation’s total cattle.
Several government task forces have identified
the water that lies in rock layers (known as aquifers)
Source 6 These circular fields in northern Australia are an
beneath northern Australia as the key to expanding example of the result of pivot-circle irrigation using groundwater
intensive agriculture. They have suggested that small- from aquifers.
scale intensive farming using groundwater has the
potential to triple the amount of cropland in the north
from the current 20 000 hectares. An example of this
type of farming (known as mosaic agriculture) is shown
in Source 6.
1 Describe the main differences between intensive
and extensive farming.
2 What are some of the limiting factors for further
intensive farming in northern Australia?
Apply and analyse

3 Examine Sources 5 and 6. Classify each of these
farming types as either intensive or extensive
farming.
4 Select one of the farming types shown in
Source 3.
a Describe its distribution in Australia.
Source 4 Cropping of sugar cane is carried out near South b Brainstorm the environmental factors that help
Johnstone in north Queensland. to explain this distribution.
5 Using Source 3, explain why you think fruit and
vegetables are often grown near large cities.
Evaluate and create

6 Describe the current distribution of farming types
in northern Australia.
7 Using the information provided, together with
additional research, classify each of the livestock
types in Source 1 and crop types in Source 2
according to whether they are examples of
extensive or intensive farming.
Source 5 Sheep grazing in Albany, Western Australia

2.11 Influencing crop yield
Every year, famers in different countries around the types of machinery and help they have available, the
world make decisions about what crops they will grow cost of grain, the amount of rain forecast, the quality
and what animals they will raise on their properties. of the soil, the estimated price they will be paid for the
Before they make any decisions, they must consider crops they produce and how they will transport them to
a number of competing factors that will affect their market. Broadly speaking, all of these competing factors
crop yield. Crop yield refers to the amount of crop (in can be divided into two main categories:
kilograms) that is grown per hectare, and is used by • environmental factors
farmers to measure how much they have grown. For the • technological and economic factors.
many farmers in Western Australia, their decisions will
Examples from each of these categories are provided
impact their yield of crops such as wheat. They need to
in Sources 1 and 2.
consider their own level of experience as a farmer, the
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Humidity or rainfall: Some

plants like warm and moist
conditions, some need dry
conditions to grow well. All plants
Sunshine: Places nearer to the need water but some need large
Equator receive more direct quantities spread throughout the
sunlight than places closer to year while others thrive in drier
the poles. This will influence the conditions. Farmers carefully
length of the growing season Wind: Strong winds can dry out the assess factors such as the total
as all plants need sunlight. soil, and damage or even destroy crops. rainfall in a year and the times of
the year when it falls in deciding
on the best crops to grow and
Temperature: Different plants when to plant them.
have different tolerances to
temperature. Some grow best
in warm temperatures, others
Landforms: Flat areas
when it is cold. Frosts and very
are generally easier to farm than
warm temperatures can damage
hillsides as machinery such as
some plants so farmers carefully
tractors and harvesters can work
monitor air and soil temperatures
more easily on flat land. Flat areas,
so they know when to plant or
however, may be prone to flooding.
harvest their crops.
The direction that a slope faces
(the aspect) may be important as
it may determine the amount of
Soil fertility: Plants need
sunlight plants receive.
certain minerals and trace
elements to grow and they take
these from the soil. Some soils
Accessibility: Easy access to
have more of these and are
farmland is important for
therefore more fertile. Farmers
transporting equipment, harvested
may need to add minerals
crop and labour. Farms might need
in the form of fertiliser to infertile
to develop roads so they can easily
soils.
inspect and manage all of their
land. Farming can also be made
difficult if a farm is located far from
Soil structure and texture:
sources of infrastructure, such a
Soils are a combination of clay,
water supply or other services.
sand and silt in varying
proportions. Soils with high clay
content can make it difficult for
plant roots to penetrate and may
become waterlogged whereas
sandy soils may not hold water. Water: A nearby river or aquifer
The best soils are called loams can provide water to irrigate crops
and combine all three parts in or to give animals such as cows
equal proportions. and sheep water to drink.
Source 1 A range of environmental factors need to be taken into account when making decisions on a farm, such as this wheat
farm near Stirling Ranges National Park

TECHNOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS
Markets: Farmers who grow food for

profit have to be able to sell it. The
proximity of a large city will provide a
demand for many products and many
farmers also export their produce to
other countries. The prices for farm
produce change over time and this Technology: New technologies such as irrigation
may influence which crops a farmer systems and breeds of crops may allow some
grows in a particular year. farming types to spread into new areas. On the
other hand, many farmers in developing countries
may have access to only simple technologies such Expertise: Farmers often specialise
as a horse-drawn plough or hand sowing of seeds. in growing a certain crop or raising a
certain breed of animal. This may have
been the case for many previous
generations. As a result, they may
have built up a great deal of expertise
in this type of farming.
Financial resources: Many farmers in the developing world

have few financial resources to buy machinery and hire labour
and so they rely on their own physical labour and are able to
grow only enough food to feed their own families.
Source 2 A range of technological and economic factors can influence crop yield on a farm.

Remember and understand 4 Select one of the environmental factors discussed in
1 How does the climate in a particular place influence Source 1 and explain how an individual farmer may
farming practices there? improve or adapt to this factor on his or her farm.
2 Name three soil properties that might influence a Evaluate and create
high crop yield. 5 Consider all of the environmental, technical and
Apply and analyse economic factors discussed in Sources 1 and 2.
Rank the factors a farmer needs to take into
3 Most farmers continue to practise the same type of
consideration from most to least important. Give a
farming year after year. Why do you think this is the
reason for each of your three top-ranked factors.
case?

2.12 High-tech farming
Modern technologies have changed farming methods but not others. Each farm and each field is therefore a
and made many farms in Australia and around the patchwork of different soil and water features. Often,
world more efficient and more productive. The use however, all parts of the field or farm are treated in
of technologies such as computers, satellites, remote the same way, despite being a ‘patchwork’ of different
sensors, geographic information systems (GIS) and conditions and levels. This means that some parts of
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) has allowed some each farm are less productive than other parts.
farms to go ‘high-tech’. Some Australian farmers A new farming system known as precision farming
are using pilotless planes (known as drones) to keep is beginning to change this old method to bring
watch on their soils, plants and water, while others are about better economic and environmental outcomes.
tracking their sheep and cattle with sensors implanted Sensors mounted on satellites, planes and helicopters
in the animals’ ears or in electronic collars. Technology collect large amounts of data on many aspects of the
continues to advance farming operations, increasing environment including rates of plant growth, minerals
crop yield and improving the breeding conditions of in the soil and soil moisture. Using GPS, this data is
cattle. then converted to detailed maps of each farm showing,
for example, areas of high crop yield and areas with a
Precision farming lower yield (see Sources 1 and 2).
This information is then available to the farmer to
On every farm there are wide variations in natural make decisions about better and more precise irrigation
features such as slope, soil fertility, soil moisture and and fertilisers and the choice of crops and the times to
drainage. There may also be different soil conditions plant and harvest them. Using precision farming tools
in different spots on the farm – past farming practices such as layered maps and GPS, farmers can determine
may have taken minerals from some parts of the farm precisely the best places to plant. They can identify
where the soil is richer in minerals, so they can grow
better crops. Rows of soil used in previous years where
minerals have been depleted can be avoided.
Source 1 Layered maps using Source 2 Using precision farming tools, such as layered maps and GPS, farmers can
GPS data can clearly show determine precisely the best places to plant their rows of crops.
farmers different elements they
need to consider.

Source 3 Milking time at Gala dairy farm near Deloraine, Tasmania

Case study: and not a farmer in sight!
robots on the farm

Gala dairy farm near Deloraine in Tasmania
may look like most other dairy farms in Check your learning 2.12
Australia – cows contentedly munch on
green grass for most of the day and then Remember and understand
head to the shed to be milked. But this farm 1 What is precision farming?
is like no other dairy farm in the world 2 Why are the cows in Source 3 wearing electronic collars?
because these cows milk themselves, with
Apply and analyse
help from a robot or two. Once the cow
arrives in the dairy, overhead cameras and 3 Is Gala dairy farm an example of precision farming? Give some
a Wi-Fi linked sensor guide robotic arms reasons for your answer.
to clean the cow’s teats and attach suction 4 Why is GPS an essential part of precision farming?
cups. An electronic collar identifies each 5 What are some of the advantages of robotic milking for the
cow and allows their milk production to be farmer and what are some of the disadvantages?
monitored and recorded. 6 Explain why precision farming can help to make farming more
The cows stand on a rotating circular sustainable.
platform while being milked and are
Evaluate and create
rewarded for coming to the dairy with a
small feed of grain and access to a paddock
7 Using ideas from Source 3 and online research, invent a
of fresh grass. Because cows can choose machine that shears sheep. Remember that each sheep is
when and how often they wish to be slightly different from every other sheep so your machine
milked, milk production on the farm is up needs to take this into account. Draw a labelled sketch of your
20 per cent from the traditional method of shearing machine.
milking cows twice a day.

2.13 Rice – the grain of life
Rice is one of the world’s most important crops. produced around the world every year. Around 90 per
It supplies about one-fifth of all calories consumed cent of this is grown in Asia. China’s production of rice
by humans and is the main food eaten in more than alone accounts for almost one-third of the world’s total
30 countries. About 700 million tonnes of rice are annual rice production.
WORLD: RICE PRODUCTION
ARCTIC OCEAN
EUROPE NORTH
ASIA AMERICA
ATLANTIC
PACIFIC OCEAN OCEAN
AFRICA
LEGEND
INDIAN
ATLANTIC Rice production (million
SOUTH
OCEAN metric tonnes per year)
OCEAN AMERICA
Over 160
50 to 160
AUSTRALIA 15 to 50
5 to 15
Under 5
Non rice producing
or data not available
Country border
0 2000 4000 km
skilldrill
skilldrill
Describing patterns on choropleth Step 2 Describe the general pattern that is apparent
on your map. Use the names of continents and large
maps regions.
The map in Source 1 is a choropleth map.
Step 3 Quantify your description of the pattern by
Geographers use choropleth maps to give a quick
giving the names of specific countries and the
impression of a spatial pattern by using dark and light
mapped data related to these countries.
shades of the same or similar colours. Darker shades
usually show ‘the most’ and lighter shades show ‘the Step 4 Point out any exceptions to the general pattern
least’. You can describe the pattern on choropleth maps that you have described. For example, this may be a
by following the PQE (Pattern–Quantify–Exceptions) country that produces a lot of rice despite being far
method. For more information on the PQE method refer away from any other major rice-producing country.
to page 19 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
Apply the skill
Step 1 Read the title and examine the legend carefully
1 Describe the pattern of global rice production using
so that you understand what the map is showing.
Source 1 and the PQE method.

Source 2 In upland areas many farmers first clear the land, Source 3 Rice paddies in Yunnan province, China
often by slashing and burning.
Rice-growing around the world their crops. This is known as the rainfed lowland
system of rice growing. These farmers face many
Rice growing occurs in many different environments – challenges to produce a reliable crop, notably poor
in areas that flood every year and also where rain is soil quality and unreliable rain.
far from reliable. These variations make it possible to 3 Upland rice: In West Africa, Central and South
identify four main systems of rice growing. America, and highland regions of Asia, upland rice
1 Irrigated rice: Irrigated ecosystems account for growing dominates. Usually grown beside other
about three-quarters of global rice production. crops, productivity is generally low as soils are often
Irrigated rice is grown in fields, called rice paddies, poor and little or no fertiliser is used. Rainfall may
where series of embankments and terraces are built be unreliable and erosion may be a problem in
to control the flow of water across the fields. This some areas, as the rice fields do not usually have
system is most common in East Asia, particularly embankments to control the flow of water.
Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines and Thailand. 4 Flood-prone rice: In some flood-prone zones in
2 Rainfed rice: Many farmers in low-lying areas in Cambodia, Vietnam and Myanmar (Burma), a rice
countries such as Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma) crop may be grown in areas characterised by periods
and Thailand rely on natural rainfall rather of flood and drought. The rice grown is tolerant to
than irrigation to water their rice crops. Annual being covered by water but yields tend to be low and
monsoonal rains may cover their fields with unreliable.
50 centimetres of water into which they plant
Source 4 A comparison of the productivity of four different rice systems

System Yield (tonnes/ Crops (per year) Productivity (tonnes/
hectare) hectare/year)
Irrigated rice – rice grown using irrigation systems for water 5.0 2.5 12.5
Rainfed rice – rice-growing system that relies on rainfall for water 2.5 1 2.5
Upland rice – rice grown in rainfed lowland fields that is prepared 1.0 1 0.12
and seeded when dry
Flood-prone rice – rice grown in areas prone to extreme 1.0 1 1.0
flooding and drought, typically low yield

Remember and understand 4 Why do you think upland rice growing is not as
1 What type of rice-growing system is being used in productive as the other systems?
Source 3? Evaluate and create
2 How would the farmers in these fields control the 5 In small groups, discuss the environmental impacts
flow of water to their crops? of growing rice. Present a report of your conclusions,
Apply and analyse using headings such as ‘Impacts on water, soil,
landforms and natural vegetation’. Which of the four
3 Which is the most productive system of rice
rice-growing systems do you believe impacts the
growing? Why do you think this is the case?
natural environment the most?

2.14 Rice growing in Java
JAVA: RICE GROWING AREAS
Sumatra
Kalianda t
i
ra
St JAVA SEA
a
u nd
S
JAKARTA
0 50 100 km
Indramayu
Labuan
Purwakarta
Bogor
Kudus
Sukabumi BANDUNG Brebes Pekalongan Blora Tuban
SEMARANG Bangkalan Madura Sumenep
er
Garut Riv Pamekasan
Tasikmalaya Java Solo SURABAYA
Sindangbarang Purwokerto Mojokerto Madura Strait
Surakarta Bangil
Madiun
Cipatuja Cilacap Kediri Probolinggo
Yogyakarta
MALANG
BrantaBlitar
s Rive
LEGEND r
Puger Bali
Rice paddy area
Ba
INDIAN OCEAN
li
Area of map Urban area
St
ra
it
The Indonesian island of Java is one of the world’s • Farmers tend to be poorly educated and have little
most populated islands and one of the most densely money to invest in new technologies.
populated places on Earth. It is home to almost 150 • Farm sizes are declining because land is divided
million people. The Javanese people have developed between family members after the death of a farmer.
a way of life that uses the island’s natural resources to • More than 100 000 hectares (1000 km2) of rice
provide them with ample food. Java is a volcanic island paddies have been lost, they have been used to grow
with abundant rainfall, and eruptions over millions of other crops such as palm oil, or to build houses and
years have produced fertile soil for the growing of crops factories.
such as rice. • Little government money is spent on improving and
In fact, Java is home to some of the world’s most repairing irrigation systems.
productive rice fields. Over three-quarters of Javanese • There are few qualified experts to advise farmers how
farmers grow rice, mostly in small family-owned fields to increase crop yields through the introduction of
of less than 1 hectare (0.01 km2). Farmers tend to live
new varieties of rice and pest control.
in villages and towns and walk every morning to their
rice fields. Everyday tasks are determined by the 40.0
Production (milled)
season. Most rice farmers in Java are able to grow 38.0
Consumption
two crops throughout the year, but on more fertile 36.0
ground some farmers are able to grow three. Fertiliser 34.0
is usually added to the soil to complement its natural
32.0
Million tons
fertility.
30.0
In recent years, Java’s population has grown faster
28.0
than increases in rice production and this has meant
that the island has had to import rice from other 26.0
Asian countries. As Java’s population continues to 24.0

grow there is greater pressure on the rice farmers to 22.0
become more productive. There is also an increased 20.0
competition for land. Agricultural scientists are 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
working hard to find solutions to Java’s stalled Year

Source 2 Rice production and consumption in Indonesia
increases in crop yields but they face serious issues:
between 1990 and 2011

Source 3 Terraced
rice fields in Java
skilldrill Check your learning 2.14
Constructing an annotated Remember and understand

1 How is the island of Java able to support so many
field sketch
people?
Geographers use field sketches as a way of capturing
2 Identify two environmental factors that might
impressions immediately and directly. While on a field
influence Java’s high crop yields.
trip to examine an environment in detail you may be
asked to complete a field sketch. It is often a good Apply and analyse
idea to practise field sketching from a photograph 3 Examine Source 2.
before the field trip. The method for drawing a field a Describe the pattern in Indonesia’s rice
sketch is the same as sketching from a photograph. production between 1990 and 2011.
Follow these steps: b Describe the pattern in consumption over the
Step 1 Draw a border of the correct shape. same period.
Step 2 Using a pencil, lightly sketch the main c Explain why Indonesia has become a rice
landscape lines. If there is a horizon in the scene importer in recent years.
put this about one-third from the top of the frame. 4 What relationships are there between the natural
Step 3 Add detail to your sketch. Annotate or label environment and the growing of rice in Java?
those parts of the scene that you consider most 5 Many farmers in Indonesia use water buffalo rather
important. than a tractor to plough their fields. What would
Step 4 Add some shading and colour. Don’t try to be the advantages of using buffalo? What would
copy every subtle colour of nature, just give a hint be the disadvantages? How might the methods of
of the right colour. farming change if a farmer were given a tractor?
Step 5 Label your sketch with the location and date. Evaluate and create
6 Imagine that the Australian Government has
Apply the skill
decided to give aid to Indonesia to increase its
1 Follow the steps provided to complete a field annual rice yield. Write a letter to the Foreign
sketch of Source 3. On your sketch, label key Minister outlining how you think this money should
natural and managed features of the environment. be spent.

2B rich task If the shape of the feature you are studying is irregular,
a grid can be used to estimate its size. For example, on
Growing rice in Source 3, a grid with squares representing 20 km × 20

km has been drawn. If your map does not have a grid like
Australia this already, you can draw your own. You might like to do
this onto a piece of tracing paper that you can then place
on top of the map.
There are about 1600 rice farms in Australia
and virtually all of them are in southern New Step 1 Count the number of grid squares in which the
mapped feature you want to estimate fills the entire
South Wales and northern Victoria. This
square. Write this number down.
region is suitable for the growing of rice
Step 2 Now count the number of grid squares that
because of several key environmental factors.
contain some, but not all, of the mapped feature. Take
The most important of these is the availability this number and divide it by two.
of water. Rice farmers in the region irrigate
Step 3 Add these numbers (the result from Step 1 and
their crops with water from nearby rivers – the result from Step 2) together.
the Murrumbidgee and the Murray. The soil
Step 4 Multiply this number by the area of each square.
is also ideal for rice growing as the heavy In the following map each square is 20 km × 20 km, or
clay that is present stops water from seeping an area of 400 km2.
away. Year-round warm temperatures help
the rice to grow and the flat land makes flood Source 1 These formulas can be used to estimate the size of
differently shaped features on a map.
irrigation possible.
Shape of feature Formula
Triangle The base × the height, divided by two
Circle π (approximately 3.14) × radius squared.
The radius is the distance from the
Although Australian rice growers are the most productive centre of its circle to the edge.
in the world, rice is a controversial crop in this country. Square and rectangle Width × length
Some people feel that growing rice is not a sustainable
use of Australia’s river water. They argue that the natural
environment is suffering because water is being taken Apply the skill
from the rivers. A large part of Australia would not be able 1 Follow the steps provided to estimate the areas of the
to support a crop such as rice because its dry soil and low three main rice-growing regions shown in the map in
rainfalls could not sustain the amount of water needed for Source 3.
a good crop yield. Supporters of the rice industry believe
that rice is a valuable export crop and that Australian rice
farmers are becoming better at using less water to grow
more rice.
skilldrill
Estimating the size of features

on a map
Estimating the size of features on a map is an important
skill for geographers. You can use the scale of maps
to estimate the area covered by certain features. If the
feature is a regular shape such as a triangle, circle or
rectangle, you can apply the skills and formulas you have Source 2 Rice fields and the main irrigation canal near
learnt in mathematics. Leeton, NSW

NEW SOUTH WALES: RICE-GROWING REGIONS

r
ive
nR
Lach
la Murrumbidgee
Irrigation Area Yenda Conduct some further research on rice
Griffith growing in Australia and then complete
Benerembah
Mur r u mbidgee River
Murrami the following tasks.
er
Hay Willbriggie
Riv
Whitton Leeton 1 Describe and account for the

ee
Gogeldrie
dg
i
M urr
u mb Balranald relationship between rivers and rice-
Walsh
Coleambally
Narrandera growing regions.
N ew S o u t h Wa l e s Coleambally
Irrigation Area 2 Compare the photograph of the
Edw Emery
d Bi e
rice-growing area in Java (Source 3
k
ar
l lab on Cre
Moulamein
River Ya n c
o
on page 71) with the rice-growing
g
Cr eek
region of Australia (Source 2). Make
Murray Valley
Swan Hill Livestock, pasture a list of all of the differences that you
Wa
Burraboi Irrigation Districts Jerilderie

o
8.795
k
ol R
i ver
Hogan
grains and others can find. Discuss with a partner why
Deniliquin
Blighty
Cotton these
1.841 differences occur. Consider
LEGEND Caldwell
Finley
Berrigan
both natural and human factors in your
Rice mill capacity M
ur
(tonnes per hour) ra
y
Rive
r Tocumwal
Rice discussion.
1.643
Over 50 Type of agriculture
Under 50
Sugar
3 Examine Source 4. What do these two
Rice growing 1.236
region graphs tell you about the relationship
Rice storage depot
capacity
(thousand tonnes)
Echuca Fruit between rice-crop profitability and
0.704
Over 50 Area of water usage? What questions could
Under 50 Victoria map Grapes 0.649
you ask to assess if Australian rice
Major road
0.635growers are using water sustainably?

Railway 0 20 40 60 km
State border Vegetables
Write a few paragraphs exploring the
Source 3 Source: Oxford University Press 0 2 between
4
link rice6 growing
8 and water
10
Water used
usage in Australia.
(million megalitres)
Livestock, pasture Livestock, pasture

grains and others 8.795 grains and others $2.45
Cotton 1.841 Cotton $1.128
Rice 1.643 Rice $0.310

Type of agriculture
Type of agriculture
Sugar 1.236 Sugar $0.517
Fruit 0.704 Fruit $1.027
Grapes 0.649 Grapes $0.613
Vegetables 0.635 Vegetables $1.119
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 1 2 3
Water used Money made by irrigators
(million megalitres) ($ billions)
Source 4 pasture
Livestock, Graphs showing the amount of water used for agriculture in Australia (left); and the money made from these types of
agriculture
grains and(right)
others $2.45
Cotton $1.128
Rice $0.310
Type of agriculture
Sugar $0.517
Fruit $1.027 chapter 2 growing food 73
Grapes $0.613
Vegetables $1.119
0
02_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_UB1_SI.indd 73 1 2 3 20/10/2016 7:15 am
2.15 Alterations
to biomes
The last 300 years have seen more extensive change to the
Earth’s biomes than in any other period in the Earth’s history. Farming releases gases such as methane
Over half of the world’s land area that is considered habitable which contribute to climate change.
has now been converted into farmland or housing to provide
food, fibre, shelter and fuel to the world’s people – and this
area is expanding.
All around the world the natural biomes of forests,
Farm residue such as animal waste
grasslands, tundra and even deserts are being converted into and fertiliser pollutes waterways and
farms. In some places, large corporations are converting the can cause problems downstream.
land, but in most places it is the work of small-scale farmers,
each motivated by the need to provide food for their own
families. Source 1 shows the extent of biome change around
the world since 1700.
Taking water from the
ground can reduce the
amount held in aquifers.
100%
75%
Irrigation can raise the water
table which may result in salt
Percentage of land
being brought to the surface.
50%
Streams have been diverted

to irrigate crops and pastures.
25%
1700 1800 1900 2000

Loss of habitat for native
Year animals may result in
LEGEND animals becoming
Wilderness areas
endangered and
Urban settlements Croplands Semi-natural areas Wild woodlands extinct.
Villages Grazing lands Wild treeless and
barren lands
Source 1 Changing land use patterns worldwide between 1700 and 2000 Source 2 Some of the changes made to a
landscape in China that is being used for farming

LEGEND
Changes to farming
Changes to water
1 How much of the world’s habitable
Changes to vegetation land area has been converted into
Changes to soil farms?
2 Name three potentially negative
impacts that farming can have on the
environment.
3 List two changes made on the
Chinese farm in Source 2 that involve
altering irrigation practices.
Apply and analyse

4 Examine Source 1.
Natural vegetation has been a Describe the change to the
replaced with introduced amount of wilderness areas from
crops, pasture and animals. 1700 to 2000.
b Use the world biomes map
(Source 4 on page 43) to classify
the wilderness areas remaining
today.
c Which type of land use has
increased the most? Why do you
The land has been shaped
think this is the case?
to create space for roads
and housing. d The labels for Source 2 are in four
different colours. Suggest a title
for each colour.
r
t
Evaluate and create
e. Hillsides have been terraced to create flat Do some further research on the Internet
land and to regulate the flow of water. to complete these tasks.
5 Examine the image of a Chinese
farming landscape as shown in
Source 2. Describe the landscape as
Changes to land cover for farming
is one of the major causes of you think it would have been before
climate change. people arrived in this valley.
6 The labels on this image focus on the
ways in which people have changed
Soil fertility can be the landscape. What are the
reduced by overuse. underlying causes of these changes?
7 Compare the changes made on the
farm in Source 2 with the technology
Natural vegetation has been used in Source 3 on page 67.
cleared and hillsides left bare.
What differences in productivity
do you think the two farms might
experience?

2.16 Changing vegetation
Farmers make many changes to the natural Seeds are thrown into the warm ashes and in this way a
environment in order to grow crops and raise farm forest has been converted into a farm. The types of farm
animals. The greatest changes are made to the natural animals that small-scale farmers raise, such as goats and
vegetation. Forests are cut down, burnt and replaced dogs, push deeper into nearby forest areas to forage for
with a single plant species; wetlands and swamps are food. Over time as soil fertility declines, the farmers
drained; and vast areas of native grasses are replaced and their animals move into a new patch of forest and
with crops such as wheat and rice. begin the process again. In Madagascar, for example,
where 80 per cent of the population lives in poverty,
Changes to forests only 10 per cent of the natural forest remains.
Around the world about 5 million hectares of forest is

converted for agricultural use every year: an area
about two-thirds the size of Tasmania. Most of this MADAGASCAR: DEFORESTATION AND POVERTY LEVELS
change takes place in tropical forests, particularly
in South America and Africa. Few forests in regions
such as North America and Australia have been Antsiranana
converted to farmland in recent years, largely

Antsiranana
because most of the forest has already disappeared. LEGEND Andoany
In Australia, for example, around 50 million Plentiful forest and low poverty
Ambanja
hectares of forests and woodland have been cleared Scarce forest and low poverty Sambava
for farming or affected by logging since European Scarce forest and high poverty
Antsohihy Antalaha
settlement began. Plentiful forest and high poverty
Maroantsetra
In the developing world, there is a strong link Mahajanga
Mandritsara
between deforestation and poverty. Millions of Marovoay
people who live below the poverty line and
Besalampy
struggle to meet their daily food requirements are Mahajanga
Toamasina
becoming small-scale slash-and-burn farmers.
They use a machete to slash the undergrowth in Maintirano
Ambatondrazaka
Toamasina
forests and then set it alight to clear the land.
Mozambique Antananarivo
Antananarivo
Channel
Miandrivazo
Antsirabe INDIAN
Morondava OCEAN
Fianarantsoa
Mananjary
Manja Fianarantsoa
Morombe
Ihosy
Farafangana
Toliara
Toliara
Bekiy
Area of map
Androka Tolanaro
0 100 200 km
Source 1 A woman in Madagascar plants a food crop Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press
on a burnt hillside.

Changes to grasslands
Because the world’s most important food crops − rice,
wheat and corn − are grasses, they grow best in the
world’s grasslands biome. However, clearing of native
grasses to plant these crops can have devastating effects
on the natural environment. Across much of Australia,
North and South America, Asia and Africa, native
grasses have been cleared and replaced by these three
crops to provide food.
This farming then has a further impact on the
biome. Because the rice, wheat and corn crops are Source 3 Fields of wheat have replaced native grasslands
harvested for human consumption, none of the across much of central USA.
nutrients from the plant material are returned to the
soil. As a result, the soil fertility falls. This means and insects also pollute the air, soil and water and may
farmers need to add chemical fertilisers to the soil, kill native plants and animals. Exposed soil becomes
which further changes its composition. This can impact vulnerable to erosion by wind and rain and is washed
on the ability of the soil to hold water and can pollute away. Clearing of native grasses to make way for farming
waterways and coasts. Pesticides used to control weeds has many flow-on effects.
Source 4 Conversion of the world’s natural grasslands.

Case study regions Existing grasslands Estimated conversion of natural grasslands (%)
(% of natural cover)
Crops Cities Other
North American prairie 9.4 71.2 18.7 0.7
South American savanna 21 71 5 3
Asian steppe 71.7 19.9 1.5 6.9
Sub-Saharan African grasslands 73.3 19.1 0.4 7.2
South-west Australian grasslands 56.7 37.2 1.8 4.3

Remember and understand the farmer who has changed the grasslands
1 Describe the link between poverty and deforestation environment shown in Source 3.
in your own words. d Examine Source 2. Describe the variations in
forest cover between regions of low poverty and
2 Is the scene in Source 3 a natural or human
regions of high poverty.
environment? Give evidence from the source for your
answer. 4 Examine Source 3.
a What is the most common land use that replaces
Apply and analyse grasslands around the world?
3 Carefully examine Source 1. b Which region has converted the most grassland?
a List the changes that you can see to the soil, Suggest a reason for this.
vegetation and water that have taken place in this
Evaluate and create
environment.
b Add changes that are likely to have occurred that 5 Use an ICT chart tool, such as Microsoft Excel,
you cannot see. to construct pie graphs for the conversion of
grasslands in Australia, North America and Sub-
c Why has this farmer made these changes to
the landscape? What are her likely motivations? Saharan Africa. Describe the differences between
Compare these to the likely motivations of these three regions as shown in your completed pie
graphs.

2.17 Changing water
Water is one of our most important resources, and control insects and weeds can poison fish and native
agriculture is by far the greatest consumer of water animals, as well as killing the plants that create their
around the world. About 70 per cent of the available habitats.
water supply is used for agriculture, mostly for
irrigation. Once water has been used to grow crops
and given to animals to drink, it is, of course, returned
Changing natural water flows
to the environment. However, the farming process In many places, rivers are dammed to create a large
can change the quality of the water significantly, reservoir of water which can be used for irrigation. In
making it unsuitable for other uses and for the natural the last 50 years the amount of water held in dams has
environment. quadrupled and the volume of water taken from rivers
and lakes has doubled. Most of this water is used for
Water pollution from farming farming. The reduced volume of water in the rivers
creates major problems for the natural environment and
The water that is used on farms eventually flows for downstream users. In the lakes near the mouth of
through soil and rocks into nearby streams and rivers. Australia’s Murray River, for example, the water can be
Bare soil that is not protected by plants and held five times saltier than the sea partly because so much
together by their roots can be washed away in the water has been extracted for farming that the river
process, causing streams to become so cloudy that cannot flush out the naturally occurring salt.
sunlight cannot reach the stream bed. This often kills
many aquatic plants and animals.
Fertilisers such as nitrogen, phosphorus and animal Check your learning 2.17
manure can also end up in lakes and rivers, causing
algae to grow out of control. This starves the water of Remember and understand
oxygen and creates ‘dead zones’ in the water. Upon
1 How might the farmer shown in Source 1 impact
entering water sources, pesticides used in farming to
on the quality of fresh water?
2 How can fertilisers that are used on a farm
eventually reach and kill fish?
Apply and analyse

3 Examine Sources 2 and 3.
a Each of the agricultural fields in these images is
about 800 square metres in area. Estimate the
area covered in 2000 and in 2012.
b What impact will this change have over time on
the volume of underground water in this region?
c Can you think of the environmental impacts that
would result from irrigating using water that has
been extracted from under the ground?
Evaluate and create

4 Draw a sketch of a river flowing through a farming
region. On your sketch show five different ways in
which the farms impact on the quality or quantity
of water in the river.
Source 1 This Filipino farmer is spraying his rice crop with a
pesticide to control insect pests. His fields drain into Laguna 5 Discuss some ways in which the impacts shown
Bay, which is one of the world’s most polluted water bodies and on your sketch could be reduced.
also home to a large freshwater fishing industry.

keyconcept: Sustainability
Greening the desert
The types of changes being made to
tropical rainforests and grasslands in South
America and Africa for agricultural use
are also being made to biomes in other
parts of the world. In Saudi Arabia, for
example, sections of the desert have been
transformed into farmland for the purpose of
growing crops.
Only a few centimetres of rain fall
naturally in the Saudi Arabian desert each
year, but crops can still be grown there
thanks to large aquifers deep beneath the
Earth’s surface. These aquifers contain
water that was trapped between layers of
rock during the last ice age. They also store
water that has fallen as rain over hundreds
of thousands of years.
In Saudi Arabia, water is extracted from
the aquifers by drilling deep into the ground
under the desert floor and pumping it to the 0 10 20 km
surface. Once on the surface, the water is
pumped through a circular sprinkler system. Source 2 Satellite image of the Saudi Arabian desert in 2000.
This is known as centre-pivot irrigation.
Sources 2 and 3 show the dramatic
increase in centre-pivot irrigation in Saudi
Arabia from 2000 to 2012. These satellite
images show healthy vegetation in bright
green, dry vegetation in orange and barren
soil in pink. Each circular field shown in
green is approximately 1 kilometre wide.
Because of the increasing rate at
which water is being used, geographers
and environmental scientists now believe
that this type of farming has become
unsustainable – both environmentally and
economically. In time, supplies of water in
the aquifer will become totally depleted as
they are being used far more quickly than
they can be replenished. The high cost
associated with accessing water from the
aquifers also means that crops grown in this
way will soon become too expensive to buy.
For more information on the key concept
of sustainability, refer to page 9 of ‘The 0 10 20 km
geography toolkit’.
Source 3 Satellite image of the Saudi Arabian desert in 2012.

2.18 Changes to soil
Source 1 The Loess Plateau in northern China is home to more than 50 million people. Centuries of overuse and overgrazing
have resulted in some of the highest rates of soil eroson in the world.
Soil degradation
In many places around the world, soils are being
degraded to such an extent that the amount of food
that can be grown is in decline. It is estimated that
about 2 billion hectares of land have been affected in
this way, an area that is home to about one-fifth of the
world’s population. Soil degradation occurs because
human activities impact on the soil’s ability to support
plants and animals. These activities include clearing
Source 2 A terraced rice field in Mu Cang Chai, Yen Bai
forests to make way for farms and towns, increasing the province, Vietnam
numbers and density of farm animals, poor irrigation Human impact is related to the irrigation of soil to
practices and overfarming, growing so many crops that grow crops. Salts in the irrigation water are left in the
the natural nutrients of the soil are removed and not soil, and eventually the soil becomes too salty for plant
replaced. life to survive. Secondary salinity also occurs when trees
Soil degradation takes many forms. At its worst, the that have deep roots are removed by humans to make
soil is broken down and washed away (see Source 1). It way for crops with short roots. Salt held in the water
is estimated that 75 billion tonnes of fertile soil is lost table is then able to move up to the soil’s surface, killing
this way each year. This is largely as a result of forest virtually all plant life. Approximately 2 million hectares
clearing that allows fragile soils, particularly on sloping of Australian farming land is degraded in this way.
land, to be attacked directly by heavy rain. Without the
roots of forest plants that help bind the soil together,
soil is washed away. In other places, nutrients in the
Terracing
soil, such as nitrogen and potassium, have become so The shape of the land and soil can be altered through
depleted that the soil is unable to support plant life. terrace farming. Commonly used so that sloping land
can be farmed productively, terracing does not always
Salinity have a negative impact on the landscape. For example,
by dividing the land into flatter sections, farmers
In Australia, soil degradation often takes the form of decrease soil erosion by slowing down water running
salinity. Salinity is a condition where the amount of downhill. But terracing can sometimes catch too much
salt causes problems in the soil, and impacts on the water, especially during heavy rainfall. This saturates
environment. There are two types of soil salinity: the soil, leading to overflowing terraces that can cause
• primary salinity, which is a natural condition that more soil erosion than the normal run off. While
develops in the landscape over time. terracing can improve soil erosion, it must be carefully
• secondary salinity, which is caused by human maintained so that it does not cause further damage
impact. to soil.

Managing salinity farmers to combat soil salinity. The most successful
strategy used so far appears to be lowering the level of
Many Australian farmers, particularly in Western
the water table which keeps salt in the water away from
Australia, have responded to the threat of soil salinity by
plants.
changing the ways in which they farm the land. Some of
these changes have been more successful than others For more information on the key concept of
but all are designed to use the soil in a more sustainable sustainability, refer to page 9 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
way. Source 3 shows some of the strategies used by
Construction of levees and banks Fencing areas of
channel water flow, directing salty native vegetation away
water away from plants. from grazing animals
helps prevent erosion
Planting of native trees
and keeps soil healthy.
helps prevent erosion.
Planting of crops such as Lucerne,

saltbush and wheatgrass help lower
the water table.
Levees and banks build Drains funnel

up barriers to stop salty Water table is kept low so salty water away
water flowing into the soil. that the roots of plants are from plants. Some salts will still remain
not exposed to salt in the water. dispersed in the soil.
Source 3 A range of responses and strategies can be used to tackle salinity.

Remember and understand b How has farming changed the soils in this place?
1 What is salinity? Why is it considered to be a cause c Compare this image to the image of rice terraces
of soil degredation? seen in Source 3 on page 71. Both these areas
have been farmed in the same way but one
2 How does forest clearing lead to soil degradation?
has experienced soil erosion while one has
Apply and analyse not. Brainstorm the possible reasons for these
3 How has the farmer in Source 3 managed salinity on differing outcomes.
the farm? Evaluate and create
4 Select one of the farmer’s strategies and comment 6 The eroded soil in Source 1 was once some of the
on its potential effectiveness. most fertile soil in the world. Describe and sketch a
5 Examine Source 1 showing soil erosion in northern system that would help to slow or reverse soil erosion
China. in this place.
a What evidence is there that this is a farming area?

2.19 Spreading deserts
Another type of land degradation that affects millions farming land (land that is difficult to farm).
of people around the world is desertification. Natural factors including drought can also contribute
Desertification is a process by which a region gradually to desertification.
becomes drier, and loses its bodies of water, vegetation The United Nations currently estimates that the
and wildlife until it becomes a desert. As a result of food security of about 250 million people around
desertification, soil and cropland that was once fertile the world is directly affected by desertification.
and productive can become so dry, infertile, salty and They believe that the food security of a further one
heavily eroded that it can no longer be used to grow billion is also threatened. There are many effects
food and raise livestock. According to the research by of desertification: sandstorms, crop losses, famine,
the United Nations Desertification Convention released environmental refugees and conflict are all direct or
in 2013, there are currently 168 countries at risk from indirect results of desertification. About 12 million
desertification. hectares of land are lost every year to desertification,
There are many human activities that can lead to which is about twice the size of Tasmania. It is
desertification, but they are all related to the overuse of estimated that this results in an annual loss of 20
the land and water in vulnerable regions. This includes million tonnes of grain. Most of this occurs in
overgrazing by animals such as cattle and goats, the developing regions in Central Asia and Sub-Saharan
removal of forest cover, the use of trees and shrubs Africa, further contributing to food insecurity in
for firewood, extracting water from the ground, poor those regions.
irrigation practices and growing crops on marginal
WORLD: DESERTIFICATION VULNERABILITY
ARCTIC OCEAN
Arctic Circle
Aral Sea Gobi

Desert Beijing
ATLANTIC
PACIFIC
OCEAN
OCEAN Tropic of Cancer
Sahara Desert
Equator
ATLANTIC LEGEND
OCEAN INDIAN OCEAN Vulnerability to
desertification
Tropic of Capricorn
Not vulnerable
Low
Moderate
High
Very high
Existing dryland
0 2000 4000 km
SOUTHERN OCEAN Antarctic Circle

keyconcept: Environment
The Green Wall of China Despite some local success stories, not all experts
are convinced the wall will halt desertification. In fact,
Over the next few decades, the Chinese government
some geographers argue that it may even add to
has plans to plant over one billion trees in an attempt
desertification over the longer term as the trees require
to halt the advance of the Gobi desert over productive
large amounts of water to help them grow.
farmland across vast areas of China. Nicknamed the
Green Wall of China, this line of trees is expected to For more information on the key concept of
extend for 4480 kilometres and cover 4 million square environment, refer to page 8 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
kilometres on the desert margins.
Source 2 A line of trees on the edge of the Gobi Desert in China helps to protect crops from being covered in sand.

Remember and understand 5 What is the spatial association between existing
1 What is desertification? What are some of the direct dry lands and areas vulnerable to desertification?
and indirect results of desertification? Explain why this spatial association exists.
2 Name three human activities that can lead to 6 How do you think desertification may lead to wars
desertification. between countries or civil conflicts within countries?
3 How does desertification lead to food insecurity? Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse 7 In what ways might climate change be a leading
cause of desertification in some regions of the world?
4 Using Source 1, describe the global pattern of
desertification. Ensure you name specific countries, 8 How effective do you believe the line of trees shown
regions and continents in your description. in Source 2 will be in stopping the advancing sand
dunes of the Gobi Desert? Give some reasons for
your answer.

2C rich task
The impact of
changing diets
The diets of many people around the world
are changing and the foods they are choosing
to eat are having significant impacts on the
environment. As the wealth and wellbeing
of people in countries such as China and
India increase, the diets of people there are
gradually changing. With greater wealth, Source 1 A new KFC store opens in China at the rate of
many people in India and China are moving about one per day. As of 2015, there were 5003 KFC stores
across China, many open 24 hours a day.
from a diet based almost entirely on grains
commenting on a situation or place at a particular point
and plants to a diet with more protein from
in time?
meat and dairy products. Food-production
Step 5 Remember to check the information on graphs
industries – such as the fast-food sector –
carefully. Pay particular attention to ranges of figures
are also changing to take advantage of this
and make sure that you understand the classifications.
growing demand. Are things being measured in kilograms or tonnes, for
example? If the figures are in kilograms in one source
and in tonnes in another, you will need to convert the
skilldrill figures to the same units of measurement in order to
understand and compare them.
Analysing secondary geographical Step 6 Remember to think about bias – ask why the
data and drawing conclusions author has written the piece of information. Are they
trying to influence opinion on an issue? Are you getting
It is important for geographers to be able to correctly
the complete picture? Try to find a range of sources
interpret data that has been collected and represented
on the same subject to ensure you have the most
by other people. They often need to use secondary
complete data available.
data sources to draw conclusions about what they have
found. By following these steps you will learn to interpret Step 7 Compare the facts and figures you have
a range of secondary data sources (e.g. graphs, tables, summarised. It may be helpful to use the PQE method
reports) and use them to reach conclusions about your to do this.
investigation. Step 8 Use your notes to reach your own conclusion
Step 1 Once you have gathered a range of secondary about the key question or issue that you are exploring.
data sources for your investigation, look at each Support your conclusion with information from the data.
source carefully. Step 9 Present your conclusion to an audience. This
Step 2 For each source of information, write down two may be done verbally, graphically or in a written
or three key facts that are presented. form. Whatever form you choose, make sure you
use the evidence you have gathered to support your
Step 3 Try to summarise the key focus of each data
conclusion.
source in one or two sentences. Identify any patterns
or exceptions that you notice. Apply the skill
Step 4 Pay particular attention to the title, the date of
1 Examine the information presented in Sources 2, 3 and
the data and its source. Is the information contained
4 and follow the steps provided to draw a conclusion
in the source already dated, is it still relevant, or is it
about the environmental impact of changing diets.

other
pulses +58% Meat 2005

Sub–Saharan
2500 2050
roots and tubers Africa +19%
Milk and dairy 2005
meat
North Africa +62% 2050
and Middle East +23%
2000 sugar
kilocalories per capita/day
Latin America +38%

vegetable oils
and Caribbean
+25%
Country
1500
+309%
other cereals
South Asia
+63%
1000
+61%
wheat East Asia
+68%
OECD and +11%

500
Eastern Europe +10%
rice
0 50 100 150 200 250

0 Kilograms consumed per person per year
1964-66 1997-99 2030
Source 2 A compound column graph showing observed and Source 4 Projected changes in meat and dairy consumption
predicted changes in the human diet between 1964 and 2030 from 2005 to 2050
Source: http://www.unep.org/pdf/foodcrisis_lores.pdf Source: http://ccafs.cgiar.org/bigfacts/dietary-change/

16 2470
6 1 Use the information presented here to suggest ways in
7.9
Beef 15500 which people in developed countries such as Australia
could reduce the environmental impacts of their diets.
2 Design an advertising campaign to communicate your
4.6 1650
findings to the Australian public.
1.8
6.4
Chicken 3900 Here are some facts you might consider:
• Meat consumption is expected to increase from
39 kg/person/year in 2009 to over 52 kg/person/year
0.8 * 3400 by 2050 (FAO, 2006).
1.5
Wheat 1300 • By 2050, 50 per cent of cereal grown may be used
to feed animals for human consumption (UN report,
2011).
• Currently, 33 per cent of total farming land is used for
Rice * * * 1300 producing animal feed (UN report, 2011).
3400 • Today, the number of urban residents is growing
by nearly 60 million every year. By 2050, the urban
1kg
water footprint emissions land use grain for feed calories population will almost double to 6.4 billion people.
(litres)1 (kg C02)2 (m2)3 (kg) (Kcal)
Almost all urban population growth in the next
Source 3 The ecological footprint of different food types 30 years will occur in cities of developing countries
Source: Oxford University Press (World Health Organisation, 2013).

Biomes and
food security
Food security
Compared to most people around the world, Australians
have very reliable access to a wide variety of different
foods. High wages and a strong economy mean that
many Australians can afford to buy and prepare the
food they need and rarely worry about where their next
meal is coming from.
Unlike people in Australia, these Somali women are
waiting in line to receive food from an aid organisation
in the capital city, Mogadishu. They are victims of a
food shortage that affected 10 million people in African
nations in 2011–12. A widespread shortage of food is
known as a famine. Famine can be caused by many
factors including drought and war. Food experts are
warning that famines are likely to become more severe
and widespread as the Earth’s climate changes and the
human population continues to grow. Some argue that
food security is the greatest single issue facing the world
today.
3A
What is food security?
3B
What are the main challenges to
1 Make a list of the different things you have eaten food production?
in the last 24 hours.
1 Brainstorm some of the ways in which food
2 How different do you think your list would look production is threatened around the world, including
compared with one of the women shown in in Australia.
Source 1?
2 Some areas of the world, such as the Horn of Africa,
are more at risk of famine than other places.
Why do you think this is the case?

chapter
3
Source 1 These people are victims of the famine in the Horn of Africa. Drought, conflict and restrictions on delivery
of food aid caused the famine (one of the world’s biggest humanitarian emergencies) in 2011–12.
3C
How can we improve food
security?
1 What is being done in Somalia to improve the food
security of people affected by famine?
2 The United Nations set the target of halving hunger
by 2015. Do you think this was possible?
Give some reasons for your answer.
chapter 3 food security 87

3.1 Food security
Food security is a state where all people at all times have
access to enough safe, nutritious food to sustain a healthy
life. For a person, community or country to have a secure
food supply they must have three things:
• food availability
• food accessibility
• knowledge and resources to use food appropriately.
People who do not have food security suffer from
hunger and illnesses related to lack of food, such as
malnutrition. About 870 million people around the
world do not have food security – the majority of them
live in developing countries.
Food availability
Food availability means people have enough food
of appropriate quality available on a consistent basis.
This may include production, storage, distribution
and exchange of foodstuffs, provided reliably and
regularly. People whose food availability relies solely Source 1 In many coastal communities in Arnhem Land, the
on the production of a single crop, for example, may ocean provides food security. Local knowledge ensures the
find themselves at great risk of food insecurity if that catch will be prepared in a safe and appropriate way.
crop fails.
Many countries have strategies in place, such as
growing a variety of crops, to maximise their food
availability and ensure food security. Management
of fishing and fishing industries is also used by some
communities to ensure a constant supply of fish is
available to sustain them. Food availability alone,
however, does not guarantee food security.
Food accessibility
Food accessibility means physical and economic access
to food. That is, there needs to be enough food available
and it must be in reach of those who need it. Many food
researchers believe that the world’s farmers produce
more than enough food to meet the needs of every
person on Earth. However, the food is not distributed
evenly. Developed countries have more food than
they need and high levels of wastage, while many
people in developing countries struggle to access
enough food to meet their daily needs. The reasons for
this uneven distribution are many and complex. They Source 2 Australia is a country that has a high level of food
include social, political and economic factors, such accessibility – many people enjoy good access to a wide variety
as rising prices, trade agreements and quotas set up of food.
between countries.

Knowledge and resources to use for example, insects and other invertebrates such as
scorpions and spiders are regularly eaten as part of a
food appropriately balanced diet (see Source 3). Local cultural knowledge
means these insects are prepared properly, making
Appropriate use of food means using food safely and
them safe to eat and nutritious. This is an example of
applying knowledge about nutrition, clean water and
appropriate use of food. Knowing how to use such foods
sanitation when preparing food.
appropriately could potentially stave off the incidence
What is appropriate use of food varies between of food insecurity. In fact, the United Nations has
different places and cultures. What is appropriate and identified insects as the ‘forgotten food crop’ as they
usual to eat in one part of the world might be viewed could help alleviate food insecurity, particularly in
as unusual somewhere else. In many Asian countries, developing countries.
Source 3 Deep-fried
scorpions ready for
sale at a Beijing street
market

Remember and understand and prepare it ready for eating. Do you know how to
1 What are the three factors that contribute to food prepare his food? Do you think that he does? What
security? does this tell you about food security?
2 Describe and explain food security in Australia with Evaluate and create
reference to these three factors. 5 Find images of foods from around the world and
Apply and analyse display them on your classroom wall. Use your
examples to explain why food preferences and food
3 Where does most of your food come from? How
security differ between places and cultures.
would your answer differ if you lived in another
country, for example, Vietnam? Explain the reasons 6 It is estimated that about 870 million people suffer
for your answer. from hunger due to poor food security. Of the three
factors that contribute to food security, which do you
4 Quentin, the boy in Source 1, shows that he has
believe is most important? Discuss your thoughts with
food availability and food accessibility. To have food
a partner and then share your thoughts with the class.
security he now has to use the food appropriately

3.2 Levels of food security
in different places
People living in different parts of the world experience
different levels of food security. People in developed
countries including North America, Western Europe
and Australia, for example, generally have very high
levels of food security. Food is available, accessible and
appropriate to a high proportion of the population in
these places. At the other end of the scale, many people
in developing countries, particularly throughout Asia
and Sub-Saharan Africa, do not have food security.
Food security can be impacted by a number of
factors such as unequal access to good farming land,
education, technology and natural resources. Fast
population growth, conflict and natural disasters can Source 2 One of the most food-secure nations in the world is
also contribute to a person’s inability to access food, by the United States, where the majority of people have access to
decreasing the amount of available food per person. a reliable, safe and nutritious food supply.
Other forces that can impact severely on those who

Forces impacting on food do not have food security include natural disasters,
such as drought or flood. Many people in poor areas
security rely on local agriculture for food, so food sources can be
Poverty and food insecurity are closely linked. left damaged or destroyed following natural disasters.
Individuals who suffer from poverty struggle to Human activities can also affect food security in many
meet their basic daily food needs and spend a greater places. Armed conflicts may interrupt usual markets
percentage of their income on food than those in and food supply lines, or land used for growing crops
wealthier countries. This makes them highly vulnerable may be repurposed for other uses, which results in
to forces that change the availability and accessibility local food supplies being affected. Those without food
of food. If the price of food suddenly increases, for security are much more vulnerable to change that is
example, food that they could previously afford caused by outside forces.
becomes unaffordable.
Global patterns of food security
Source 3 shows the global pattern of food security and
insecurity. Scores for each country were calculated using
18 different indicators, including the nutrition and
health status of the population, the availability of food
staples such as rice, wheat and corn, and access to these
foods. Countries were then grouped into four categories
according to their risk of experiencing widespread food
insecurity.
The global distribution of food security is not static.
The number of undernourished people in the world,
for example, has fallen by more than 130 million in the
last 20 years, despite the world’s population growing
Source 1 The people of Zimbabwe in southern Africa have by more than 1.5 billion in the same period. The
one of the lowest levels of food security. This girl is scavenging distribution of undernourished people in the world has
for food in a rubbish dump near the capital, Harare.
also changed (see Source 4).

WORLD: FOOD INSECURITY LEVELS
Yemen
Eritrea
Liberia Sudan
LEGEND
Somalia Risk of food
DR Congo insecurity
Kenya
Angola Extreme
Rwanda
Malawi High
Burundi
Zambia Medium
Tanzania
Zimbabwe Low
Ocean
No data
Country
0 2000 4000 km border

Western Asia and Northern Africa (13)
Latin America
Central Asia (9) Remember and understand
and the Caribbean (65) Oceania (1)
1 How are poverty and food insecurity linked?
Developed regions (20)
South-Eastern Asia (131) 2 Compare the food security of the two individuals
Southern Asia (327)
shown in Sources 1 and 2. Comment on the food
availability, accessibility and appropriateness for
each of these people.
Apply and analyse

3 Examine Source 4 which shows the 1990–92
distribution of undernourished people in various
Eastern Asia (261)
1990 – 92 Sub-Saharan Africa (170) parts of the world compared with the 2010–12
distribution.
Western Asia and Northern Africa (25)
a What has happened to the overall number of
Central Asia (6)
Latin America undernourished people over the past 20 years?
and the Caribbean (49) Oceania (1)
Developed regions (16)
b Which regions have seen an overall increase of
undernourished people?
South-Eastern Asia (65)
Southern Asia (304) c Is this change reflected in Source 3?
4 Describe the distribution of global food insecurity
using the PQE method (for more information
on the PQE method, refer to page 19 of ‘The
geography toolkit’).
5 Discuss the factors that may be responsible for the
Eastern Asia (167)
pattern you have described.
2010 – 12 Sub-Saharan Africa (234)
6 Australia is described as having a low risk of
Source 4 The distribution of hunger in the world is experiencing food insecurity. Why do you think this
changing. These charts show the number of undernourished is the case?
by region, 1990–92 and 2010–12, in millions.

3A rich task THE HORN OF AFRICA: VARIATIONS FROM AVERAGE RAINFALL, 2011
Food insecurity in 0 1500 3000 km
the Horn of Africa Sudan Eritrea
The Horn of Africa refers to the countries

in the north-east of the African continent. Djibouti
Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti are Ethiopia
the four countries that officially make up South
the Horn, but Kenya, South Sudan, Sudan, Sudan
Uganda and even Tanzania are sometimes Somalia

considered to be part of the Horn of Africa. Uganda
It covers an area of approximately 2 million Kenya
square kilometres and is home to around 100

million people.
People who live in countries on and around LEGEND
Variations from April to June in
Tanzania
the Horn of Africa often experience food average rainfall, 2011
Area
More than 1000 mm above
insecurity. This is mainly due to a combination 500 to 1000 mm above of map
of natural processes and human activities. 0 to 500 mm above
In 2011–12, the area experienced the worst 0 to 250 mm below

250 to 500 mm below
drought in decades. It caused the widespread More than 500 mm below
devastation of millions of hectares of vital
food crops and led to the deaths of hundreds Source 1 Source: Oxford University Press
of thousands of people by starvation and

THE HORN OF AFRICA: FOOD INSECURITY SNAPSHOT, 2011–12
malnutrition. The United Nations declared
the area to be in the grip of a famine, the first Re
d
announcement of its type in nearly 30 years. Se

a
0 300 600 km
SUDAN ERITREA
Khartoum Asmara YEMEN
At its most severe, the drought and subsequent famine
brought food insecurity to more than 13 million people in Gulf
of A
de n
DJIBOUTI
the Horn of Africa as well as in neighbouring countries, Djibouti
including Kenya, Uganda and South Sudan. The situation

Addis Ababa
was worsened by an ongoing conflict in southern Somalia ETHIOPIA
SOUTH SUDAN
that made it difficult for aid agencies to deliver food to the
communities in need. As many as one million people fled Juba
SOMALIA
the affected areas causing a further humanitarian crisis as
Mogadishu
refugee camps struggled to accommodate the flood of UGANDA
Kampala KENYA
new arrivals. LEGEND
Level of food insecurity
Nairobi
RWANDA Kigali None or minimal
Local people in need of assistance as at
Bujumbura Stressed
5 September 2011 BURUNDI
Crisis
Ethiopia 4.6 million Emergency
Dodoma
Dar es Salaam
Djibouti 146 600 TANZANIA
Catastrophe/Famine
Country border
Somalia 4 million
Kenya 3.8 million Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press
Area
of map

Typical season Drought 2010–11 aspects of a situation (i.e. things that can be expressed in words
not numbers). The best complex questions can open up a whole
Sep 2010
Rains bring pasture Very poor livestock new area to explore and result in an in-depth understanding of the
production
Short rainy season

regeneration and situation.
increased water availability Oct
The following steps will help you generate a range of simple
and support crop
development and complex questions.
Nov
Step 1 Select an event that you would like to investigate.
Step 2 Construct some simple questions to guide your initial
Dec Typical lean season
Typical lean season investigation. The key words ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘when’ and
shortages more severe ‘what’ should help you get started.
Jan 2011
Step 3 Investigate the questions you have listed and note
Long dry season
down your answers.

Feb
Step 4 Expand your investigation by forming some more
complex questions. Words such as ‘why’, ‘what caused’,
Mar ‘who interacts’ and ‘what impact’ will help you to construct
Main rains in Ethiopia, Rainfall less than 30%
Somalia, Kenya, of the 1995–2010 average, these types of questions.
secondary rains in Apr high livestock mortality Step 5 You may also develop some of the questions from
Main rainy season
south-eastern Kenya rates, ranging from

15%–60%
Step 2 into more complex ones. For example, you could
May develop ‘What?’ into ‘What will the effect of … have in the
future?’ to allow for further discussion.
Jun
Main harvest in Somalia, Crop failure in marginal Apply the skill
minor harvests in cropping areas likely, Use Sources 1, 2 and 3 together with the information provided
Jul staple cereal prices
Short dry season
south-eastern Kenya
exceed record levels
to complete the following tasks.
1 Develop a set of five simple questions about the famine
Aug
in the Horn of Africa in 2011–12. Use your answers to list
some main facts about the situation.
Source 3 This timeline shows the rainy season failure of 2010–11, 2 Now investigate the famine more deeply by constructing
compared to a typical season. three complex questions that focus on its causes. You may
want to develop a complex question that focuses on the
skilldrill political situation in the region and the effects this had on
the countries that suffered.
Developing geographical questions 3 Prepare a brief report explaining the famine based on your
It is important that geographers ask lots of questions. answers. Check that you have included causes as well as
These questions can be simple or complex, and can guide effects in your report to give a well-rounded viewpoint.
understanding of places, events, and the causes and effects
that various factors have on an environment. Extend your understanding
For example, in the case of an event such as a famine,
Conduct some further research and then complete the following
a geographer may start the process of understanding the
tasks.
situation by asking a simple question such as, ‘How many
people died in the famine?’ Often a simple question will look 1 How did the ongoing conflict in southern Somalia contribute
at the more quantitative aspects of a situation (i.e. facts that to the famine?
can be expressed in numbers). 2 Research how organisations such as Caritas, UNICEF,
Then, to investigate further and deepen their understanding, AusAID, Mercy Corps, World Vision and Oxfam helped bring
a geographer may ask a more complex question, such as, food security to this region during 2011 and 2012.
‘Was there a change in climate that caused food crops to fail?’ 3 What means do you think can be adopted to establish long-
Often, a complex question will look at the more qualitative term food security in a region that experiences famines?

3.3 Challenges to food
production
As we have learnt, food security (the consistent access depth in this section of the chapter. The main factors
and availability of an adequately nutritious food supply) that come into play and put food security at risk are:
depends on a number of factors. In some places, these water scarcity; climate change; threats from non-native
factors are in a state of flux, and food security is under plants, animals and insects; competition for land; the
constant threat. use of land for fuel instead of food; and armed conflict.
There are six main threats to food security which
are outlined here, and which will be explored in more
Challenges to food production

Water scarcity Water scarcity is the lack of access to enough safe water. The
supply of clean, safe water is important not only for people to drink,
but for the safe growing of crops for food. As the world’s population
continues to grow, water becomes an even more important
resource, and its management becomes more crucial. Water is
needed for people to drink, wash and cook with on a household
level; however, massive amounts of water are also needed for
agriculture, industry, manufacturing and leisure activities. This
competition for water can lead to shortages, and when there is not
adequate water, food security is put at risk.
Source 1 Drought is a major cuase of food insecurity.

Prolonged periods of inadequate rainfall can cause soil erosion.
Climate change The term climate change refers to long-term changes in weather
events and patterns worldwide. The effects of climate change
include rising global temperatures and changes in levels of rainfall.
Such changes impact on the environment and the sustainability of
agricultural production. Places that are able to grow certain crops
because of the reliable rainfall, for example, may find that increases
or decreases in rainfall affect the viability of that crop. Climate
change may also cause more frequent droughts or floods in some
regions, both disastrous to crops. The effect on crop growing is just
one example of the way climate change can directly impact on food
security.
Source 2 The melting of glaciers and icebergs is a well-known

example of climate change. Another effect to climate change is
the threat to food security in many parts of the world.
Threats from non-native plants The introduction of non-native plants, animals or insects into an
area can have devastating effects on the natural environment.
This, in turn, can develop into a situation where food security is put
at risk. Pests such as the Khapra beetle, which live and breed in
stores of grain, can destroy up to 70 per cent of a store and make
it inedible. A native of South Asia, the Khapra beetle is now one of
the top invasive species globally. In countries where rice is a food
staple, the damage caused by this beetle puts food security at risk.
Source 3 Swarms of locusts, which will eat any plant material

in their path, are pest that can quickly destroy crops, resulting in
food insecurity.

3B What are the main threats to food security?
Challenges to food production

Competition for land In many places around the world, agriculture is being threatened
by competition for land. Food security may come under threat by
people or corporations who want to use land for purposes other
than growing food crops. Land that was once productive farmland
is being converted into housing, mines, golf courses, shopping
complexes and factories (see Source 3). This competition for land,
partly to service and house growing populations, means that there
is less land available to grow food.
Source 4 Increasing competition for land to use for purposes

other than growing food poses a threat to food security in some
regions of the world.
The use of land for fuel instead of food One of the biggest emerging threats to food security in recent years
has come from the growth in the amount of land being used to
produce crops used to feed cars, not people. These crops are used
in biofuels – fuels that are produced, or partly produced, by some
types of plants. Researchers, trying to reduce carbon emission
caused by traditional fuels, developed biofuels. This has meant that
land previously used to grow food crops has been taken over in
order to supply the produce for biofuel (see Source 4).
Source 5 The practice of using land to grow crops for fuel,

not food, puts food security at risk for many people.
Armed conflict Armed conflict is another complex and severe threat to food
security. Armed conflicts have the potential to affect the food
security of entire regions and may even result in famine. In cases of
armed conflict, the food security of a population can be affected in
various ways. Food may be stolen from the local people by armed
forces, land used for growing food crops may be destroyed, or the
young men – even children – who would normally tend fields may
instead go off to fight. The effect of armed conflict on food security,
and how to deal with it, is a major global concern to organisations
such as the United Nations and UNICEF.
Source 6 Food security can be jeopardised in areas of the

world experiencing armed conflict.

1 Why is there growing competition for water and land 3 The use of biofuels can help reduce the carbon
resources? emissions that cause climate change, but growing
2 Name some of the competing uses for land around crops for fuel can also increase food insecurity.
the world. a In this instance, do you think it is more important
to provide enough food for people or to help stop
climate change?
b How would you suggest balancing the potential
risks of climate change against people’s need for
food?

3.4 Water scarcity
Agriculture uses about 70 per cent of all fresh water
taken from rivers every year. From the rice terraces of
China to the orchards of Australia’s Murray–Darling
Basin, river water is used to irrigate farms and feed
billions of people around the world.
River systems and the water they capture, store
and distribute are among the most threatened natural
environments on Earth. The level of threat to the
ongoing supply of fresh water available for agriculture
varies from place to place, but an increasing demand for
water is by far the most common threat to food security
around the globe. In many places, population growth –
particularly in cities – puts increased demand on nearby
rivers and lakes. This increased demand and usage then
threatens the water supplies that farmers rely on.
Economic factors
Greater prosperity and socioeconomic development
also places greater demands on water supplies.
Industrial development and an increase in the number
of individual households means increased water Source 1 A farmer searches for water in the Mekong
consumption. At current usage rates, water needed for river basin.
industry around the world is predicted to at least double
by 2025.
Rapid economic growth and Westernisation in
countries such as China and India are also affecting
water usage. According to environmentalists and 8 000
academics, water scarcity and quality are the most
food production (km3/year)
pressing environmental issues facing China today.

Water requirements for
Currently water is being used at an unsustainable rate.

6 000
Changing tastes in places like China are also increasing
the demand for certain foods, such as meat, which
requires more water to produce than traditional rain-
fed crops. This is putting an added strain on water 4 000
resources.
Environmental factors 2 000
Environmental factors also affect the amounts of water

used for growing food (see Source 2). Changing rainfall
patterns and warmer temperatures as a result of climate 0
change are seriously affecting water supply in some
1960
1970
1980
1990
2002
2015
2030
2050
regions of the world. The rapid melting of glaciers in

places such as South America and Central Asia is of Year
particular concern.
Source 2 The historic and projected changes in water
consumption needed for agriculture, 1960–2050

Glaciers have historically acted THE MEKONG BASIN: LAND USE

like reservoirs. As the glaciers
CHINA
have slowly melted, water has
flowed down the mountains into
the rivers, providing water to MYANMA R Hanoi Area of map
millions of people. This water has
been used to grow a significant
amount of the food to meet the
L AOS
requirements of 2.5 billion people
in Asia, and 53 million people
in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador. As M Gulf of Tonkin
Vientiane
the glaciers shrink, however, this
ek
Thailand:
ong
water flow is declining. A lack 50% of Thailand’s
arable land is
of water to grow crucial crops is located here.
predicted to have a severe impact
R iv
er
on food security for people in Cambodia:
50% of Cambodians THA IL A ND
these regions. depend on Tonle Sap
Lake for water and
fish.
Case study:
the Mekong Basin Bangkok
CA MBODIA
South
China
Sea
The Mekong River begins on the LEGEND
northern slopes of the Himalayas Forest mainly in
mountainous area
and crosses six countries before Phnom Penh
Scrubland or VIETNAM
reaching the South China Sea. grassland
On its journey it is dammed Rainfed and
irrigated croplands
for electricity and diverted for Gulf of Mekong Delta:
Thailand More than 50% of
irrigation, providing water to Mainly rice paddy Vietnam’s rice is grown
meet the needs of more than Country border here.
60 million people. Forty-eight Capital city

0 150 300 km
million people rely directly on the
Mekong River basin for their food Source 3 Source: Oxford University Press
supply (see Source 3).

Remember and understand 4 Estimate the area of rice paddy cultivation in the
1 List the ways in which the supply of river water for region shown in Source 3. Describe the spatial
farming is threatened. Highlight those that apply to association between the river and the rice paddies.
rivers in Australia. 5 Describe the changes in the amount of water used,
2 Explain how water scarcity and food security are and projected to be used for food production from
linked. 1960 to 2050.

3 Use an atlas and Source 3 to describe the route 6 The Mekong River crosses six countries. How might
taken by the Mekong River from its source to the this cause problems and conflicts between countries
mouth. Explain how changes near the source could who rely on it? In particular, how might downstream
bring about food insecurity for communities near to users such as the rice farmers of Vietnam be
the mouth. affected?

3.5 Climate change
Much debate surrounds the subject of climate change, but there rain falling on a region means crops may
is now considerable evidence and consensus that the main be flooded and destroyed. These changes
cause of global warming is the rising carbon dioxide levels in in climate pose a significant threat to food
our atmosphere from burning fossil fuels. Gases produced by security.
human activities and industrial pollution are being added to
the atmosphere at such a rate that they are changing the Earth’s
climate. The most obvious change is a rise in global temperatures
Impacts on Sub-Saharan
but there are other changes too. Some places are becoming wetter, Africa and Asia
while others are becoming drier. Glaciers and ice caps are melting,
The impacts of climate change on food
causing sea levels to rise. Extreme weather events such as droughts,
production are likely to be greatest in Sub-
floods and cyclones are becoming more serious and frequent.
Saharan Africa and Asia. Many farming
These and other changes are already impacting on food production,
areas in Africa are expected to become drier.
and climate scientists warn that these impacts will become more
As the soil dries, causing plants such as trees
severe in the future depending on global temperature increases (see
and shrubs to die, the possibility of Africa’s
Source 1).
deserts spreading into areas currently being
Changes in the atmosphere affect water and land that is used
farmed is expected to increase. Infestations
for growing crops. Droughts mean there is not enough water for
from plants and animal pests such as
successful crop growing, while a drastic increase in the amount of
locusts are also expected to become more
severe, as are droughts.
Source 1 Climate change is projected to impact significantly on food, water
and ecosystems. Asia’s river deltas, such as the Mekong,
Ganges, Indus and Yangtze, are sometimes
Global Projected effect
temperature
referred to as the world’s rice bowl. Due
increase to farming improvements introduced
0°–1° • Small mountain glaciers disappearing, impacting on water during the Green Revolution, these river
supplies deltas now help provide food security to
• Extensive bleaching and damage to coral reefs leading to over one billion people. This food security,
widespread death of coral and attached species however, is under threat from several
• Risk to some ecosystems
effects of climate change. Changes in
• Increase in extreme weather events – increased damage
rainfall patterns are making it difficult for
from floods and storms
farmers to know when to plant their crops.
1°–2° • Up to 30% of species at increasing risk of extinction
Severe rainfall variability is damaging crops
• Failing crop yields in many areas, particularly developing
regions and affecting food security. Thailand, for
• Cereal-growing productivity to decrease in some regions
• Risk to some ecosystems increases
2°–4° • Significant decrease in water availability in many areas, including
the Mediterranean and southern Africa
• Increasing level of extreme weather events – increased
number of human deaths due to floods, heatwaves,
droughts, etc.
• Many ecosystems now at risk
• About 30% of global coastal wetlands to be lost
4°+ • Very high risk of irreversible environmental damage
• Very high risk of abrupt changes to global environments
• Sea level rise threatens major cities
• Falling crop yields in many developed regions
• Significant number of extinct species around the globe Source 2 This rice field sits on a low island near
• Increasing levels of malnutrition, diarrhoea and infectious the mouth of the Ganges River in Bangladesh. A
disease sea level rise of a few centimetres would cover the
crop in salty water, destroying it.

WORLD: PREDICTED CHANGES IN FOOD PRODUCTION BY 2080
LEGEND
Decrease
15 to 50%
0 to 15%
Increase
15 to 35%
0 to 15%
No data
Country
0 2000 4000 km border
example, suffered a severe drought

in 2010 that damaged crops across Check your learning 3.5
the country. A year later, devastating
floods swept through Thailand leaving Remember and understand
behind a $40 billion damage bill. 1 Why are many rice paddies in river delta regions at risk from
It is the impact of rising sea climate change?
levels, however, that has the greatest 2 Explain the link between human activities and climate change.
potential to damage food security in
these river delta regions. Rice is grown Apply and analyse
in the fertile soil of low-lying river 3 Examine Source 1 showing some predicted effects of climate
deltas. As sea levels rise, ground and change. Select five of the effects listed and describe how they may
river water become saltier, killing rice threaten food security.
crops and depositing more salt in the 4 Examine Source 3. Which regions of the world are predicted to lose
soil. between 15 per cent and 50 per cent of their food production by 2080?
5 Compare Source 3 with Source 3 on page 91 and complete the
Predicted changes in following tasks.
food production a Which regions that currently have stable food security are
predicted to experience significant change by 2080?
The effects of climate change on b Which regions currently at risk of extreme food insecurity are
food production will vary across the predicted to lose more than 15 per cent of their food production
world. Some regions may even be by 2080?
able to increase food production with
the changes in climate. However, for Evaluate and create
most parts of the world, and most 6 Compare the predicted changes in food production for Australia
significantly, for the most populated and New Zealand. Which impact of climate change do you think
parts of the world, climate change will most affect their food security in the future? Give some reasons
will cause a decrease in potential food for your answer.
production (see Source 3).

3.6 Threats from non-native
plants, animals and insects
One of the greatest threats to natural ecosystems and for example, is the black rat. Native to north-east
to food security is the arrival or introduction of non- China and India, rats were carried around the world as
native plants, animals or insects into an area. Known stowaways on ships. Most modern invaders, however,
as invasive alien species (IAS), they cause billions of now hitch rides on planes rather than ships. Seeds
dollars of crop loss and damage throughout the world carried accidentally on shoes, or insects in clothing
every year. Vast sums of money are spent trying to control can now travel from place to place across the world in a
and contain these invaders. matter of days, even hours.
Virtually all farming communities are under threat In other cases, alien invaders are introduced to
from invasion. In Australia, for example, it is estimated native environments deliberately. Humans have, at
that about 15 per cent of all plants growing throughout different times, purposely brought non-native species
the country are weeds. Weeds affect food security as into an environment, usually to tackle an existing
they compete with crops for water, sunlight and soil problem with another species. Unfortunately, in the
nutrients. The number of invading plant species in past there has been a failure to predict the level of
Australia is also growing by about 10 new species per negative consequences that the introduction might have
year. These new species are spreading faster than they on the local ecosystem as a whole. The cane toad and
can be controlled. Indian Myna bird were both introduced to Australia to
Invading plants and animals are mainly spread control pests. They have, however, now caused massive
through human activities. In some cases, the spread is destruction to the natural ecosystem, native species and
accidental. The most successful invader in the world, the food chain.
AFRICA AND SURROUNDS: LOCUST AREAS
E U R O P E
A S I A
A F R I C A
AT L A N T I C INDIAN OCEAN
OCEAN
LEGEND
Locust invasion area
Locust recession
(low activity) area
Locust breeding area on
India–Pakistan border
Country border
0 1000 2000 km
Source 1 A swarm of locusts can
devour a vast area of crops in a stunningly Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press
short period of time.
BI Geo/Hist 9 - Old world desert locusts 12-11-13
0223_22167

Case study: desert locusts has now spread throughout West and East Africa. Feeding
on the stored maize and cassava, it can quickly reduce
Desert locusts are usually solitary insects causing no stores to piles of dust unfit for human consumption.
great harm to farmers’ crops. When conditions are right Farming families are then forced to try and buy food
for them, however, they become one of the world’s most from other farmers. In many cases, however, all the
destructive pests, bringing widespread food insecurity stored crops in a region have been destroyed.
to communities in Africa, Asia and the Middle East.
Drought conditions in their usual recession area (the
area where they normally withdraw and are not active)
combined with good rains in their breeding area cause
the locusts to form vast swarms that invade surrounding
areas (see Source 1). A swarm may cover 1000 square
kilometres, with up to 80 million locusts per square
kilometre. Travelling up to 100 kilometres per day, they
devour entire crops in minutes. One swarm in Ethiopia,
for example, is believed to have consumed enough grain
to feed a million people for a year.
Case study: the larger grain borer

Two of the most important food crops in Sub-Saharan
Africa are maize (a type of corn) and cassava (a root
plant). Subsistence farmers – those who grow only
enough for their household needs – grow small fields
of maize and cassava and pick and store them during
harvest time, providing some food security throughout
the year. However, their stored crops are under attack
from an unwelcome invader: the larger grain borer. Source 3 Maize is the staple food of millions of people.
An invasive alien species such as the larger grain borer can
Accidentally introduced into Tanzania from its native pose a very serious threat to the food security of people who
Central America in the late 1970s, the larger grain borer rely on a maize crop for food every day.

Remember and understand the larger grain borer has been found with the year of
1 How do weeds impact on food security? its detection:
2 How are invasive alien species spread? Kenya (1983); Togo, Benin and Burundi (1984);
Guinea (1987); Ghana (1989); Burkina Faso (1991);
Apply and analyse Malawi and Nigeria (1992); Rwanda and Zambia
3 Examine Source 2. Describe the spread of desert (1993); Niger (1994); Namibia (1998); Mozambique
locusts from recession areas into invasion areas. (1999).
Use the names of regions, countries and compass a Using the list of the countries above, as well as
directions in your description. the years of detection, map the spread of the
4 Why are desert locusts a threat to food security in larger grain borer from its discovery in Tanzania
some regions? in the late 1970s on an outline map of Africa. Use
labelled arrows to show the progression of the
Evaluate and create spread.
5 From its discovery in Tanzania in the late 1970s, b Describe the movement of the borer as shown on
the larger grain borer has spread throughout much your map.
of the African continent. Here is a list of countries c Which countries do you believe are most at risk
where from the future spread of this invader? Why do
you think this would be the case?

3.7 Competition for land
In addition to environmental factors,
food security can also be threatened by
individuals or corporations taking over
productive land and using it for purposes
other than growing food. In many places
around the world, land that was once
farmland is being converted for housing,
mines, golf courses, factories and other
uses. This competition for land is being
driven partly by the increase in the world’s
population and partly by the desire to
make more money from the land.
Land for housing

The development of rural areas for housing Source 1 New suburbs sprawl into existing farmland north of Asmara,
is one example of competition for land use. the capital of Eritrea, in Africa.
Urban areas cover only about 2 per cent of
the world’s total land area. They are often
built, however, on the best land – flat, fertile and well The city of Asmara in Eritrea, for example, has
watered. Farming areas on the edges of cities provide tripled in size in the last 20 years and now sprawls
food to the city dwellers. As cities grow in population, across land that was previously prime farmland.
however, they also grow in size, and farmland and rural Source 2 maps the rapid growth of Asmara. This growth
spaces are taken over and developed into new suburbs for is expected to continue at its current rate, and may
the growing population. The spread of a city outwards even accelerate in the next few decades, absorbing
is known as urban sprawl. In this process, farmland is more productive farmland. This same process has been
taken over for housing, and farmers are pushed further experienced in many places around the world, including
out onto land that may not be as suitable for growing Australia, where urban sprawl has seen productive
crops. Their ability to produce food may fall, putting at farmland converted to suburban living spaces.
risk the food security of the people in the city.
ASMARA: URBAN GROWTH 1989–2020
1989 2009 2020
Asmara
Asmara Asmara Asmara
LEGEND
Built up area
Water International Airport International Airport International Airport
Irrigated land
Plantation
Rainfed
agriculture
Grazing land 0 3 6 km

Land for tourism and recreation together consume about 200 square kilometres of
land. About three-quarters of these courses were
In some places, productive farmland is also being built on existing farmland, the rest on land that was
converted into tourism and recreation facilities. Many previously forested. This area represents a loss of
developing countries, for example, recognise that about 89 000 tonnes of rice every year. Furthermore,
attracting tourists provides them with a reliable source golf courses put great pressure on the freshwater
of income. These tourists, most of them from developed resources of the local area. Each Thai golf course
countries such as Australia and the USA, are drawn to consumes the same amount of water as 60 000 Thai
these countries for a range of factors including climate, villagers would.
stunning scenery and unique cultures. But tourists This trend is not confined to Thailand. In other
often also want a high standard of accommodation and Asian countries such as Indonesia, Cambodia and
recreation facilities like hotels, pools and golf courses (see Vietnam, as well as in island nations throughout the
Source 3). Caribbean, productive farmland and scarce fresh-
A study of the impact of golf course development water resources are being consumed by golf courses
in Thailand found that 250 courses in the country and other recreation facilities.
Source 3 A rice field has

been converted into a golf
course to attract tourists, an
increasingly common use
of agricultural land in many
places in Asia. This poses
a significant threat to food
security – not only is the land
for crop growth taken away
but golf courses consume
massive amounts of water.

Remember and understand farmland? Explain the underlying causes of this
1 What is urban sprawl and why is it a threat to food problem.
security? 5 The golf course shown in Source 3 has caused
2 How does the growth in global tourism impact on the loss of productive farmland and created other
food security? problems. It has also brought some benefits.
Brainstorm the potential costs and benefits of this
Apply and analyse golf course to the local region and community.
3 Use Source 2 to describe the growth of Asmara
Evaluate and create
from 1989 to 2009. Which type of farming was
most affected by this growth? What is predicted to 6 Research the growth of a large Australian city.
happen by 2020? Find out if its development has resulted in urban
sprawl and the loss of productive farmland. If so,
4 If golf courses threaten food security, why do many
explain what the impacts of this have been for food
countries around the world build them on productive
production in the region.

3.8 The use of land for fuel
instead of food
Brazil is one country where the use of land for growing change the way Brazilians produce and use energy,
fuel rather than food has increased dramatically. Despite including adopting integrated food–energy systems
offering many advantages, this change has the potential (IFES). IFES combine the production of food and energy
to put future food security in Brazil at risk. into one system. Other measures include:
• the introduction of new ‘flex-fuel’ vehicles which run
Case study: Brazil’s biofuel on any blend of petrol and ethanol
• new land zoning laws that identify suitable areas for
Biofuels are fuels made from organic matter rather than biofuel production (avoiding using land with high
fossil matter. They are often made from biomass (i.e. biodiversity, such as rainforests)
plant materials high in sugar, starch or oil) such as sugar
• efficiency improvements to increase the productivity
cane, corn, soya beans or sunflowers.
of biofuels
Brazil has gradually developed a booming biofuel
• social and environmental safeguards to address any
industry. Biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel are an
concerns.
example of how countries can develop ‘home-grown’
Around 15 per cent of Brazil’s total domestic energy
renewable energy sectors. The establishment of a biofuel
supply now comes from biofuels made from sugar cane.
industry has been part of wider long-term initiatives to
skilldrill
Analysing complex maps Step 5 Note any patterns you can find on the map
between different features and locations.
Complex maps contain more than one set of
information. Geographers use complex maps to analyse Step 6 Describe the degree to which patterns are
different features, reveal patterns and explain links connected.
between features in a given area. You can analyse a Step 7 Try to suggest reasons for the connection
complex map by following these steps. between the two patterns.
Step 1 Look carefully at the map and read its title to
Apply the skill
make sure you understand what is being shown.
Look at the map of South America (Source 1) showing
Step 2 Examine the map’s legend. Complex maps
biofuel infrastructure.
can have more than one part to a legend, and these
parts will be represented on the map in different 1 Find the symbol for ethanol and biodiesel plants in
ways. For example, in Source 1 areas of colour are the legend then locate these on the map. Describe
used to show the location of soya bean and sugar the concentration of these.
cane crops. Different coloured symbols are also 2 What relationship is there between the concentration
used, to show biodiesel and ethanol plants. of ethanol plants and the location of sugar cane
Step 3 Train your eyes to look for one set of information crops?
at a time. For example, look at solid blocks of colour 3 What does the location of the ethanol pipelines
on the map and work out what they tell you. tell you about the production and consumption of
Step 4 Look for concentrations of the same symbol in biofuels?
areas to see if patterns exist.

BRAZIL: BIOFUEL INFRASTRUCTURE
VENEZUELA GUYANA
SURINAME French
Guiana
COLOMBIA
AT L A N T I C O C E A N
BRAZIL
Olinda
PERU
BOLIVIA
PACIFIC
OCEAN
PARAGUAY Rio de Janeiro
CHILE Sao Paulo
LEGEND
Crops for biofuel AT L A N T I C O C E A N
(share of total available land)
Soya bean
More than 75%
50 to 75%
Sugar cane
More than 75%
URUGUAY
50 to 75%
Infrastructure ARGENTINA Area of map
Biodiesel plant
Ethanol plant
Proposed ethanol plant
Proposed ethanol pipeline
Country border 0 250 500 km

Biofuels as a threat to food
security
Although waste products of food crops such as corn
and sugar cane can be used to provide some of the
raw material for the production of biofuels, greater
production of biofuel needs bigger crops. In some
places, fuel crops are replacing food crops and this
has raised concerns about food security in these
countries.
While the amount of biofuel produced and used
has grown rapidly in recent years, it still provides Source 2 Political cartoonists often rely on simple images to
only 3 per cent of the total energy used to power convey a complex message – this cartoon comments on the
vehicles worldwide. Despite this, biofuel production competition between using land for food and using land for fuel.
threatens the food security of many communities,
1 000
particularly in South American countries such as 900
2011 production
Barrels per day (thousands)

2007 production
Brazil, Argentina and Colombia, that are boosting 800
their biofuel production. 700
Biofuel production poses a threat to food security 600
in two main ways. Firstly, marginal farming land 500
(land that is situated on edges of arable land) is the 400
land most likely to be converted for growing biofuel 300
crops. This is often the land that poorer farmers 200
use to grow the food needed to feed their families. 100

0
Secondly, growing crops for fuel rather than food
Brazil
Germany
France
Argentina
China
Canada
Indonesia
Thailand
Colombia
USA
pushes up the price of food, making it less accessible.

As people on lower incomes spend a much greater
proportion of their income on food than wealthy Country
people do, it is the poor who suffer most when food Source 3 The top 10 biofuel producers in the world, 2007
prices increase. and 2011

Remember and understand of these new plants lead to land use changes in
1 What are biofuels? What are they produced from? the near future?
4 Who benefits from the growth in biofuel production?
Apply and analyse Who loses?
2 Examine Source 2.
Evaluate and create
a What point is the cartoonist making about biofuels?
5 Use the data in Source 3 to construct a proportional
b How effective is this cartoon in communicating
this point? circles map of the world’s major biofuel producers
in 2011.
3 Examine Source 1.
6 One type of plant being used for biofuel production
a Compare Source 1 with Source 4 on page 43
is jatropha. Jatropha is a flowering plant whose
(World biomes). Which biomes are most
threatened by the expansion of Brazil’s seeds are high in oil. In India, there are more than
biofuels industry? 1 million hectares of jatropha plantations.
Research this plant and list the advantages and
b Some new ethanol plants are planned for
construction across Brazil (shown as ‘Proposed disadvantages of using it as a biofuel to replace
ethanol plant’). Describe the distribution of fossil fuels. When finished, state your opinion
these new plants. How might the construction on this use of farming land in India.

3.9 Armed conflict
Armed conflict – war between different countries, or civil
war between groups within a single country – also has the
potential to affect the food security of millions of people.
It can result in widespread food shortages, and even long-
lasting famines. While armed conflict results in deaths
from battle, in some conflicts many people also die from a
lack of access to food. Food insecurity caused by an armed
conflict can kill more people than are killed by the fighting
itself. Most at risk are people in developing countries, where
many people rely on their own small farms to provide their
family’s food.
Several countries in Africa have experienced the
devastating effects that armed conflict can have on the food
security of the population. In an area where food security
is already a serious concern – currently 75 per cent of the
continent’s countries are considered at high or extreme risk of
food insecurity – the added turmoil of armed conflict brings
an extra threat to a situation that is already critical. Many
African countries, including Somalia, have endured decades
of armed conflict and the resulting decrease in food security.
International aid
While international aid agencies such as the Red Cross
and United Nations work hard to address the lack of food
security in these war-torn areas, the environment can be very Source 1 Western armed forces distributing food aid in
dangerous. In Somalia alone, 14 employees of the United Somalia
Nations World Food Program were killed while distributing
aid between 2008 and 2011 (see Source 2). Corruption, theft
and a lack of law enforcement all contributed to the terrible
situation.
Transporting food and farming supplies by road in these
countries is risky, with aid often being seized by fighters
for their own use. In Somalia, sacks of grain, peanut butter
and other foodstuffs meant for starving Somali people were
often stolen. Some families receiving aid were even forced
to give it back after journalists taking photos of them with
the food had left. With local food supply markets disrupted,
food aid that has been stolen is often sold on in markets,
taking relief efforts away from the starving and needy (see
Source 2).
Distributing food aid is also often complicated by
difficulties in reaching war-torn areas. Groups in remote
areas can be difficult to locate and delivery of food aid to
these places may be slow. Source 2 Food supply is affected as local markets are
In such situations, hunger can be used as a weapon. targeted. In Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia, relief aid
was commonly looted at the distribution points and then
The government can deliberately keep food away from sold at the markets.
opposition fighters and the local people who support them.

Impact on local farmers
During times of war, such as those
experienced by Somalia, food shortages
are common. There are many reasons for
this. Some food shortages are caused by the
disruption of food markets and food aid.
Land mines are planted, causing lasting
danger (see Source 6). Some are caused by
the fact that apart from the conflict that is
happening, there are ongoing harsh climate
conditions to deal with. The effects of war
combined with climate can go on for years
(see Source 7).
Crops cannot be planted, weeded or
harvested. Farmers cannot plant new
crops, which extends food insecurity even
when the conflict is finished (see Source 7).
Irrigation systems are destroyed and other
water resources, such as wells, are sometimes
poisoned as an act of war.
Animals are killed and taken for food by
armies and rebel fighters. As well as a food
supply, farmers lose manure for their crops as
well as animal power to work their fields. Crop
stores are often raided by rebel fighters as well.
Young men are often forced to fight. This
seriously affects the agricultural output by
reducing the available hands to work on
farms. The amount of food and income for the
Source 3 Somali children waiting in line for food aid
family is diminished.
Farms may also be completely destroyed by
the armed forces. Native scrub is burnt, and
wild sources of food, such as wild fruits and
honey, are destroyed. Many farmers abandon
their farms.
In the Democratic Republic of the Congo
in Africa, at least 400 000 people were
displaced from their fields during the harvest
period. This affected not only their short-
term food security, but their long-term food
security as well.
Particularly for countries that already
experience other threats to their food security,
such as weathering the effects of climate
change or battling plagues of locusts, the
effects of an armed conflict on their food
security can result in life-or-death situations.
Source 4 In war-torn areas, water is a precious resource. These

women wait at a water distribution area for their empty containers to
be filled.

Source 5 Amnesty International reported that in Somalia, Source 7 Food security can be threatened for years, as the
children as young as eight years old were recruited to take up land bears the ravages of war.
weapons and fight in the conflict.

1 Why is there often a shortage of farm labour during
armed conflicts?
2 How can hunger be used as a weapon during
times of war?
Apply and analyse

3 Why are subsistence farmers – farmers who grow
just enough to feed their own family – most at risk
of food insecurity during armed conflict?
4 Describe three ways in which food security for local
people would improve if peace were reached in an
area that had been experiencing armed conflict.
Evaluate and create

5 List the effects of armed conflict mentioned here.
Rank them in order from the one that you think
will have the most severe lasting impact on food
security to the one you think will have the least
serious lasting impact. Explain the reasons for
ranking them in the order you chose.
6 How would the conflict in Somalia impact on
the food security of people in other areas of the
country or in neighbouring countries? Discuss this
with a partner and then with your class.
Source 6 Due to landmines, land previously used to grow
food becomes inaccessible for years. Harvests are destroyed
and fields cannot be cultivated.

3B rich task
Zero hunger by
2030?
At a meeting of the United Nations in 2000,
189 member countries agreed on a set of
goals designed to improve the living conditions
of people in developing countries. Eight goals,
known as the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), were developed. One of these goals
was to halve the proportion of people suffering
from hunger by 2015. This goal was almost
achieved, but there is still a lot of work to be
done. On 1 January 2016, the UN launched a
new Agenda to replace the MDGs. It calls on
member countries to begin efforts to achieve
17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
by 2030. One goal is to ‘End hunger, achieve
Source 1 In 2016, the United
food security and improved nutrition and Nations officially launched the
promote sustainable agriculture’. 17 Sustainable Development
Goals to be achieved by 2030.
Goal 2 is to achieve zero hunger.
WORLD: HUNGER LEVELS 2016
EUROPE NORTH
AMERICA
ASIA
AFRICA
LEGEND
Proportion of total SOUTH
population malnourished AMERICA
Very high
High
AUSTRALIA
Moderately high
Moderately low
Very low
No data
0 2000 4000 km Country border
Source 2 Source: wfp.org

skilldrill
Presenting an oral report to
an audience
Geographers often present their findings to an audience
by giving an oral presentation. You may find giving an oral
presentation a little scary at first, but if you follow these
steps you will be able to confidently deliver a successful
report.
Step 1 Decide on a topic that will interest both you and Source 3 Try to find relevant images and visual materials (such as
your audience. Consider your audience and think maps and graphs) to add variety and interest to your oral report.
about what they already know about the topic. What Step 6 Deliver your presentation. Make sure that you
would you like them to understand by listening to your speak clearly and vary pitch and tone. Stand up
presentation? straight, keep your hands out of your pockets and
Step 2 Research your topic. Geographers start with don’t lean on a desk. Take a few deep breaths to calm
inquiry questions and then seek to answer them. yourself and then pretend that you are speaking to only
Collect information from a wide variety of sources and one person.
keep a bibliography of these sources. Step 7 Invite your audience to ask questions and do your
Step 3 Organise your findings into a draft report. It should best to answer them. If you are unsure of an answer
have a clear introduction and conclusion. In your don’t make something up, just do your best.
introduction it is often a good idea to use something to
‘hook’ your audience. It may be a question, a personal
Apply the skill
story or a challenging image. After your introduction, 1 Prepare and deliver an oral report on an aspect of the
develop your report in a series of clearly defined Millennium Development Goal target to halve hunger
sections (like paragraphs in a written report). by 2015. Your report must be supported by visual
Your conclusion usually summarises your key points. material and include responses to questions asked
If your report is going to be assessed, make sure you by the audience. Here are some possible topics to
have fulfilled the criteria for assessment. choose from, or you may like to develop your own.
Step 4 Support your report with clear visual material. This • There will always be hungry people in the world.
may be a set of graphs, maps or images. Do not • It is possible to halve hunger in some places but not
just read your report to your audience. others.
Step 5 Practise your presentation. Make sure that you • The solution to halving hunger is to …
do not exceed the time limit and that you know your • If we address the causes of poverty we will meet
information well enough to avoid having to read it. It the goal of halving hunger.
may be a good idea to have some memory cards with • The proportion of hungry people in the world is
key words or ideas written on them. more likely to rise than to fall.

Visit www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ to complete the 2 In 2015, how many people globally are estimated to
following questions. be undernourished? How many of these people are
1 According to the UN, the Millennium Development children?
Goal of halving hunger in developing nations was Gather some more information about the Sustainable
almost achieved. What were the rates of hunger in Development Goal to achieve zero hunger by 2030. How
1990 compared to 2015? does the UN plan to achieve this goal? Do you think they
will be successful? Answer in a paragraph of 200 words.

3.10 Food security into the future
The world’s population increases by about
200 000 people per day. At this rate, food
will need to be grown to feed an extra
2.5 billion people by 2050. Virtually all
of this population growth will occur in
developing countries (see Source 2) where
much of the population already struggles to
meet their daily food requirements. Asia’s
population will increase by more than
one billion by 2050 and Africa’s population
is projected to increase by 1.3 billion.
Food experts estimate that global food
production will need to increase by about
70 per cent by 2050 to meet the food
requirements of the growing population.
Achieving food security

There are two schools of thought regarding
the impacts of population growth on food
security: Source 1 Will the world’s growing population mean there will be less food
1 Some researchers believe that the security in the future?
world’s population is growing
10.00
faster than the world’s farmers
Developing countries
are able to feed it. The result will 9.00
Developed countries
be widespread food insecurity,
8.00
starvation and famine. Those
who support this scenario point 7.00
to the degradation of existing

Billions of people
6.00
agricultural resources such as
fresh water and soil. They also 5.00
point out that most of the 4.00

population growth is occurring
3.00
in areas already at risk of food
insecurity, such as parts of 2.00
Africa.
1.00
2 Other researchers are more
optimistic. They point out that 0.00
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
food production over the last

few centuries has largely kept Year
pace with (and even exceeded) Source 2 Population growth in developing and developed countries, 1965–2050
population growth. This has
been largely due to the use of new situations through research and innovation.
technologies, referred to as the Green Revolution Many believe that new developments in genetic
(see Source 3). They also focus on the slight slowing modification of plants, for example, hold the key
of the world’s population growth rate in the last few to increasing farming productivity and crop yields
years and the ability of humans to adapt to changing in the future.

e keyconcept: Environment
The Green Revolution For more information on the key concept of
environment refer to page 8 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
The Green Revolution refers to sweeping and
widespread changes that occurred in farming regions
across the world over the period 1950 to 1979.
Beginning in Mexico and spreading through North
America and much of Asia, these changes brought
food security to hundreds of millions of people. The key
changes were:
• the development and planting of new and improved
varieties of grains, including wheat and rice, that
produced much higher yields
• the widespread use of fertilisers and pesticides to
increase farm productivity
• the adoption of mechanical vehicles and systems,
such as tractors, pumps, sprays and irrigation
systems.
As these and other related changes swept through
countries such as India and China, many farming
practices changed from small, subsistence farms to
larger, more efficient farms. Although the Green Revolution
Source 3 Farm workers in the Punjab region of India use
has its critics, it is important to note that many of the
a tractor to pull a load of grain. Part of the Green Revolution
African countries most at risk of food insecurity have yet to in India has been the introduction of high-yielding seed
adopt many aspects of the revolution. varieties, such as wheat, to encourage self-sufficient farming.

Remember and understand population growth. Which arguments and evidence
1 What was the Green Revolution? What were the key do you believe have the most solid basis? Give some
changes it introduced? reasons for your response.
2 How could the Green Revolution help to increase Evaluate and create
food security in Africa? 7 While there are many supporters of the Green
3 By what number is the world’s population increasing Revolution, there are also many critics. As a class,
each day? brainstorm what these criticisms might be. Use
4 By the year 2050, by how much do food experts this brainstorming session to develop some inquiry
estimate food production will need to increase to questions and use these to research this issue
feed the world’s population? further.
Apply and analyse 8 Conduct research on the Internet into the genetic
modification of plants.
5 Examine Source 2 and answer these questions.
a In your own words, explain what is meant by
a What evidence is there that the most population
genetic modification.
growth is occurring in developing countries?
b Outline three main arguments in favour of genetic
b Why is this important when considering global
modification of foods.
food security in the future?
c Outline three main arguments against the use of
6 List the arguments for and against the theory that
genetically modified foods.
there will be increasing food insecurity due to

3.11 Looking for answers
Over the course of human history, the world has seen
dramatic and far-reaching changes. Humans have
Looking after the soil
adapted to changes in the natural environment as well Soil is perhaps the farmer’s most important resource. Many
as building and changing the environment themselves. farming practices, however, such as ploughing, fertilising,
People have changed from being hunters and gatherers clearing natural vegetation, irrigating and draining have
living in small communities to living as farmers and degraded soil to such an extent that the soil can no longer
city dwellers. We have also improved our way of support the same growth of crops as it did in the past.
life through a series of remarkable revolutions: the Many farmers are now changing their techniques to
Agricultural Revolution, the Industrial Revolution minimise their impact on the soil structure and nutrients
and the Green Revolution. These revolutions have by reducing ploughing, adding protective layers of organic
allowed our populations to grow at an astonishing material (mulch) and growing plants that help return
rate. In the rush to provide enough food and other raw nutrients to the soil.
materials to support our way of life, however, we are
in danger of causing permanent damage to the very Water management
systems that support us – the soil, water and climate.
There are solutions, however, and some of them can Modern techniques of measuring soil moisture and
be found in unusual places. Some solutions are based delivering water to plants and animals are helping to
on developments at the forefront of technology, such as reduce poor water management techniques and improve
manipulating the genes of living organisms. Others come results in yields. Measuring distribution of water not
from the distant past; techniques used by Indigenous only conserves the resource, but avoids over-watering,
people who worked more closely with the natural which can lead to salty soils. Storing rainwater in dams
systems of the Earth. and adding it to crops during critical growing times,
Source 1
Maize crops
planted beneath
acacia trees in
Africa are three
times more
productive than
others nearby as
the shade reduces
evaporation and
the falling leaves
provide a natural
fertiliser and mulch.

2.5
Productivity of water used in wheat

2.0
production (kg of grain/m3)

1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Rainfed Full Supplemental
production irrigation irrigation of
rainfed production
Source 2 These Cambodian schoolgirls are learning how some insects Source 3 Productivity of wheat production under
can be used to control pest species in their rice crops. various irrigation techniques, including supplemental
irrigation
for example, can triple the amount of wheat grown build-up of chemicals in the soil, loss of biodiversity
compared to irrigation systems that water the crops all and an immunity of some pests to the chemicals
year round (see Source 3). – have damaged some of the natural processes on
which farmers depend. A range of techniques are now
Pest control being developed and put into place around the world
to reduce reliance on pesticides. Using natural pest
The Green Revolution promoted the use of pesticides controls such as ladybirds to reduce numbers of aphids
such as chemical sprays that helped to increase the on crops, for example, has been highly successful in
amount of food grown in many places. Some of the many places (see Source 2).
side effects of using these pesticides, however – such as

Remember and understand 4 Using Source 3, describe the advantages of adding
1 What are the advantages of growing crops in fields water to wheat crops at the right time of the year.
where trees are present? What might be some Evaluate and create
disadvantages?
5 Find an example of an animal species that has been
2 List the ways in which using chemical pesticides may successfully introduced to control another species.
be harmful to the environment.
6 Cane toads were brought to Australia to control
Apply and analyse pests but now cause more problems than the
3 In Australia, adding mulch to the soil is a common pests they were supposed to control. Research the
practice for gardeners and farmers alike. What introduction and spread of the cane toad. What
is mulch and how does it help look after soil and lessons can be learnt from these experiences?
water?

3.12 Genetically modified food
Farmers have taken advantage of natural genetic processes in their
farming for generations. Dairy farmers, for example, will choose the
most productive cows to breed with carefully selected bulls in order
to produce offspring who produce the most milk. This is known as
selective breeding.
Some farmers, using modern scientific discoveries and techniques,
have taken this selection process a step further. All living things are
made up of cells containing genes. These genes determine how each
organism grows, acts and looks. Scientists are able to change the
genes of plants and animals to give them certain desirable qualities
known as traits. This is known as genetic modification (GM). In one
example of genetic modification, scientists developed a cotton plant
that produced a natural insecticide. This has resulted in a 90 per cent Source 1 Some canola crops in Western
Australia are genetically modified to produce
decrease in the amount of chemicals used to control insect pests on larger yields and require fewer sprayings of
many Australian cotton farms since 1996. herbicide. Canola is present in many foods such
as margarine, bread, mayonnaise and potato
chips.
The main benefits of GM food production

Pest resistance Disease resistance
Crops can be modified so that they can resist GM can help plants resist fungi, viruses and bacteria.
pests such as insects.
Nutrition Drought resistance

Minerals lacking in human diets The main benefits Genes from plants that grow in arid
can be introduced into food plants of GM food areas can help make other plants
making them more nutritious. production survive droughts.
Cold tolerance
Plants affected by frost can be modified to
help them survive the cold.
Source 2 The five main benefits of producing genetically modified food

Opposition to GM foods
Many people are opposed to the genetic modification
of food. They are concerned that GM foods are
gradually becoming a part of our everyday diet without
us knowing very much about the long-term effects.
They are also concerned about the possible impacts
of GM crops on other organisms such as the animals
that eat the crops, which are then used for human
consumption.
Environmentalists are worried about the impacts
of GM crops on the environment and on the balance
of ecosystems. They believe that some characteristics Source 4 In Australia, foods with genetically modified
from GM plants, such as a resistance to herbicides ingredients must disclose this on the label.
(weed killers), may be passed onto other plants within GM crops such as canola have been growing in
the environment and even the weeds themselves. Western Australia for over a decade. The Department
of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia (DAFWA) is
GM foods in Australia contributing to the development and productivity of
safe GM foods in the state to ensure food security and
In Australia, many foods containing GM plants are profitability for farmers into the future. DAFWA also
already available on our supermarket shelves. You have manages research facilities in Merredin and Katanning
probably eaten some GM foods today. These foods are called New Genes for New Environments, which
checked for their safety and must be labelled as being support the development of GM crops designed to
genetically modified (see Source 4). thrive in Western Australian conditions.
Source 3 Genetically modified foods that are available in

Australia. The name of the GM crop (see column 1) differs from
the way it appears on food labels (listed in column 2).
GM The way it Examples of foods in which
crop appears on it may be used 1 What are the main benefits of GM foods?
ingredients lists 2 Examine Source 3. Did you know that so many foods
Canola • Vegetable oil/ Cooking oil, margarine-type in Australia contain GM ingredients? Do you eat any of
canola oil spreads, mayonnaise, bread, these foods regularly?
cakes, biscuits, snacks (such as
potato chips) Apply and analyse
Corn • Glucose/glucose Cakes, biscuits, muffins, muesli
3 Check the food labels of five foods you eat often. How
syrup/dextrose bars, breakfast cereals
many of them contain GM ingredients? Compare this to
• Fructose Cakes, muesli bars
your classmates’ results and work out a percentage of
• Maltodextrin Simmer sauces, cake mixes, these foods that are partially GM.
snacks, breakfast cereals, peanut
butter 4 Why is it beneficial for farmers to reduce their use of
chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides?
• Modified starch/ Cakes, biscuits, muffins, muesli
thickener bars, sauces, breakfast cereals
Evaluate and create
Cotton • Vegetable oil/ Cooking oil, margarine-type
cottonseed oil spreads, mayonnaise, snacks
5 How do you feel about GM foods? Write a 250–300
(such as potato chips), simmer word piece explaining your point of view.
sauces 6 Which of the benefits of GM food production do you
Soya • Soy oil/ Mayonnaise think has the greatest potential to increase global food
bean vegetable oil production? Give some reasons for your answer and
• Soy protein/ Breads, cakes, biscuits, snack discuss them with the class.
vegetable protein foods
7 Research one of these GM crops: Golden rice, Bt cotton,
• Soy lecithin/ Breads, cakes, biscuits, Fortuna potatoes, Flavr Savr tomatoes or GM bananas.
emulsifier (322) chocolate, margarine-type
spreads, sauces How, why and where have these crops been modified?

3.13 Sustainable agriculture
and innovation
Geographers and environmental scientists classify The three key principles of conservation agriculture:
different farming and agricultural practices in terms • Principle 1 – Do not disturb the soil by tilling (see
of the impact they have on the environment. At one Source 1).
end of the scale is the type of farming that relies • Principle 2 – Keep the soil covered with organic
heavily on human intervention with nature, using material (see Source 2).
technology. Turning over the soil with machinery • Principle 3 – Grow a range of plants, not a single
(tilling), and adding chemical fertilisers and pesticides crop (see Source 3).
are characteristics of this type of farming.
At the other end of the scale is the type of farming
that requires only minimal human interaction with
nature and disturbance of the natural environment.
Known as ‘minimum impact farming’ or ‘conservation
agriculture’, this type of farming is seen by many
experts and farmers as the best way to increase food
production while protecting and restoring the natural
environment.
Conservation agriculture is the practice of adopting
resource-saving production methods – adding elements
such as water, seed and fertiliser that complement
natural processes. This aims to achieve high and
consistent levels of production, while conserving the
environment at the same time. Australian farmers
are leading the world in the adoption of this type of
farming. A 2008 survey of Australian grain farmers
found that about 80 per cent were using conservation
agriculture techniques compared with less than Source 2 Principle 2: Keep the soil covered with organic
5 per cent in 1980. material such as stalks from the previous harvest as mulch.
Source 1 Principle 1: Do not disturb the soil by tilling (turning it over). Plant crops by drilling seeds instead. Tilling leads to soil
erosion and disturbs the microorganisms in the soil that are crucial for fertility.

Source 3 Principle 3: Grow a range of plants including trees, shrubs, crops and pastures. This encourages natural biodiversity and
crop nutrition and aids resilience to pests.
Farmer-managed natural regeneration

A well-known form of conservation farming is called there is an increase in crop yields and soil fertility and a
permaculture. This type of farming brings together the decrease in wind and heat damage, and soil erosion.
resources of the natural environment and the people For more information on the key concept of
who use those resources for their food, energy, shelter sustainability, refer to page 9 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
and other needs. The emphasis is on the careful and
thoughtful use of nature to
ensure the sustainability of
Earth’s ecosystems – using
nature to support the farming
rather than working against
nature.
Farmer-managed natural
regeneration is a form of
permaculture used to combat
poverty and hunger among
poor subsistence farmers in
developing countries. It uses
old methods of management
to encourage continuous
growth of trees on farmland.
When woodland management
techniques are followed, trees
are integrated into crops and
Source 4 This area of Jordan is a garden developed by an Australian permaculture expert,
grazing pastures. As a result which uses natural regeneration techniques.

Case study: regreening the skilldrill
desert in Niger
The country of Niger in Western Africa lies in
Analysing satellite images
the Sahel, a vast arid belt of savanna that crosses A satellite image is a photograph taken from space.
Africa, south of the Sahara Desert (see Source 5). Satellite images have become one of the most useful tools
This zone is considered to have the highest levels for geographers, as they provide a snapshot in time of a
of food insecurity in the world. A combination large area of the Earth’s surface. This allows us to identify
of poor rains and overuse of the land and water patterns and changes over time, and to better understand
mean that crops regularly fail there. In the last the causes and effects of these patterns and changes.
25 years, however, there has been a remarkable
When analysing a satellite image or set of images, follow
transformation across much of Niger. these simple steps.
Five million hectares of degraded land
Step 1 Identify the exact area shown in the image or
have become productive again, increasing the
images. Use an atlas to verify where they were taken.
amount of food grown in some areas fivefold.
Take note of other features in the region such as
This produces an extra 500 000 tonnes of grain
international borders, mountains and cities.
each year, feeding an extra 2.5 million people.
Vast areas that were once infertile dust bowls Step 2 Look closely at the image for features you can
incapable of supporting any farming are now identify. A satellite image is taken from directly above
green croplands, returning food security to one (plan view) so objects appear in their correct location
of the world’s poorest nations. and size relative to each other.
This dramatic change is due largely to Step 3 When comparing two satellite images of the same
the work of an Australian, Tony Rinaudo, places taken at different times, note the dates when the
and a simple discovery he made in Niger. For images were taken. Look for changes that have occurred
generations, Niger’s farmers had seen trees in between these two dates.
their fields as a source of wood for fuel and a
nuisance to farming. Millions of trees had been
cleared from the landscape to make way for
small farms.
AFRICA, NIGER: LAND USE IN THE SAHEL REGION
‘An underground forest’

When Rinaudo arrived in Niger in 1981, he
began planting new trees but they kept dying. Area
of map
He noticed, however, that the roots of the trees MALI NIGER
that had already been cleared still lay in the
ground and were soon sending up new growth CHAD
in the form of saplings. He called these roots an
‘underground forest’.
Zinder
He convinced a few farmers to carefully prune
this new growth rather than clear it completely.
The trees soon returned to the landscape bringing
shade and wind protection to crops and animals,
preventing erosion, providing firewood for the NIGERIA
farmers and adding organic matter and nutrients
to the soil. The crop yields of those farmers LEGEND
who pruned and protected their trees increased Crops grown for sale
Desert
or rice for food
dramatically. Other farmers soon followed their Nomadic herding Irrigated and river
G ulf of Mixed agriculture valley agriculture
example. It is estimated that around 200 million Fishing
G uine a and livestock
trees have been protected in Niger and the Rainfed agriculture Country Border
technique is now being used across the Sahel to 0 200 400 km
City
help increase food security for millions of people.


Apply the skill

1 Describe the landscape in the 1975 satellite image in 2 Describe the changes between 1975 and 2005 in
Source 6. Each dark grey dot is a tree. Estimate the Source 6. Include an estimate of the number of trees
number of trees. and also their distribution.
Source 6 Dual satellite images of the Zinder area of southern Niger in 1975 (left) and 2005 (right)

Remember and understand 9 Describe land use patterns in Niger from north to
1 What is tilling? south. Why do these variations in land use occur in
this country?
2 What are the three key principles of conservation
agriculture? Evaluate and create
3 What is permaculture? 10 The permaculture garden shown in Source 4
4 Describe the method of revegetation developed by shows what is possible on a local scale. Do you
Tony Rinaudo. think permaculture principles could be applied on a
national or global scale? Discuss this with a partner
Apply and analyse
and then with your class.
5 Why is drilling seed directly into the soil better than
11 Permaculturalists limit their use of chemical fertilisers
tilling the ground and then planting seed?
and pesticides. How do you think they achieve this?
6 How does using a variety of plants (principle 3) help to
12 You can use the historic imagery feature on
reduce pests such as weeds and invasive insects?
Google Earth to explore satellite images and aerial
7 How does covering the soil with organic material photographs of Niger. Find a region that has
(principle 2) help to conserve water? How would it changes similar to those in Source 6.
benefit the soil?
13 What lessons from the experience in Niger could be
8 Examine Source 5. Describe the location of the applied to other places struggling to maintain food
Sahel. security?

3C rich task
Food waste and

food loss
It has been estimated that around one-third
of all food is lost or wasted around the world
every year. Food loss refers to the amount
of food lost during the growing or production
process. In developing countries, most food
tends to be lost during production because
of problems in harvesting, storing, cooling,
packaging and marketing by producers. This
equates to around 1.3 billion tonnes.
Food waste refers to the amount of food
thrown away during the consumption process.
In developed countries most food waste is
carried out by consumers and retailers rather
than food suppliers. Consumers tend to reject
food that is not perfect in appearance. They
also tend to buy too much food, which spoils
or passes its ‘best-before’ date. Reducing food
waste and food loss would help increase food Source 1 Australians tend to buy more food than they need,
leading to a high level of food waste.
security in many places.
Source 2 This Mongolian boy is transporting milk without refrigeration, which could lead to a high level of food loss.

skilldrill
Preparing an infographic Apply the skill

An increasingly popular way for geographers to present their 1 Design and present an infographic on an aspect of food
findings and data is to prepare an infographic. Infographics waste. Here are some facts that you can use to help
use pictures and symbols to represent complex ideas and you get started. Many of these come from a UN report,
data so that information is clear and quickly accessible. Global Food Losses and Food Waste.
Follow these steps to produce your own infographic. • One-third of all food is wasted or lost.
Step 1 Decide on a topic and the message that you want • Up to 50 per cent of fruits and vegetables are
to communicate to your audience. In the infographic in wasted every year.
Source 4, for example, the key message is that people • Total food wasted and lost in North America,
waste a huge quantity of food. Oceania and Europe is 280–300 kilograms per
Step 2 Research your topic and collect data that helps to person per year. The amount of this that is food
communicate your key idea. Try not to have too much wasted by consumers is 95–115 kilograms.
data; don’t include more than 10 key facts or numbers. • In Sub-Saharan Africa, 120–170 kilograms is wasted
Step 3 Use a simple picture to communicate each of or lost, about 6 kilograms of it by consumers.
your key facts. The digger and hole in Source 5, for • In developing countries, more than 40 per cent of
example, communicates that food is being dumped in food loss occurs in harvesting, transporting and
landfill. processing. In developed countries, more than
40 per cent of losses occur at the retailing and
Step 4 Lay your graphics out in a logical way that links
consuming stages.
together the key ideas. Make sure your infographic is
not too cluttered. Give your infographic a catchy title • The total amount of food wasted every year in
that communicates your message – something like, developed countries is about the same as the total
‘From Farm to Plate’, ‘Waste not, want not’ or ‘Starve amount of food produced in Sub-Saharan Africa,
the landfill’. which supports close to 900 million people.
• One-third of all fish and seafood produced in North
America and Oceania is wasted by consumers.
• The cost of wasted food in Australia is about
$239 per person per year, or $5.2 billion as a nation.
Source 3 Infographics
use pictures and symbols to
represent complex ideas and
data.

Source 4 Food waste is a serious issue for many countries around the world. This infographic shows
the percentage of waste worldwide each year for different food groups.

Food
1 Keep track of your household’s
food waste for a week. This
means taking note of all edible
Waste
food that is not eaten, and
includes food that is wasted
during meal preparation (such
as peelings), food served but not
eaten, or food that is spoiled and
discarded. This could be placed
into a bucket and weighed every Approximately
1360 kg of food is
day. Multiply the total amount by
wasted every second
52 to find out the amount of food in America.
wasted per year at your house.
Compare this result to those of
1360 kg of food would feed 650
your classmates. Americans for an entire day.
2 One of the main reasons why
Wealthy countries waste
food is wasted in Australia is approximately 6800 kg
linked to consumer demand of food every second.
for fruit and vegetables that
The amount of food wasted
are pleasing in shape and in wealthy countries every
appearance. Blemished items year is about the same
such as curved carrots or as the total amount of
spotted apples are often taken food produced in
Sub-Saharan
out by the food producer, Africa.
discarded by the retailer or
not chosen by the consumer. Per capita waste is between 95 and 115 kg per year in Europe and North America.
Design an advertising campaign
to reduce this aspect of food
waste. Your campaign may
take the form of a television, Per capita waste is approximately
6–11 kg per year in
newspaper or social media
Sub-Saharan Africa and
advertisement, or a combination South/Southeast Asia.
of these.
Source 5 Infographics are a good way to convey a lot of information in a simple,
visual way so that it can be quickly understood.

Geographies of
interconnection
An
interconnected
world
This is Gibraltar, a British territory that lies on the southern
tip of Spain in a body of water that connects the Atlantic
Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. This means it is
strategically significant for shipping between Europe and
the rest of the world. For this reason, disputes over the
territory have resulted in many wars over the past 500
years.
Though once heavily fortified to protect its inhabitants
from invasion, Gibraltar is now highly accessible. It has
a busy international airport, container port, a cruise-ship
harbour and is connected by road to Spain. It receives
almost 12 million tourists a year. Connected to the world
by trade, tourism, transport and communications, Gibraltar
illustrates how every place on Earth is connected to every
other place more than ever before.
4A
How do people connect to
4B
How are people and places
places? around the world connected?
1 Gibraltar is famous for a 426-metre high rock, the 1 Describe some of the ways in which Gibraltar is
Rock of Gibraltar, which is a popular drawcard for connected to other places around the world using
tourists. Do you think the people who live within evidence from this picture. Are there other likely
sight of the Rock would regard it differently than a connections that are not shown in this picture?
visiting tourist would?
2 In what ways might a resident feel differently about
Gibraltar compared to a tourist?

chapter
4
Source 1 Gibraltar is a compact country at the southern tip of Spain. Its coastal location and access to many countries
means it has been a highly sought-after territory over the course of history.
4C
How does trade connect people
and places?
1 Gibraltar has little land that is suitable for farming
and food production. Where do you think the
people who live there get most of their food from?
chapter 4 an interconnected world 127

4.1 Understanding place
Everyone has places that mean something special to
them. You can probably think of a place right now that
Interconnections between
has a particular significance for you. It could be a corner places
of your room where you listen to music, or a local sports
We all create places of our own by defining them
ground where you train with your friends – somewhere
and giving them meaning, and all of these places are
that you identify with and has meaning for you.
interconnected. Geographers use different ways to
Indeed, this is how geographers define the concept of
understand and explain these interconnections.
place – as parts of the Earth’s surface that are identified
and given meaning by people. No place exists in isolation. Not even a rock in a
mountain riverbed or a single tree is isolated. Every
A place can be as small as your bedroom or as large
place is interconnected with another. The place where
as a continent. It can be a constructed feature, such
you live is connected to a neighbourhood, the road
as a building, or a naturally existing feature, such as a
outside the school connects it with different suburbs,
freshwater lake.
and entire continents are connected to each other in
The key concept of place is essential to geographers.
many ways, too.
By dividing the Earth’s surface into a series of
Some of the interconnections between places are
identifiable places, geographers can better understand
the result of natural processes. The rock in the riverbed
the natural processes and human activities that shape
mentioned above, for example, may be connected not
and change our world.
only to the other surrounding rocks but also to other
People may be attached to different places for
areas entirely. Fast-flowing rivers, for example, wear
different reasons, and places can mean completely
down rocks into tiny pieces and then carry these pieces
different things to different people. For example, the
to the coast, where they are shaped into new features
tourists in Source 1 might perceive this place as an
such as sand dunes and sandbars. This process links
opportunity to see something unique and to photograph
together the mountains and the coast.
it. The bus driver who brought them here and the owner
Other interconnections are the result of human
of the resort where they are staying may see it quite
activities such as trade, transport and communication.
differently – as somewhere that provides them with
These move people, goods, services and ideas between
employment and an income. The Indigenous people
places, linking them together.
of the region, the Anangu, attach a very different
meaning. For them, this place has a deep spiritual People interconnect with other people through their
importance. surroundings, ther work, their hobbies and cultural
It is part of their culture and is regarded as sacred. sites. There are various ways that geographers explain
They have a duty to care for and protect it. how and why we connect to place, and these will be
examined in more detail in this chapter.
Source 1
Uluru is a place that
has been identified
and given meaning.
Like all places it
has both tangible
(able to be touched)
and intangible (not
able to be touched)
characteristics. The
rock, the plants
and the soil are
all tangible while
the scenic beauty,
cultural significance
and economic value
are intangible.

4A How do people connect to places?
keyconcept: Place
Comparing different perceptions a friend, but the same park might seem very different to
you if you found yourself there in the middle of the night
of place alone. Factors that influence how you perceive places
How you perceive and use a place can be influenced include:
by many different factors. The same place can be
• your age
perceived in different ways by different people – a
historian might perceive a museum as a fascinating • your ethnic origin
place to visit, for example, while a teenager might think • your gender
it is quite boring. The same place can be used in very • the time of day or night you are visiting the place
different ways, too. The steps outside the museum • whether you are travelling to the place alone or in a group
could be used as a place to go skateboarding, or at
• whether you have a disability or are able-bodied.
other times as a backdrop for wedding photos.
A park that is filled with families on a bright sunny For more information on the key concept of place,
day might seem like a safe, enjoyable place to go with refer to page 6 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
Source 2 There are many factors that might influence the way someone perceives a place.

1 Write a definition of the term ‘place’ in your own 5 Give an example of a place in your area that is used
words. for more than one purpose. Design a poster showing
2 Read the caption for Source 1. Now think of a place the different ways in which it is used. Try to think
that you know well. Describe this place in terms of its of as many people as possible who might use the
tangible and intangible characteristics. place, the different ways they might use it, and what
3 Explain how new technologies have helped to create their perceptions of the place might be.
greater links between people and places.
Apply and analyse

4 Examine Source 2. How do you think the people
in these photos feel about the places shown? How
might a different person feel about each of the
places?

4.2 Connections to place
Most of the reasons why people feel a sense of in the natural world that other people in the wider
connection to place can be grouped under the following community do not have.
four criteria: Jeffrey Lee, the sole survivor of the Djok clan in the
• spiritual – factors related to a person’s beliefs Northern Territory, could have become one of Australia’s
• economic – factors related to employment and richest men (see Source 1). He is the custodian of land
income that contains vast deposits of uranium. However, when a
• cultural – factors related to the shared characteristics French energy company offered him millions in royalties
of a group of people to allow them to mine the uranium, he declined.
• historical – factors related to past experiences and Instead, he offered the land to the Federal
events. Government so that it would be included as part of
Kakadu National Park, and therefore protected from
mining.
Spiritual factors ‘When you dig ‘em hole in that country, you’re
Many people feel connected to particular places because killing me. Money don’t mean nothing to me. Country
of their beliefs or the way a place makes them feel. is very important to me,’ he told newspaper reporters.
Sometimes this connection can be difficult for other Mr Lee believes that it is his responsibility to look after
people to fully understand but this does not make the the land and that digging into the ground would disturb
connection any less real or important. For example, the spirits that live within it. ‘There are sacred sites,
many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have there are burial sites and there are other special places
a deep and complex spiritual connection to places out there which are my responsibility to look after.
Source 1 For Jeffrey Lee, the spiritual importance of the land far outweighs any potential monetary gain.

Source 2 A van parked in Broome protesting the gas extraction in the Kimberley region shows how the economic connection
to place can be at odds with those who have other factors that influence their connection.
I’m not interested in white people offering me this or many people for heating and cooking. Many protests
that … it doesn’t mean a thing. I’m not interested in have been held to try and influence state and federal
money. I’ve got a job; I can buy tucker; I can go fishing governments to more closely control or stop the
and hunting. That’s all that matters to me.’ mining of this gas.
Economic factors Cultural factors

Many people feel a connection to particular places Connections to place can also be strongly influenced
because these places provide them with employment by a range of cultural factors. This can include the
or a source of income. In the previous example of the perceived historic value of a place, and how that is
proposed uranium mine in the Northern Territory, the meaningful for people in the present, the past and
French mineral company was interested in connecting even into the future. The notion of cultural heritage
to this place because of economic opportunities. In the can be an important motivating factor for connection
same way, a farmer will feel connected to the place in to place.
which he or she farms and a tourism operator will feel People with similar interests, backgrounds and
connected to the place that tourists come to visit. heritage often connect with each other to form
In countries where personal wealth is viewed as a communities. Immigrants to a new country, for
desirable goal, economic connection to place may take example, tend to live close to other recent arrivals from
precedence over less tangible reasons for connection, the same country. This allows them to connect more
such as spiritual or historical factors. Different reasons easily to people with the same language and culture and
for connecting to place can cause disagreement, protest therefore to fit more easily into their new community.
and even conflict between individuals and groups. This happens all around the world and creates areas
In parts of Queensland and New South Wales, of ethnic concentration. In New York, for example,
for example, there is widespread disagreement about there are neighbourhoods known as Little Italy,
mining gas from the rocks beneath farming areas (see Chinatown, Little Manila, Le Petit Senegal, Jamaica,
Source 2). Many farmers believe that the process used Koreatown and Spanish Harlem. The residents of these
to extract the gas degrades their land and water, but places may feel connected to the area in which they live
mining companies point out that the gas is needed by because of their cultural connections.

Source 3 The Vietnamese Boat People Monument of Gratitude in Northbridge was built by the Vietnamese Community
Association in Western Australia.
Case study: Vietnamese in Perth Australia, about the terrible suffering that the first wave
of Vietnamese refugees went through as they crossed
As a result of the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s, dangerous seas to arrive in a safer place.
millions of people fled Vietnam to find refuge elsewhere. Two plaques at the bottom of the monument
Many Vietnamese refugees crammed into small boats connect the community to both their home in Vietnam
to escape and became known as ‘boat people’. More and their home in Australia. They read:
than 112 000 Vietnamese came to Australia in the 20 ‘In memory of the Vietnamese refugees who perished in
years after 1975, with strong populations in Cabramatta, the exodus since 1975’
Sydney, and Springvale, Melbourne. Perth is now home
‘This monument represents our gratitude to Australia,
to well over 15 000 people from Vietnam. They joined a
for embracing the Vietnamese refugees into this great
large and growing migrant population from many other
nation.’
places.
Like many other migrant groups, Vietnamese Historical factors
Australians in Perth are able to stay connected with Events that happened in the past can also result in
their culture and serve their community through a non- people forming special connections to particular places.
profit organisation called the Vietnamese Community These may be recent events or events from hundreds of
Association (VCA). Activities of the VCA in Western years ago, but they can form powerful links between
Australia include promoting and preserving Vietnamese people and places. For many people, the places they
culture through traditional events and festivals, helping visited on holidays as children remain special places
Vietnamese refugees settle into Australian society well into their adulthood because of the memories these
and fostering community spirit among Vietnamese places hold.
Australians. On a wider scale, important historical events can
In 2013, the Western Australian chapter of the give particular places a special meaning. Such historical
Vietnamese Community Association unveiled the events could include a war or battle such as Gallipoli
Vietnamese Boat People Monument of Gratitude in (see Source 5), a terrorist attack such as the Bali
Northbridge. As a symbol of special cultural significance bombings, or the birthplace or burial place of a famous
in the history of Vietnamese Australians, the monument person. In some towns and cities, places of historical
was built to remind the next generation, and the rest of significance might be marked with a statue or other

commemorative marker. In London, for example, many feel strongly about the demolition of old buildings or
places that are connected with historical events and the development of a site for a new apartment block.
people are marked with blue memorial plaques (see It also helps to explain why people may have a special
Source 4). connection to battle sites thousands of kilometres away
The strong connection some people feel with a place or to the wharf where they first arrived in Australia as
for historical reasons can explain why many people a refugee.
Source 4 Blue plaques in

the UK mark places where
people may feel a historical
connection due to an event Source 5 Many Australians and New Zealanders feel a special connection to Gallipoli in
that occurred or a person that Turkey because of battles fought there a century ago. These people are attending an Anzac
lived at that place. Day dawn service at Gallipoli.

1 Why might people sometimes find it difficult to 6 Many people feel a connection to places where
understand another person’s spiritual connection to important events occurred in the past. Find out
a particular place? why many Australians have a special connection to
2 Why do people with similar cultural backgrounds Gallipoli in Turkey, or to Kuta in Bali.
often stay connected to each other? 7 The Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo, Japan, is an example
3 Why would some farmers in Queensland and New of a place that inspires strong feelings in people.
South Wales protest about gas mining in the places Research the shrine and investigate why people
where they live? might have different connections to this place. Design
a poster that shows the results of your research.
Apply and analyse
4 Re-read the information relating to Jeffrey Lee.
a Describe the connection he has to the place in
which he lives.
b Why does he have this connection?
c Is this the same way you feel about the land?
Why or why not?
d Account for the similarities and differences
between his connection to the land and yours.
5 What might be some of the important hubs for
Vietnamese people in Perth? Are there similar hubs
in your local area? Are you connected to these
Source 6 Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo, Japan, is a place
places for similar reasons? that inspires a range of different reactions in people.

4A rich task
A study published in the New York Times in 2012
Mental maps versus found that using a GPS rather than our internal mental
map reduces the ability of our brain to build up a mental
GPS
picture of our environment. While our brains build up
layers of information to develop mental maps, a GPS
device reduces all of the information to a simple list of
A mental map is a map that we keep in our distances and directions. By not using the mental maps
heads, rather than on paper or in our phone. we have stored, we may risk losing the ability to create
We all carry a map in our head of our local them in the first place.
area. This allows us to find our way quickly The report concludes with this advice:
and easily between places. We tend to know ‘Next time you’re in a new place, forget the GPS
the places we use often and the spaces device. Study a map to get your bearings, then try to
between them much better than the places focus on your memory of it to find your way around.
City maps do not tell you each step, but they provide
and spaces we rarely use or visit. As we all
a wealth of abstract survey knowledge. Fill in these
use different places, we each have a unique memories with your own navigational experience, and
mental map of our local area. give your brain the chance to live up to its abilities.’
Is GPS ruining our mental maps? skilldrill

Many Australian cars and mobile phones are fitted with a
GPS device. GPS or Global Positioning Systems use Putting a mental map down on paper
satellites to accurately pinpoint the location of the car or A mental map is a simple but effective tool people use to
phone. By adding data in the form of a digital map, GPS perceive, remember and analyse an area. You can record
devices can be used to help us find our way around. the mental map you have of an area into hard copy, for
For many people, their GPS device has replaced printed yourself or for another person to use, by following these
maps and written directions as the main way of navigating simple steps:
around an area. Using GPS devices can be extremely Step 1 Choose an area you know well that you wish to
helpful, but has using them ruined our own mental maps? map.
Step 2 Starting with a blank piece of paper, jot down the
main places you can remember in the area. Do not
refer to street directories or other professionally drawn
maps. Remember that there is no ‘right’ answer for a
mental map.
Step 3 Fill in the main roads, pathways and any railway
lines that connect places in the area.
Step 4 Include any parks, ovals or reserves, or any
significant natural features you can remember.
Step 5 Mark down any significant landmarks or buildings.
These might include a statue on a corner, a church
or school, shops or even a wall that features some
graffiti art.
Step 6 Continue plotting features, roads, and landmarks
until you are satisfied that all the things you can
Source 1 GPS devices can translate complex three-
dimensional places into a series of lines and instructions that remember as being significant are added to your hard-
make it easy to navigate. copy map.

4A How do people perceive places?
Apply the skill

1 Make a hard copy of your mental map of the area in which you
live. It could cover a couple of blocks or more – the size will 1 Swap your map with another person in
depend on how much information you keep in your head. Label your class.
features that are important to you. This might include shops, your
a Note down any similarities and any
sports club or a friend’s house.
differences in what you chose to
include in your mental map. What were
some of the main differences between
the two mental maps?
b Discuss with your partner what their
mental map revealed about them and
their perception of their local area.
What did the features they included
tell you about them? For example, if
they included a football field, oval and
gym, you could safely say they had an
interest in sports. What did they think
your mental map revealed about you?
2 Look closely at the mental map in
Source 2.
a What are some of the places in the
local area that are important to this
person?
b What does this mental map reveal
about the person who drew it?
3 List the pros and cons of keeping a mental
map versus using a GPS. Are there any
aspects of a GPS that might limit your
understanding of an area? Do you think
you would prefer to rely on a GPS or a
mental map? Why do you think this?
4 Ask a primary school student to draw a
mental map of their local area and display
them on a classroom wall along with the
completed maps from your own class.
a What were some of the main
differences between the two sets of
mental maps?
b Why do you think the mental maps
of primary school students differ from
those of secondary school students?
Source 2 Everyone has a mental map of their home area whether they realise c What has this activity taught you about
it or not. You may be surprised at how much detail you can readily recall about the ways in which different people
the area where you live and how often you use your mental map. perceive their local area?

4.3 What is a global citizen?
‘No man is an island, Entire of itself, Every man is a piece
of the continent, A part of the main.’
Global citizens
Each of us is an example of the connected world in
The English poet John Donne wrote these words way
which we live. This is true even when we are just sitting
back in 1624. In these lines he expresses the idea
at our desk at school – we don’t have to physically travel
that every person is connected to someone else. This
to be connected with other places in the world.
is as true today as it was nearly 400 years ago. The
Some people, however, are true global citizens and
more we learn about our amazing planet and the
are linked in many different ways to places all around
people who live here the more we come to realise that
the world. Cadel Evans, the famous Australian cyclist,
everyone and everything is connected to everyone
is one example of a person who is interconnected
and everything else.
globally on many levels (see Source 1). Perhaps best
We are connected to people and places all
known as the first Australian to win the Tour de France
around the world in many ways. This includes being
cycling race, Evans was once asked how it felt to be an
connected by the food we eat, the clothes we wear,
Australian whose sport has taken him around the world.
the goods in our homes, the sport we play, the music
He replied, ‘Chiara’s [his wife] Italian, we’re living in
we listen to and the movies we watch. We are also the
Switzerland and I’m Australian riding for an American
most mobile generation in history, travelling for work
registered team sponsored by a Swiss company’. He
and for leisure more often and more quickly. As well
could also have added that he and his wife have
as these physical and cultural connections, there are
adopted an Ethiopian child and that his teammates are
the rapidly growing digital connections that break
from 10 different countries.
down barriers such as language and distance that
The life and career of Cadel Evans is a clear example
once separated people and places.
of the many ways we can be connected with many
different places.
Source 1 Australia’s Cadel Evans (left) rides a stage in the 2011 Tour de France. He is surrounded by cyclists from Spain,
Kazakhstan, Colombia, Belgium and Norway. The race was televised in 190 countries and watched by an estimated 3.5 billion people
around the world.

4B How are people and places around the world connected?
keyconcept: Interconnection
How submarine cables connect the world through communication
In the past, most countries used their own resources to the Atlantic Ocean in 0.00072 seconds. The latest
feed and clothe their own populations. Today, however, submarine cables are about the thickness of a garden
all nations increasingly rely on each other to supply hose but contain enough bandwidth for 20 million
goods and services to their populations. We are more Internet users.
connected to the rest of the world than we have ever For more information on the key concept of
been before. This increasing interconnection between interconnection, refer to pages 8 – 9 of ‘The geography
countries is referred to as globalisation. toolkit’.
Globalisation has increased
rapidly over the last 50 to 60 years. WORLD: NETWORK OF SUBMARINE TELECOMMUNICATION CABLES
In 2008, for example, the same
amount of trade took place in one
day as in a whole year in the 1940s.
This increase is largely due to rapid Russia
improvements in information and Europe North
America
communications technology (ICT) China
Japan
Middle
such as the Internet. Virtually all of North Africa East
India Central
the world’s Internet connections are America
Sub-Saharan
made through submarine cables on Africa Southeast Asia
South
the ocean floors that link together America
the world’s land masses. In total, Australia

LEGEND
there are about 885 000 kilometres Undersea cable
of submarine cables around the 0 2000 4000 km
New
Zealand
Country border
world and the latest cables carry

signals 12 000 kilometres across Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press

Remember and understand c Describe the pattern shown on your class map.
1 How do the lines of John Donne’s poem relate to the 4 Examine Source 2.
principle of interconnection? Do you think this poem a Which regions and countries are the most
is relevant to today’s world? Why or why not? connected by submarine cables?
2 In what ways do submarine cables connect different b Which places are important hubs for submarine
places around the world? cables?

3 Write a list of some of the ways in which you link to 5 Re-write the section of John Donne’s poem in your
other countries. own words as a tweet. How many people would his
a Share your links with your classmates and build poem have reached when it was published in 1624?
up a class list of these links. How many people could the Twitter version reach?
b Show these links on a world map. You may need Describe how both the poem and the tweet are
to develop a legend to show different types of links. examples of interconnection.

4.4 How geographical features
influence interconnections
The distribution of the world’s land
masses and physical features has always
The Khyber Pass:
been a key factor in making connections a natural corridor
between people and places easy or difficult.
Some of the world’s greatest natural barriers are the massive
Some physical features, such as high
mountain ranges of Central Asia including the Himalayas and
mountain ranges, deserts and stormy seas,
Hindu Kush ranges. Transport links across the ranges are limited
have been natural barriers to trade and
to a few high mountain passes. The most important of these is
communication for thousands of years.
the Khyber Pass. Carved by mountain rivers and streams, the
Others, such as rivers and mountain
pass allows road and rail connections between Afghanistan and
passes, act as natural corridors for
Pakistan. The pass is one of the world’s most significant natural
connecting people and places. All around
corridors and was part of the fabled Silk Road that linked traders
the world, people have attempted to cut
in Africa, Europe and Asia from the 2nd century BCE to the
through mountains, build bridges over
16th century CE. Military leaders such as Genghis Khan and
valleys, and even construct underwater
Alexander the Great also used the Khyber Pass during their
tunnels to overcome some of the natural
military campaigns.
barriers that inhibit transport and trade.
Source 1 Narrow gorges near the Khyber Pass in northern Pakistan have acted as natural barriers to trade and communication.

skilldrill
Interpreting false colour satellite images

You may have heard the term ‘false colour’ before. Step 4 Continue to compare the map with the satellite
The term means different or exaggerated colours image to deepen your understanding of the area
have been used or added to make an image easier to shown.
interpret. Satellite images have become one of the most Step 5 Describe any relationships between features of
useful tools available to geographers. They are taken the environment that you can identify on the satellite
from special cameras mounted in orbiting satellites and image. You can also use your atlas to help you add
show a large area of the Earth’s surface. While some the names of features to your description.
satellite images are shown in natural colour, others are
altered by computers and use false colours to highlight Apply the skill
particular features. The cartographer or person working 1 Find a map that shows the area around the Khyber
on the image applies colours that make the range of Pass. Use it to help you describe the landscape
features easier to see or understand than they would around the Khyber Pass shown in Source 2.
be on a ‘natural’ photograph or satellite image. The
2 Compare Source 2 with a map of the Khyber Pass.
colours used in a false colour image can be completely
What geographical features do you think have made
unrelated to the feature being highlighted – a forest may
the Khyber Pass a significant feature of the region?
be coloured pink, for example.
This change to colour is done when the colours of
the natural features are too similar to demonstrate a
particular point or aspect clearly. If someone is trying
to show where a muddy brown river meets a brown-
coloured riverbank where there are brown rocks and
some brownish shrubs, they might decide to use
colour to clearly show where the different elements
are. In that case, they might make the shrub areas
green, the river bright yellow and the rocks a bright
red, leaving just the riverbank brown.
When interpreting false colour satellite images,
you should examine the accompanying legend if
there is one to interpret the colours used in a false or
simulated natural colour image.
Follow these steps to interpret a satellite image
that uses false or simulated colour.
Step 1 Use an atlas to locate the area shown in the
image on the Earth’s surface.
Step 2 Compare the false or simulated natural
colour satellite image with the map of the same LEGEND
area. Use the atlas to identify natural and human 0 150 300 km Water
features of this environment. Cloud

Vegetation
Step 3 Then look closely at the satellite image and,
Bare ground
guided by the false or exaggerated colours,
identify key features of the environment such as Source 2 This is a false colour satellite image of the Khyber
rivers, mountain ranges and valleys. Follow the Pass region with the Indus River in flood. The image uses
legend on the satellite image if it has one and exaggerated colours to make it easier to detect the various natural
features in the area.
you are not sure at first what features you are
looking at.

keyconcept: Change
Reopening the Northwest Passage The preferred route for ships would be the
Northwest Passage around the north of North America.
As the economies of the world become more closely
However, the Arctic sea ice is unpredictable and
linked due to globalisation, shipping companies
hazardous, even in summer when much of the ice
are looking for ways to reduce the relative distance
covering the Arctic Ocean melts.
between trading countries. The Americas have always
been a physical barrier between Western Europe Climate change, however, is now opening up the
and East Asia, two of the major trading areas of Northwest Passage. Each year the sea ice shrinks by
the world. about 70 000 square kilometres, and many researchers
now believe that the passage could be completely ice-
Before the completion of the Panama Canal in
free all year within decades. Many shipping companies
1914, ships were forced to brave the dangerous
around the world won’t wait that long, however, and
waters around Cape Horn on the southern tip of South
have begun building ships that can withstand the
America. Today, around 40 ships a day pass through
reduced Arctic sea ice.
the Panama Canal but some large ships now exceed
the size limits of the canal. For more information on the key concept of change,
refer to page 10 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
Source 3 NASA satellite

data in 2011 showed that
Arctic sea ice had retreated
to a level far smaller than
the 30-year average
(marked in yellow), opening
up the Northwest Passage
shipping lanes (in red).

Remember and understand a Estimate the distance a ship would sail between
1 Where is the Khyber Pass and why is it important? Tokyo and London if passing through the
Northwest Passage compared to the Panama
2 What are the similarities between the Khyber Pass
Canal.
and the Northwest Passage?
b Container ships travel at about 40 kilometres per
Apply and analyse hour and use about 200 tonnes of fuel a day.
3 Describe the relationship between sea ice and Estimate the savings in time and fuel for a Tokyo–
shipping shown in Source 3. Use the correct names London ship using the Northwest Passage.
of seas and countries in your description. 5 Research other natural barriers and corridors to
trade such as deserts, rainforests and rivers. Make
Evaluate and create a list of these and locate them on a world map. How
4 Use an atlas to examine the area between Tokyo, have new technologies helped to overcome natural
Japan and London, United Kingdom. barriers?

4.5 How people influence
interconnections
Geographical features, including both natural and Economists have estimated that removing trade
artificial structures, can pose many challenges for barriers would add about $168 billion to the world
humans and their activities. Trade in particular, has economy every year. The biggest winners in the
been affected for centuries by physical geographical removal of these barriers would be people in developing
barriers. Among these are rivers, mountains, forests and countries as the price of food would fall and they would
deserts. Exploration and building efforts have often find it easier to export goods they produce.
been directed at building bridges, tunnels, canals and
other structures to close the gap between places and
increase the level of interconnection between places.
Tariffs and non-tariff barriers
Some geographers believe that the greatest barriers to To protect local industries, governments in many
connections between people and places are not caused countries impose a tax, known as a tariff, on imported
by physical features such as oceans and mountain goods. They also restrict trade by imposing import
ranges but by human activities and decisions. limits on some goods, and negotiate complicated trade
For example, there are many barriers put in place to agreements with other countries. Australian farmers
limit and control the movement of people and goods often face trade barriers when trying to export their
across international borders (e.g in the way of taxes and goods (see Source 1). Many countries apply tariffs to
tarrifs). These exist to protect the interests of individual imported goods, while also providing incentives such
countries but the end result is often a restriction on as lower taxes to their own farmers to help them export
trade and communications. their goods.
From Australia to China

WORLD: TRADE TARIFFS AND INCENTIVES Chinese import tariffs From USA to China
10–15% Dairy export incentive program
From Australia to EU
EU import tariffs ($A a tonne)
Skim milk powder $2508
Butter $3792
Cheese $3500
EU
USA
From EU to Africa CHINA
EU export subsidies
($A a tonne)
$400 – $1000
From Australia to USA

US import tariffs ($A a tonne) Australia
Skim milk powder $1330 LEGEND
Butter $1541 Import tariffs
Cheese $1227 Export subsidies/
0 2500 5000 km incentives

While these official procedures can be a barrier to container leaves the port in the United States and
free trade between countries so, too, can unofficial starts on its journey to you. The African container
practices such as bribery and corruption. Imagine, for takes six times longer to pass through the port and
example, ordering the same product to be delivered reach a ship and you will pay twice as much to the
to your home in Australia from two different port officials. Though labour costs are much lower in
places: one from the United States and one from Africa, your extra money has been used to pay bribes
Sub-Saharan Africa. Both suppliers pack the goods to the shipping agent, customs officials, security
into a shipping container and contact the shipping agents, drivers and crane operators to keep your
company on the same day. Six days later, your container moving through the system.
Source 2 The construction

Diagram of of the Channel Tunnel was
a massive undertaking to
the Eurotunnel bridge the physical barrier of
(Channel Tunnel) water between France and
England (known as the English
works Channel). The works took a
total of seven years.
Source 3 The port of Maputo, Mozambique. Corruption, in the form of bribery, added 14 per cent to shipping costs and
increased the salary of some port officials at Maputo by 600 per cent.

Case study: the tunnels of Gaza

The city of Rafah in the Middle East lies across an were involved in digging the tunnels which are used
international border. The southern part of the city lies in to smuggle virtually everything that people and the
Egypt while the north is in the Gaza Strip, a Palestinian government need. Machinery, livestock, fuel and steel
territory. The neighbouring country of Israel, concerned pass through the tunnels daily. The political party that
that guns and ammunition are passing from Egypt into controls the Gaza Strip even taxes the goods that pass
Gaza, maintain tight control of the border in Rafah. through the tunnels and are rumoured to raise as much
The people of the city have responded by digging as $750 million a year in this way. Some people living
an extensive network of tunnels beneath the border to in Gaza even boast that they can order fast food from
connect the two sides of the city. Up to 15 000 people Egypt and have it home delivered!
Source 4 A flock of sheep

is driven through a tunnel
beneath the streets of Rafah.

Remember and understand 4 Examine Source 1. What are some of the restrictions
1 In what ways can trade and communications be placed on Australian farmers exporting their
restricted between countries? produce? Use the names of specific products and
places in your answer.
2 Why do countries restrict connections in this way?
5 Why do the people of Rafah dig tunnels? What
Apply and analyse would be some of the risks in digging and using
3 Imagine that you have ordered goods from Africa tunnels such as these?
and the United States and they were delivered as
Evaluate and create
described above.
6 Use Google Earth to explore the city of Rafah.
a How would your experience change the way
in which you make purchasing decisions in the Describe the border region and any differences you
future? can identify between the two parts of the city.
b Who suffers and who benefits from your decision? 7 Examine Source 2. Do some extra reading on the
c Imagine that Maputo is the only place from which Internet and then write two to three paragraphs
you can buy the goods you need. Brainstorm outlining the reasons for building the tunnel and the
some ways in which you could receive your challenges that were encountered.
goods more cheaply and quickly.

4.6 How technology influences
interconnections
Source 1 This map of the world was created not by drawing

The Internet allows people to connect with other people borders, but by marking the connections between 10 million
in different places more quickly and conveniently than Facebook friends.
ever before. Today, we use the Internet for a range of
activities and purposes that link us to many places all
over the world. Your after-school activities are probably
connecting you to places all over the world without you Using the Internet for emails remains the most
even realising it. In the space of half an hour sitting at popular activity with 98 per cent of people online
the computer, you might have logged into Facebook, having sent an email in the last 12 months. The
connecting with friends who live in the same area, Internet has, in many ways, become the most
others who live interstate or some who live in another dominant form of social interaction on the planet.
country. You might listen to some British or American • There are 2.1 billion Internet users in the world and
songs on YouTube while you do your homework, or 3.1 billion email accounts.
stream an international sports game. The Internet • About 250 billion emails are sent every day.
allows you to make all these connections to different • There are about 100 million active Twitter users
places without physically leaving your desk. sending 250 million tweets a day.
• There are more than 1 billion Facebook accounts.
Communicating with people This is greater than the total world population
200 years ago.
in different places • Every minute a further 48 hours of video content is
We use the Internet to play games, to shop, plan added to YouTube.
activities, find directions, read, research, complete • There are more than 500 million Google searches
homework and more than ever before, to communicate made every day. This rate has doubled in the last
with each other. three years.

Access to news and information

Developments in information and communications
technologies (ICT) have meant that people can now access a
wide range of global news and information services quickly
and easily. You can get American basketball scores in real-
time, for example, or you can see photos from a collection
at Paris fashion week on the same day it is shown. This
information might be trivial, such as finding out what
everyone was wearing at last night’s music awards, or it
might be something that could potentially save a life.
During the Black Saturday bushfires, which swept
through Victoria in 2009, many people were alerted to
the threat via social media, not by traditional news forms.
Following Twitter allowed people to get real-time updates Source 2 Developments in technology and increased
Internet speeds mean that it is possible for overseas
from others who were tweeting from areas nearby the companies to use call centres in India or the Philippines.
flames, information that traditional news services did not
have access to. You may be able to think of other examples
where Twitter or other social media have broken stories Check your learning 4.6
before traditional news providers.
Access to services in other places 1 In what ways do you think an online news
service might be more useful than a traditional
Do you watch your favourite programs on free-to-air TV or
television or print-based news service?
do you prefer to live-stream or download? Do you prefer to
shop for clothes online or do you go and try things on in a 2 Name three ways that the Internet facilitates
store before you buy? interconnections between people in different
Entertainment and shopping are two areas of your places.
life where information technology connects you to other 3 How are offshore call centres an example of
places on a regular basis. You probably take it for granted interconnection?
that you can download new music the same day it is
Apply and analyse
released in the United States. In the past, you would have
had to wait for CDs to arrive in shops here. You can also 4 Compare the Facebook map shown in
shop online, and often purchase things more cheaply Source 1 to an atlas map of the world.
than if you were buying them in a physical store. Almost a Name six countries that are very active
$8 trillion a year changes hands through e-commerce, and Facebook users.
half of all Australians have shopped online in the last three b Name four countries where there appears to
months. Access to services and goods in other places is be relatively little Facebook usage. Suggest
an aspect of globalisation that many of us now enjoy as a some reasons for this.
matter of course. c Describe the pattern of Facebook usage in
Australia.
Case study: offshore call centres 5 Do you use online shopping for any purchases?
If so, which items do you tend to buy online?
When people call up to complain about mobile phone
Do you know where the items you purchase are
service, book an airline ticket, or pay a bill, chances are they
coming from?
speak to someone in the Philippines or India rather than
in Australia. Many Australian companies have moved their
6 In what ways does online shopping affect:
call centres to these other countries to take advantage of a the consumer?
the lower wages. The call centre industry, which currently b the environment?
employs around 400 000 Filipinos and 350 000 Indians, is c local shop owners?
expected to grow quickly as Internet speeds increase and d postal and delivery service providers?
new companies take advantage of the cost savings.

4.7 Digital access
around the world
The digital divide Digital access in developing
During your lifetime, the Internet and other digital nations
technologies have become the most powerful tools
While access to communication technologies is
of connection the world has ever known. As a result,
greatest in developed nations the rest of the world is
many experts argue that we are currently experiencing
beginning to catch up. The people in the Sub-Saharan
a digital revolution. In many places it now seems easier
African nation of Niger, for example, are identified in
to be connected to other people and places than not
Source 3 as having the least access to ICT. In 2000,
to be. However, this high level of connection is not
only one resident of Niger in every 5000 had a mobile
experienced equally by everyone. In some places there
phone subscription. By 2013, this had become one in
are more computers and mobile phones than there
every three.
are people, while in other places these devices are
still uncommon. These differences are known as the For many people in developing countries, the
digital divide. Internet and mobile phone have become a way to
access the promise of a better future for themselves and
Using indicators such as the number of mobile
their children. This promise grew following large-scale
subscribers, the price of Internet access, adult literacy,
protests against governments in many Middle Eastern
bandwidth and the number of Internet users, organisations
and North African countries that began in 2010 and
such as the International Telecommunications Union (part
resulted in the overthrow of several governments.
of the United Nations) award each country a score based
Known as the Arab Spring, it showed the power of
on its level of digital access (see Source 3). The lighter the
social media, as people used sites such as Facebook
shade of green, the greater the digital access enjoyed by
and Twitter to organise protests and broadcast acts of
that country. The darker the shade of green, the more
violence by the police and armed forces.
limited the digital access.
Source 1
This amazing image
uses the digital traffic
created by the social
network site Twitter and
the photo-sharing site
Flickr to map the use
of digital technologies
in Europe and North
Africa. The red dots
show places where
Flickr pictures are
uploaded and the blue
dots where tweets were
sent. White dots are
locations that produced
posts to both websites.

Source 2 This data is from the International Telecommunications Union, a specialised branch of the United Nations, and shows
the developing rates of mobile and Internet use in developed and developing nations as a percentage of the population.
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Mobile phone Developed 82.1 92.9 102.0 108.3 112.5 115.0 119.0 123.6 128.2
subscriptions Developing 22.9 30.1 39.1 49.1 58.3 69.0 78.3 84.3 89.4
Homes with Developed 44.7 48.2 53.4 57.7 62.6 66.3 70.2 74.0 77.7
Internet Developing 8.1 9.6 11.2 12.5 14.1 16.4 20.2 24.0 28.0
People using Developed 50.9 53.5 59.0 61.3 62.9 67.3 70.5 73.4 76.8
the Internet Developing 7.8 9.4 11.9 14.7 17.5 21.2 24.5 27.5 30.7
WORLD: LEVELS OF DIGITAL ACCESS
3 5
2 1 8
6 10
9
176 178 7
177 175
174
LEGEND
Digital access rank
1st to 20th
21st to 50th
51st to 100th
101st to 150th
151st to 178th

Remember and understand 4 Examine Source 2 and describe the general pattern
1 What is meant by the ‘digital divide’? of changes in digital access in developing countries.
2 What are some of the likely consequences of this 5 Examine Source 1 and compare this to a political
divide? map of the same region.
a Which countries send the most photos and
Apply and analyse tweets?
3 Examine Source 3. b Which countries send the least?
a Describe the distribution of those countries with c Account for the spots of white in areas of
very high digital access. darkness.
b Describe the distribution of those countries with d How does this map reflect physical features such
very low digital access. as oceans, mountains and deserts?
c Account for the differences in digital access as e How does this map reflect human features such
shown on this map. as cities, wealth and population density?

4.8 Connecting with remote areas
While many of us live or spend most of our time in
towns or cities, there are significant numbers of people
who live in, or travel to, more remote areas. In the
past, the physical distance that separated places posed
significant issues, even risks. Alerting someone located
in a remote area of an incoming violent storm, for
example, may have been difficult, even impossible.
Even now, restricted mobile phone coverage and slow
Internet access can still make connecting with some
places decidedly challenging.
People travel to remote places for many reasons.
There are scientists who go out into the field to research
and explore, religious missionaries or educators who
might visit or do short stays in an area to help or teach
a language, and those who simply want to tackle the
frontiers of places that are still relatively unchartered.
Here, we will look at how people who travel to remote Source 1 Alone but connected: Felicity Aston sets off across
areas as well as how those who live in such places Antarctica.
interconnect with the world.
Changing the ways explorers

interconnect
Antarctica is the most remote place on Earth. Explorers
in the 1900s, such as Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest
Shackleton, effectively disappeared once they sailed
away from their last port in New Zealand or Argentina.
Their families and supporters knew that it would be
years before they would see them again.
Communication with the ‘outside world’ was simply
not possible. This was the case throughout many remote
places on Earth, including vast areas of inland Australia,
until only recently.
Explorers still travel to Antarctica and although this
extreme environment is as challenging as ever, they are
Source 2 This picture shows the positions of the 6000
no longer as isolated. In 2012, British adventurer Felicity artificial objects currently orbiting the Earth. Note that they are
Aston skied alone for 1477 kilometres across Antarctica, shown as much larger than their actual sizes.
becoming the first woman to do so (see Source 1).
Among the equipment she carried in the two sleds she The technologies that allow people in remote
dragged behind her were a satellite phone that gave her places to connect to other places all rely on a system of
coverage for the complete 59-day journey and a solar satellites that orbit the Earth. These receive signals from
panel to recharge it. Connecting to a series of satellites devices such as satellite phones and bounce them back
orbiting the Earth 780 kilometres above her allowed to Earth or to another satellite. There are about 6000
Felicity to chat to family and friends, make a daily of these satellites currently in orbit and this number
safety call, take part in live radio interviews, maintain increases by about 200 a year. These are used to relay
a blog and Facebook page and tweet to hundreds of messages to devices you probably have in your home,
thousands of followers daily. such as televisions and GPS receivers.

Connections in
the outback
Australia is one of the world’s largest
countries and some people live
vast distances from the goods and
services they need. This has resulted
in unique problems that require
unique solutions. The Royal Flying
Doctor Service and School of the Air,
for example, have helped to bring
medical services and schooling to
some of the world’s most remote
communities.
The Northern Territory
Aboriginal community of
Mungalawurru lies 90 kilometres
north-west of Tennant Creek.
In 2011, there was little contact
between the community and
people in other places. There Source 3 The Internet is providing connections in remote places where there was
were no home phones or mobile previously little contact with other communities.
phone coverage and the pay
phone was usually out of order. This situation is typical seen computers with Wi-Fi and satellite connections
of many remote communities but an experiment in installed in most homes, and education given to the local
Mungalawurru may be about to change connections in community about their use. Within months they became
the outback forever. Since 2011, a partnership between widely used, particularly for music downloads, online
several technology providers and social researchers has banking and emails.

Remember and understand of digital communication such as mobile phones
1 Why do some people travel to remote areas? and the Internet were cut. Consider how you would
overcome any problems this might create for you.
2 How are explorers in Antarctica able to connect to
people in other places? How does this differ from 6 What factors might you need to consider if you
explorers in the past? were to travel to an area that had limited mobile
network coverage? What things might you need to
Apply and analyse pack or prepare that you would not normally have to
3 Research shows that the percentage of people in consider?
Australia who are connected to the Internet declines
Evaluate and create
the further away people are from the centres of
Australia’s largest cities. Use a key geographic 7 Examine Source 2 in light of the issue of waste
concept to explain why this is the case. management. Research the amount of space junk
that is currently in the atmosphere.
4 How do you think the new technology in
Mungalawurru will change this community? a What problems could having so much space junk
floating unregulated in the atmosphere cause in
5 Have you ever lost your phone or had the Internet
the future?
drop out at home? How did you feel, or how do you
b Are there any ways you think this should be
think you would feel if you lost your usual access?
addressed or strategies that you think should be
Discuss how your life would change if all systems
implemented to tackle this potential problem?

4B rich task
skilldrill
How the Internet Conducting a survey and presenting
connects you to the the results
world every day Geographers use surveys to explore people’s opinions,
ideas and activities. By analysing the results they can gain
valuable insights into personal and social behaviour. The
Over a short period of time, we have come to key to finding useful information from a survey is asking
rely on the Internet to connect us to the world the right questions. Try to ask closed questions (yes/no
in many ways throughout our day. We use it questions or questions that provide a limited selection
to play games, shop, research, find directions, of options to choose from) as much as possible. Closed
work, read books, plan activities, complete questions in surveys are commonly multiple-choice and
homework and, more than ever before, to ask people to choose their reply from a set of answers
communicate with each other. that you provide. Open questions (a question that doesn’t
give options to select from but encourages an individual’s
own thoughts to be expressed) are sometimes important
too, but because you may receive a huge range of replies
Some of the ways in which we use the Internet every day you may not be able to use the data so easily. Follow
include: these steps to design a survey and present the results.
• online banking Step 1 Decide on the focus of your study.
• downloading podcasts and apps Step 2 When you have decided what your study will be
• finding out sports results about, work out what information you are interested in
• playing online games finding out. For example, your study might be about
• sending or reading email the Internet, and you may want information on how
often people use it.
• streaming music, movies and TV programs
Step 3 Decide which people you will survey. You will
• getting news updates
need to talk to at least 10 people to get data you can
• checking weather reports report on. Make sure that you have enough forms for
• buying clothes, groceries and presents all of the people you intend to survey. The more people
• completing and submitting homework. you survey, the more useful and reliable your results
will be.
Step 4 Write a series of closed questions about your
study. A closed question might look like this:
How often do you use the Internet at home?
At least once a day
At least once a week
At least once a month
No Internet at home
Step 5 Once you have your questions written, go over
them to ensure that they are all focused on the subject
of your study and are geared to find out the information
you want. Make sure they are clearly worded and
cannot be misinterpreted by people completing the
survey. Ask a friend to read over your questions if you
Source 1 Many people today would feel lost without the are unsure.
Internet.

Step 6 Conduct your survey. Ask the questions and fill 2 Once you have completed the survey, analyse the
in the forms yourself, or you can get your participants results and present them in table and graph formats.
to fill them in. Make sure the responses have been
entered correctly and that you have accurate records. No Internet at home 8.4%
Step 7 Once you have completed your surveys it is time At least once
a month
to put the results together into a form you can use – 4.2%
this is called data analysis. This is often best done in a
table like the one shown here.
Source 2 Data can be presented in a visual format like a table

so the researcher can access information quickly and easily.
How often do you use Number Percentage (%)
the Internet at home?
At least once a day 14 58.3
At least once a week 7 29.1
At least once a month 1 4.2
No Internet at home 2 8.4
Total 24 100
At least once
Step 8 Present your survey results in a way that makes a day 58.3%
At least once a week
them easy to understand. Rather than a lot of numbers 29.1%
and writing, use graphs. Make sure you clearly label More than 90 per cent of the people
each graph with the question you asked and below in my class have access to the
each graph write a short summary of the results. Internet at home. More than half the
class use it at least once a day.
Apply the skill Source 3 How often do you use the Internet at home?
1 Design and complete a survey about the ways in
which people in your class and members of your
family use the Internet. Include a minimum of 10 Extend your understanding
questions. Survey a minimum of five classmates
and five family members (or other people you 1 Compare your findings with those of a classmate.
know outside of class). You might want to include Write a report based on both sets of results
questions like: explaining how often and in what ways you used
Do you watch television shows online? the Internet.
Yes 2 Present the results of your study to the class. Use
No your table or graph from the previous question
If yes, how many hours a week would you watch as a visual aid, and talk through the most popular
on average? websites that people used, as well as the
0–2 hours differences or similarities between the ways your
2–6 hours family members and classmates used the Internet.
6–10 hours
10 hours or more

4.9 Global trade connections
Source 1 This is the world’s second largest cargo plane. It can carry 150 tonnes of cargo over 3000 kilometres.
In the last 50 years or so there has been an explosion for countries and the amount of trade taking place
in the amount and value of goods traded within and between countries grows bigger each year.
between nations. When your grandparents were your International trade is dominated by a few big players.
age they probably ate food grown and processed in their The United States, Germany and Japan together account
local area. Most of their clothes were probably made for about one-quarter of all exports and have done so for
locally, and they most likely bought things they needed several decades. This dominance is threatened, however,
from local shops. Communication with other places in by the rapid growth in emerging economies, particularly
the world would have come through the letterbox. China, India and Brazil. In 2011, Brazil had record trade
Today, homes contain many items made in other figures, with its exports market reaching around $US256
countries and we tend to shop globally. Today, trade billion, and trade between India and China also grew to
between nations is valued at about US$18 trillion a year a record level of $US73.9 billion in the 2011–12 period.
and international trade links people and places around Australia accounts for about 1.5 per cent of global
the world. To make these connections there are: trade and is ranked 21st in a list of the world’s biggest
• approximately 6000 planes in the air right now exporters.
• approximately 17 000 cargo ships crossing the world’s
seas and oceans Source 2 Australia's top 5 import and export countries
• pipelines transporting gases, oil and water a total Australia’s top 5 import Australia’s top 5 export
distance of about 2 million kilometres countries (% of total countries (% of total
imports) exports)
• more than 1 million kilometres of railway track.
1 China (18.2%) 1 China (28.8%)
The global flow of trade 2 United States (13.6%) 2 Japan (13.4%)
3 Japan (6.4%) 3 United States (7%)

Source 3 shows the amount of trade that flowed
between the different economic regions worldwide in 4 Republic of Korea (4.5%) 4 Republic of Korea (6.3%)
2012. Imports and exports have a huge economic value 5 Thailand (4.4%) 5 India (4.3%)

WORLD: GLOBAL FLOW OF TRADE IN 2012
European
Union Eastern
Europe
$1243bn
$5086bn North
$2565bn America
Middle East and $4018bn

Asia
North Africa
$845bn
$334bn
Sub-Saharan $1107bn
Africa South
America
LEGEND
0 2000 4000 km Annual trade value
Over $500 bn $250 bn to $500 bn $100 bn to 250 bn Under $100 bn

1 How are most of the world’s goods transported? 4 Discuss with someone older than you (such as
2 Which countries have dominated global trade in a parent or grandparent) about ways in which
the past? their links with other places have changed in their
lifetime. Develop a set of questions about means
Apply and analyse of communication, travel, and buying goods and
3 Examine Source 3. services to help in your discussion. Report back
a Rank the seven regions of the world shown in the to your class about what you found out from your
map, from the largest trader to the smallest. discussion.
b Describe the destinations of exports from Asian 5 Think of one product that you (or someone you
countries. know) recently bought over the Internet and one
c Which region is the smallest exporter? Why do product bought from a local shop. Find out where
you think this is the case? each product came from and map the journey taken
d Which region exports much more than it imports? by each to reach you. To help in your task, you can
Why do you think this is the case? look up shipping routes at http://www.sailwx.info
and aeroplane flight information at http://planefinder.
net/. You might want to research some local trucking
or delivery companies too.

4.10 Australia’s mining
connections
Australia has the world’s second-largest iron ore deposits
Australia’s mining boom – about 28 billion tonnes – almost all of which are
Australia is linked to many places in the world through located in Western Australia. It also has some of the
the goods and services produced here that are exported world’s largest coal deposits, which are used to provide
to other countries. Over 60 per cent of our exports are about 80 per cent of our electricity. Large amounts of
minerals and fuels such as iron ore, coal, gold, crude coal, mainly from the Bowen Basin in Queensland, are
oil and aluminium. In recent years, there has been a exported to Asian markets. Queensland has become the
rapid growth in the amount of minerals exported from world’s largest exporter of coal by sea.
Australia (see Source 1). Known as the mining boom,
this rapid growth is driven by three main factors. These Australia’s willingness and ability
are discussed below.
to export minerals
Increases in demand for Since the 1850s, when miners began digging up gold in
New South Wales and Victoria with picks, shovels and
Australian minerals from China their bare hands, Australians have regarded minerals as
and India a resource to be mined and sold. The mining sector is
now Australia’s largest export earner, accounting for
As China and India move from being rural societies to nearly half of our total exports. Each day, about
modern, urban and industrialised ones, they require 1 million tonnes of iron ore leaves Australia on ships;
vast amounts of raw materials. In particular, they need this is expected to double within the next five years.
iron ore to produce steel for building projects. They also Over 200 000 people are employed directly in the
need a cheap source of energy, such as coal to generate mining industry and they enjoy some of Australia’s
electricity, needed to power homes and businesses. In highest wages.
the last few decades, Chinese industries have developed
enormous factories producing
goods such as machinery, ships 120000
Fuels, including coal and oil Minerals and metals
115000
and cars, all of which require steel 110000
made from iron ore. India has 105000
100000
large reserves of iron ore but few 95000
Value Australian Mineral Exports (millions $A)
coal reserves, whereas Australia 90000

85000
has large quantities of both. This 80000
demand has seen a huge increase 75000
70000
in the value of coal and iron ore. 65000
60000
Australia’s vast
55000
50000
45000
mineral wealth 40000

35000
30000
Australia is one of the world’s 25000
biggest suppliers of many metals 20000
15000
and minerals used around the 10000
world. For example, Australia has 5000
0
the largest reserves of lead, nickel,
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
silver, uranium, zinc and zircon Year

on Earth. Source 1 Growth in Australia’s mineral exports, 1970–2011
04_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_UB1_SI.indd 154 21/10/2016 12:16 pm

WORLD: VALUE OF AUSTRALIAN MINERAL: EXPORTS, 2010
AR C T I C O C E AN
UNITED OTHER
KINGDOM EUROPE
$5515 $4704
SOUTH
CHINA KOREA JAPAN
$37 733 $13 330 $31 172 AT L A N T I C
PAC I F I C O C E AN
INDIA OTHER TAIWAN OCEAN

$14 904 ASIA $5066 LEGEND
$10 363 Value of Australia’s NORTH AND SOUTH
mineral exports AMERICA
($ million)
$3669
40 000
AFRICA
$567 S I A
ATL A N TIC A
OCEAN 30 000
AUSTRALIA
20 000
10 000
OCEANIA 5000
$1471 2000
500

1 Why are coal and iron ore in such demand in China and India? What
are they used for?
2 How have changes taking place in India and China resulted in
changes in Australia?
Apply and analyse

Source 3 A gold mine near Kalgoorlie (now 3 Use the key concept of interconnection to explain Australia’s mining
known as Kalgoorlie–Boulder) in Western Australia boom.
4 Using Source 1, describe the growth in mineral exports since 1970.
5 Examine Source 2 showing the destinations of Australia’s mineral
exports.
a To which region do most Australian minerals go?
b What is the current value of Australian mineral exports to India?
How and why might this value change over the next 10 to 20
years?
c Why do you think Japan imports so many of Australia’s minerals?
Evaluate and create

Source 4 BHP Billiton is Australia’s biggest
privately owned business and the world’s largest 6 Which individuals and companies benefit most from the mining
mining company. It operates mines in 25 countries boom?
and employs around 41 000 people. This ship 7 Conduct research to discover how the mining boom might result in
is being loaded with iron ore at the BHP Billiton
facility in Port Hedland, Western Australia. inequalities in wealth between different groups in Australian society.

4.11 Multinational companies
70.00
As you have learnt, one of the most common factors 65.00
60.40
linking us around the world to people in different 60.00
Labour cost per hour (2011) $US

55.00
places is the movement of goods and services. In
50.00 47.38 46.29
the last few decades, many large businesses based
45.00
in wealthy developed countries have chosen to 40.00
35.71 35.53
manufacture their goods in poorer developing 35.00
countries. Because these businesses operate in more 30.00

25.00
than one country, they are called multinational 22.60
20.00 18.91
companies (MNCs). Some of the largest, most 15.00
11.65
profitable and most recognisable brands in the world 10.00 9.34
6.48
are produced by MNCs. These include Coca-Cola, 5.00
2.01 1.36 1.17
0.00
Apple, IBM, McDonalds, Louis Vuitton, Adidas
United States
China (2008)
South Korea
India (2007)
Switzerland
Philippines
Singapore
Germany
Australia
Mexico
Taiwan
Japan
Brazil
and Nike.
MNCs choose to base their manufacturing in
developing countries for a variety of reasons, but Country
the main one is cost. Labour costs are much lower Source 1 Hourly rates of pay (including all benefits)
in many of these countries (see Source 1) and this for manufacturing workers in different countries
allows MNCs to spend less on manufacturing and
Source 2 Estimate of iPhone market share by country
thereby increase their profit. as at June 2009
Rank Country Estimated number
Case study: Apple – a global of iPhones sold
1 United States 13 250 216
giant 2 Germany 1 937 824
Apple is one of the world’s largest and most profitable 3 France 1 793 753
multinational companies in the world today with 4 United Kingdom 1 682 491
annual revenues of over US$150 billion. The company 5 Canada 805 594
began in 1976 and at the time proudly boasted that
6 Australia 762 161
all of its computers were made in the United States.
7 Japan 525 658
Now virtually all of the 159 million products it sells
8 Italy 490 451
every year are made outside the United States, mostly
in China. While the cost of labour was a major factor 9 Switzerland 334 649
in moving to China, other considerations were also 10 Russia 326 458
important. Other 4 490 745
Virtually all of the components used in Apple Total 26 400 000
products, such as glass screens and computer chips,
are also made in China so it made sense to locate
the assembly plant in the same place. Apple also
found that Chinese plant owners and workers were
much more flexible and willing to change than their
American counterparts.
This is very important in a rapidly changing
business such as electronics. The end result is that
Apple can make an iPhone in China for about $8
in labour costs. The same phone would have labour
costs of $73 in the United States.
Source 3 Thousands of Chinese job-seekers queue
outside the Apple manufacturing plant in Shenzhen city,
keen to become part of the global giant.

WORLD: GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
ARCTIC OCEAN
Russia
United
Kingdom Germany
Canada
France Switzerland
United States
Italy Japan ATLANTIC
OCEAN
PACIFIC OCEAN
INDIAN
OCEAN
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Australia
LEGEND
Number of iPhones Gross Domestic Product per capita (US$)
13 000 000 Over 25 000 1000 to 2000
10 000 to 25 000 Under 1000
2 000 000
500 000 5000 to 10 000 No data available 0 2500 5000 km
2000 to 5000 Country border

Remember and understand a In which Chinese city are iPhones made?
1 What is a multinational company? b Where are iPhones sold?
2 Explain why Apple is described as a multinational c What is the relationship between wealth
company. (measured as Gross Domestic Product) and the
purchase of iPhones?
Apply and analyse 7 Compare the Gross Domestic Product of the USA
3 According to Source 1, which two countries pay and China.
workers the highest hourly wages? Which two
Evaluate and create
countries pay the lowest? Why do you think this
might be the case? Complete some further research to do the following
activity.
4 Why did Apple decide to move its manufacture of
iPhones from the USA to China? Use evidence from 8 With a partner, discuss who benefits from the
Source 1 to support your answer. business activities of MNCs in different countries
around the world. Consider consumers and the
5 Examine Source 2. What does this photograph tell
labour force in your discussion. Collate your ideas
you about the supply of labour in China?
and report back to the class.
6 Examine Sources 2, 3 and 4 and answer these
questions.

4.12 Global connections
inside your laptop
Hidden inside many of the items that you use every day
are bits and pieces from all around the world. A modern
laptop computer, for example, contains materials and
components from at least 20 different countries located
on every continent except Antarctica. A complex
series of networks and supply chains produce these
components, transport them, process and assemble
them, then package and deliver the finished laptop to a
store near you.
Sources 2 and 3 show the locations of a range of
materials used inside every laptop computer. The actual
origin of each piece inside a computer is difficult to
determine as manufacturers constantly change the
source of their raw materials. This can cause problems
for communities who rely on supplying these materials Source 1 Virtually all of the world’s laptops are assembled
to provide employment and income. in Chinese factories owned by Taiwanese companies. In 2015,
286 million laptops were made in China.
WORLD: SOURCE COUNTRIES OF MATERIALS USED IN LAPTOPS
Russia
Canada
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan United States
Tajikistan South Korea of America
China Japan
Mexico
Guinea
Colombia
Democratic
Republic Indonesia
Brazil
of Congo Peru
Zimbabwe
Australia
South Africa Chile
Argentina
LEGEND
North Country
Africa Europe America border
Asia Oceania South 0 2000 4000 km
America

Source 3 Materials used in laptop construction

and their country of origin
The little pieces of Australia in
Country of Materials supplied for every laptop
origin laptop construction
Australia is one of the most mineral-rich countries in the world.
Canada Europium, aluminium
All laptop computers, for example, contain zinc, lead, gold and
United States Beryllium, palladium, titanium, and Australia is among the world leaders in the mining
phosphorus, silicon, copper,
of all of these minerals. The rocks near the town of Mt Isa, for
europium, boron
example, contain some of the richest deposits of lead and zinc
Mexico Bismuth, silver
found on Earth. Settled in the 1920s, the town is now home to over
Peru Indium, silver 22 000 people – virtually all of whom rely on the town’s mines for
Chile Copper, arsenic their employment and income.
Brazil Silicon, tantalum, niobium, Lead is mined and processed near the town. Lead ore is crushed
aluminium and heated until it becomes a liquid so impurities can be removed
Argentina Lithium in a process known as smelting. This process releases harmful
Colombia Platinum, Guinea gallium gases and lead particles into the air. Recently some concerns have
been raised that this is creating health risks for Mt Isa residents,
Democratic Cobalt, tin, tantalum, titanium,
Republic of the gold
particularly children. A study in 2008 found that 11 per cent of
Congo children tested had higher than normal lead levels in their blood.
Zimbabwe Lithium
South Africa Chromium, gold, manganese,
cadmium, platinum
Australia Titanium, lead, nickel
Russia Ruthenium, ferrite, steel
Kazakhstan Vanadium
Kyrgyzstan Mercury
Tajikistan Antimony
Indonesia Tin
South Korea Glass, cadmium
Japan Selenium, steel
China Germanium, terbium,
magnesium, rhodium, yttrium,
Source 4 This lead mine at Mt Isa in north-west Queensland is one of the
plastics
most productive in the world.

Remember and understand taken by each material listed using the shortest
1 Describe the interconnection between people in sea route to southern China. Estimate the total
distance travelled by these materials.
Mt Isa and the factory workers shown in Source 1.
4 Why do you think most laptops are assembled in
2 Why are some people concerned about lead mining
China?
and smelting in Mt Isa?

5 Brainstorm the impacts of the laptop production
3 Examine Source 3.
process on people and the environment. Try to think
a What is Australia’s role in the production of laptop
of both positive and negative impacts.
computers?
6 Research the mining of cobalt in the Democratic
b Most laptops are assembled in China. Imagine
that each material used in the computer reaches Republic of the Congo and write a short report on
China by ship. On a world map sketch the route it including any impacts it has on people and the
environment.

4.13 Connecting through food
Many countries around the world, WORLD: GRAIN IMPORTS AND EXPORTS
including Australia, produce more
food than they consume. As a result, Russia
some of that food is exported to Europe
other countries. 6.6

24.8 million
14.8
We can get an idea of the global 27.6 metric tonnes
imported
connections made through food by North
26.4
America
2.9
looking at one type of basic food 5.4 East Asia 130.2
exported
product and its movement around 1
32.6
47.2 4.8
7.5
the world. Source 1 shows worldwide 29.5 Middle
East
0.1 Caribbean
North 7.9 Southeast Central 4.9
grain imports and exports over a Africa South 14.8 Asia America
Asia
year. Not all grain that is produced 2.6
by countries is traded, in fact only 19.6 20.3 1.1 23.9
Sub-Saharan 10.2
a small proportion of the grain is. Africa Oceania
Only about 18 per cent of world 41.5 South
LEGEND America
wheat production and 10 per cent of Grain exported
maize production is traded globally. Grain imported
0 2000 4000 km (millions of metric tonnes)
Advantages and Source 1 Source: Oxford University Press

disadvantages for
Australia’s food keyconcept: Interconnection
producers Live animal exports
Over the last few decades, governments around the Most Australian meat that is exported to countries
world have begun to reduce trade barriers between overseas comes from sheep and cattle that are
countries and this has resulted in some advantages and killed in Australian abattoirs. Before export, the meat
some disadvantages for Australia’s food producers and is processed, frozen and carried in refrigerated
consumers. For example, consumers now have access to containers to ports around the world. Some sheep
a wider range of foods from around the world. This has and cattle, however, are transported on special ships
created business opportunities for food suppliers such as while they are still alive and are killed and processed
grocers and restaurants, as well as increased choice for in other countries. This type of animal export earns
consumers. On the other hand, Australian farmers now about $1 billion a year for Australia and employs
have to compete with other countries who may be able
about 10 000 people in rural and regional areas.
to provide produce at cheaper prices.
Many Australians are opposed to live animal
Australian farmers have responded to these
exports as they believe it is cruel to the animals. This
challenges by producing food more efficiently, or
is because they feel the importing countries may have
by specialising in foods that are in high demand in
lower standards of animal welfare than in Australia.
other countries, such as organic foods. As a developed
From 2011, the Australian Government temporarily
country, Australia also has the advantage of using
innovations and new technologies in food production.
stopped the export of live cattle to a number of
Australia’s proximity to Asia, with its large and countries following concerns raised about the
increasingly wealthy markets, could also provide inhumane treatment of Australian cattle there.
Australian farmers with new export opportunities. For more information on the key concept of
interconnection, refer to page 9 of ‘The geography
toolkit’.

skilldrill
Constructing a flow map Apply the skill

Geographers use flow maps to describe the 1 Complete a flow map showing the destinations of
connection between events and show how things Australia’s live sheep exports. Use the figures in
move between different places. Source 3 on page 153 Source 2 and an outline map of the world as your
is an example of a flow map. base map.
A flow map is a particularly useful tool for displaying
Source 2 The top five destinations of live Australian sheep
information about the movement of goods and exported in 2010.
services between places. Follow these steps to
Destination country Live sheep exports from
construct a flow map.
Australia
Step 1 Locate an outline map that displays all of the Kuwait 578 000
countries represented in your data, including the United Arab Emirates 454 233
country of origin. Qatar 239 414
Step 2 Develop a scale to be included in the legend Jordan 154 500
for the arrows you will put on your map. The size or Oman 79 804
amounts of the flows between the country of origin
and the destinations are shown by the different
widths of the arrows. The smaller the amount
shown on the scale is, the narrower the arrow is;
the larger the amount, the fatter the arrow.
Step 3 Join the country of origin with each destination
using an arrow of the correct width according to
the scale you have drawn. Plot these out in pencil
first – you may need to try a few different designs to
make all of the arrows fit neatly.
Step 4 Shade each destination and label each with its
name and the relevant data.
Step 5 Finish your flow map with BOLTSS.
Source 3 A ship is loaded with Australian sheep in
Adelaide bound for the Middle East.

Remember and understand e In small groups, discuss the possible reasons
1 Why does Australia export food to other countries? for the distribution you have noted. Consider a
range of factors by using the SHEEPT (social,
2 Why do some governments make it difficult to import
historic, economic, environmental, political and
food into their country?
technological) method in your discussion. For
Apply and analyse more information on SHEEPT, refer to page 26
of ‘The geography toolkit’.
3 Examine Source 1.
a Is Oceania a net exporter or importer of grain? Evaluate and create
b Which region is the largest exporter of grain and 4 Research the live animal trade further and list the
which is the largest importer? arguments for and against this trade. Identify groups
c Examine your completed flow map. who support the trade and those who oppose it.
d Describe the distribution of the countries that What is your opinion, and what information did you
import live sheep from Australia. base it on?

4.14 Connecting through sport
Many aspects of our daily lives are now influenced however, is the media and the global reach of sporting
by globalisation. For example, the way in which we events that are broadcast live. Many companies, such
play, watch and connect through different sports as clothing and electronics manufacturers, have seized
and sporting codes has changed dramatically over these new opportunities to advertise their goods to a
recent years. In the last few decades, elite sportsmen global audience.
and women have become global superstars, instantly Put simply, sport is big business. It is predicted that
recognisable around the world. The athletes, the sports by 2015, sport will generate $US 145 billion in revenue
they play, the teams they play for and the clothes and annually. While $US 44 billion of this will come from
equipment they use have become commodities to be tickets sold to sports fans, the rest will come from media
bought and sold by the highest bidder. companies that buy the rights to broadcast events
There are many factors driving the globalisation of and companies that sponsor events or promote their
sport, most of them connected to money. These include products through sport.
higher salaries for athletes and increased spending on
leisure and entertainment. Perhaps the biggest driver,
Sport’s ‘golden triangle’

The close links between sport, business
and the media are sometimes called the
‘golden triangle’ as each uses the other
to advance their aims.
Business
Companies marketing
their goods through sport
Advertise products to a Provide sponsorship money

massive audience, often Increased visibility
in hard to reach places of products
Buy advertising time
during sports broadcasts
Use money to produce a

better product for broadcast
Provide money in the form
of broadcasting rights
The media Sports

Media companies Sporting organisations
broadcasting sport providing sponsorship deals
and advertisements
Source 1 The relationship between sport, business and the media is often referred to as the ‘golden triangle’.

Case study:
Serena Williams – Wilson
a global brand
Like many sports stars, tennis player
Serena Williams links together people and
places all around the world. She has won OPI
tournaments in Britain, France, the United
States, Australia, Japan, Switzerland, Qatar,
Italy, Canada, South Korea, Germany and
Luxembourg. She once travelled 77 000
kilometres in a two-month period to reach
all of her tournaments in time. Nike
Williams has been one of the highest
paid female athletes in the world for
a number of years. This is due to her
continued success on the tennis court,
along with the $US20 million she Berlei
receives in endorsements from a range of
companies around the world.
She has her own website and there are
many fan websites dedicated to her as
well. Serena Williams’ fans all around the Gatorade
world can connect to her wherever she is
by watching her play when her games are • Nearly 8 million Facebook likes
broadcast, following her on Twitter and • 6.37 million Twitter followers
Facebook, and buying the products she
endorses. Source 2 Serena Williams' many product endorsement deals and brand
ambassadorships illustrate how people and places can be interconnected
globally through sport.

Remember and understand c What does this tell you about the globalisation of
1 Explain how athletes and sportswear companies sport?
are linked. 4 Examine Source 1. Explain how these photographs
2 Explain the links between media companies and show how the golden triangle of sport works.
sporting organisations. Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse 5 Create a map of the world that shows the ways in
3 Conduct a quick survey in which you ask 10 people which Serena Williams links different places together.
to name one golfer, one basketball player, one 6 Use the principles outlined in the golden triangle of
tennis player, one soccer player and one racing sport to discuss why male athletes are usually paid
driver. Combine your results with those of your more than female athletes.
classmates. 7 Who are the potential winners and losers from
a What percentage of the athletes named are sport’s golden triangle?
Australian?
b What countries were well represented in the
answers?
04_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_UB1_SI.indd 163 5/05/2017 1:31 PM

4C rich task
The geography
of you
You are a global citizen, and the things you
use and consume come from different places
all over the world. The decisions you make
about the things you buy link you to people
and places both near and far. This connection
means that your decisions can impact on
these people and places in both positive and
negative ways. This broadsheet contains a
series of activities that will make you more
aware of the ways in which you are connected
to producers of products and services from
all around the world – and how they are
connected to you.
skilldrill
Collecting, recording and representing

primary data
During any geographical inquiry, geographers will ask
questions, collect a range of data and information,
record their findings and represent them so they can
be interpreted more easily. By following a process of
geographical inquiry like this, geographers can be sure
that the conclusions they reach will be accurate, useful
and reliable.
Geographers often collect their own data by
interviewing people, carrying out research, conducting
surveys, taking photographs, or drawing field sketches.
This kind of information is known as primary data. They
record this primary data carefully before representing it in
different ways (e.g. as diagrams, tables, charts, graphs,
maps or a combination of these).
Collecting, recording and representing your own
primary data is a great way to practise your skills as a
geographer. Follow these steps to collect, record and
represent a range of primary data about the clothes you
wear, the stuff you own and the ways you connect to Source 1 Do you know where the things you use and wear
other people – in other words, the geography of you! come from?

Step 1 Construct a key inquiry question to begin your Collect the countries of origin for any of the 10 items you
investigation, for example, ‘Where do my clothes come have researched, record the data and represent it in a
from?’. Select 20 different clothing items from your suitable format of your choice.
wardrobe and record where each item was made. 3 Exploring your communication links
Try to select a range of clothing made from a variety Monitor your Internet and smartphone use for a week,
of fabrics. The tags on your clothing will often include recording the names and locations of people you
some information about where the item was made. communicate with via email, SMS, Facebook, Twitter,
Step 2 Collect and record the information for your inquiry Instagram and online games. Enter the results into a table
by creating a table or spreadsheet and entering your or spreadsheet.
results into it.
Step 3 Choose the best way to represent your findings.
Choose a format that clearly communicates the
information. You may choose to represent this data
as a table, a graph (e.g. pie chart, bar graph or
line graph), an infographic or a map (e.g. a spatial
distribution map or a choropleth map) – or even a
combination of these things.
Apply the skill

Complete one or more of the following tasks to better
understand the effects of your purchasing habits and
Internet use and how your choices connect you to the rest
of the world:
1 Exploring the origin of your clothing
Follow the steps outlined above to explore the origin of
10 items of your clothing. Collect the countries of origin
for the 10 items you have researched, record the data and
represent it in a suitable format of your choice.
2 Exploring the origin of your stuff
Select 10 items you use every day such as a pen, a
computer and a DVD and examine them carefully to see
if they contain some information about where they were
made. You could also try an Internet search engine to
research each item further but you may need the name Source 2 A worker shows a label on a piece of newly made
of the manufacturer and a model name or number. clothing at the Bantai textile factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

1 Conduct your own research into the Rana Plaza 2 Examine your wardrobe and make a list of the brands
disaster and how it brought worldwide attention to that you usually wear. Research whether or not these
the issue of sweatshop conditions in Bangladesh. brands use factories in Bangladesh. Create a table to
Investigate the conditions faced by workers in the record your results.
sweatshops, and find out what is being done to 3 Do you think your purchasing choices have a
address the problems with safety and working direct impact on the people who work in factory
conditions. Write a half-page report outlining what sweatshops? List your thoughts, discuss them with
you find. a partner and report back to the class.

Geographies of
interconnection
The effects
of global
connections
The increased movement of goods, services, people
and ideas across the world has the potential to improve
the lives of millions of people and bring cultures closer
together. It also has the potential to degrade natural
environments and to deepen the divide between the
wealthy and the poor.
These men are employed as ship breakers at the
Chittagong ship-breaking yard in Bangladesh. They pull
apart old container ships and oil tankers by hand so the
steel can be recycled and reused. Many of the ships
are owned by the wealthiest multinational companies
in the world. It is dirty and dangerous work and there
are virtually no health and safety regulations to protect
workers. A ship-breaker here can earn about $1.50 a day.
Ships arrive in the South Asian breaking yards at the rate
of about one a day.
5A
How does global trade affect
5B
How does global tourism affect
people? people and places?
1 There are about 100 000 people in Asia employed as 1 Tourism is one of the world’s largest industries. What
ship breakers. In what ways do these workers benefit areas
from their employment? of Australia and the world are most visited by
2 Brainstorm the threats to health and safety for the tourists?
workers at the Chittagong ship-breaking yard. 2 In what ways does tourism change the natural
environment in these places?

chapter
Source 1 Bangladeshi ship-breakers at the Chittagong ship-breaking yard pull apart

old container ships and oil tankers by hand so the steel can be recycled.
5
chapter 5 the effects of global connections 167

5.1 An interconnected world
As you have learnt, we live in an increasingly
interconnected world. Ideas, people, goods and
services move more quickly, more often and in
larger quantities than ever before.
Benefits and drawbacks

of globalisation
As with all changes, there are winners and
losers. Consumers are obvious winners. We now
have access to goods produced all around the
world. Our homes are filled with goods made
by people we will never meet in places we may
never visit. We now have access to the skills,
expertise and labour of billions of people to
supply our needs and wants. Some companies,
industries and countries are also winners.
China, for example, has become increasingly
wealthy and powerful by making and supplying
goods and services for the global marketplace.
Many people believe that having better trade
between nations also spreads the world’s wealth.
Despite the many winners, there are also
clear losers. Workers in developing countries
are sometimes exploited for their cheap labour Source 1 Sharing culture, food and language are just some ways
and are paid much less than those in the global trade has influenced the experiences of people around the world.
wealthier countries who are buying the goods
they produce. Their working conditions are
often much worse as well.
Globalisation can also lead to the loss of
traditional skills and customs. Additionally,
small local businesses can find it difficult to
compete with large multinational companies.
The closure of these businesses can lead to job
losses for local workers and negative effects for
societies and communities.
The environment is also often a loser
when it comes to globalisation. As more and
more raw materials such as timber, land and
minerals are used to feed the world’s factories,
natural environments are changed forever (see
Source 3). The need to transport these goods
to countries all around the world also adds to
major environmental problems such as air and
Source 2 Cartoonists often portray a complex issue using a simple
water pollution, deforestation and climate image, employing the device of humour to do so.
change.

5A How does global trade affect people?
Source 3 Steven, a Mooi child, squats in front of what used to

be the forest that supported his community. The Mooi are one
of the Indigenous people who live off the forests of West Papua. Check your learning 5.1
Their ancestral lands are being devastated by logging and taken
away for palm oil plantations. Palm oil is used in many processed
foods in Australia.
1 How has Australia’s place in the global
marketplace changed over the last 50 to 60 years?
From ‘riding on the sheep’s back’ 2 What Australian products make it important in the
to ‘riding on the dragon’s tail’ global marketplace?
Australia today is part of the global marketplace. Apply and analyse

Billions of dollars’ worth of goods and services are 3 Examine Source 1. Can you imagine how
traded between Australia and the rest of the world every you might feel if you went to a McDonalds or
year. For much of the last century, most of Australia’s other fast-food store in another country? What
exports came from the farming sector and our major similarities and differences might you find?
trading partner was the United Kingdom. Products such
4 Examine Source 3.
as wool, butter and meat were shipped around the world
a Do you think the child shown in this picture has
and sold to British consumers. Australia was known as
benefited from global trade in any way?
‘Britain’s farm’, and because our prosperity largely came
from the sale of wool, Australia was said to be ‘riding on b What possible local benefits could there be
the sheep’s back’. from the logging that takes place in this area?
This century has seen dramatic changes in our main 5 Examine Source 2. What point is the cartoonist
exports and trading markets. Less than 10 per cent of making about the relationship between China and
our total exports now come from the farming sector Australia?
and the United Kingdom is only our fifth biggest
Evaluate and create
trading partner. Over half of our total exports now
come from the mining sector (mainly iron ore, coal 6 Design a political cartoon based on the phrase
and gold) and our two biggest trading partners are ‘riding on the sheep’s back’ or ‘riding on the
China and Japan. China is by far our leading supplier of dragon’s tail’. Before you begin, think about the
imported goods (A$41 billion a year) and buyer of our message you want to convey about this phrase.
exports (A$64 billion a year). This change has led many 7 What benefits do you experience from the global
observers to remark that Australia is no longer riding increase in trade links between people and places?
on the sheep’s back – instead we are riding on the In what ways are you worse off because of these
dragon’s tail. links? Are you a globalisation winner or loser?

5.2 Benefits of global trade
for people
Benefits for individuals
Global trade means that you are now linked to
manufacturers all over the world. This means that you
can buy a wider range of products at cheaper prices
than ever before. You are not restricted to paying for
services or buying goods made in your local area, or
even in your own country. Because of an intricate web
of connections involving people from many countries,
you now have access to the global marketplace.
Online trade is spreading fast. As just one example,
Australians have embraced online shopping for clothes
at a remarkable rate. A single company, the British Source 2 Nike employs more than one million people in 777
factories in 43 countries, including China. It began as a single
fashion site ASOS, racks up a purchase from Australia factory in the United States but now only 1 per cent of its
every six seconds, and is flying four jumbo jets of workers are employed in that country.
clothing into Australia every single week.
Not only do the buyers of goods and services benefit
from global trade – there are also enormous benefits
Benefits for businesses
for the people that supply them. Employment and Businesses are now linked to buyers from around
wealth has been created for hundreds of millions of the world. This means they may be able to sell more
people. This has improved living standards and life products to more people. They may also be able to
expectancies in many places and helped to pull people access cheaper raw materials such as coal, iron and
out of poverty. It is estimated, for example, that there cotton from other places. These interconnections
are 600 million fewer people living in poverty in China allow them to keep their costs down and sales up
today than was the case 30 years ago. This is largely which creates higher profits.
because China has been transformed from an economy As well as accessing cheaper materials from other
based on farming, supplying itself, to one based on countries, many companies have moved much of their
manufacturing, supplying the world. manufacturing base to other countries. This is often
done to take advantage of lower labour costs in these
countries. Many products in Australian stores carrying
the labels of Australian companies, for example, are
made in places such as Vietnam, China, Bangladesh
and Fiji.
Benefits of global trade

for nations
Most nations around the world have welcomed the
opportunities that closer links between nations have
brought. Many have found that the benefits are greater
if they specialise in a particular product or service.
This is known as comparative advantage.
Source 1 Australian shoppers have access to goods from
all over the world.

If, for example, you can

buy cheap cars from other
places then you don’t have
to make your own. You can
focus on producing another
product such as clothing or
electronics. If you are able to
make these better or cheaper
than any other country then
you will capture the market.
There is also movement
of money, ideas, knowledge
and technology between
countries. Ideas and advances
in medicine, education
and business can move
quickly around the world.
This can help to remove
cultural barriers that often
Source 3 The Indian film industry, part of which is known as Bollywood, is the largest in
exist between countries, the world. India has a comparative advantage in film-making based on its large population,
including language and technical knowledge and fine weather.
religious differences. Sharing
knowledge and ideas in this way also helps us move from employment in the industry. Businesses reap the
towards what is known as the ‘global village’. rewards on both small and large scales. Supporting
Some aspects of globalisation benefit people, businesses (catering or lighting businesses, for example)
businesses and entire nations. Bollywood, the Hindi- enjoy employment and, on a wider scale, the film
language part of the Indian film industry, is an example industry at large benefits from the continued success
of this. The volume of movies produced means that of Bollywood films. The nation benefits, too, in many
individual actors (both Indian and international), ways, just one of which is the increased awareness of
dancers, musicians, and other film professionals benefit Indian culture on a global level.

1 What are some of the ways in which you benefit 7 Many businesses that use cheaper labour in
from global trade? developing countries are often reluctant to reveal this.
2 In what ways does the increasing globalisation of a Explain why you think this is the case.
trade benefit other people? b Nike is a notable exception to this trend. Explore
the interactive map at http://manufacturingmap.
Apply and analyse nikeinc.com/ to find out where Nike products are
3 Explain how global trade can help to reduce poverty. made. Which country has the largest number of
4 What is comparative advantage? In which goods or Nike employees, which has the most Nike factories
services do you think Australia has a comparative and how many Australians are employed in Nike
advantage? factories?
5 How does the Indian film industry help to break 8 Draw a diagram or find an image that sums up
down cultural barriers? the concept of a global village to be displayed on
6 In what ways has the Chinese economy transformed your classroom wall. Examine the range of images
over the last 40 years? submitted by your class and discuss the different
ways you and your classmates have chosen to
represent the idea.

5.3 Benefits of global trade
for people in Australia
Australia is an active participant in the movement of countries improve the level of skills in those countries
goods and services around the world. We are the 55th and often help to improve levels of wellbeing.
largest country in terms of our population but the 23rd
biggest exporter and the 21st biggest importer. Each
year, around $500 billion worth of goods and services
Benefits for Australian businesses
move between Australia and other countries. This trade Many Australian businesses have been able to take
brings many benefits to Australian individuals and advantage of the increasing trade connections between
businesses and to the country as a whole. people and places to become major players on the world
stage. This includes Australian mining companies that
Benefits for individuals have dominated world trade in minerals, such as iron
ore, coal and gold, as well as smaller companies that
Millions of Australians are employed in industries that have developed uniquely designed products. Australian
export goods and services. These include agriculture, surf-wear brands are a good example of this.
mining and tourism. Many others work in industries
such as retail and manufacturing that rely on
imported goods and services. This trade creates wealth
Case study: Crumpler
and prosperity for these people and for the nation The Australian brand Crumpler, most famous as the
as a whole. designer and supplier of distinctive messenger bags, is
Australia’s largest service export is education. There an example of an Australian business that has benefited
are more than 400 000 citizens of other countries from the interconnections of global trade. The Crumpler
enrolled in Australian universities and other education business had humble beginnings in a shed in Ballarat,
providers. This generates more than $16 billion of export outside Melbourne, where the first prototype bag was
earnings for Australia every year. As well as the financial made by Stewart Crumpler himself. From there, the
benefits, Australia also receives other benefits. Many of company grew rapidly and achieved success and has sold
these students apply to stay in Australia when they have millions of products all over the world, reaching a wide
finished their education and this leads to an increased global marketplace.
number of people in many occupations, including Crumpler has stores across Australia and all over the
medicine and education. Those that return to their home world, including in Japan, the United States, Canada, the
Source 1 These overseas students are studying at the Source 2 Crumpler is an example of an Australian company
University of Sydney. Chinese students are the largest group of that has achieved global success.
overseas graduates there followed by those from India, South
Korea, Malaysia and Brazil.

Philippines, Singapore and China. The head office is in From an economic perspective, a successful
Berlin, Germany. A key factor of the brand’s success has multicultural society makes Australia an attractive
been the high level of international sales, with stores destination for tourism, education and business.
supported by online sales and distributors in many other
countries as well.
Crumpler has 1500 Twitter followers and almost
10 000 likes on Facebook, extending its global reach
and consolidating its urban ‘street’ image.
Benefits of global trade for

the Australian nation
It is difficult to work out exactly how much individual
countries benefit from increasing trade links. Most
researchers, however, agree that Australia has gained
much from our greater interconnections since the 1970s.
From this time we began to expand our range of trading
partners from traditional markets such as the United
Kingdom and New Zealand to markets throughout the
world, particularly in Asia. Australian governments
continue to try and reduce barriers to trade around the Source 3 There are many benefits that come with the
world and have done so for decades. interconnection that accompanies global trade. Learning about
other cultures and food traditions are just a couple of them.
About one in every seven Australian workers is now
employed in the production of exports. The figures are
particularly high for those in mining (seven in every Check your learning 5.3
10), farming (four in every 10) and manufacturing metal
products (three in every 10). This brings extra revenue to Remember and understand
the whole country through taxes and levies on workers
1 In what ways can Chinese citizens studying in
and companies and has the potential to improve the
Australia bring benefits to both countries?
wellbeing of many Australians. This has been particularly
significant for many Indigenous Australians who have 2 How did Australia’s global trade connections
traditionally worked in agriculture. Many have also change during the 1970s?
found employment in the booming mining sector.
Apply and analyse
Multiculturalism 3 Australia has a comparative advantage in providing
a university education when compared to many
The interconnections that come with global trade
other countries. Work with a partner to brainstorm
can bring many benefits apart from financial ones. As
the reasons for this and then discuss this with your
people move to or communicate with those from other
class.
places, there is a natural sharing that occurs. This can
4 Read the case study about Crumpler.
enrich the cultural landscape, as aspects of life such as
language, religious tradition, art and food are shared and a Use the key concept of interconnection to
integrated with or added to the existing culture. explain the business operations of Crumpler.
Sharing a different range of experiences and learning b List five ways that Crumpler benefits from being
about different ways of doing things can have many interconnected with places all around the world.
positive results. Multiculturalism can broaden our outlook, 5 Examine Source 3.
lead us to interests or hobbies we wouldn’t have otherwise a Can you think of other examples of the positive
heard about, or create opportunities to do further study effects of multiculturalism apart from the ones
or travel. This kind of sharing can do more than just shown?
provide an interesting experience – it also has the benefit b Have you ever had an exchange student from
of promoting mutual understanding and accepting others’ another country visit your school? If so, what
differences (see Source 3). This in turn may lead to a did you learn about their country?
more harmonious society that is accepting of diversity.

5.4 Benefits of global trade for
people in the Asia–Pacific region
Trade in the Asia–Pacific region is 28 000
thriving, and interconnection with other 25 000

countries through trade has brought
many benefits to the region. The boom
GDP per person $US

20 000
in the demand for information and

communications technology equipment 15 000
in particular (such as smartphones, tablets

10 000
and computers) has accounted for much
growth, while places such as Indonesia
5000
and Vietnam have driven exports of
manufactured goods such as clothes 0
and shoes. Machinery and transport are 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
strong growth areas, and industries such 0403_22167

Year
as shipbuilding are expected to provide 90
continued benefits to some Asia–Pacific 85

Life expectancy (years) South Korea
economies, such as South Korea. Benefits 80
that accompany global trade activity 75
include a buoyant economy, higher 70
employment levels, a higher standard of 65
living, better access to health care and 60
increased life expectancy. 55
50
Case study: South Korea 45
40
South Korea is an example of a nation
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
that has embraced global trade and Year
the benefits that it can bring. It has
Source 1 The increase in the average life expectancy of South Koreans
transformed itself from a poor nation presents an interesting picture when compared to the Gross Domestic Product
with a large rural peasant population (GDP). These graphs, which show the data for the country from 1960, could be
50 years ago to a modern, urbanised used as secondary sources for a geographical inquiry.
society with one of the highest levels of
wellbeing in the world. Along with Hong
Kong, Taiwan and Singapore it is known
as an ‘Asian Economic Tiger’. These four
countries are now seen as a role model
for other expanding economies including
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
and Thailand (known as the Tiger Cub
Economies).
In 1960, South Korea was considered
one of the world’s poorest nations. It is
now Asia’s fourth largest economy and Source 2 Samsung is one example of a South Korean company that
the world’s 15th largest. South Koreans has achieved massive global success. Samsung Electronics is the largest
enjoy an average wealth greater than the company in South Korea and the world’s largest producer of smartphones,
computer chips and televisions.

average European citizen, as measured by the

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per person.
Since 1960, the average life expectancy in
South Korea has increased from 54 years to
81 years.
This amazing transformation is due
largely to the country’s growing importance
as a trading nation. It has chosen to
concentrate on industries such as electronics
and motor vehicles that require a large,
highly skilled labour force. The nation
invests heavily in educating young people
and providing them with the skills they
need in these industries. As a result, South
Korea is now the world’s sixth largest
exporter of cars and the fourth largest
manufacturer of electronic goods.
The Korean Wave

Riding the crest of increased prosperity
and electronic communication via the
Internet, South Korean culture is spreading Source 3 Korean pop, known as K-Pop, is growing in popularity.
around the world. The push to promote The musical sensation Psy had a massive worldwide hit in 2012.
local culture actually began in the 1990s, His single Gangnam Style topped the music charts in more than
30 countries around the world, including Australia.
when the South Korean government became
concerned that cultural traditions were
in danger of being over-run by influences
from China, Taiwan and Japan. They began
to encourage the growth of local cultural
expression in movies, television programs
and music. 1 What social and economic changes have occurred in South
Some of the nation’s largest businesses, Korea since 1960?
including LG, Hyundai and Samsung, were 2 What links do you have to South Korea?
encouraged to invest in these industries and 3 What are the ‘Asian Economic Tigers’?
continue to do so. Korean television dramas
have become the most watched programs Apply and analyse
throughout much of Asia, and Korean pop 4 Examine Source 1.
(K-Pop) bands have become hugely popular a Describe the change over time in life expectancy and GDP
throughout much of Eastern Europe and the per person in South Korea.
Middle East. In 2011, K-Pop YouTube clips b Explain the links between these two measures of South
were viewed 2.28 billion times, with Japan, Korean society.
United States and Thailand topping the list 5 What is K-Pop? Explain how it is an example of the growing
of most frequent viewers. interconnection of people around the world.
The South Korean government has
continued to encourage the spread of Evaluate and create
Korean culture (known as the Korean Wave) 6 Draw a flow map that shows the movement of goods and
as it is seen as a way of promoting South services between South Korea and other nations. Use arrows
Korean views and encouraging a positive to show the direction of these movements.
view of the country. This is regarded as 7 K-Pop is an example of the ways in which one country’s
important in continuing to build South culture can influence cultures in other places. Can you think of
Korea’s reputation as an important player on
other examples of this principle?
the global stage.

5.5 Drawbacks of global trade
for people
Global trade has the potential to bring benefits to The demand for cheap labour and high levels
people and to places. It is a leading contributor to of poverty means that child labour is used in some
reducing poverty and provides wealth and prosperity countries. There are estimated to be over 200 million
for countless people. However, these benefits often children working in the world. Most of these children
come at significant economic and social cost to other work on small family farms in developing countries
people in other countries. This takes place at individual, but around 160 000 of them work in manufacturing.
business and national levels. Countries with high levels of child labour tend to
share similar characteristics. These include:
Drawbacks for individuals • high fertility rates and a large percentage of the
population being under the age of 15
Many companies that are based in developed countries
• low rates of school attendance and low levels of
actually manufacture their goods in developing
literacy
countries. This is usually to take advantage of the
• low levels of technology in comparison to other
cheaper labour that is available in these developing
countries with whom they are competing
countries. While this provides jobs and income for
• a lack of government policies to deal with child
millions of people, manufacturing in developing
labour
countries does come at a cost. Workers are paid much
less than those who perform similar tasks in developed • large numbers of people living in poverty.
countries and they often work in appalling conditions.
Source 1 Workers in a clothing factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Drawbacks for businesses

The interconnections that link the consumer
to the person who made their product have, in
some cases, become so complex that businesses
lose control of the process. In Asian countries
such as India and Bangladesh, for example, it is
common practice for manufacturing plants to
‘outsource’ parts of their operations to smaller
factories. They, in turn, may also outsource
parts of the operations. The company
executives in an office on the other side of
the world then have little idea of the factories
they are actually using, or whether they are
involved in unsafe work practices. It also makes
it difficult to maintain quality controls on the Source 2 These protesters in South Korea are campaigning against a
products. Additionally, there may be a backlash G20 meeting of the leaders of the world’s wealthiest nations. Many people
from consumers in the developed world once are concerned that increasing global trade results in a widening gap
between rich and poor countries.
these practices become known to them.

Drawbacks for nations
Many critics of the growth in trade between countries Remember and understand
believe that it benefits the people and businesses of the 1 Why do many children in developing countries
developed world at the expense of those in developing work rather than go to school?
countries. These poorer countries are seen only as a 2 What is outsourcing? How can it negatively affect
source of cheap raw materials and labour. This, they people and businesses?
argue, tends to widen the gap in wellbeing between
3 Factories such as the one in Source 1 are often
wealthy and poor countries.
called ‘sweatshops’. Why do you think this is the
Another criticism of increased globalisation in case?
trade is that problems in one place can affect many
other places very quickly. In 2008, a dramatic fall in Apply and analyse
house prices in the United States triggered a global 4 Examine Source 1.
financial crisis and caused banks and investment a Estimate the number of workers in this room.
companies to collapse throughout the developed
b Estimate the percentage of women workers.
world. Many companies were forced to close and
c What are the roles of men in this factory?
spending on consumer goods fell dramatically.
What does this tell you about gender roles in
As developed countries reduced their consumer
this place?
spending, imports went down and hundreds of
thousands of people in developing countries were 5 Imagine that you work in the clothing factory in
also plunged into poverty. Source 1. Describe a day at work.
Financial problems are not the only things to Evaluate and create
spread quickly. Greater global trade may also result
6 Examine Source 2 showing a protest group
in the spread of infectious diseases between regions
in South Korea. Create a table listing both the
of the world as people travel more frequently for
benefits and the costs of global trade. Discuss
trade. In 2002–03, a respiratory disease, SARS, was
spread by tourists from its origins in China to many which groups in society are likely to be opposed to
other countries. By the time the epidemic finished, globalisation and which would support it.
it had killed more than 8000 people in 17 countries. 7 Research the global financial crisis (GFC) or the
Outbreaks of bird flu and other health concerns like SARS epidemic and construct a flow diagram
norovirus can also be spread quickly by people who showing its spread within and between countries.
are travelling around the world for business. How were global trade connections involved?

5.6 Drawbacks of global trade
for people in Asia
Asia is the world’s largest continent and home to three-
fifths of the world’s people. Its 48 countries contain a
Case study: clothing factories
wide diversity of cultures, languages and ways of life. in Bangladesh
In some Asian countries, most of the population live
The clothing industry is the largest in Bangladesh,
in small villages and depend on their food-growing
accounting for about 80 per cent of all exports. It
skills for their livelihood and to feed their families.
employs about 3.5 million people, most of them young
In other parts of Asia, more and more people are
women. Working conditions and wages vary
working in industries such as agriculture, tourism and
a great deal within the Bangladeshi clothing industry but
manufacturing. This growing involvement in industry
a worker can typically earn about $50 a month. Workers
has led to some alarming work practices. These include
officially usually work 10-hour days, but there are many
using child labour, unsafe working conditions and
reports of workers being locked into factories for much
working hours that include factory shifts of up to 19
longer hours, sometimes from 7.00 a.m. to well past
hours a day.
midnight, seven days a week.
Source 1 Rescue workers search for survivors in the rubble of the collapsed Rana Plaza building – Dhaka, in Bangladesh.

American clothing manufacturers began to outsource

to Bangladesh in much greater numbers in 2005,
following the end of an agreement that had kept a
percentage of clothing production in the United States.
In the rush, clothing factories were hastily installed
in Bangladesh. Building regulations were overlooked
and poorly controlled and factories were set up in
buildings unsuitable for thousands of workers and their
heavy machinery. Many lacked suitable fire exits and
ventilation, making conditions in them both dangerous
and uncomfortable. Hundreds of workers have died in
fires in these factories as a result.
Perhaps most disturbingly, a survey by engineers
found that three-fifths of the clothing factories
are vulnerable to collapse. In 2013, concrete pillars
supporting an eight-storey building on the outskirts of
Dhaka collapsed (see Source 1). The building was home
to five clothing factories and thousands of workers. More
Source 2 Twelve-year-old Reena works five hours a day,
than 1100 people were killed, making this one of the seven days a week to stitch together balls for Australian
world’s worst industrial accidents. The building’s owner children. She thinks she has fallen three years behind her
only had permission to construct a five-storey building classmates in her schoolwork as a result.
but illegally added three more floors to fit in more
workers. He also installed heavy generators to counter
the frequent disruptions to the electricity supply.
Case study: ball stitching in India 1 Why did the Rana Plaza building collapse?
Many Australian companies that supply the leather and 2 Calculate how much workers in Bangladeshi
synthetic balls you use for sport have their balls stitched clothing factories are paid a week. Compare this
in India. A newspaper investigation in 2012 found that to the minimum weekly wage in Australia which is
many of the balls are being stitched by children who $656.90. How does this help to explain why more
have been taken out of school by their parents to help clothes are made in Bangladesh than in Australia?
earn money to support the family (see Source 2).
Apply and analyse
While Australian companies use factories that have
signed agreements stating they will not use child labour, 3 Examine Source 2. Explain how Reena is linked to
the reality is that many of them do. During busy times, people in Australia. How has this interconnection
when the factories are overloaded with work, they impacted on her?
use other smaller companies to help meet the labour 4 Why do you think workers in developing countries
demand. These companies employ children, most of such as India and Bangladesh are more vulnerable
them young girls, to stitch the balls. to low wages and poor working conditions than
Ten million balls are made in India and shipped those in developed countries?
to Australia every year in an industry worth about
Evaluate and create
$1 billion. Each worker in India receives about eight
cents per ball. It takes about an hour to hand stitch each 5 The people who died in the Rana Plaza collapse
ball, a task that is hard on fingers and eyes. have been called ‘victims of globalisation’. Do you
For people living in poor villages, however, sending think this is a fair description? Give some reasons
their children to work doing such intense labour – at the for your answer.
expense of an education – is often the only option for 6 Some clothing companies have decided to close
the family’s income. their factories in Bangladesh due to poor publicity
following the building collapse. Do you think
this is a good thing or a bad thing for workers in
Bangladesh? Discuss this with your class.

5.7 The effects of globalisation
on Indigenous peoples
The original inhabitants of a region or country are largely negative for Indigenous peoples. They often
known as its Indigenous people. These communities become a minority in their own country and suffer
often developed a way of life suited to the natural from widespread prejudice and discrimination. As
environment in which they lived without influence a result, their unique culture is threatened and may
and interference from the outside world. become extinct.
With increased links between people and places, The United Nations estimates that there are almost
Indigenous peoples and their cultures have been 5000 Indigenous groups in the world today. In total,
threatened by the expansion of dominant cultures, or this accounts for about 370 million Indigenous peoples
from the arrival of new people and cultural groups. living in 70 countries. Australia is home to two groups
As people from different cultures have moved of Indigenous peoples – Aboriginal Australians and
around the world and settled in new places, they have Torres Strait Islanders.
often come into contact with the Indigenous peoples. The world map (see Source 1) and the information
In some cases this first contact has been friendly, while provided on the following page give examples of some
in other cases conflict has broken out. Whatever the of the Indigenous cultures currently threatened by new
nature of the first contact, the long-term effects are global links, and explains how they have been affected.
WORLD: INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
ARCTIC OCEAN
Inupiat Kalaallit
1 Saami Nenet
Arctic Circle Saami Nenet Inuit Inuit Kalaallit
Yakut Chukchi Inuit
Evenk
Inuit
Cree Cree
EUROPE Cree Cree
Gypsy ASIA Nez Perces Sioux
Mongol Chippewa
Basque Northern Cheyenne Mohawk
Uigur Mongol Ainu
Navajo NORTH
Kurd Hopi AT L A N T I C
Berber Apache AMERICA
Tibetan
Tropic of Cancer Santal Miao Zhuang Huichol OCEAN
Tuareg Bhil Chakma 3 Mazatec Maya
Bedouin PA C I F I C
Karen Bontoc Zapotec
Fulani AFRICA Lenca Arhuaco
Dinka Vedda
4 6 Mentawi Bribri
Pygmy Iban OCEAN Yanomami
Tutsi 2
Equator Acehnese Penan Secoya
Masai Dayak Dayak Amungme Kayapo
AT L ANTIC Pygmy Hutu I N D I A N East Timorese SOUTH
Torres Strait Islander Quechua
Yolngu 5
O C EAN OCEAN Fijian AMERICA
Tropic of Capricorn Bushmen Quechua
Aborigine Kanak
Rapa Nui Wichi
AUSTRALIA
Mapuche
Maori
LEGEND Qawaskar
Nomadic herding Subsistence farming Gypsy
Shifting cultivation Indigenous group 0 2000 4000 km

1 The Saami 2 The Masai

The Saami are the Indigenous people The Masai are the semi-nomadic people
of Northern Europe, living in parts of of East Africa, and live in southern Kenya
Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. and northern Tanzania. The Masai
The Saami are traditionally semi- have been subjected to eviction and
nomadic reindeer herders, but today, to opposition to their semi-nomadic
many Saami have modernised and lifestyle over many years. Masai lands
now use snowmobiles and helicopters in Kenya were reduced by 60 per cent
to herd the reindeer. However, pasture at the beginning of the 20th century,
land for the reindeer is becoming when the British took the lands to build
limited as oil and gas mining are ranches, then later, wildlife reserves and
developed on traditional Saami lands. national parks. Today, loss of land to
The Saami are facing other environmental threats from dam large-scale private farms and game parks for international tourists
building, logging and the effects of climate change. has made nomadic grazing impossible for the Masai. Many Masai
now live in towns or depend on tourism for survival.
3 The Karen
4 The Vedda
The Karen is an Indigenous group
from Myanmar (Burma) who have long The Vedda people are Indigenous to
fought for their own homeland. Located Eastern Sri Lanka, and were originally
in a political hot spot, the culture and forest-dwellers. The Vedda people
lifestyle of the Karen have long been have been exploited for centuries
under threat from political tensions and by outsiders wanting their land. This
military action in Myanmar (Burma). land has been turned from forest to
There are estimated to be 200 000 housing developments and government
Karen hiding in the jungle from the parkland. The Vedda have been banned
Burmese army, and many Karen have from the parkland areas. Those who
fled across the border to Thailand. Here, do still try to hunt risk being arrested or
they find themselves in refugee camps, or in villages where they even shot by park guards.
are little more than a tourist attraction.
6 The Mentawi
The Mentawi are the native people of
5The Yolngu the Mentawai Islands in Indonesia. The
Arnhem Land, in the Northern Territory Mentawi have traditionally relied on the
of Australia, is owned solely by the rainforests of the Mentawai Islands for
Indigenous Yolngu people. They are all their needs. Today, rapid change
attempting to balance the needs of has led to the clearance of forests,
their traditional Aboriginal heritage with replacing the forests with profitable
the demands of the mining industry, an palm oil plantations. As a result, the
industry which is a huge business for Indonesian government has relocated
Australia. Some argue that while there many Mentawi to villages where they
are serious problems within their own are unable to follow their traditional
communities – health, poverty and ways. They now suffer high rates of poverty and disease.
substance abuse – Yolngu manage a The Mentawi have found themselves the unlikely
way of life that blends Western technology with traditions that beneficiaries of Internet connections via groups like Surfaid,
have been passed through generations. which aims to help people in isolated areas Surfaid’s members
are connected to through surfing.

Remember and understand 5 Give an example of how technology has changed
1 Why do Indigenous populations often decline when the way of life of one Indigenous group.
settlers from other places arrive? Evaluate and create
2 In what type of environment do the Saami live? 6 Make a list of the ways in which Indigenous cultures
Apply and analyse are changing. Construct a flow diagram showing
how some or all of these changes are connected to
3 List one forest-dwelling Indigenous group. What
each other.
threats to their way of life do forest-dwelling
Indigenous groups face? 7 Select one of the Indigenous groups described on
these pages. Research the issue described and
4 What do the Masai and the Mentawi have in
report back to your class on the ways in which this
common?
group is changing.

5A rich task
skilldrill
The global coffee Describe, explain and compare patterns
trade on maps
Geographers often use maps to interpret and analyse
Coffee is one of the world’s most traded complex information and reach some conclusions. While a
commodities. About $17 billion worth of coffee single map is a useful tool for describing a pattern, we can
is traded between producing and importing compare several maps to help explain these patterns.
countries every year. This makes it the second Follow these steps to describe, explain and compare the
most valuable commodity (after oil) in the patterns on maps.
world. It is a particularly important crop to Step 1 Examine the first map carefully. Look at the title and
many developing countries as it accounts for the legend so that you know precisely what the map is
as much as one-third of their entire export showing. Take note of any patterns that you notice. These
earnings. More than 25 million people are may be a cluster of similar features located close together
or other patterns such as features in a rough line (lineal
employed in the coffee industry, many of
pattern) or spreading out like spokes on a wheel (radial
them small farmers.
pattern).
Step 2 Repeat Step 1 for the next map and for any other
The overall demand for coffee is growing rapidly and maps you are using.
this is causing many changes in its production and Step 3 Look for similarities between the maps. You can do
processing. Many small farmers in developing countries this by using your notes and by scanning the maps with
are finding it difficult to compete with large plantations, your eyes. You are looking for sets of data on the maps
which are often owned by companies from developed that seem to roughly follow similar patterns. Make a note
countries. The demand for coffee is also creating of these similarities.
environmental problems, particularly the clearing of Step 4 Use your observations to find a logical explanation for
rainforest to make way for new plantations and an these similarities. For example, when comparing maps of
increased demand for fresh water. altitude and temperature it is logical that temperatures will
The coffee that ends up in your cup begins as a fall as altitude increases. Similarly, it is logical that tropical
bean grown on plants in tropical countries, often on rainforests are found in warm areas with high rainfall.
hillsides. The beans are picked, washed, dried, sorted
and packed into 60 kilogram bags for export. Once Apply the skill
transported, the beans are roasted and ground before 1 Examine Source 2, showing the world’s top coffee
being packaged and sold to the consumer. producers and coffee importers. Describe the distribution
of the world’s top coffee producers. Pay particular
attention to the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
2 Examine Source 4, showing the world’s climates.
Describe the main climate types found in the tropics.
3 Compare your answers to the previous questions and
explain the distribution of the world’s top coffee-producing
countries.
4 Use Source 2 to describe the distribution of the world’s
top coffee importers.
5 Having examined the maps in Sources 2 and 4, what
Source 1 Brazil is the world’s largest coffee producer and
exporter. Coffee farms range from large plantations owned by
climate factors do you think influence the growing of
transnational companies, such as this one, to small plots owned coffee? What climate factors are apparent in the areas
by a single farmer. that import large amounts of coffee?


1 Many coffee-producing countries rely very heavily on 2 Do some further reading or use the Internet to research
this single crop for their export income. What are the the coffee industry in one of the top producing
possible dangers for countries in this situation? countries. How has this changed in the last 10 years
What kinds of risks does relying on a single crop and who has been impacted by these changes?
expose them to?
Source 3 This table shows the top 10 coffee-
WORLD: TOP 10 COFFEE PRODUCING AND CONSUMING COUNTRIES producing and importing nations in the world
Country Annual Country Annual
production imports
(in 000s of (in US
United bags*) $ 000s)
Kingdom Canada
Belgium Germany Brazil 43 484 USA 4 121 228
Austria
Spain Italy United States
Japan of America Vietnam 20 000 Germany 3 344 098
Tropic of Cancer
India Mexico
Honduras Indonesia 8250 Italy 1 382 895
Vietnam Guatemala
Ethiopia
Equator Colombia Colombia 7800 France 1 381 309
Indonesia
Peru Brazil Ethiopia 6500 Japan 1 272 614
Tropic of Capricorn
Peru 5443 Belgium 1 204 122
0 2500 5000 km
India 5333 Canada 789 431
LEGEND
Honduras 4500 Spain 752 415
Top 10 coffee producers (million bags per year) Top 10 coffee importers (US$million per year)
Over 20 5 to 7 Over 2000 750 to 1000 United
7 to 20 Under 5 1000 to 2000 Under 750 Mexico 4300 631 785
Kingdom
Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press Guatemala 3750 Austria 454 791
* 1 bag weighs 60 kilograms. Figures, 2008
WORLD: CLIMATES
LEGEND
ARCTIC OCEAN Polar: extremely cold all year; nearly
all snowand ice; less than 250 mm
precipitation per year
Cold wet: cold winters, cool to hot
Arctic Circle summers; moderate rain all year
Cold dry winter: cold dry winters, cool
to hot summers; moderate rain all year
Cold semi-desert: hot in summer,
EU RO P E NORTH cold in winter; 250 mm to 500 mm
AS IA rain per year
AMERIC A
Cold desert: hot in summer, cold in
winter;less than 250 mm rain per year
ATLANTIC
Mild wet: mild;
OCEAN rain all year
Tropic of Cancer
Highlands: cool to cold occuring in
A F RIC A mountains and high plateaus; snow
PACIFIC OCEAN cover increases with altitude
Subtropical wet: warm;
Equator rain all year
ATLANTIC SOUTH Subtropical dry winter: warm
INDIAN all year; dry winter
OCEAN A MERIC A Subtropical dry summer: warm
OCEAN
all year; dry summer
Tropic of Capricorn
Hot semi-desert: hot all year;
AUSTRA LIA 250 mm to 500 mm rain per year
Hot desert: hot all year; less
than 250 mm rain per year
Tropical wet and dry: hot all
year; wet summers, dry winters
0 2000 4000 km Tropical wet: hot; wet for most
of the year

5.8 Different types of tourism
What is tourism? tourists travelling each year will reach 1.8 billion by
2030. Asian countries such as India, Malaysia and
Tourism is the activities of visitors from all over the Indonesia are expected to see the most rapid increase in
world paying money to travel and see places outside of tourist numbers over this time.
their normal environment. Tourists can visit places for Tourists travel for many different reasons. Some
days, weeks, months or even just a single afternoon, simply want to relax on a beach, while others are keen
moving between suburbs, states, countries or continents. to experience the culture, language and history of the
It is estimated that tourists spend around $A1 places they visit. In order to understand the decisions
trillion annually (i.e. $A1000 billion). This revenue different types of tourists make, and analyse the impacts
makes a valuable contribution to the economies of most that their decisions have on the environment, geographers
countries around the world. tend to classify tourists into a number of groups. Source 1
The United Nations World Tourism Organization examines five of the most popular types of tourism around
(UNWTO) now estimates that the total number of the world.
Different types of tourism

Recreational tourism Recreational tourism is perhaps the most well-known and popular type of tourism.
Recreational tourists travel to have a good time, to relax, and to enjoy the attractions and
activities on offer in the places they are visiting. Many recreational tourists spend their time
relaxing on the beach, eating in restaurants, shopping or attending shows. Each year, around
39 million tourists flock to New York City to enjoy all of the recreational activities on offer there
(see Source 1).
Source 1 Times Square in New York City is among the most popular destinations in
the world for recreational tourists because of the many attractions there.
Historical tourism Historical tourists are generally interested learning more about important events that may
have taken place in the past, by visiting the places where they happened. They visit important
buildings, view artefacts and monuments and sometimes listen to stories from local experts.
The Great Pyramid in Egypt, Stonehenge in England and Machu Picchu in Peru (see Source
2) are all popular destinations for historical tourists.
Source 2 Machu Picchu in Peru attracts visitors because of its historical significance.
Up to 2000 people visit every day.
Wilderness tourism Wilderness tourists enjoy the challenge of visiting wild places such as the Amazon rainforest,
Antarctica or the Himalaya. For these travellers, the lure of remote lands, rugged landscapes
and even challenging weather conditions is much more attractive than a cosy hotel and a bit
of sightseeing. The chance to visit places that relatively few others have and be exposed to
the people and landscapes of these remote places makes wilderness tourism an attractive
option for many, despite the potential risks involved.
Source 3 Climbers on Mount Everest wait for their turn to reach the summit. Climbers
like these must wait up to two hours to reach the top of the mountain.

5B How does global tourism affect people and places?
Different types of tourism

Ecotourism Ecotourists typically travel to natural areas that are relatively undisturbed, and possibly fragile,
to learn more about these special places in a socially responsible manner. Ecotourists try to
minimise their impact and avoid damaging the environment in which they travel. They may
even aim to improve the wellbeing of the land and those that live there. Some ecotourism
raises funds for conservation (see Source 4), or goes to directly benefit the local communities
in the places visited by tourists.
Source 4 In Central Africa, ecotourism brings about $20 million a year to the region –
much of this is used to preserve the habitat of mountain gorillas.
Cultural tourism Cultural tourists are interested in learning more about the culture of places (such as the
religion, art, festivals and other components that shape a society) and experiencing a
different type of lifestyle. For example, some cultural tourists travel to places like China or
Singapore during the Chinese Lunar New Year holiday to experience the festivals, music and
food of a culture that they cannot replicate at home.
Source 5 Fireworks are a popular highlight of Lunar New Year celebrations in China.

1 How many tourists travel to a different country each 5 One method to reduce the impacts of tourism is
year? to give tourists a code of behaviour that outlines
2 Which countries are expected to see the most a number of rules and guidelines to follow.
rapid growth in the number of tourists over the next a As a class, discuss the kinds of rules and
15 years or so? guidelines that would reduce the impact of
tourism on mountain gorillas such as those
Apply and analyse shown in Source 4.
3 As a class, brainstorm examples of experiences and b In pairs or small groups, design a brochure that
destinations under each of the four tourism types. you could give to tourists to educate them about
Which one did your class know the most about? the code of behaviour your class has come
Why do you think this is the case? up with.
4 Think about your last experience as a tourist.
a Classify your experience into one of the four
tourism types discussed on these pages.
b Write a list of all the ways your last holiday had an
impact on the places you visited.
c Classify these into the positives and negatives.
d Identify the places where the impact was felt.

5.9 Impacts of recreational
tourism
While some forms of tourism, such as ecotourism, destination, Cancun was a barrier island enclosing a
may not appeal to everyone, travelling for recreation massive shallow lagoon, the Nichupte Lagoon, which was
is massively popular. There are many destinations that an important nesting site for sea turtles and seabirds.
people choose to visit for recreation, so the impacts The lagoon was fringed by mangroves, which
vary widely. Some places become extremely popular acted as a nursery for fish and other marine animals.
as tourist destinations, and the concentrated number As more tourists began to visit, causeways were built
of visitors can have significant impact on both the at both ends of the island to join it to the mainland.
natural and built environments there. For example, a The causeways restricted how much fresh water was
beachfront that once attracted people for its sunshine able to flow into the lagoon, changing the conditions
and clean sandy beaches can all too quickly become of the ecosystem. In addition, sections of the lagoon
overcrowded, and polluted if it is not carefully managed were filled in, and 60 000 hectares of rainforest
and cared for. and mangroves were removed to make way for the
development of hotels and resorts.
Case study: Cancun, Mexico Native plants that once protected the coast and
prevented erosion were replaced with non-native plants.
Many areas that were once wilderness have been changed There are far fewer fish and shellfish due both to the
to provide the things that tourists need and want such loss of their habitat and overfishing to feed the tourists.
as hotels, airports, swimming pools and roads. On the Large areas of coral reef are now dead or damaged as a
Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, for example, lies the tourist result of the snorkelling and scuba diving. Boats and jet
town of Cancun (see Source 1). Blessed with a spectacular skis create pollution, while boat anchors can drag along
coastline and warm temperatures, it attracts about the seabed, damaging coral and stirring up sediment,
two million visitors a year. Before it became a tourist all of which have negative impacts on marine life.
Source 1 Tourist
development in
Cancun, Mexico

CANCUN, MEXICO: TOURIST AREA

To Puerto Jaurez Blue Bay Getaway
Aquamarina Beach Hotel Casa Maya
Riu Caribe
All Inclusive Fiesta Americana Villas
Presidente InterContinental Camino Real
Cancun Resort Hyatt Regency
Le Blanc Spa Resort
LEGEND
Sierra
Hotel/resort
Gran Caribe Real Resort Hyatt Cancun Caribe
Flamingo Beach
ME by Melia Aqua Cancun
Sheraton Resort & Towers
Caribbean Village
Great Parnassus Resort
Nichupte Lagoon Golden Parnassus Resort
Ritz Carlton
Golden Crown Paradise Caribbean Sea
Cancun Palace
JW Marriott Cancun
Marriott Casa Magna
Gran Melia
Fiesta Americana Condesa
Grand Oasis 0 1 2 km
Hilton Cancun Golf & Spa Resort

Omni Cancun Hotel & Villas
Source 3 While tourists enjoy luxury accommodation in
GR Solaris Cancun purpose-built resorts, living standards are very different for
Crown Paradise Club many of Cancun’s workers and their children.
Westin Resort Cancun
Rio Ingles
Lagoon Royal Solaris
Sun Palace
Yalmakan Area of map
Westin Regina

To Tulum
1 Why do many tourists visit Cancun?
2 How has tourism benefited local people?
The increased numbers of tourists and residents
Apply and analyse
(who work in hotels and restaurants and run tour
companies) have also resulted in waste management 3 Investigate the natural environment of Cancun.
problems. The lagoon has become polluted with sewage, a Describe the current environment. Use Source 1
petroleum products, heavy metals and chemicals from to help you.
stormwater run-off and the boating marinas in the b How has tourist development changed this
lagoon. environment? Use Source 1 as a source of
In addition to these negative environmental information.
consequences, there are also negative social c How have the activities and behaviours of
consequences. The rapid development in Cancun has tourists impacted on the Cancun region? Refer
put pressure on local resources, meaning the prices of to particular places and activities in your answer.
food, energy, raw materials and land have risen. There is 4 Cancun has been described as ‘a victim of its own
also increasing pressure to use agricultural land for the popularity’. What does this mean? Do you agree
booming tourism industry. with this statement?
When tourist infrastructure for Cancun was built, 5 Examine Source 3. What does this picture reveal
little provision was made for the additional residents about living conditions in the workers’ villages?
needed to work in the industry. As a result, there are
many slums that surround the area. People living in Evaluate and create
the slums have poor living conditions, with a lack of 6 Imagine that a new tourist development has been
drinking water, waste management and other services. proposed for a stretch of coastline in Queensland
Although the industry provides employment, that has a similar natural environment to Cancun.
tourism workers are often poorly paid. This leads to What lessons could the developers of this new
inequalities between resident workers and tourists, with resort take from the experiences at Cancun in
some workers feeling resentment towards tourists and order to reduce impacts on natural and built
being forced into other illegal means of earning an environments?
income, such as selling drugs or prostitution.

5.10 Impacts of historical tourism
While many modern-day tourist attractions such as
theme parks and museums are built specifically to cater
for tourists, most historic sites built long ago were never
designed to cope with the demands of the growing
numbers of visiting tourists. The interconnection
between tourists and ancient buildings, for example, is
having a disastrous effect on many of these historic sites
in many locations.
Case study: Angkor Wat,

Cambodia
Cambodia’s 1000-year-old temples at Angkor Wat lay
hidden from tourists for hundreds of years by the thick
tropical jungle. Today, nearly three million tourists visit
Cambodia every year, most of whom go to Angkor Wat.
In 1995, there were eight hotels in the nearby town of
Siem Reap. By 2013, there were more than 350, virtually
all of them owned by foreigners. Many of the stone
statues and steps of Angkor Wat are crumbling under
the stress of millions of footsteps, and entire sections
of the walls have collapsed. Pollution from hundreds of
tourist buses threatens to corrode the fragile sandstone.
The demand for water, including that needed to water
two new golf courses built nearby, has resulted in ancient
wells and moats drying up. Some researchers fear that
drawing water from the ground may eventually result in
the sinking and collapse of the ancient monument. Source 2 Tourists and buses at Giza’s ancient pyramids
Case study: Pyramids

of Giza, Egypt
The Pyramids of Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo in Egypt,
are some of the most instantly recognisable buildings
in the world. More than 4500 years old, they stand as a
monument to human ingenuity. They have withstood
centuries of desert erosion but are now threatened by
mass tourism. Inside the tombs and pyramids, ancient
paintings are being eroded by salt deposits that are
caused by the sweating and breathing of tourists. Despite
strict rules, some tourists touch the ancient paintings,
which hastens their decay. The air pollution caused by
the growth of Cairo’s suburbs and the many tourist
buses has corroded the pyramids’ surfaces.
Source 1 Tourists scramble up the side of a temple wall at
Angkor Wat, Cambodia.

Case study: the Great Wall, China

The Great Wall of China was declared one of the Seven In some heavily visited sections virtually every
Wonders of the World in a public vote in 2007, and China stone has been defaced with graffiti and some tourists
is one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in even take pieces of the wall as souvenirs. Cars are
the world. Rapid economic growth and rises in living sometimes driven along the wall, rave parties are
standards in China are allowing millions of Chinese held on it, and parts have been torn down to use
people to own cars and visit places they could not for building materials or to create space for other
previously access. These two factors are bringing even developments. It has been estimated that only one-
more people to the Great Wall every year. Unfortunately third of the wall still stands, the rest having been torn
this is creating many problems for this ancient structure. down or eroded away.
Source 3 Crowds,
such as those shown
here, flock to the
Great Wall of China
during national
holidays in China.

Remember and understand 5 What are some of the positive impacts of tourism
1 List the ways in which tourists change the ancient that may occur at each of these three historic sites?
structures described on these pages. Evaluate and create
2 Why is water supply an issue for Angkor Wat? 6 The case studies presented focus on the impact of
Apply and analyse mass tourism on the built environment. Brainstorm
ways in which tourism can impact on other aspects
3 Why is the impact of tourism on ancient places such
of the human environment such as language, culture
as these likely to worsen in the future? Can you think
and religion.
of any likely impacts for each of the places shown
here in addition to the ones already described? 7 Do some further research about the impact of
tourism on one of the three historic sites mentioned
4 Examine Source 1. How are these tourists impacting
here. Prepare a PowerPoint presentation about what
on Angkor Wat? Are these impacts also likely to
you discover and present it to the class.
occur at the Egyptian pyramids or the Great Wall?

5.11 Impacts of wilderness
tourism Other 0.15%
Kayaking 3.75%
Snowboarding 0.02%
Ice landing 0.16% Remote underwater

vehicle 0.15%
Helicopter flight 0.29%
Many tourists are drawn to wilderness areas to
Walking 2.68%
experience natural sights and events. Well-known Camping 0.30% Ship cruise
examples of wilderness tourist destinations include Climbing 0.15% 37.56%
Uluru in Central Australia, the Grand Canyon in
America, and the Serengeti in Africa, where many
people travel to go on wildlife safaris. Wilderness
Landing from
tourists, and the facilities built for them, can bring
a small boat
great change to natural environments. Scuba diving
35.46%
1.16%
Skiing 0.22%
Case study: tourism in Antarctica Science support
0.49%
Antarctica is the world’s last great wilderness and a land
Visit scientific
of extremes. Located at the most southerly point of station 4.73%
Aircraft flight 0.09%
the Earth’s surface, it is the highest, coldest, driest, Small boat cruising
Anchoring only 0.27%
windiest and most isolated continent. This makes it 12.37%
one of the least visited places on Earth. Despite being
Source 2 Tourist activities in Antarctica
about twice the size of Australia, Antarctica receives
only 26 000 tourists a year compared to Australia’s
5.8 million visitors. People usually visit Antarctica for only short periods
Most visitors to Antarctica travel on cruise ships from but their visits usually take place at that same small
South America and visit a few sites on the Antarctic number of sites. This leads to a long-term cumulative
Peninsula. They come to marvel at the unique wildlife, impact. Tourists also tend to visit the places with the
the pristine condition of the natural environment and most wildlife, which has the potential to disrupt the
the stunning scenery. Nearly 40 per cent of these tourists animals’ normal way of life. The fragile environment
are from the United States. Australians make up only means tourism in Antarctica has to be carefully
8 per cent of tourists to Antarctica. controlled and managed. It is particularly difficult to
manage environmental problems, however, as there is
no government, police force or park rangers to manage
impacts and control behaviours.
Potential impacts from wilderness tourism

• Disturbance of wildlife, especially as most tourists
are taken to penguin and seal colonies by small boats
from large cruise ships.
• Oil spills from cruise ships. Rubbish and waste from
ships also pose a problem.
• Difficulty in rescuing people involved in medical or
other emergencies.
• Introduction of foreign species to Antarctic waters
from water carried as ballast on cruise ships.
• Tourists can also damage plant life, such as by
trampling slow-growing beds of moss.
Source 1 Passengers from a cruise ship photograph the
Antarctic coast.

Protection
Tourism in Antarctica is self-regulated by the International
Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO). The Remember and understand
association has strict guidelines for its members and their
1 Why do so few tourists visit Antarctica?
ships, such as limiting the size of ships allowed into Antarctic
2 Would you like to visit Antarctica?
waters. The numbers of people that can land at sites are
also limited. The association is seen as being successful Give some reasons for your answer.
in managing tourism in the area; after all, if damage to Apply and analyse
Antarctica occurs, the attractiveness to tourists will be lost.
3 Examine Source 2.
Membership of IAATO, however, is not compulsory, and there
is still the possibility of businesses that don’t belong to the a What are the two most popular activities
association bringing in larger ships carrying more people in Antarctica?
and causing more damage. This has not happened so far but, b What are some of the potential
if it did, nothing could be done to prevent it as there are no environmental impacts of these
international laws governing the area. activities?
c What percentage of tourists take a flight
The future of Antarctic tourism in an aircraft?
d Why might this percentage increase in
While virtually all tourists currently access Antarctica by boat,
the future?
this may be about to change. The Australian government has
spent $46 million to put a regular air service in place between 4 Discuss some of the potential and real
Hobart and Casey Station in Antarctica. This has meant the environmental impacts of aeroplane flights
construction of a reliable runway on a 700-metre-thick glacier. to Antarctica.
Airbus A319 planes have been modified with long-range fuel
Evaluate and create
tanks added so that a return flight to Hobart can be made
without refuelling. This minimises the chances of a fuel spill 5 Design a poster that will be displayed in
in the pristine environment. the rooms of a cruise ship that will sail to
Antarctica. Your poster should outline a
The service will be for scientists and researchers working
from the Australian bases in the summer months and will code of behaviour for tourists who will travel
reduce the current three-week sea journey to a four-and-a-half- on the ship, to educate and guide them on
hour flight. This will allow more scientists to visit Antarctica. how to reduce their environmental impact.
While tourist flights from Australia currently do not land in Because not all passengers will speak
Antarctica, the technology used to construct this runway may the same language, you will need to use
be employed by tour operators in the future. It is important pictures and symbols rather than words on
to remember, however, that Antarctica remains a challenging your poster.
environment to visit and this will always keep the number of
tourists relatively low.
Source 3
The passengers and
crew of the first flight
from Hobart to Antarctica
in 2008 gather beside
the runway. In the centre
of the front row is Peter
Garrett, Australia’s
environment minister at
the time.

5.12 Impacts of ecotourism
Many tourists are becoming aware of the impacts ECUADOR: TOURIST MAP OF KAPAWI ECOLODGE
of their travel on people and places they visit. As LEGEND
Wayusentsa
a result, many of them have started looking for Lodge
Achuar
Canoeing
Sharamentsa communities
Capah
opportunities to reduce these impacts. In response River Walking path Airfield
Kusutk
to this growing awareness, many destinations are
ari u
ECUADOR
a
developing ecotourism options. These tend to be
u
Kusutkau Ishpingo
nature-based, educational and designed to have a Kapawi
Riv
Lodge
Bo
er
Kapawi
bo
River
minimal impact on the environment. Ecotourism is
Pas
na
Riv
Lo
Riv
nz
er
bo
az
a
er
now one of the fastest growing tourism sectors.
Riv
er
r Patococha
COLOMBIA
Rive Lagoon
Pitzacocha Ishpingo
Quito Lagoon
Case study: Kapawi Ecolodge,
Wachirpas
ECUADOR
Kapawi
Lodge
Ecuador PERU
0 5 10 km
PERU
The Kapawi Ecolodge and Reserve is located in the Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press
Amazon Basin, 250 kilometres south-east of Quito
The Kapawi project began in 1996 as a partnership
(see Source 2). It is close to the border of Ecuador
between Conodros (an Ecuadorian tour company) and
and Peru on the Pastaza River, a major tributary of
the Achuar people. They wanted to start a sustainable
the Amazon. People can really only reach Kapawi by
business that would preserve the unique cultural and
air or by a three-day canoe trip – it is a 10-day walk
environmental assets of Ecuador’s Amazon Basin.
to the nearest town. Because of this, Kapawi is one
Conodros provided the initial funding, management
of the most pristine and remote areas of the Amazon
and technological expertise to get the project started.
Basin. It is also one of the most biologically diverse
Full management of the project was handed over to
areas on Earth with 10 000 species of plants and
the Achuar on 1 January 2008. They now have total
more than 570 species of birds. The lodge is located
ownership and responsibility for the Kapawi Ecolodge
in the territory of the Indigenous Achuar people,
and Reserve. As management of the environment is an
which covers 5000 square kilometres and is home to
ongoing process, Kapawi continues to strive to improve
6000 Achuar.
management processes, and involves guests in this too.
Source 1 Kapawi Ecolodge, deep in the Amazon rainforest

Source 3 Achuar
people teach tourists
staying at the Kapawi
Ecolodge about the
biodiversity of the
Amazon rainforest.
Before Kapawi, most of the Achuar had earned drainage process. Plastic, glass and metal waste is
money from raising beef cattle. This agricultural packed and taken away to be recycled. Paper waste is
activity causes significant damage to the environment. burned. Biodegradable garbage is composted. Batteries
Today, members of the 56 Achuar communities earn a are collected and taken to countries with recycling
significant percentage of their income from ecotourism. facilities. The entire lodge is powered by a hybrid
For the communities near the lodge, up to 60 per cent system of solar energy and a diesel generator. Showers
of their total income comes from direct employment at have solar-heated water.
the lodge, supplying products and selling handicrafts. Tourists who visit Kapawi can take part in many
activities, including hiking, bird-watching, visits to
Leave nothing but footprints, local Achuar communities, learning about traditional
take nothing but photographs foods and medicine, camping and canoeing.
The lodges at Kapawi are built using traditional Kapawi Ecolodge is a successful sustainable tourism
Achuar architecture techniques combined with business. Tourism has been managed so that the
modern technologies. This includes building on environment and the culture of the Achuar people can
stilts to minimise the impact on surrounding be maintained. In addition, the Achuar people have
vegetation. All soaps, detergents and shampoos used found sustainable ways to become part of the world
are biodegradable. Sewage goes through a three-step economy while still maintaining their traditions.

Remember and understand 4 How does the isolation of the ecolodge help in
1 Describe the location of the Kapawi Ecolodge. minimising its environmental impacts?
2 What are some of the interconnections between the 5 Ecotourism can be defined as ‘responsible travel to
Achuar people and people from other places? natural areas that conserves the environment and
improves the wellbeing of local people’. Do you
Apply and analyse think that the Kapawi Ecolodge is an example of
3 Copy and complete this table to list some of the ways ecotourism? Give three reasons for your answer.
in which environmental impacts are minimised at
Evaluate and create
Kapawi:
6 Compare the tourist developments at Kapawi (see
Features of Tourist Reducing Source 1) and Cancun (see Source 1 on page 186).
buildings behaviours waste
What are the key differences? Discuss which of these
types of development is most likely to represent
the future of tourism. What will this mean for
environmental impacts in the future?

5.13 The effects of tourism
in the future
Tourism is an industry that is constantly changing. environmental degradation and a loss of traditional
Geographers who research tourism and leisure have ways of life. As many communities in developing
identified the following trends that will shape the ways countries rush to attract tourists, many geographers are
in which people and places are impacted by tourism in concerned that the lessons from places such as Cancun,
the future. Angkor Wat and Giza will be forgotten.
Trend 1: more people travelling Trend 2: increased awareness

more often of environmental issues
Tourist numbers are expected to continue to increase. More travellers are becoming concerned about
By 2030, the number of international travellers will their impact on the places they are visiting. Many
reach 1.8 billion per year if current trends continue. are choosing their destinations partly because of
As some places become too crowded tourists are environmental qualities such as conservation. Mass
expected to look for new destinations to offer them tourism to large resorts such as those at Cancun,
the experiences they want. This gives new places the however, still dominate in some countries. Ecotourism,
opportunity to benefit from the resulting tourism, though, and nature-based tourism are growing two
which provides a significant boost to an economy. to three times more quickly than tourism as a whole.
However, it also makes them vulnerable to negative There are many popular destinations for conservation-
impacts on the environment and their culture. aware tourists including parts of Australia, and Africa,
In many places where profits are put ahead which has stunning landscape and the chance to see
of minimising impacts, tourism has brought wildlife in its natural environment.
Source 1 Namibia is predicted to be the ‘next big thing’ in African safari tourism as traditional areas in South Africa, Kenya and
Tanzania become too ‘busy’ for many travellers.

The Internet has allowed people to learn more

about destinations before they travel and this trend
is expected to continue. Places that are becoming
degraded are becoming less popular as tourists pass on
their negative experiences through travel websites. This
may result in greater efforts in these places to repair
environmental damage and for future developments to
be more environmentally friendly.
Trend 3: travellers want ‘real’

experiences
There has been a significant growth in the number
of people who are looking for authentic places and
experiences rather than artificial ones that have
been created specifically for tourists. One of the
fastest growing types of travel experiences is known
as adventure tourism. This includes the ‘adrenaline
junkies’ who want extreme experiences such as Source 2 Tourism catering for disabled people is a growing
mountaineering, white-water rafting and rock-climbing industry.
as well as those who want gentler physical experiences
such as hiking and biking.
For many tourists, the experiences they have are
becoming more important than the places they visit.
Many are looking to interact with local people and Remember and understand
to experience their culture away from the packages 1 How has the Internet changed travel and tourism?
offered by large hotels and tour companies. Adventure 2 What is adventure tourism?
tourism allows them to move out of mass tourism and
have an individual experience. Where this has occurred Apply and analyse
it seems to impact people and places much less than 3 Make a list of those factors and trends that may
mass tourism and can lead to a better understanding of result in tourism having a greater impact on the
cultures and environments. environment in the future. Make another list of
those factors and trends that suggest that tourism
Other trends will impact less on the environment. Which of these
two outcomes do you consider most likely? Give
In addition to these trends described above, many some reasons for your answer.
others have been observed.
4 Examine Source 1.
• Trips are becoming shorter but tourists are spending
a Why do you think these tourists have visited
more.
this place?
• Twice as many people now book their travel on the
b How has this visit impacted on the natural
Internet than use a travel agent.
environment?
• Growth in the number of tourists from Asia is larger
c How will these impacts increase if the number
than from any other region.
of tourists to Namibia greatly increases?
• There is a surge in ‘niche’ tourism: small numbers of
people travelling for unusual reasons. This includes Evaluate and create
medical tourism, when people travel to another 5 Imagine that it is 2050 and that you are a reporter
country for surgery and other medical procedures. for an online newspaper. Write an article describing
Already worth up to $60 billion a year, medical the ways in which tourism has changed in the last
tourism is growing at 20 per cent a year. 35 years or so (since 2015). You could describe a
There is also an increased demand for ‘accessible typical 2050 holiday and include an advertisement
tourism’ for the 10 per cent of the population with a for a typical 2050 destination.
disability (see Source 2).

5B rich task
10 000 people, most of whom sleep on the ground
Tourism at Gallipoli the night before the service.

To cope with visitor demands during this busy
time, bus movements on the narrow winding roads are
On 25 April 1915, Australian and New
restricted, temporary grandstands are erected and a
Zealand troops fighting in World War I landed
special group of Australian volunteers clean up rubbish
on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The battle lasted once the visitors depart.
about eight months and claimed the lives of While many Australians see a visit to Gallipoli on Anzac
around 8000 Australians. It is seen by many Day as their right, others believe that the sheer number
as a milestone event in our nation’s history. of visitors degrades the environment and demeans the
Thousands of Australians visit Gallipoli every memory of those who fought there. Some guidebooks are
year to pay their respects to the soldiers who now recommending that tourists not visit on Anzac Day but
fought there and to see this famous place for go on other, less busy days instead. There are some who
themselves. hold the view that perhaps Australians shouldn’t be going
there at all, or at least should be better informed about the
Gallipoli Campaign.
Visiting Gallipoli on Anzac Day has become, among
While a few busloads of visitors arrive at Anzac Cove on other things, a geographical issue. This is because the
an average day, on Anzac Day, the anniversary of the landscape itself is fragile, and the size of Anzac Cove, some
landing, tourist numbers increase dramatically. This gained feel, cannot support the number of visitors that descend on
popularity in 1990 when then Prime Minister Bob Hawke the Cove at once on Anzac Day. It is also an issue because
attended the dawn service and declared that ‘Gallipoli people have different points of view. This is often the case
is, in one sense, a part of Australia’. Anzac Day dawn in geography and comes about, in part, because people
services at Anzac Cove and Lone Pine now attract up to have different reasons for connecting to places.
Source 1 Tourists attending the Anzac Day service at Lone Pine cemetery, Gallipoli

skilldrill
Interpreting qualitative data about Apply the skill

geographical issues and events Following the steps provided, examine each of the four
following sources which express different points of view
Geographers need to consider different points of view,
about visiting Gallipoli on Anzac Day.
and the reasons behind these different viewpoints, when
1 Do you think Virginia Maxwell (see Source 2) is writing
evaluating a geographical issue or event. They may use
from a historical, economic, cultural or spiritual
qualitative or quantitative data when doing this.
perspective? Why do you think this? List your reasons.
When presented with qualitative data like news pieces,
blogs or research articles, geographers will examine the 2 Describe the issues surrounding visiting Gallipoli in your
opinions in these sources, evaluate the sources and the own words. Use the key concepts of environment and
motivation behind them, and analyse the issue or event place in your description.
using this information. 3 Compare the pieces written by Shelley (Source 5) and
Follow these steps when interpreting qualitative data Erin (see Source 6) in their blogs.
related to a geographical issue or event. a How do you think a discussion between Erin and
Step 1 Identify the issue you wish to investigate. Shelley might go if they were to meet? Write a short
dialogue based on the conversation they might have
Step 2 Gather the relevant sources of qualitative data.
about their views on Gallipoli.
Step 3 Carefully read each source. Highlight or take note
b With a partner, present your dialogue in a role play
of the following:
for the class. Be prepared to stay in character and
• What do you know about the person who answer questions from your classmates about your
expressed this opinion? feelings on Anzac Day.
• What possible bias may this person have about
4 Why do you think people can have such different
this issue?
points of view about geographical issues? Identify
• What is their opinion on this issue? another place you think people might have different
• What evidence or information do they use to viewpoints about and list the possible reasons for this.
support their opinion? You could research somewhere like Cronulla Beach in
• Why did they write or publish the piece? For example, Sydney, for example, or the Franklin River in Tasmania
were they paid to write it? if you are stuck for a place to write about.
• Who is the target audience?
• What result do you think the writer wants? For Source 2
example, do they want to sway public opinion or
It's important to remember that this site is just as significant
change a current practice?
and important for the Turkish people as for the Australians,
• Is the source reliable? the New Zealanders and the British. Visitors who come at
Step 4 Using your answers to the questions above, other times than on Anzac Day get a much better chance
examine the motivation behind the piece. Is the person to do some quiet reflection, get the full historical context
from the tour guides and get the Turkish perspective on
approaching the issue from a historical, economic,
the battle as well. This is something that you won't get on a
cultural or social perspective? crowded overnight package trip from Istanbul, which is how
Step 5 Analyse the issue by comparing the different most people end up seeing the site. It's also easier to find
points of view provided in each source. You can ask accommodation at other times, and avoids damage to the
park, which is fragile.
questions like these to help you do this:
• What are the main points raised about the issue? Virginia Maxwell, co-author of the Lonely Planet:
• Is there anything that the writers agree on? Turkey guide
• What are the main points on which they disagree?
• How does their perspective (historical, economic,
cultural or social) influence their opinion?

Source 3 Source 5
Instead of commemorating the heroism of Australian soldiers We will never forget. The journey that we were privileged
who landed on that fatal shore in 1915, the conference to experience on the Gallipoli peninsula was incredible!
in October concluded that Australians should reframe the A journey of both heart-gripping and breathtaking emotions
landing as an unmitigated disaster and apologise to the as well as a surreal pilgrimage; a tiny glimpse of what the
Turkish Government for invading their country. Anzacs went through on the 25th April, 1915. …
‘The landing was nothing but an unjustified invasion of We embarked on a 5-day tour with Top Deck, discovering
foreign soil like the British invasion of Aboriginal land in 1788,’ a quick peek of Istanbul and Gallipoli. … it’s fair to say that
says John Lack of the University of Melbourne. ‘And we we left our hearts on the shores of the Gallipoli National
should put the two coves together – Sydney Cove and Anzac Park, with the many remaining there. Men of bravery, men of
Cove – because both invasions were just as bad as each obedience, and men, who courageously and heroically left
other and cost a lot of lives.’… family, loved ones and their country behind.
John McQuilton of Wollongong University says Australians … if you ever do get a chance to go to Gallipoli, especially
should look at the story of Gallipoli from the Turkish angle to over Anzac day, I would highly recommend it, as it really is
see how they feel about it, a view that has been neglected (as cliché as it sounds) a life-changing experience.
for too long. The Turks lost 86 000 soldiers compared with It was an honour and an eye-opening adventure to be
Australia's 8709. ‘It is now time to embrace our old enemy able to stand in the place where thousands had been laid
Turkey,’ he says. …. to rest. What a memory to carry. We all walked out of the
McQuilton says Australians should stop going to Gallipoli experience, knowing that we will never think of Anzac day
and claiming rights over Turkish soil for their commemorative the same. Lest we forget.
activities. ‘This land belongs to Turkey and the reason they
Shelley, attended the Anzac Day service,
are building so many memorials of their own is they want it
back,’ he says.
Gallipoli, 2013
http://thesharechair.blogspot.com.au/2013/05/Anzac-day-gallipoli-
‘Charge of the rewrite brigade,’ by Jonathan King lest-we-forget.html
http://www.battleforaustralia.org/battaust/AustInvasion/References/
Stanley_on_Gallipoli.html
Source 4 For many tourists, a visit to Gallipoli at a quiet time allows them to connect more closely with this place.

Source 6
I have had this rant to all of my mates who go to Gallipoli
for Anzac Day.
1 Research the environmental impact that visitors
It is a problem when Anzac Day starts to resemble the
Big Day Out. There are the bogans draped in the Aussie are having at Gallipoli, and the ways in which local
flags who have been up all night. There are the stages, the authorities are responding. Present your findings in
microphones, the cameras, the celebrities, the spotlights, a short written report.
the lead up that could confuse the upcoming rendition of
2 Design a code of behaviour for visitors attending Anzac
the ‘Last Post’ with an upcoming rock band. There are the
people who have fought online and forked out hundreds for Day services at Gallipoli, to help them minimise their
tickets. And now, there will even be ballots. impact on the environment.
Erin, in her blog ‘Lessons for the 20s something 3 Write a few paragraphs or a short speech about
wanderer’ attending Anzac Day services at Gallipoli, framing
http://lessonsforthe20somethingwanderer.blogspot.com. your viewpoint from a single perspective (historical,
au/2013/04/lesson-28-why-im-not-at-gallipoli.html#!/2013/04/ economic, cultural or spiritual). For example, you might
lesson-28-why-im-not-at-gallipoli.html
write your piece from the economic perspective of a
tour bus operator to Gallipoli.
Source 7 View of soldiers attacking during the final days

of the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915

2
part

history
Concepts and skills
Chapter 6 The history toolkit 202
Overview
The making of the modern world 228
Depth study 1: Investigating the

Chapter 8 The Industrial Revolution 242
Depth study 2: Investigating World War I

Chapter 9 World War I (1914–1918) 288
(1750–
1918)
chapter 6 the history toolkit 201

Concepts and skills
The history
toolkit
History is the study of the past. Historians seek to piece
together pictures of what life was like in days gone by.
They also look for patterns – what has remained the
same, what has changed and why.
Historians follow a process of historical inquiry in
order to understand the past. They ask questions, form
opinions and theories, locate and analyse sources,
and use evidence from these sources to develop an
informed explanation about the past. Oral accounts,
documents, artefacts and archaeological finds form
the basis of research and investigation in history.
Historians investigate important events from the past
and want to know more about them. To help in their
investigations, historians use a range of concepts and
skills. Each of these is like a tool that can be used to
help you understand how events that took place in the
past have influenced our modern world. As you master
the concepts and skills, you will gradually fill your toolkit.
Welcome to the wonderful world of history!
6A 6B
What are the historical What are the historical skills?
concepts?

chapter
6
Source 1 This photograph – taken during the Gallipoli campaign of World War I in 1915 – shows the Australian camp at Anzac
Cove in Turkey. Today, Anzac Day is one of Australia’s most important national commemoration days. It marks the anniversary of
the landing of Australian and New Zealand forces at Anzac Cove during World War I.
6C
What are the career
opportunities for historians?

6.1 Historical concepts
Historians use seven concepts to help them investigate and understand the past. At times you will
use several of these concepts at once; at other times you may focus on just one. As you learn to
apply each concept, you will begin to think like a historian. The seven key concepts in history are:
• perspectives • evidence • contestability.

• continuity and change • empathy
• cause and effect • significance
Perspectives
The concept of perspectives is an important part
of any historical inquiry. A person’s perspective
is their point of view – the position from which
they see and understand events going on in the
world around them. People often have different
points of view (or perspectives) about particular
events, historical figures, civilisations or artefacts
depending on their age, gender, social position
and their beliefs and values. Just like anyone
else, historians have perspectives, which can
influence their interpretation of the past and the
ways in which they write about it. Regardless of
their own perspectives (and what they may think
about something personally), historians must try
to understand the different values and beliefs
that shaped and affected the lives of people who
Source 1 By the beginning of the 20th century, the British
lived in the past. Empire covered one-quarter of the world’s total land mass and
For example, the period from 1750 to 1914 ruled over around one-fifth of the world’s total population. For
was a time when the European powers competed these reasons it became known as the ‘empire on which the
sun never sets’.
with each other to expand their territories
and influence around the world by acquiring
colonies. This was known as imperialism. The From the perspective of most Europeans at the
European powers spread their reach over Asia, time, the Indigenous cultures of Asia, Oceania and
Oceania and Africa, desperate to get hold of Africa were inferior. They saw it as their right and
the valuable natural resources found in these duty to bring European culture and belief systems
countries. By the beginning of the 20th century, to the ‘backward’ societies they colonised.
most of Asia and Africa were ruled by foreign From the perspective of the Indigenous
powers. populations in these regions, the arrival of
European colonies were forced to adopt the Europeans was seen as an invasion of their lands
laws, languages, customs and religions of their that resulted in the devastation of their traditional
imperial masters. Over time, Europeans also ways of life. In the worst instances, as with Belgian
shared new technologies with their colonies. They rule in the Congo, the Indigenous population was
established roads, railways and communication subjected to a brutal, violent rule with a great loss
networks, modernising many of these nations. of life.

Continuity and change
Historians recognise that, over time, some things
stay the same, while others change. This concept is
referred to as continuity and change. Examples of
continuity and change can be seen across every
civilisation at any given period of time.
Historians refer to aspects of the past that have
remained the same over time as continuities.
Aspects of the past that do not stay the same are
referred to as changes. Change can occur within
a certain civilisation or specific time period,
but also across different civilisations and time
periods.
Many aspects of history influence how we
act and live today. For example, during the
Industrial Revolution, a number of companies
began producing products that have now
become household names all around the world.
One of these brands is Coca-Cola. This syrupy, Source 2 A
carbonated cola drink made to a secret recipe was Coca-Cola delivery
fi rst produced by a pharmacist named Dr John S driver and his truck,
Pemberton in the United States city of Atlanta. New Orleans, 1929
The Coca-Cola logo (see Source 2) has been used
in a distinctly recognisable form since 1885. This
is an example of historical continuity.
However, Coca-Cola also provides many examples
of historical change:
• During the first year, sales averaged a modest
nine servings per day in Atlanta. Today, daily
servings of Coca-Cola beverages are estimated
at 1.8 billion globally.
• The first servings of Coca-Cola were sold for
5 cents per glass, whereas today a can of Coke
generally retails for around 2 dollars.
• In the early years, Coca-Cola also contained Source 3 Today, Coca-Cola
cocaine from coca leaves. When cocaine is available in more than 200
countries and is one of the
became a restricted drug in the United States,
world’s most recognisable
the coca leaves used in the recipe were brands. It is also available in a
changed to be cocaine-free. number of different varieties
• In 1985, the company introduced a new to suit the changing wants of
customers.
formula and branded it ‘new Coke’, but a
consumer backlash forced a return to the
traditional recipe.
• Recent awareness about the dangers of a
high consumption of sugar has seen the
introduction and success of sugar-free options
such as Diet-Coke and Coke Zero.

Cause and effect
The concept of cause and effect is used by historians The discovery of gold and the subsequent gold
to identify chains of events and developments, both rushes in New South Wales and Victoria resulted in a
in the short term and in the long term. Cause and range of effects – some short term, others long term.
effect aims to identify, examine and analyse the Short-term effects included:
reasons why events have occurred and the resulting • the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from
consequences or outcomes. It helps to think of cause Britain, Germany, Poland, the United States and
and effect as the ‘why’ and ‘what’ of history. China
Sometimes the link between cause and effect is • further dispossession of Indigenous people from
very clear. For example, heavy rain over many weeks their land
(cause) leads to flooding and the destruction of • discrimination and violence against Chinese
crops (effect). However, often this link is not quite so miners on the goldfields
obvious. Generally, there are many causes (reasons) • unsanitary conditions in the gold camps leading
that lead to an event or action. There can also be many to outbreaks of dysentery and typhoid
effects (outcomes). Sometimes the effects are simple to
• establishment of businesses such as shops, traders
identify, while in other cases they are more difficult to
and transporters to support the gold miners.
predict and may not even become obvious until long
Long-term effects included:
after the event.
• huge increases in the amounts of money flowing
When Edward Hargraves found gold near Bathurst
into the economies of New South Wales and
in New South Wales in 1851, it was the first gold to
Victoria through taxes and increased spending
be found in the region. The find quickly triggered
the first Australian gold rush. The chance to strike • a growth in overseas trade
it rich was irresistible for thousands of people who • improvements in infrastructure including the
flocked to the goldfields in New South Wales and construction of grand public buildings, roads,
Victoria from around Australia and overseas. In the train and tram networks, and sewerage systems as
10 years after the first discovery of gold (cause), the well as the creation of schools, churches, libraries
population of Australia more than doubled from and other community amenities.
405 400 to 1 145 600 (effect).
Source 4 The Australian gold rushes of the mid-1800s brought people and wealth to Australia and led to a period of growth
and expansion, as these illustrations of Melbourne in 1860 show.

Evidence
Evidence is the information gathered from
historical sources. The concept of evidence
is an essential part of historical inquiry.
Evidence can come from many different
sources; for example, interviews and
accounts from people who lived at the time,
letters, diaries, films, maps, newspapers,
buildings, paintings, photographs,
song lyrics, nursery rhymes, clothing,
photographs and even cartoons. But how do
we use these sources to piece together the
story of the past? We can make an educated
guess (called a hypothesis) and then look for
evidence to support it.
Evidence can be gathered from two types
of sources:
• primary sources – objects created or Source 5 This photograph taken in 1915 shows Australian troops
written at the time being investigated, charging a Turkish trench during the final days of the Gallipoli
for example, during an event or very campaign. The photograph clearly shows the rocky terrain of the
soon after. Examples of primary sources Gallipoli Peninsula and is an example of a primary source. War
photography became a part of warfare at all levels for the first time
include official documents, such as laws during World War I. As well as documenting military offensives,
and treaties; personal documents, such photographs were used for surveying and mapping territory and for
as diaries and letters; photographs or propaganda campaigns. Photographs were not only taken by military
films; and documentaries. These original, photographers, they were also taken by ordinary soldiers in order to
document their personal experiences.
firsthand accounts are analysed by
historians to answer questions about the
past.
• secondary sources – accounts about
the past that were created after the time
being investigated and which often use
or refer to primary sources and present
a particular interpretation. Examples
of secondary sources include writings
of historians, encyclopaedia entries,
documentaries, history textbooks, films,
illustrations, reconstructions and websites.
Historians do not always agree on
evidence, even when it is coming from the
same source. They often have different
opinions or points of view. This is why
historians are constantly searching for new
sources of evidence. They need to use a range
of different sources to help them gain a more
complete picture of the past.
Source 6 This still from the 1981 feature film Gallipoli starring
Mel Gibson shows Australian soldiers in battle during the Gallipoli
campaign. The movie recreates the experiences of a number of
Australian soldiers who fought as part of the Anzac forces. It is an
example of a secondary source.

Empathy
The concept of empathy helps us to understand owning slaves was legal. As a result of these factors,
the impact of past events on particular individuals slavery was common across the Caribbean and
or groups. This includes an appreciation of the Southern American states, where there were severe
circumstances they faced and the motivations, values labour shortages. Without slaves, the landowners
and attitudes behind their actions. Put another way, would not have been able to produce their crops of
empathy is the ability to ‘walk in someone else’s cotton and sugar that were in demand in Europe.
shoes’ – to be aware of and sensitive to their feelings, Although empathy does not excuse the actions
thoughts and experiences. of people in the past, it does allow us to understand
Empathising brings history to life. It connects them better.
us as human beings regardless of how much time
has passed. For example, by the beginning of the
18th century the slave trade was well established in
many parts of the world. It is estimated that up to
12 million African people may have been shipped
to the Americas as slaves. After capture, slaves were
packed into ships for transportation to the Americas.
Slave ships were extremely crowded and conditions
were inhumane (see Source 7). Slaves were kept
below decks for most of the long journey in dark and
filthy conditions with no ventilation. They were kept
chained and were given no medical assistance if they
fell ill. From a modern perspective, it is easy to view
this treatment of other human beings as barbaric
and wrong, and to feel empathy for those slaves
who suffered as a result of this treatment. Slavery
was outlawed in most countries around the world
in the 1800s and since this time, the vast majority
of people have come to think of slavery as cruel and
unacceptable. However, this has not always been the
case.
For historians, applying the concept of empathy
during a historical inquiry into the slave trade
encourages them not to judge events and people
by modern standards. It requires an appreciation
of the social norms of the period in order to better
understand people’s motives and actions. Although it
may be difficult, a reasoned inquiry means you also
need to empathise with slave owners and traders.
The slave owners truly believed that they were doing
nothing wrong – even George Washington, the first
President of the United States, was a slave owner.
African slaves were believed to be inferior to white
men in intellect, in fact they were considered to be
childlike, but to be physically stronger than white
men and well suited to the heat. It was considered
the ‘natural order’ for the slaves to be ‘looked after’
Source 7 A plan of the British slave ship Brookes in 1789.
by their owners. Some Christian teachings at the This shows it carrying 454 slaves, ‘tightly packed’, after the
time also supported this view, as did theories such Slave Trade Regulation Act of 1788, which was introduced
as social Darwinism. In addition to these factors, to improve conditions on slave ships. Before the Act, the
Brookes carried between 609 and 740 slaves.

Significance
The concept of significance relates to
the importance assigned to aspects of
the past. This includes people, events,
developments, discoveries, movements
and historical sites. History is full of
so many important events, significant
people and interesting places that we
could never study all of them. Instead,
we need to make a judgment about
which of these is worthy of study. In
order to determine if a person, event,
development, discovery, movement or
site is historically significant, historians
may ask the following questions:
• How important was it to people who
lived at that time?
• How many people were affected
by it?
• To what degree were people’s lives
affected by it?
• How widespread and long-lasting
were its effects?
• Can its effects still be felt today?
For example, the French Revolution
has been said to have laid the
groundwork for the birth of the modern
world across Europe. Why would a
revolution affecting a single country be
considered so significant? The French
Revolution took place in 1789, starting
with the demand for a government
under the king that was more
representative of the people. It ended
with the king being executed, along Source 8 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 1789
with many members of the aristocracy.
The political and social ideals of the
fundamental document in the history of human
French Revolution went on to inspire many other
rights around the world based on the idea
developments around the world. Some legacies of
that all citizens should have equal rights and
the French Revolution that are still significant today
opportunities in society
include:
• the realisation that royal power and the ‘right to
• the introduction of a representative government
rule’ in many countries across Europe could no
in France guided by the understanding that rulers
longer be taken for granted
could only govern with the consent of the people
• the democratisation of rule in different countries
• the introduction of the separation of powers
across Europe and the establishment of many
between three arms of government – executive,
representative democracies around the world.
legislative and judicial branches
• the creation of the Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of the Citizen (see Source 8); a

Contestability
The concept of contestability relates to
explanations or interpretations of past events
that are open to debate. Historians around the
world often have access to very different sources.
Artefacts, such as jewellery and weapons, may have
been damaged, or artworks may be incomplete.
Written records may contain errors, or might have
been changed after they were written. Some records
may even have been completely destroyed. This can
lead historians to draw different conclusions about
what they are seeing. Even historians studying the
same sources can sometimes come to very different
conclusions about what the evidence is telling
them. This is one of the exciting things about
history – it is open to debate. There is often no
right answer, and historians are always seeking a
more complete understanding of the past.
The Industrial Revolution was a time of great
change. In a short amount of time, new inventions
and innovations brought about huge changes
to the way people worked, lived, communicated
and travelled. For example, the invention of the
telephone revolutionised the way in which people
communicated all around the world. Scottish-born
inventor Alexander Graham Bell has long been
credited with inventing the telephone. Certainly,
he was the first to patent it in the USA, in 1886,
after conceptualising and developing a version
of the telephone (see Source 9). However, many
historians contest this belief.
Other inventors were also working on similar
inventions at the same time as Alexander
Graham Bell. Among them were Antonio
Meucci, Innocenzo Manzetti and Thomas Edison
(see Source 10). Many historians credit these
inventors with the development of the first voice
communication apparatuses. Unfortunately, it is
difficult to prove who was first because many of
the electronic components that would eventually
become part the telephone were being developed
separately around the world by many different
people at the same time.
For this reason, the inventor of the telephone
will always be contested by historians. One thing
that cannot be contested is the fact that no single
person was solely responsible for the invention.

1 What is the difference between a primary and secondary source? Give an
example of each type of source.
2 The red-and-white logo of Coca-Cola (and its distinctive font) has been around
since 1885. Which historical concept is this an example of?
3 Which historical concept would be most helpful to historians attempting to
understand the factors that allowed the slave trade to continue for so long?
4 The Industrial Revolution was a time of great invention. Why is it sometimes
Source 9 An
artist’s impression
difficult to credit only one person with a particular invention? When historians
of Alexander disagree about particular events and facts, which historical concept is this an
Graham Bell example of?
making the first
telephone call Apply and analyse
between New
York and Chicago, 5 Look again at the types of questions historians ask to decide if events,
18 October 1892 discoveries, people or sites are historically significant. For example:
• How important was it to people who lived at that time?
• How many people were affected by it?
• To what degree were people’s lives affected by it?
• How widespread and long-lasting were its effects?
• Can its effects still be felt today?
a Use each of these questions to determine the historical significance of the
following:
i the French Revolution
ii the discovery of gold in Australia
iii the making of the film Gallipoli
iv the introduction of a new formulation of Coca-Cola in 1985 (marketed
as ‘new Coke’).
b Discuss your responses as a class. Did you all draw the same conclusions?
6 Examine Source 1 showing the extent of the British Empire at the start of the
20th century.
a What motivated countries such as Britain to form empires? What
perspective did the British adopt towards the people and places they
colonised?
b Why is the historical concept of perspectives useful when conducting a
historical inquiry into imperialism?
Evaluate and create

Source 10 An illustration
from the 1940s showing an 7 Directors and production staff on historical feature films like Gallipoli invest a lot
image of Thomas Edison of time and money to achieve a high level of historical accuracy in the settings
surrounded by his inventions
– including the telephone
and costumes they use. Despite this, many of these films also tend to reflect a
modern view of the event and the people involved. Think of a historical film you
have seen and assess its usefulness as a historical source.
8 Create a flow chart to show the causes and effects (both short term and long
term) of the gold rushes on Australian society.
9 Using a selection of new images and examples, create a poster or audiovisual
display that briefly explains all seven of the historical concepts discussed in this
section.

6.2 Historical skills
Historians examine the past and try to explain what You will already be familiar with many of these skills
they find. Like detectives at the scene of a crime, from your studies in junior history. This year you will
they follow a process of historical inquiry – they pose revisit each of the skills and learn to apply them more
questions, locate and analyse sources, use evidence from effectively. The skills you will be learning are organised
these sources to develop an informed explanation about into four broad categories (see Source 1).
the past, and communicate their findings. Each category represents the stages of a historical
To conduct a historical inquiry, historians need a inquiry and contains a number of more specific skills
range of skills. By studying history you will gradually that you will be practising.
master these skills. Some you will find easy to master, It might help you to think of each of these skills
while others may take longer. As you develop each as individual tools in your toolkit. For some historical
new skill you will gain another important tool for inquiries, you may only need to use one tool; for others,
understanding and explaining events and people that you may need to use all of them.
have shaped our world.
Source 1 The four stages of every historical inquiry and the skills commonly used at each stage
Questioning • Identify current personal knowledge, gaps, misconceptions, currency of information, personal perspective and possible
and research perspectives of others
• Construct, select and evaluate a range of questions and hypotheses involving cause and effect, patterns and trends,
and different perspectives
• Analyse and clarify the purpose of an inquiry using appropriate methodologies, ethical protocols and concepts to plan
for, and inform, an investigation
• Use a range of methods to collect, select, record and organise relevant and reliable information and/or data from
multiple sources that reflect the type of analysis that is needed (e.g. questionnaires, surveys, emails, tables, field
sketches, annotated diagrams), with and without the use of digital and spatial technologies
• Use appropriate ethical protocols, including specific formats for acknowledging other people’s information and
Analysing • Use criteria to analyse the reliability, bias, usefulness and currency of primary sources and/or secondary sources
• Analyse information and/or data in different formats (e.g. to explain cause and effect relationships, comparisons,
• Analyse the ‘big picture’ (e.g. put information and/or data into different contexts, reconstruct information by identifying
new relationships, identify missing viewpoints or gaps in knowledge)
Evaluating • Draw evidence-based conclusions by evaluating information and/or data, taking into account ambiguities and multiple
perspectives; to negotiate and resolve contentious issues; to propose individual and collective action in response to
contemporary events, challenges, developments, issues, problems and/or phenomena
• Critically evaluate information and/or data and ideas from a range of sources to make generalisations and inferences;
propose explanations for patterns, trends, relationships and anomalies; predict outcomes
Communicating • Select a range of appropriate formats based on their effectiveness to suit audience and purpose, using relevant digital
and reflecting technologies as appropriate
• Deconstruct and reconstruct the collected information and/or data into a form that identifies the relationship between
the information and the hypothesis, using subject-specific conventions, terminology and concepts
• Compare evidence to substantiate judgements (e.g. use information and/or data from different places or times; use
tables, graphs, models, theories)
• Generate a range of viable options in response to an issue or event to recommend and justify a course of action, and
predict the potential consequences of the proposed action
• Reflect on why all findings are tentative (e.g. the changing nature of knowledge, changes in circumstances or values)

6.3 Questioning and researching
Generating and selecting different kinds of questions to inform a
historical inquiry
Historians begin any historical inquiry by asking big questions. From these big questions, historians develop a
hypothesis (theory) about who, what, where and why certain events took place.
These questions then help to frame the process of inquiry and act as a guide for the collection of evidence. The
photograph in Source 1 shows a group of Australian troops stationed in Egypt at the start of World War I.
skilldrill
Asking questions to guide a historical inquiry

Historical sources often form the basis for historical
inquiries. In order to plan out the scope of an inquiry
– and work out what research needs to be done –
historians often begin by asking a series of questions.
For example, a historian looking at Source 1 might ask:
• Who are the people in this photograph?
• Where are they?
• When was the photograph taken?
While these questions provide an interesting starting
point for planning and research, not all questions are Source 1 This photograph taken on 10 January 1915
created equal. Some are better than others. By asking shows the original Australian officers and men of the 11th
Battalion, 3rd Brigade in the Australian Imperial Forces (AIF).
the questions above (known as closed questions), you The group of over 685 soldiers are spread over the side of the
will often discover a range of facts to follow up on. Closed Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt.
questions usually have a right or wrong answer (or can
sometimes be answered yes or no). This is a good start, The best historical inquiries are guided by a
but sometimes isn’t enough. combination of closed and open-ended questions,
In addition to asking closed questions, it is important so knowing the difference is key!
that you ask more complex questions (known as open-
ended questions). Open-ended questions don’t have Apply the skill
simple answers that can be seen as right or wrong. These 1 Look at Source 1 carefully. Generate two closed
questions involve more complex issues and can help questions and two open-ended questions of your
frame your inquiry in more depth. For example, open- own that will help guide a historical inquiry into
ended questions about Source 1 might include: Australia’s involvement in World War I.
• Why did the Australian soldiers in the photograph enlist 2 Once you have generated your inquiry questions,
to fight in World War I? think about the kind of information you will need to
• What types of experiences did these Australian collect in order to answer them. Work out where you
soldiers have fighting overseas in Egypt? might be able to locate this information.
• How were Australian soldiers treated by Egyptians? 3 Are there any questions for which you have not been
• How did Australian soldiers treat Egyptians? able to find reliable evidence or information? What
reasons might there be for this?

Identifying and locating relevant Domain Description
name
sources, using ICT and other .edu The site is linked to an educational institution such
methods as a university or school. These sites are generally
very reliable.
Sources provide information for historians. They can .gov The site is linked to a government institution. These
take many different forms, from historical artefacts to sites are generally very reliable.
written records in books or online. Some examples of
.net This site is linked to a commercial organisation
sources include human remains, coins, cave paintings, or network provider. Anyone is able to purchase
textbooks, journals, online databases, newspapers, this domain name and generally there is no one to
letters, cartoons and diaries. regulate the information posted on the site. As a
result, these sites may be unreliable.
Locating a range of relevant sources is a valuable
skill that usually involves a number of different search .org This site is linked to an organisation. Generally,
methods, such as: these organisations are not for profit (e.g.
Greenpeace, World Vision International, British
• checking catalogues at your school and local library Museum). If the organisation is reputable and
• using online search engines such as Google, Yahoo! can be contacted, it generally means that the
and Bing information provided has been checked and verified
by that organisation. You need to be aware of any
• visiting museum and government websites special interests that the organisation may represent
• looking at newspaper and magazine archives (e.g. particular religious, commercial or political
interests) as this may influence what they have to
• contacting local historical societies
say on a particular issue. If you are unsure about
• interviewing older family members about the past, the reliability of information found on a website
and examining family antiques and keepsakes. with this domain name, check with your teacher or
librarian.
Using ICT to locate relevant sources .com This site is linked to a commercially based operation
and is likely to be promoting certain products or
Although printed books and newspapers are valuable
services. These domain names can be purchased
sources of information, most research today is by anyone, so the content should be carefully
conducted online. In order to ensure that sources checked and verified using another, more reliable
gathered online are accurate, reliable and relevant, a source.
number of guidelines should be followed: Source 2 Some common domain names and their
• Search engines such as Google are useful research characteristics
tools, but much of the material on these sites is
not reliable and may contain inaccuracies, false
and misleading information or material that is out
of date. When using search engines like Google or
Yahoo!, be sure to define your search using keywords.
Your librarian is a good person to ask for help and
information. Most schools will also have a website
devoted to providing information about developing
good research skills.
• A reliable way of searching for sources is to use sites
linked to educational institutions, government
departments, reputable companies, museums
and universities. A quick way of telling if a site is
reputable is to look at the domain name in the
URL (Internet address). Some of the most common
domain names are listed in Source 2 along with some Source 3 There are many different types of Internet domain
information about their reliability. names, but not all can be trusted to provide relevant and
reliable information.

• Avoid blogs posted by unknown individuals. If
EXAMPLES:
you happen to find information relevant to your
investigation on a blog or social media site, always 1 ‘Life during World War I, 1918’, 2009, EyeWitness
verify it by using a more reliable source. to History, accessed 24 March 2016, <http://www.
• Never cut and paste information from the Internet eyewitnesstohistory.com/WWI.htm>.
straight into your own work. Taking someone else’s 2 Ferguson, L. State Library of Victoria, 2016, ‘Australia
work, ideas or words and using them as if they were and WWI’, accessed 4 July 2016, < http://ergo.slv.vic.
your own is called plagiarism and can result in very gov.au/explore-history/australia-wwi>.
serious consequences.
Recording relevant sources

As you identify and locate relevant sources, it is
essential that you record details to include in your list
of references or bibliography.
When citing (mentioning) a book in a bibliography,
include the following, in this order, if available:
1 author surname(s) and initial(s)

2 year of publication
3 title of book (in italics)
4 edition (if relevant)
5 publisher
6 place of publication
7 page number(s). Source 4 A lot of historical research today is carried out online.
EXAMPLE:
Easton, M., Carrodus, G., Delany, T., Howitt, B., Smith, Identifying the origin, purpose
R., 2016, Oxford Big Ideas Humanities and Social Sciences 9
Western Australian Curriculum, Oxford University Press,
and context of primary and
Melbourne, pp. 18–19. secondary sources
As explained earlier, historians use two types of sources
When citing an online source in a bibliography, include
to gather evidence about the past:
the following information, if available:
• primary sources – objects created or written at the
time being investigated; for example, during an
1 author surname(s) and initial(s) or organisation
event or very soon after
name
• secondary sources – accounts about the past that
2 year of publication or date of web page (last were created after the time being investigated and
update) which often use or refer to primary sources and
3 title of document (article) enclosed in present a particular interpretation.
quotation marks Both primary and secondary sources are useful, but it is
4 date of posting important to understand:
5 organisation name (if different from above) • where they came from (origin)
6 date you accessed the site • why they were created (purpose)
7 URL or web address enclosed in angle brackets • the historical setting in which they were created
<…> . (context).

These factors are important because they provide clues Source 1 The origin and purpose of these sources is different
about the perspective of the person who made the source, even though they are both related to World War I.
as well as the attitudes and beliefs that were common at
Source A
that time. All sources are influenced by the author’s own
point of view. In some cases the author may even have
been paid (or forced) to write in a particular way or to
ignore certain facts. This is referred to as bias and is often
aimed at persuading the reader to agree with the author’s
point of view. This is why historians must carefully
analyse and evaluate all of the sources they use.
Asking ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’ and ‘why’ questions will
help you identify the origin and purpose of the sources.
For example:
• Who wrote, produced or made the source?
– Is the creator’s personal perspective obvious in
the source? Source A is a primary source – a photograph of the camp and
– Is the creator a member of a particular group, supplies taken on 25 April 1915 shortly after the landing of
religion or organisation? troops at Anzac Cove.
• What type of source is it?
– Was the source created at the time of the event or Source B
afterwards?
• When was the source written, produced or made?
– How old is the source?
– Is it an eyewitness account or is it written by
someone at a later date?
– Is the source complete?
• Why was it written or produced?
– Was it designed to entertain, persuade or argue a
point of view?
– Does the creator have anything to gain personally
from the source?
– What other events may have been happening at
the time and might have influenced the author or
source? Source B is a secondary source – a still from the movie Gallipoli
starring Mel Gibson filmed in 1981 showing Australian soldiers
in battle during the Gallipoli campaign.
Using information from a range
of sources as evidence Using graphic organisers to help
By this stage of your historical inquiry, you will have you process and synthesise
located and collected a variety of different sources
and types of information. Now it is time to process
information
and synthesise the most relevant information, which Graphic organisers are very useful tools for collecting,
you will use as evidence to support your hypothesis. comparing and selecting suitable resources that you
There are a number of different ways to organise large have located. A decision-making chart like Source 2 can
amounts of information so that you can decide quickly help you do this.
and easily which sources provide the most useful,
relevant and reliable evidence.

Source 2 A decision-making chart showing an example of how you might process, compare and select sources
RESEARCH TOPIC: ‘What was the significance of the Gallipoli campaign?’
HYPOTHESIS: That the Gallipoli campaign played a significant role in the formation of the Australian identity, both at the time and to this
day.
Source number: Type of source: Pros and cons: Reference:
Source 1 Secondary source Pros: http://www.army.gov.au/

WWI Gallipoli – (but includes - good selection of primary our-history/history-in-focus/
Australian Army many primary sources like photos WWI-gallipoli
website sources too) - includes lots of interviews
- information is factually
correct and detailed
Cons:
- information is a bit one
sided, only Australian
opinions included, no others
Source 2 Pros:
Cons
Source 3 Pros:
Cons
Source 4 Pros:
Cons
Recommended sources in order of relevance and usefulness:
1
2
3
4

Remember and understand 3 Examine the following sites. Decide whether you
1 List three different examples of sources. Next to think they are reliable. Explain why.
each example, write where it can be found. a Australian National Museum, www.nma.gov.au
b The Coca-Cola Company, www.coca-cola.com.au
Apply and analyse c Oxford University Press, www.oup.com.au
2 Use the table below and list two advantages and two d Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I
disadvantages of using the different search methods
shown. Evaluate and create
4 Create a handbook or class wiki providing tips
Search methods Advantages Disadvantages
on good research techniques. Share it with other
Using a library catalogue • •
students in your year level or post it on your school
• •
intranet.
Conducting an Internet • •
search • •
Interviewing an older • •
family member • •

6.4 Analysing
Identifying and analysing the
perspectives of people from
the past
Primary and secondary sources reflect many different
perspectives, interpretations and values from the past.
These may include personal, social, political, economic
or religious points of view. For example, an extract
from the diary of Ellis Silas presents a very personal
account of his experiences during the Gallipoli
campaign in 1915. This account is one of many that
can help you to gain a more thorough understanding
of the experiences of soldiers during the Gallipoli
campaign.
‘We are relieved from the firing line – the

battle still raging; every nerve strained.
Australians have done splendidly, holding
a very difficult position; have been much
troubled with snipers. Am glad I have done
my duty. First wash for a week – go down
to the Water Hole, which is always covered
by Turkish snipers – it was safer in the
trenches than here – all around this spot
are dead and wounded who have been hit
when dodging round this corner; however,
one must drink, even if the price be Death.
Source 2 Detail from a studio portrait of of Ellis Silas, London,
Make dug-outs in our rest camps, but men 1919 [AWM P02801.001]
are continually caught by the snipers.
Many are commencing to suffer from
dysentery, though the spirit of the men is Many other sources provide evidence on different
splendid, always ready for a joke.’ aspects the war and the Gallipoli campaign; from the
perspectives of Australian and New Zealand troops,
English troops and Turkish troops.
It is only when we consider a range of different
Source 1 Extract from the diary of Ellis Silas, an artist perspectives revealed through all of the available
and soldier fighting with the Anzacs at Gallipoli. It is taken sources that we can begin to form a realistic picture of
from ‘The Diary of an Anzac’, ML MSS.1840, Mitchell what World War I was like for all involved and make
Library, State Library of New South Wales
judgments about the significance of these events.

Source 3 Roll Call, Ellis Silas, 1920, oil on canvas, 101.8 x 153.1 cm [AWM ART02436]

Remember and understand 3 Source 1 is a primary written source taken from
1 Historical sources always reflect the perspective of ‘The Diary of an Anzac’ by Ellis Silas. It was written
their writer. Give two examples of factors that may in 1915 by an English soldier and artist at Gallipoli.
influence a writer’s point of view or perspective. a Do you think this piece of writing presents a
balanced and reliable description of conditions
Apply and analyse at Gallipoli? Why/why not?
2 List three key pieces of information about the b Source 3 is a painting by Ellis Silas produced in
conditions at Gallipoli during World War I as 1920 that was commissioned and paid for by the
presented in Source 1, ‘The Diary of an Anzac’. How Australian War Records Section. Do you think
might an account written from the perspective of a it shows a different perspective from Source 1
Turkish soldier differ? (diary)? Why/why not?

6.5 Evaluating
Evaluating the reliability and proven (e.g. Gallipoli is Australia’s most important
military campaign of all time).
usefulness of sources A simple way to detect whether a statement is fact
or opinion is to look closely at the language used. The
A useful source, whether primary or secondary, is one
use of words such as ‘might’, ‘could’, ‘believe’, ‘think’
that will add to your understanding of a historical
and ‘suggests’ all indicate that an opinion is being
inquiry. The source needs to be relevant to your
expressed.
investigation and must also be reliable. The conclusions
you draw about the sources you have found will The following questions will help you determine the
determine their usefulness. In many cases, this means reliability and usefulness of a source:
separating fact from opinion. • Does it provide factual information or opinion?
• A fact is something that can be proved beyond doubt • Does it provide information that is supported and
and across multiple sources (e.g. the Anzacs landed at reinforced by evidence from other sources?
Gallipoli on 25 April 1915). • Does it provide enough information and sufficient
• An opinion is something based on what a person (or detail to help me answer the inquiry question?
persons) believes to be true but cannot necessarily be • Is it balanced or does it present one point of view
(in other words, is it biased)?
skilldrill: Historical sources as evidence

Analysing political cartoons Political cartoons taken from a particular period of
history can be excellent primary sources because they
Political cartoons appear in newspapers, magazines and
provide a rich combination of fact and opinion from the
online. They are as popular today as they were in the past
time. However, they often tend to present a particular
because they use humour and satire to pass comment on
point of view on an issue and are not always balanced in
a range of topical political and social issues. They tend to
their approach. For this reason, it is important that you
present caricatures of important political figures from the
are able identify examples of bias and separate fact from
time, exaggerating their physical features for effect.
fiction when using them in your research.
The expression on the The shape and design of the

monster’s face is mincing and helmet suggests that this
scary. monster is a German soldier.
Australia is shown as an Europe is shown as a poor,

unsure helpless boy watching defenseless woman being
on while Europe is murdered terrorised by a strong and evil
by Germany. monster. This is designed to
make Australians angry and
want to help her.
The text suggests that if
Australia does not help
Europe, Germany will invade The cartoon is designed to
next and the same thing will make people vote ‘YES’ in the
happen here. conscription referendum, so
this text directs their anger
towards doing this.
Source 3 An example showing how a political cartoon can be analysed

When analysing political cartoons, follow these steps: Apply the skill
Step 1 Begin by identifying the following things: 1 Follow the steps outlined to analyse
• the title of the cartoon (if available) Source 4.
• date the cartoon was first published
• the name of the publication it appeared in and (if possible) the
types of readers it was aimed at.
• the name of the artist (if available).
Step 2 Identify the political event or issue being shown in the
cartoon. Look for visual clues to help you work this out. Keep
in mind that there may be certain aspects of political cartoons
that you do not fully understand. You may not be familiar with all
of these issues presented (or they may not be clearly explained
in the cartoon). Don’t let this stop you from analysing those
aspects of the cartoon that you are familiar with. You can also
search for key words on the Internet to help you understand
things that are unclear.
Step 3 Once you have identified the political issue, try to identify
the person (or people) and situation shown in the cartoon.
Look at what they are doing and wearing. Analyse how they
are behaving or interacting with other people shown. Are they
wearing unusual clothing, posing in a certain way or shown with
particular facial expressions?
Step 4 Examine any other visual clues or devices that the cartoon
uses to convey its message. What symbols does it use? Are Source 4 ‘Such a simple question’ World
War I anti-conscription cartoon, Australian
these important and do they evoke a personal or emotional Worker, 1917
response for the reader? How are the characters represented?

Remember and understand 4 What words help indicate that a writer is expressing
1 Which of the following is an example of a primary an opinion rather than a fact?
source? Evaluate and create
a letter written by an Australian soldier during the
5 Conduct an online search to locate other graphic
Gallipoli campaign to his wife in Australia
organisers that may be useful to help you process
b photograph of Australians visiting Anzac Cove and synthesise information from a range of historical
to commemorate soldiers who died during the
sources.
Gallipoli campaign of World War I.
Some graphic organisers of use to you may include
2 Provide two reasons why graphic organisers are KWL charts, fishbone diagrams and PMI charts. Once
useful tools when processing and synthesising you have examined other types of graphic organisers,
information from a range of different sources. make a decision about which ones you think are most
Apply and analyse useful to you.
3 Give two reasons why it is important to know

the origin and purpose of every source used in a
historical inquiry.

6.6 Communicating
Using chronology to Source 1 Some useful historical terms you will learn while looking at the
making of the modern world
show the relationship Term Definition
between events assimilation the process by which a minority group adopts the language
and customs of a dominant population; in the mid-1900s
One of the most helpful things historians assimilation of Indigenous Australians into white society
became official government policy
can do to get a better understanding of the
capitalism an economic system under which the means of production
past is to organise events in the order they
(e.g. factories, farms and machinery) are privately owned by
took place. This is known as chronology. individuals or corporations and run to generate profits; as
Chronology can help us organise things opposed to state-owned and controlled systems such as
that happened over a short period of time socialism and communism
(like a day or week) or a long period of time census a ‘head count’ or audit of the number of people living in a
(like thousands of years). We can also use particular place at a particular time; information collected
during a census can include age, occupation, income,
chronology to look at events that happened
religious beliefs etc.
in one place or one society, or compare
emigration to leave one country or region to settle in another
events across many different places and
empire a group of countries and/or areas, often with different
societies.
languages and having different cultures, ruled by a central
Chronology allows us to develop an power or leader (known as an emperor)
ordered sense of time. Once events have federation the process by which separate colonies or states form a
been ordered chronologically, we are able unified nation with a central government; the Commonwealth
to use a range of historical concepts such of Australia was established in 1901 after the six colonies
were joined
as cause and effect, significance, and
immigration the act of entering and settling permanently in a country or
continuity and change to analyse them
region to which a person is not native
in detail. The best way to order events
imperialism the process of gaining and maintaining control over other
chronologically is to create a timeline. countries, regions or territories for economic or strategic
(military) reasons
Using historical terms industrialisation a process in which a society or country transforms from an
economy based mainly on agriculture and farming into one
and concepts based on manufacturing and industry
propaganda information or material that attempts to influence the
Just like scientists and mathematicians, behaviour or opinions of people within a society; propaganda
historians share a common language. They can take many forms (e.g. posters, flyers, advertising
use historical terms and concepts to clarify campaigns, films) and is designed to promote a particular
cause or course of action and/or damage the cause of an
what they are talking about and share their
enemy
findings. Source 1 lists and defines some
reparations money paid by one country to another as compensation for
important historical terms you will come damage, injuries and deaths it has caused during war
across during your study of the making of
socialism an economic system under which the means of production
the modern world. (e.g. factories, farms and machinery) are publicly owned and
resources are allocated to the people according to need; as
opposed to privately owned and controlled systems such as
capitalism
urbanisation a term used to describe the increase in the numbers of
people living in urban areas (i.e. cities) versus rural areas (i.e.
farms)

skilldrill
Creating a timeline
Timelines are used by historians to sequence
time and order important events chronologically.
They help divide large sections of time into
smaller periods so that events (like the births
and deaths of important people, wars and
discoveries) can be arranged in the correct
order. Timelines can look quite different, but
essentially they all work in the same way. There
are some basic steps you need to follow when
An Australian Army slouch hat with a stack of
constructing timelines. You should already be traditional Anzac biscuits
very familiar with creating timelines, but Source
4 August
2 provides a simple example and some basic
Britain declares
reminders. Follow these basic steps when war on Germany 25 April 11 November
Australians Armistice –
creating a timeline: 1 July
soldiers land World War I
the Battle of
Step 1 Work out the length of time you want at Anzac Cove ends
beginning the the Somme
to represent on your timeline, then divide it Gallipoli Campaign begins
evenly into suitable blocks of time – in this
1914 1915 1916 1917 1918
case, 50 years. A timeline showing what you
did yesterday might be divided into hours;
one showing key events in the 19th century
might be divided into decades. 10 August
Step 2 To represent a huge span of time, you the Australian 6 August 18 November
government begins Australians fight Battle of the
may need to break your timeline into sections recruiting soldiers in the Battle Somme ends
using a jagged line. This break shows that to join the war of Lone Pine
a section of time has been left out and will 19 December
evacuation of
ensure that your timeline will fit on the page!
soldiers from
Just make sure no important events fall in the Gallipoli
time you are leaving out.
Source 2 A sample timeline showing Australia’s involvement in
Step 3 Mark specific dates onto the timeline. some key events of World War I
These dates need to be accurately plotted
so that they appear in chronological order
(from left to right). If an exact date is not known, the
Apply the skill
abbreviation c. (from the Latin word circa, meaning 1 Create your own timeline based around one of the
An artist’s impression of explorers Gregory
‘around’) is placed in front of it (e.g.Blaxland,
c. 1700). following topics:
William Wentworth and William Lawson
crossing
Step 4 Plot important dates and events a brief the Blue Mountains in • development of weapons and technology during
1813
description of events and the dates plotted on the World War I

timeline, describing the events that took place. • key battles of World War I
Include pictures and captions if appropriate. • America’s involvement in World War I
• The role of women during World War I.
Your timeline should have at least eight entries and
feature at least two images (with captions). You will
need to conduct some research online to complete this
task.

Developing texts, particularly All historical writing needs to be acknowledged.
At the end of your writing you must always include
descriptions and explanations a full reference list or bibliography. This list shows
your readers the range of different sources of evidence
Historical writing requires you to describe and explain
you used and where they can be found. For detailed
events using evidence from a range of sources. You
information on this, refer to the skill ‘Identify and
will often be required to outline the significance of
locate relevant sources, using ICT and other methods’,
a past event while providing reasons for the event
which was covered on page 214.
and referring to relevant evidence. Different types of
sources need to be used to ensure that historical writing
presents a balanced view and is supported by reliable Structure of an explanation
evidence. The two most common and useful text types Introduction Clearly state the main idea or aim.
you will use this year are descriptions and explanations.
Briefly outline the reason/s why an event
occurred and its effect/s.
Writing descriptions
Descriptions give clear information about people, places Body Each idea must be supported by evidence.
or objects at particular moments in time. They focus on There should also be some analysis of the
evidence to explain its significance
the main characteristics or features of particular people
Information must be organised in paragraphs,
or things. They ‘paint a picture’ in words for readers.
with a new paragraph for each detail.
Descriptions must be well planned. Use the
Language should be precise and not contain
structure in Source 1 or ask your teacher for a template.
emotional words.
Descriptions must always follow a set structure, and
Personal opinions (e.g. ‘I’ or ‘my’) should be
events must be organised in chronological order. avoided.
Structure of a description Conclusion Provide a short and clear overview of the main
(optional) ideas presented in the body.
Introduction Introduce the subject.
State a conclusion drawn from the evidence.
State the name of the person or event.
Outline why the topic is important.
Source 2 Structure of an explanation
Body Provide details about the person or event
(including dates and important facts).
Selecting and using a range of
Information must be organised in paragraphs,
with a new paragraph for each detail. communication forms and digital
Quotations and descriptive words should be
used where relevant.
technologies
The presentation of your findings is one of the most
Conclusion Revisit the most important details and provide important aspects of your inquiry because it draws
(optional) a concluding statement.
together all of the sources, evidence and findings of
your investigation.
Source 1 Structure of a description There are a number of ways to effectively and
impressively communicate your findings. For example:
Writing explanations • oral – speeches, class presentations, re-enactments,
Explanations tell how or why something happened. interviews and role plays
They provide the reader with a greater understanding of • graphic – posters, cartoons, graphic organisers and
the causes and effects of past events. Use the structure models
in Source 2 or ask your teacher to provide you with a • written – descriptions, explanations, class
template. Explanations must be clear and factual. They newspapers, scripts, letters and diaries
should not contain opinions or emotional language.
• digital – audiovisual presentations, websites, films,
There must be supporting evidence from a variety of
blogs, wikis and apps.
sources for each point made.
All of these communication forms can add colour
and life to the presentation of historical information.

skilldrill
Creating an audiovisual presentation Step 3 Deliver your presentation
One of the most popular ways to present the findings Keep the following things in mind:
of a historical inquiry is to create an audiovisual • Practice makes perfect – rehearse your presentation
presentation. To prepare and present a successful before coming to class, especially if you are working
presentation, there are several steps to follow. in a group. Make sure each member of the group
knows exactly what they have to do.
Step 1 Gather your research
• Prepare for the worst – make a backup copy of your
Make sure that you have collected everything that you presentation in case anything unexpected occurs,
have found out in your historical inquiry. This will include such as data loss.
any written research or findings, a list of sources you
• Engage the audience – make eye contact, do not
have used, and a range of relevant images and/or
read from your notes and prepare cue cards to help
photographs. If you have been working in a group, this
you remember your lines. Speak clearly and make
may involve collating your research with other members
your text and layout as visually appealing as possible.
of your class.
• Check for errors – make sure any audio and visual
Step 2 Plan and create your presentation material contains no factual or spelling errors.
Once you have gathered your research, you will need • Speak slowly – focus on the purpose of your
to decide on the best way to deliver your findings. You presentation and do not become distracted.
may choose to use Microsoft PowerPoint or Prezi. • Finish strongly – end on a high note!
Alternatively, you may like to create a website or short
film to show to the class. How you will present your Apply the skill
findings may depend on the criteria set by your teacher. 1 Follow the steps outlined above to prepare and
It is important to check these before your presentation present a brief audiovisual presentation on an aspect
so that you can ensure you are meeting all criteria. of World War I that interests you.

1 Why do you think history has been described as the 6 Choose a significant issue or event of interest to you
study of ‘who we are and why we are the way we that took place between 1750 and 1918. Conduct
are’? Do you think this is an accurate description? research and create a timeline that features a
2 In your own words, define the term ‘chronology’. Why number of entries related to the issue or event you
is it an important skill for historians? have chosen. Some events you may like to examine
3 What is one of the most useful tools for organising include:
significant historical events into chronological order? • the invention of the telephone or motorbike during
4 What is the purpose of a description? How is this the Industrial Revolution
different from the purpose of an explanation? • how the Commonwealth of Australia was formed
through a process known as federation
Apply and analyse • World War I.
5 Your teacher has asked you to provide a written a Your timeline should include at least six entries
report on the significance of the Gallipoli campaign. related to the issue or event. Each entry must
Would it be more appropriate to write a description include the date and a brief description.
or an explanation? Explain your choice. b You should also include images related to at least
two of the entries on your timeline.
c Present your timeline electronically or as a poster.

6.7 Careers in history
There are a wide range of jobs and careers linked to government buildings and not-for-profit organisations.
the study of history. Because many aspects of society, They can be accessed and used by anyone interested in
culture and technology change so quickly these finding out more about the past. Historians work in a
days, the need to preserve stories and artefacts from wide range of fields. There are curators who look after
the past has become more important than ever. An precious collections, exhibition designers who help to
appreciation of events from the past can help members present artefacts to the public and education officers
of a community or citizens of a nation avoid repeating who organise talks and presentations for the public,
costly mistakes (such as wars) and make better plans for especially school students. A new and growing career
the future. path for historians involves studying, photographing
Today, many employers recognise that historical and cataloging rare and important artefacts and physical
research and analysis skills are essential for a wide range collections so that they can be displayed online. Online
of careers. As a result, these skills are in demand and collections allow people all around the world to access
there are many jobs and career paths linked to your important historical sources from the past.
study of history at school. Some jobs relate to the study
and protection of our heritage, while others involve Career profile: Michelle Stevenson –
working out in the community. A selection of these jobs coordinator of Humanities Collection
is listed in Source 1. Online
Michelle Stevenson works for Museum Victoria on the
Studying and protecting our development and implementation of digital projects
heritage using objects from Museum Victoria’s large collections.
Museum Victoria’s collections cover everything from
Many historians are involved in collecting, conserving Indigenous Australian history to Antarctic exploration
and restoring important artefacts and records from to film and television in Victoria. Because of this, a
the past. Historians are also involved in selecting and strong and broad knowledge of Australian history is
protecting significant objects and records from the essential. Michelle has worked on a range of projects,
present day so they can be studied by future generations. including:
These collections are kept in museums, art galleries, • creating digital labels for exhibitions in the
museum’s galleries
Source 1 Studying history can lead to many interesting and
exciting career paths. • working with developers to create historic walking-
tour apps
Studying and Working out and Related
protecting about opportunities • project managing the creation of virtual exhibitions
our heritage to be viewed online.
Museum curator Archaeologist Writer Michelle creates some of this content herself and
Art gallery Tour guide Information relies on all her historical skills when she is researching
manager manager and writing about different collections and objects.
Oral historian Film and TV consultant/ Lawyer Depending on the project, this can include using
Location scout books and journal articles, archival materials and other
Archivist Building restoration Publisher collection materials and conducting interviews. Michelle
Conservator Heritage officer History teacher believes history is all about stories. She loves uncovering
Exhibition Documentary film Film and TV the hidden stories behind objects from the past and
designer maker production assistant sharing them with other people.
Genealogist Urban planner Records Michelle’s other passion is alpine skiing. She has
management found a clever way to combine her love of history with
Museum Surveyor Foreign affairs her love of the sport. She is currently completing a PhD
education officer
in the history, development and significance of skiing

in Australia and in her free time is curator of the National Alpine
Museum of Australia, a small community museum that explores
stories of Australian alpine life and winter sport.
Working out and about

Not all career paths in history mean you will be working inside.
Studying history also provides many opportunities for people who
prefer to travel or spend their time outdoors. Urban planners help
to plan the development of towns, cities and buildings in Australia
and all around the world. They work with councils to decide on
appropriate uses for land. They need to have an understanding
and appreciation of heritage issues in cities and recommend new
developments that blend in with older buildings. Specialist planners
are known as heritage officers. They look at the conservation value of
older areas and buildings, deciding what should be kept or restored.
Before any big, new development happens, archaeologists may also
be called in to work with heritage officers and explore the area for
evidence of past use. Old urban areas can be a treasure trove of
objects from the past – old pots, coins, bottles and even bones can be
important objects from our past that need to be protected.
Related opportunities
Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft and one of the richest men in
the world, has often employed history graduates. Gates commented
that he prefers history graduates because of the way they learn to
think about the world and because they are able to consider many
different aspects of an issue at once. History graduates are also sought
after in fields such as law, politics and foreign affairs. History not
only teaches us to understand more about societies and cultures
around the world today but also how to locate, evaluate and analyse
information. Most importantly, a study of history teaches us to test
assumptions and support statements and hypotheses with evidence.
The ability to sift through large amounts of information and work Source 2 Michelle Stevenson helps share
Museum Victoria’s collections with new audiences
out what is important in the detail is essential in professions such as online.
law and politics.

Remember and understand 4 Why do you think it is important for an urban planner
1 What reasons does Michelle Stevenson give for her to have an understanding of history?
love of history? Evaluate and create
2 What sort of projects is Michelle Stevenson involved 5 Create a design brief for a historical walking-tour app
with at Museum Victoria? of your school’s local area.
Apply and analyse a What landmarks would you include?
3 What skills do history graduates have that make them b How would you present information in an
sought after in areas such as law and foreign affairs? interesting visual format?
c Write the guide’s commentary for the app.

Overview
The making
of the modern
world
The years from 1750 to 1918 are some of the most
interesting and significant in human history. It was a
time during which our modern world was born. During
the period, enormous changes took place that affected
the way in which people all around the world lived,
worked and thought. It was a period of empire building
that saw the colonisation of new territories such as
Australia. It was also a period of rapid industrialisation
that saw the spread of new technologies and birth of
many new ideas and social movements. These changes
were so dramatic, that they became known as the
Industrial Revolution. Towards the end of the period, in
1914, World War I broke out. By the war’s end in 1918,
the world was a very different place. Once-powerful
empires were broken up and new nations were created
in their place.
7A
What factors shaped the modern
7B
What were the key events of
world from 1750 to 1918? World War I?

chapter
7
Source 1 The invention of the steam engine was one of the most significant events leading to the Industrial Revolution.
It led to the development of many steam-powered engines and machines such as the steam locomotive.
chapter 7 the making of the modern world 229

7.1 Key features of the modern
world from 1750 to 1918
Defining the modern world
Most historians agree that the modern world (also
known as the industrial world) developed from the
1750s onwards. They use the term ‘modern world’ to
describe this period mainly because the developments
that took place from this time onwards are familiar
to people in Western societies today – for example,
systems of law and government still followed in
countries like Australia, Britain and the United States
all took shape at this time. Other examples include:
• the mass production of goods in factories Source 1 Factories such as this one in Vermont, USA, were
(see Source 1) the driving force of the Industrial Revolution. They allowed raw
goods to be manufactured and sold in large quantities. Much of
• the mass movements of people to cities and towns the workforce at the time consisted of young children.
• the establishment of trade unions and workers’
rights and diamonds from Africa; and spices, fabric and
• mass migration of people from across Europe to tea from India.
colonies in the New World In addition to raw materials, the overseas colonies
• the start of rapid transport and mass became valuable markets in which to sell the
communication products manufactured from those raw materials for
• organised public education and schools. a profit (e.g. cloth made from cotton and cigarettes
made from tobacco). In this way, European empires
The expansion of European profited not once, but twice from their colonies
around the world.
empires A comparison of world maps in 1750 and 1900
From the late 16th century onwards, major European reveals how quickly European empires expanded
powers – such as Britain, France, Spain and Portugal their territories over a period of 150 years (see
– all competed to increase their control of new Sources 2 and 3).
territories across the globe – a practice known as Newly formed countries such as Italy and
imperialism. Colonies were valued not only for Germany aggressively looked for colonies at the
the additional power and military advantages they end of the 19th century so that they could compete
could provide, but also because they delivered with the major powers in Europe such as Britain and
access to a range of raw materials like timber, France. This rivalry over colonies around the world
cotton, coal and gold. These materials became the was one of the key factors that contributed to the
driving force behind the development of a range outbreak of World War I in 1914.
of industries in Europe. They also made imperial At the end of World War I in 1918, the British
powers extremely wealthy. Empire reached its peak. By that time, it controlled
Raw materials from colonies across the British approximately a quarter of the world’s population
Empire fuelled the Industrial Revolution. These and land mass. Many of these colonies were vital
materials included wool and gold from Australia; during World War I, as they provided local support
cotton, sugar and tobacco from the Americas; gold and supplies for the British war effort.

7A What factors shaped the modern world from 1750 to 1918?
WORLD: COLONIAL EMPIRES IN 1750
Dutch
British
North Europe
French
Russian America Asia
Pacific
Portuguese
Atlantic Ocean
Spanish Ocean
Danish Africa
Pacific
Ocean
South
America Indian
N Ocean
Australia
0 4000 km
WORLD: 2 COLONIAL EMPIRES IN 1900
Dutch
British
French Europe
Russian North Asia
America
Portuguese
Pacific
Spanish
Atlantic Ocean
German Ocean Africa
American Pacific
Italian Ocean
Belgian South
America Indian
Ocean
N Australia
0 4000 km

1 What is meant by the term ‘modern world’? 4 Examine Sources 2 and 3.
When do most historians agree it began? a List the three European powers that controlled
2 Why were distant colonies such important assets the most overseas colonies in 1750.
to European powers during the 19th century? b List the three European powers that controlled
In what ways did imperial powers profit from them? the most overseas colonies in 1900.
3 What percentage of the world’s total population What changes in European empires and territories took
and land mass did Britain control by 1918? place between 1750 and 1900?
chapter 7 introduction to the industrial revolution 231

7.2 The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution first began in Britain
around 1750. Many historians argue that the
Industrial Revolution was only possible because of a
series of changes in farming practices that paved the
way for the country to increase its population and
improve its production and manufacturing methods.
These changes in farming methods – now referred
to as the Agricultural Revolution – were gradual.
They began in the middle of the 17th century and
continued through the 19th century. Without them,
the Industrial Revolution would not have taken place.
One of the main features of the Agricultural
Revolution was the fencing off of thousands of small
areas of shared common land that had previously
been used by local farmers to grow food. During
the Agricultural Revolution, these smaller areas of
land were joined to create larger farming areas. This Source 1 Textiles industry: the spinning jenny, invented in 1764
process, known as the enclosures, benefited wealthy
Source 2 Manufacturing industry: the steam

hammer, invented in 1840

7B How did technology and industry shape the modern world?
people who were granted rights to farm these larger

areas of land for profit. The enclosures, together
with innovations in farming machinery and animal
breeding, meant that more crops could be grown and
more animals could be raised by far fewer people.
Overall, farming became much more efficient but
this took place at the expense of poor people who
relied on common land for their daily needs.
During the Agricultural Revolution, farm workers
and their families were forced from their homes, and
people moved away from rural villages to towns and
cities in search of work. They became a new class
of workers that fuelled the spread of the Industrial
Revolution. These people provided a much-needed
labour force to operate the new factories and mills in
rapidly expanding cities.
Key inventions and innovations Source 4 Communications industry: the telephone, first
of the Industrial Revolution patented in 1876
Over the course of the Industrial Revolution many to affect others. For example, the development of
industries across Britain underwent a period of coal-powered steam engines led to an increased
huge change. These changes were brought about demand for coal. The expansion of new and deeper
by new inventions (such as machinery) and ways coalmines required better steam engines for the
of organising workers (such as the invention of the pumping machines that removed water from the
factory). The industries in Britain that underwent the bottom of mines. Improved steam engines could
most serious and rapid change included: power hundreds of spinning and weaving machines
and led to the spread of large factories and mills
• the textiles industry – see Source 1 across England. As steam engines developed, they
• the manufacturing industry – see Source 2 also powered new modes of transport, including
• the transport industry – see Source 3 steam-powered trains and ships, and were later used
• the communications industry – see Source 4. to generate electricity.
The first industries that were transformed by

innovations in the Industrial Revolution were related
Living and working conditions
to the production of iron, coal, cotton and wool. Working conditions for British factory and mine
Inventions and new practices in one industry tended workers in particular were harsh and demanding
during the Industrial Revolution. Men, women and
children worked in unsafe conditions and for many
hours – six days a week and up to 16 hours a day.
Through the 19th century, demand for reforms
to regulate working conditions grew louder in
Britain, particularly for child labour. This led to a
series of government inquiries and legislation that
regulated the minimum employment age, wages and
the length of the working week. By the 1870s, for
example, no child under 10 could be employed in
factories and education for children under 10 was
compulsory.
Source 3 Transport industry: the steam train, invented in 1801

Living conditions for factory workers were also • improved public transport allowed workers to
appalling. Many workers lived in slum areas close to live away from factories in the newly developed
the factories where they were employed (see Source 6). suburbs
Families had no choice but to live in overcrowded • street lighting transformed city life, encouraging
conditions, often with no access to fresh water or people to enjoy entertainment at theatres and in
proper sewerage. Consequences of these unhygienic music halls at night.
living conditions included regular outbreaks of
disease, a low life expectancy (just 29 years, in Long-term impacts of the
Liverpool in 1865) and a high infant mortality rate.
Many writers of the time were appalled by the Industrial Revolution in Britain
plight of the working poor whose work seemed The Industrial Revolution had significant impacts
unrewarding and whose lives were cut short by for Britain and its people. It transformed Britain’s
poverty, disease and injury. This period led to calls economy, which became (for a time) the world’s
for social reform and also saw the formation of leading economic and industrial power. Britain’s
workers’ groups, such as trade unions. population quadrupled from an estimated 6.5 million
Towards the end of the period, conditions people in 1750 to more than 27.5 million in 1850 as
improved for many people. Slums were torn down living standards improved and death rates decreased.
to be replaced by new houses that provided heating, Britain changed from an agricultural society to
running water and sewerage systems. There were an urban society, with most people living in towns
also a number of other benefits for workers in cities and cities where work could be found. In the growing
brought about by the Industrial Revolution. For towns and cities, a ‘middle class’ emerged: people
example: who were neither landowners nor workers, such as
• improvements in farming made food cheaper and bankers, shopkeepers, teachers and administrators.
more plentiful Suburbs surrounding the cities later developed.
• mass-produced goods, such as clothing and
furniture, became more affordable
Source 5 This illustration shows a girl employed as a ‘hurrier’ at a coalmine. Her job was to pull heavy coal carts along dark,
narrow tunnels, using a harness and belt.

7B How did technology and industry shape the modern world?
Source 6 People living in a 19th-century London slum. Conditions were often crowded and unsanitary.

1 Why was steam power so important to the Industrial 5 Why would the Industrial Revolution not have been
Revolution? possible without the Agricultural Revolution?
2 Name four industries that underwent rapid change
Evaluate and create
during the Industrial Revolution in Britain.
3 What was the Agricultural Revolution? What effect 6 Working conditions during the Industrial Revolution
did it have on farmers using common land to grow were very different from the way they are today. As
food? a class, share your knowledge of working conditions
4 What happened to the population of Britain as a for men, women and children during the Industrial
result of the Industrial Revolution? Revolution. How do they compare with working
conditions in Australia today?

7.3 World War I
World War I fundamentally changed many • the ways in which the war is commemorated
aspects of Australian government and society. Our (including debates about the nature and
country’s involvement in World War I also played significance of the Anzac legend).
an important part in the development of our idea World War I was a horrific experience for those
of Australia as a nation, and our place in the world. involved. It is estimated that 10 million people
Knowing about the history of Australia at war were killed and 20 million wounded as a result of
helps us to gain a clearer understanding about the actual combat. Although official statistics vary,
world beyond our shores, and about how our own most countries involved suffered horrendous losses.
history, national character and identity developed. There are also civilian casualties to be taken into
Understanding how wars begin is also one of the best consideration. Australia lost over 50 000 soldiers,
ways to prevent them. a huge toll in a population of 4.5 million, it meant
In Depth Study 2: Investigating World War I (1914– over 1 per cent of the population were victims of
1918) you have the opportunity to learn in detail the war.
about: A study of World War I can sometimes be
• the main causes of the war and the reasons why overwhelming given the complexity of the events
men enlisted to fight and number of countries involved. The following
• the places where Australians fought and the tables provide a quick reference to some of the main
nature of warfare (including the Gallipoli issues and events of World War I and Australia’s
campaign) involvement in them. They provide an overview and
• the impact that the war had on Australia and the summary of all content within the depth study and
world (including the changing role of women and can be used to help you navigate the topic and guide
the public debate around compulsory military your understanding of key points.
service, known as conscription)
Source 1 On 25 April 1915, members of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) landed on the beach at Anzac Cove in Turkey with
troops from New Zealand, Britain, and France. This was the first major military action fought by Australian and New Zealand forces
during World War I. Each year it is commemorated on Anzac Day.

Source 2 New weaponry used in World War I, such as machine guns and poisonous gas, changed the nature of warfare from
previous wars.
The causes of World War I, why men enlisted and where Australians fought
Causes of World Topic 9.3 • Long-term factors contributing to the outbreak of conflict in 1914, including nationalism,
War I rivalry over colonies, the arms race in Europe, Europe’s alliance system and military plans
• Events leading to war after the ‘July crisis’, which followed the assassination of Archduke
Franz Ferdinand
Where was Topic 9.7 • Major campaigns involving Australian forces: Gallipoli campaign (Turkey) 1915; campaigns
World War I on the Western Front (France and Belgium) 1916–18; campaigns in the Middle East
fought? 1916–18
Australia’s entry Topic 9.5 • Varied reasons motivated men to enlist, including loyalty to Britain, spirit of adventure,
into World War I the experience of war unknown to most Australians
Significant campaigns and the scope and nature of warfare

The Gallipoli Topic 9.10 • Landing of troops at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915
campaign • Attacks and counter attacks by Anzac and Turkish soldiers over eight months, including
fighting at Lone Pine and the Nek
• Withdrawal of Anzac troops in December 1915
The Western Topic 9.8 • Defensive warfare using machine guns, trenches and barbed wire
Front • Series of attacks and counter-attacks using artillery fire, then infantry charges involving
close fighting with rifles, bayonets and grenades
• Appalling conditions for soldiers living in the trenches
The nature of Topic 9.6 • Theatres of war in World War I: the Middle East, the Western Front and the Eastern Front
warfare in World in Europe, the North Sea, Turkey, northern Africa
War I • New weapons technology – machine guns, heavy artillery, poison gas, tanks, planes and
Zeppelin airships
• New communications technology – telephone, wireless radio
• Both sides evenly matched, resulting in stalemate on the Western front

An overview of the impact of World War I on Australia at home
The Topic 9.14 • During World War I, a decline in enlistments and heavy casualties on the Western Front
conscription caused Prime Minister Billy Hughes to call for two plebiscites (public votes) on compulsory
debate military service (conscription) in 1916 and 1917, with both resulting in a majority of ‘no’ votes
(see Source 4).
• The conscription debate was a hugely divisive issue in Australian society.
Use of Topic 9.14 • During World War I, the government issued pro-conscription and anti-German propaganda,
government including flyers and posters. Propaganda was designed to glorify the efforts of Australian
propaganda soldiers overseas, maintain public anger towards the enemy, motivate people to join the war
effort and regulate their behaviour.
Changing Topic 9.13 • During World War I, women moved into previously male occupations to support the war effort,
roles of with an expectation they would return to domestic roles and traditional occupations after the
women war.
Internment of Topic 9.15 • During World War I, people with German backgrounds or who were born in countries at war
‘enemy aliens’ with Australia were interned (imprisoned) in remote camps to isolate them from the general
public.
War time Topic 9.12 • During World War I, extension of Commonwealth powers allowed the government to collect
controls and income tax, censor media and communications, control the movement of ‘enemy aliens’,
censorship among other war time controls.
Participation Topic 9.5 • During World War I, Indigenous Australians attempting to enlist were initially turned away,
of Aboriginal but by 1916 changes were made so that ‘half-castes’ could enlist. Over 400 Indigenous
and Torres Australians fought in the army, although at this time they could not vote and were not counted
Strait Islander as Australian citizens.
Peoples
Source 3 Tins of Fray Bento and Heinz eaten by soldiers during World War I

Source 4 An Australian
propaganda poster produced
in Australia around 1918.
The poster was designed to
encourage Australians to vote
in favour of compulsory military
service (conscription) in a public
vote that was held in Australia
during the war. The word ‘Hun’
is a derogatory term used to
refer to Germans.

1 How many Australian soldiers died during World 3 In your own words, define the term ‘conscription’.
War I? At the time, what percentage of the Why did the conscription debate in Australia divide
population was this? the public?
2 What is propaganda and why was it used by the
Australian government during World War I?
07_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_FLCX_SI.indd 239 5/05/2017 1:46 PM

7.4 The significance of
World War I
World War I left Europe devastated. In January emerged as a modern, secular republic after the
1919, the victorious nations met at the Paris Peace break-up of the Ottoman Empire.
Conference in France to come up with a plan However, World War I was not only a historically
for rebuilding Europe and ensuring peace in the significant event in Europe. Far way in Australia, the
future. After months of negotiations, the Treaty events and experiences of the war had major effects
of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919. This on our nation’s society and relationships with other
document officially ended World War I and forced countries. Australia had become a nation after
Germany to accept responsibility for starting the Federation in 1901. Unlike many other countries,
conflict. It also ordered Germany to pay reparations such as the United States and France, the founding
to the Allied Powers. of the Australian nation was achieved without the
As a result of the war, the map of Europe was need for revolution. Instead, the Australian people
redrawn. Four major European empires – the Austria– created a nation founded on the principles of
Hungary Empire, the Russian Empire, the German modern democracy through peaceful means. The
Empire and the Ottoman Empire – were broken up events of World War I, such as the ill-fated invasion
and a number of new countries were created in their of the Gallipoli Peninsula in 1915, are often
place. The ruling monarchies of these empires all described as our ‘coming of age’ as a nation and
lost power. The Russian Tsar was overthrown by a our ‘baptism of blood’. In many ways, World War I
communist revolution in 1917; Austria–Hungary provided an opportunity to create a national story
was broken up into a number of newly formed states that expressed our national character and identity.
including Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia; and Turkey
Source 1 A parade of Australian soldiers at the trenches on the Western Front, following capture of Pozières on 23 July 1916

An overview of the significance of the wars to Australia

Impact of the Topic 9.18 • Over 300 000 Australians served overseas during World War I, with around a quarter
wars on returned of a million servicemen returning to Australia at the end of the war. Many returned with
soldiers and physical or psychological injuries. Their care and families’ financial responsibilities fell
civilians on women in the community. The government established a Repatriation Department in
1917 to provide health, compensation, housing and job training for veterans.
Commemorating Topic 9.18 • Commemoration services on Anzac Day and Remembrance Day both linked to World
the war War I
• Aspects of commemoration services still linked to World War I
Different Topic 9.17 • The birth of the Anzac legend and its significance today
perspectives on • Differing perspectives on the place of Gallipoli in defining Australia’s national identity
the Anzac legend
• Differing views on what Australia should most celebrate
Source 1 An Anzac Day parade, commemorating Australian soldiers who fought in World War I and all wars since

1 What European empires disappeared after World 4 Why do you think the Gallipoli campaign has been
War I? described as Australia’s ‘coming of age’ and
2 Why do so many Australians regard the Gallipoli ‘baptism of blood’? Do you think these descriptions
campaign as a significant event? are accurate? Justify your response.
3 What is the Treaty of Versailles?

Depth Study 1: Investigating
the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial
Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid
technological change that took place from around
1750 to 1914. It began in Great Britain before quickly
spreading to Europe and other parts of the world. Huge
developments in farming and manufacturing changed
not only the way things were produced and sold, but
also how people lived and where they worked. The
changes were so significant that they revolutionised many
societies.
The RMS Titanic was one of the most important
achievements of the Industrial Revolution. On 10 April
1912 after more than a century of industrial development,
it set out from England on its maiden voyage to New
York. The night Titanic sank, over 1500 people died.
Like the Industrial Revolution itself, the Titanic was an
immense achievement and a triumph
of technology. It was also a disaster.
8A
What technological innovations
8B
How did the Industrial
led to the Industrial Revolution? Revolution affect the lives of
1 The Industrial Revolution was brought about by a men, women and children?
range of technological, economic and social changes.
1 During this period people gave up farming to find
As a class, brainstorm some examples of each.
work. How do you think this affected their lives?
2 Do you agree that we are in the middle of a digital
2 What do you think living conditions would have
revolution?
been like at the time?

Source 1
8C
chapter
8
The RMS Titanic leaving Southampton, England, on its maiden voyage to New York, 10 April 1912
What were the short- and long-

term impacts of the Industrial
Revolution?
1 Industrialisation had many impacts on society and the
environment. In pairs or small groups, brainstorm as
many changes as you can that were brought about
by the Industrial Revolution – both in the short term
and long term.
chapter 8 the industrial revolution 243

8.1 The Industrial Revolution:
a timeline
A woman using a using a
A woman
spinningspinning
jenny jenny
Brun
1709 1709 the T
Abraham Abraham Darby discovers
Darby discovers how to how to
make cokemakefrom
coke from
coal – acoal
more– a more
efficientefficient fuelproduction
fuel in the in the production
of iron of iron
IsambarI
start
under
1765 1765 1792 1792
1710 1710 w
James Hargreaves’
James Hargreaves’ spinningspinning inventorinventor
William William
Murdoch Murdoch
ThomasThomas
NewcomenNewcomen jenny one
jenny allows allows one worker
worker to to uses
uses coal gascoal
for gas for
builds abuilds
steama engine
steam toengine to make eight
maketimes
eightthe
times the previous
previous house lighting
house lighting
pumpfrom
pump water water from coalmines
coalmines amountamount
of yarn of yarn
1580 1580 1700 1700 1750 1750 1800 1800
1733 1733 1775 1775

John KayJohninvents
Kay invents
the flying
the flying James Watt
James Watt
shuttle,shuttle,
allowingallowing
weaversweavers
to to createscreates an efficient
an efficient 1793 1793
make larger
makesections
larger sections
of fabricof fabric steam engine. Eli Whitney
steam engine. Eli Whitney
invents invents M
1589 1589
William William
Lee invents
Lee invents
the stocking
the stocking
frame, frame, at greater
at greater
speed, speed,
increasing
increasing the cottonthe gin
cotton gin dem
a mechanical
a mechanical
knitting knitting
machine machine
for knitting
for knitting demanddemand
for yarnfor yarn (engine),(engine),
which which
stockings.
stockings.
It playedIt an
played
important
an important
role in role in canlarge
can clean clean large
the early
the
part
early
of the
partIndustrial
of the Industrial
Revolution.
Revolution. quantitiesquantities
of of
raw cottonraw cotton
1779 1779 1811

The flying
Theshuttle
flying introduced a more aefficient
shuttle introduced more efficient Riots
steam-powered
steam-powered
way of weaving.
way of weaving. until 1
mills
mills with with automatic
automatic
weavingweaving
machines machines work
begin tobegin to be built
be built facto
equip
fearin
repla
peop
know
A stocking frame, frame,

A stocking
c. 1770c. 1770
Source 1 A timeline of the key events of the Industrial Revolution

8A What technological innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?
Brunel’sBrunel’s
engineering feat: feat:
engineering The steamship
The steamship
Great Eastern laying the
Great Eastern firstthe first The Brooklyn
laying Bridge under
The Brooklyn Bridge under
the Thames tunnel tunnel
the Thames successful AtlanticAtlantic
successful cable cable construction, c. 1878c. 1878
construction,
1883 1883 1908 1908

1825 1825 1866 1866
the firstthe first 10-storey
10-storey Henry
Henry Ford Ford uses
uses
IsambardIsambard
Kingdom Kingdom
Brunel Brunel first first transatlantic
transatlantic
skyscraper
skyscraper is built is built a production
a production line line
starts building
starts building a tunnela tunnel telegraph telegraph
in Chicagoin Chicago
and and 1903 1903
1839 1839 cable iscable
laid is laid (assembly
(assembly line) line)
under
under the the Thames
Thames River; River; the longest the brothers
the longest the Wright Wright brothers
to produce
to produce the the
work is work
completed the world’s
is completed the world’s first screw-
first screw-
suspension
suspension bridge bridge carry
carry out the out the
Ford Ford
Model Model
T T
in 1842in 1842 propelled propelled
steamship, steamship,
at thisthe
at this time, time, the first powered
first powered
SS Archimedes,
SS Archimedes, is built is built
Brooklyn Brooklyn heavier-than-air
Bridge Bridge heavier-than-air flight flight
in GreatinBritain
Great Britain
in New in NewisYork, is
York,
completed completed
1800 1850 1850 1900 1900 1915 1915
1885 1885
1863 1863 Karl BenzKarluses
Benz anuses an
bulk
bulk steel steel creation
creation is madeispossible
made possible internal internal
combustion
combustion 1912 1912
3 1821 1821 throughthrough the open-hearth
the open-hearth processprocess engine in the first
engine in the first the Titanic,
the Titanic, then thethen the
s MichaelMichael
FaradayFaraday createdcreated by Siemens-Martin;
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demonstrates the of steel of steel combined
combined with reinforced
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enablesenables the construction
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Alexander Bell Bell icebergiceberg in the north-west
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e electric electric
motor motor of skyscrapers
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his ‘acoustic
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f telegraph’, or telephone
telegraph’, or telephone sinks;people
sinks; 1517 1517 people
die die
n
1811 1811
Riots lasting
Riots begin, begin, lasting
untilin1815,
until 1815, whichin which Check your learning 8.1
workersworkers
smash up smash up
factories
factories and and Remember and understand Evaluate and create
equipment
equipment in protest,
in protest,
fearing fearing
machines machines
will will 1 What was the ‘flying shuttle’ used for, 4 Conduct some Internet research to find
replacereplace them. These
them. These and when was it invented? out the dates of some other significant
people people
becomebecome 2 When was the first transatlantic telegraph inventions and discoveries that occurred
known known as Luddites.
as Luddites. during the Industrial Revolution. Add these
cable laid?
events to a new timeline in your notebook.
Apply and analyse
3 Using the timeline, calculate how many
years there were between when the first
steam engine was invented and the first
aeroplane flight.

8.2 The Industrial Revolution
in Britain
Britain before 1750
Before 1750, Britain was an
agricultural society. Around 80 per
cent of people at the time lived
and worked on small farms in
rural areas. Most farms harvested
small crops each year and raised
small herds of livestock (such
as sheep and cattle). Despite the
small scale of most English farms,
agriculture was still the main
Source 1 A 19th-century artist’s impression of rural life in Britain before the
economic activity in Britain.
By comparison, manufacturing,
mining and trade employed relatively few people in
Britain. For the most part, manufacturing was small and The Industrial Revolution begins
localised. Tools used in the manufacture of most goods During the Industrial Revolution, Britain’s population
(such as carts, mills and looms) were basic and powered quadrupled from an estimated 6.5 million people in 1750
by people, animals or waterwheels that harnessed the to around 32.5 million in 1900. This increase was mainly
power of fast-flowing rivers and streams. a result of improved living standards and declining death
Towns and villages at the time were small and self- rates. The population of Britain moved from rural to
contained. Roads linking villages were poor and most urban communities, and Britain was transformed through
people travelled on foot or by horse. In fact, Britain’s the development of:
road system had not improved much since the fall of the • factories and textile mills – the Industrial Revolution
Roman Empire, around 1300 years earlier. As a result, led to thousands of new factories and mills being
most people rarely travelled far from the places where built across Britain. These factories relied on large
they lived and worked. numbers of workers and machinery to manufacture
In most cases, the working day began at sunrise and massive quantities of goods in one place. The growth
ended at sunset. People’s diets were inadequate and of factories and textile mills transformed Britain’s
average life expectancy was short. Illness was common economy and society.
because of poor hygiene, bad or non-existent sewage • modern towns and cities – great industrial and
systems, and polluted water supplies. commercial cities like London and Manchester grew
British society was divided into strict social classes as people moved to towns and cities to work at the
according to wealth and position based on birth. The new factories, mills and metal foundries. Before the
aristocratic (noble) families made up only 1 per cent Industrial Revolution, 80 per cent of the population
of the population but controlled about 15 per cent lived in the countryside and only 20 per cent in
of Britain’s wealth. Noble gentlemen did not involve cities. Industrialisation reversed this pattern.
themselves in farming, trades or professions. Instead, By 1850, 80 per cent of people in Britain were
they invested much of their wealth in land. living in a major city or town and only 20 per cent
There is no single event that marks the beginning remained on the land.
of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, but the • new sources of power – the development of steam
industries that first experienced it were connected power and electricity transformed the manufacturing,
with the production of iron, coal, cotton and wool. agricultural transport and communications industries,
having a major impact on people’s everyday lives.

Supplies of coal became

35.44
vital to fuel steam engines 35 34.1
33.84
and, later, electrical power 33.4 33.3
34.0
34.4 34.23 33.39
32.36
stations. 33.3
Per thousand of population

31.7
31.1 32.0
• improved transport and 30.5
31.43
communications – as the 30 29.7

27.5 28.8
population grew, towns 28.2
27.9
became linked by new canals, 26.7
26.7
25.65
roads and railway lines. 25.0
25
New modes of transport
23.14
were also invented to replace
21.65
horse-drawn carriages (see Birth rate
Death rate 20.33
Source 3). As travelling 20.80
20 19.98
conditions improved, people
1700 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1800 10 20 30 40
travelled more and lived
Year
less isolated lives. Later, new
Source 2 Population change in Britain, 1700–1840
communication technologies
like telegraph and telephone
systems were also introduced. Check your learning 8.2
The growth of cities and industries also saw the emergence of a new
social class that became known as the ‘middle class’. This new group Remember and understand
of people came from a broad range of backgrounds and were neither 1 When and where did the Industrial
wealthy aristocratic landowners nor impoverished factory workers. Revolution begin?
Instead, they included wealthy industrialists and merchants, as well 2 List five key features of British society
as bankers, shopkeepers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, and the increasing in the century before the Industrial
number of managers, clerks and government officials. People earning Revolution began.
middle-class salaries could afford fine clothing, furniture, ceramics and
other household items. It was this class of people that drove the demand Apply and analyse
for mass-produced consumer goods. They also drove the need for more 3 Write a paragraph explaining how life
schools, universities and libraries. The political power of the British changed for British people between
middle class increased throughout the 1800s. the mid-1700s and the late 1800s.
4 Using Source 2, describe the
changes that took place in Britain
from 1700 to 1840.
5 Before the Industrial Revolution,
80 per cent of people lived and
worked on the land. How had this
trend changed by 1850?
Evaluate and create

6 Historians still argue about why
Britain became such a powerhouse
of the Industrial Revolution, while other
European countries were slower to
modernise. The Netherlands and
France were two other countries
that might have had an Industrial
Revolution first. Conduct some Internet
research to identify some of the
Source 3 This painting from 1831, The Progress of Steam, A View in reasons why this didn’t happen.
Regent Park 1831, humorously shows suggested replacements for horse-
drawn carriages.

8.3 Why the Industrial Revolution
began in Britain
One of the key factors that led to the start of the superior naval strength ensured that it succeeded
Industrial Revolution in Britain was its authority and in becoming the dominant imperial power, despite
wealth as an empire. the loss of many of its American colonies in the
American War of Independence in 1783.
By 1900, the British Empire had expanded to cover
Rise of the British Empire around a quarter of the Earth’s surface and ruled over a
The expansion of the British Empire took place in quarter of the world’s population (see Source 1). Many of
two phases: Britain’s colonies provided the raw materials, workforce
• The first phase was the establishment of the earliest (in the form of slaves) and customers needed to drive the
British colonies in North America in the 1600s. Industrial Revolution. Britain controlled more colonies,
Over the next 200 years, Britain, France, Spain, and therefore had access to more raw materials than
the Dutch and Portuguese all laid claims to any other country, including sugar from Australia and
new territories around the world, including the the West Indies, wool from Australia and New Zealand,
Americas, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. cotton and tea from India, rubber from Malaya, gold
from Australia and South Africa, coffee from Jamaica
• The second phase was linked to a series of wars
and Africa, wheat from Australia and Canada, and
fought between the European powers in the 18th
timber from the vast pine forests of Canada.
century and early part of the 19th century. Britain’s
WORLD: BRITISH EMPIRE 1900
AR CT IC O C E AN
UNITED
KINGDOM CANADA
& IRELAND
AT LA NT IC
OCEA N
EGYPT PACIF IC
INDIAN BAHAMAS
EMPIRE O C E AN BR. HONDURAS
NIGERIA BR.WEST INDIES
UGANDA BR. GUIANA
BR. EAST AFRICA MALDIVES
SOLOMON ISLANDS
I N D I AN
ATLANTI C
OCEAN
OCEA N
AUSTRALIAN
COLONIES
CAPE COLONY LEGEND
The British Empire NEW ZEALAND
in 1900 FALKLAND IS
0 2000 4000 km

Source 2 Britain relied
heavily on a strong navy
and experienced fleets of
merchant trading ships.
Other factors
In addition to the power of the British Empire, England – such as banking, investment and insurance
historians have proposed a range of reasons why Britain – expanded to support and protect that trade. Britain’s
was the first country to experience the Industrial banking sector was more advanced and modern than
Revolution and why it became the world's leading those of other European countries. There was a ready
economic and industrial power for a time. The answer supply of capital (money) available at very low rates of
lies in a combination of factors related to Britain’s interest. This meant that money was available to start
history, geography and culture. Some of these are up new businesses and pay for experiments to develop
discussed briefly below: new inventions. Two of the key inventions of the
• Britain’s coal supplies – Britain was fortunate to have Industrial Revolution, the steamship and the telegraph,
large supplies of coal, a vital fuel for the steam power were important in helping Britain administer their
that drove the Industrial Revolution. None of the colonies around the world.
other European powers had such large quantities of
accessible coal.
• naval power and trading power – as an island nation,
Britain had always relied on skilled sailors, a strong
navy and experienced fleets of merchant ships. Its
largest merchant trading company was the East India 1 List the main changes that took place across
Company (EIC). At its peak, the EIC rivalled many Britain between 1750 and 1850.
smaller European powers in terms of wealth and 2 Why were large coal deposits in Britain so
influence. significant during the Industrial Revolution?
• individual freedom and the capitalist spirit – unlike 3 What was the name of the largest British merchant
many of the other European powers, there was trading company?
a greater measure of individual and intellectual 4 List three colonies under British rule and the
freedom in Britain. These freedoms provided a fertile raw materials they provided to fuel the growth
ground for those willing to try new methods and of industries in Britain during the Industrial
take risks. In other parts of Europe, government Revolution?
restrictions and less individual freedom limited
opportunity. Apply and analyse
• stable government – before the start of the Industrial 5 What percentage of the Earth’s surface was under
Revolution, Britain had enjoyed a prolonged period British rule by 1900?
without much political or social conflict, compared 6 Use Source 1 and your own research online to
to many other countries in Europe. This sense answer the following: By 1900, 25 per cent of the
of stability and order encouraged the growth of world’s total population was ruled by the British.
business. How many people was this?
• superior banking system and capital for investment
– increased trade meant that financial services in

8.4 Developments in agriculture
From the mid-1600s, changes in farming and or stone walls. This meant that local famers could
agriculture across Britain paved the way for the no longer graze their animals or farm the land (see
Industrial Revolution. Many historians believe that Source 1). Other land, which until then had been
without these changes industrialisation would not known as ‘waste land’, was also enclosed. By 1790,
have been possible from 1750 onwards. The changes three-quarters of all farming land in Britain was
that took place in agriculture were brought about by enclosed by wealthy landlords. These landlords then
demands for more food to support Britain’s growing rented this land to tenant farmers.
population. Collectively, these changes are referred to The process caused a great deal of social unrest as
as the Agricultural Revolution. many poor people were forced off the land they had
During the Agricultural Revolution, forests were farmed free of charge for generations. Many flooded into
cleared, grazing pastures were turned over to crop the cities and became part of the new industrial working
growing, and low-lying marshes were drained to classes, while others sought new lives abroad.
grow even more crops. Small plots of farmland were
consolidated into larger, more efficient fields under the
enclosures. As a result, over 100 years Britain increased
Crop rotation
its farmlands by 30 per cent. Despite the hardship it caused for many poor farmers,
For the first time, agriculture became a business. the new commercial approach to farming led to
Instead of just growing food to eat, farms began improved management of the crops. For centuries,
producing surplus amounts of food with the goal of farmers had practised a process known as crop rotation,
selling it for profit. Landowners which involved leaving a field
began investing more money fallow (unused) for a period
in better livestock, fences and in order to avoid exhausting
farming equipment. They also the soil. However, in 1730 a
moved to growing high-yield landowner by the name of
crops such as wheat and barley. Charles Townshend introduced
Improved farming techniques a new method of crop rotation
and equipment led to increases on his farm that became known
in crop production. For example, as the ‘four-field system’. He
the amount of wheat produced grew wheat in the first field,
in Britain increased by 75 per barley in the second, root
cent between 1700 and 1800. vegetables (such as carrots and
turnips) in the third and clover
in the fourth. Each season,
The enclosures the crops were rotated (shifted
More than 4000 Enclosure around), which meant that no
Acts (laws) were passed by field was left fallow and the
the British Parliament during soil in each field was kept high
the Agricultural Revolution. in minerals and nutrients (like
These Acts transferred areas nitrogen). Wheat and barley
of common land that had were harvested for humans,
previously been worked by while the fallow period was now
small groups of local farmers replaced by clover, which could
into the hands of private be used for grazing animals.
landowners. These smaller The development of the four-
areas of land were then joined field system earned Charles
together to create large farms Source 1 Stone walls like these were built to
Townshend the nickname
that were enclosed by hedges enclose what was once common land. Turnip Townshend.

Improved farm machinery keyconcept: Empathy

and methods
The effects of the enclosures
By the early to mid-1800s, new farming machinery
By applying the key concept of empathy, historians
was in use. There were new mechanical drills for
planting seed, reaping machines for harvesting crops are able to understand the effects of the enclosures
(see Source 2) and threshing machines to separate the from the point of view of all those involved. While
valuable grain from the stalks of wheat and barley many wealthy landowners saw the enclosures as
plants. These machines made farming more efficient a way of increasing productivity and profits, many
and increased the profits that could be earned from thousands of ordinary farmers in Britain saw them
the land. Each year, the amount of land that could be as the destruction of their way of life. The enclosures
prepared, farmed and harvested in a season increased. denied them access to the lands that had supported
By the 1840s, fertilisers were widely used, once again their families for centuries and in many cases their
raising the productivity of the land. property was destroyed. Some landlords permitted
Along with improvements in crop production came their tenants to dismantle their houses and take the
improvements in animal breeding and rearing. From the wood away to build elsewhere. Others simply burned
late 1700s onwards, the agriculturalist Robert Bakewell the homes and property of their tenants.
began selective breeding of livestock on his property. Between 1775 and 1850, over 25 000 Scots were
He developed a new breed of quick-fattening sheep with forced from their homes in the Highlands of Scotland
finer wool and tastier meat, called the New Leicester. by landowners wanting to enclose the land. This
Bakewell also bred cattle for beef production. His ideas process became known as the ‘Highland Clearances’.
produced stronger animals that were noted for their These farmers were left homeless and without the
larger size and better quality. ability to grow their own food (see Source 3).
Source 3
Their wretchedness was so great that [they] …
were obliged to subsist upon broth made of
nettles, thickened with a little oatmeal. Those
who had cattle [resorted to] bleeding them
and mixing the blood with oatmeal, which they
afterwards cut into slices and fried.
James Loch, The Sutherland Improvements, 1820
For more information on the key concept of empathy,
Source 2 Cyrus McCormick’s reaping machine of 1831 refer to page 208 of ‘The history toolkit’.
led to huge improvements in how grain was harvested.

1 What did the ‘enclosure’ of land mean? 6 The Enclosure Acts resulted in improvements in
2 Approximately how many Acts did the British the farming industry, but it also led to a number
Parliament pass that related to enclosure in the of social problems for farmers who had previously
1700s and 1800s? had free access to land. With a partner, write and
3 What innovation led to Charles Townshend’s role play a conversation between a landowner who
nickname Turnip Townshend? Why was this has benefited from the Enclosure Acts and a farmer
innovation important? who has lost both land and income as a result of
4 What was Robert Bakewell known for? the Enclosure Acts. In this conversation, ensure
each person describes and explains the effect the
Apply and analyse Enclosure Acts have had on their lives and livelihood.
5 Write a short paragraph explaining how new
machinery affected the harvesting of crops.

8.5 Developments in cotton,
wool and iron production
Some of the most important developments and
innovations of the Industrial Revolution took place
in the production of cotton, wool, coal and iron.
However, arguably the most important ‘invention’
of the Industrial Revolution was not a single item
of equipment or technology at all. Instead, it was a
way of producing goods on a large scale using many
workers and specialised machinery on one site. This
method of production became known as the factory
system.
The factory system

Before the introduction of the factory system,
manufacturing often took place in small workshops
or in local workers’ cottages (hence the term ‘cottage
industries’). Local trades and crafts people such as
blacksmiths, wheelwrights (wheel makers), cartwrights
(cart makers), potters, millers and weavers used their
skills, muscle power or water power to largely hand-make
items. In contrast, the factory system brought together Source 1 Arkwright’s water frame
large numbers of workers in a single site or factory.
from one side of the width of the loom to the other.
Few of these workers were skilled because most of the
This was especially useful for very wide looms. Weavers
manufacturing was done by machines. Instead, the
could produce cloth much more quickly, increasing the
many workers performed tasks that were repetitive and
demand for spun yarn.
required little skill. The machines were powered at first
by water with waterwheels, then by steam and next by
electricity. The factory system itself was made possible
The spinning jenny
by a combination of the technological innovations and The spinning jenny, a machine invented by James
knowledge that emerged during this period. Hargreaves in 1765, helped increase the supply of yarn. It
could spin eight threads at once, whereas the traditional
Cotton and wool production spinning wheel could only spin one thread at a time.
The first factories of the Industrial Revolution were The water frame
cotton mills. Inventions such as the flying shuttle, The water frame, invented by Richard Arkwright in
spinning jenny, water frame (Source 1) and Crompton’s 1768, was a spinning frame that improved on James
mule (Source 2) in Britain paved the way for the mass Hargreaves’ invention, as it could be powered by a
production of cotton and wool. waterwheel and produce yarns of any type.
The flying shuttle Crompton’s mule

The flying shuttle, invented by John Kay in 1733, Crompton’s mule was invented in 1779 by Samuel
introduced a more efficient way of weaving on hand- Crompton by combining the spinning jenny’s carriage
looms. It only required one weaver to shoot the yarn and the water frame’s rollers. It allowed a single power

BRITAIN: TEXTILE PRODUCTION AND COALFIELDS,

EARLY 19TH CENTURY
LEGEND
Coalfield
Textile production
Canal
Navigable river
Railway
Glasgow Edinburgh
Source 2 Crompton’s mule

Newcastle
source to spin multiple machines, and worked with
wool or cotton yarns. However, it still required a
skilled weaver to operate. These spinning mules
Leeds
were developed further so they could be operated
by unskilled workers. Steam power was later applied Liverpool
Manchester
Sheffield
to the spinning mules for use in cotton-spinning
factories.
By the middle of the 1760s, Britain had become Birmingham
the centre of cotton production, importing raw
cotton from India and the United States. The raw
N
cotton went to the mills where machines were used Cardiff Bristol London
to spin the raw cotton into yarn, and then weave the
0 150 km Brighton
yarn into cloth. The very first mills were powered Exeter
by waterwheels, so they needed to be located close
to strong-flowing rivers and streams. After the
development of steam power, mill owners were able Source 3
0270_SAL_BAH3 Industrial
Source: Oxford Britain
University Press
to build mills in cities – closer to a constant supply 7-10-11 1800s
of workers and potential customers.
As a result of these developments, over time the
skills of traditional weavers (see Source 4) were no
longer needed. Weavers were replaced by workers
who were only required to feed the raw cotton or
cotton yarn into machines. Many mill owners,
keen for increased profits, wanted their machines
running all of the time. This meant long working
hours – up to 16-hour working days – and shift work
for labourers. Because mill workers did not need to
be skilled, women and young children became part
of the workforce as they were cheaper to employ.
Overall, conditions for workers during the first
decades of the Industrial Revolution were poor.
Brutally long hours for low pay, in badly lit and
uncomfortable conditions became commonplace.
Although harsh working conditions for the men,
women and children working in factories and
mines were common, there were also exceptions.
For example, at the cotton mills operated by Robert
Owen in New Lanark in Scotland, the children of Source 4 Weavers originally worked from their homes, using their
workers were well cared for and educated. own looms, rather than in factories.

Iron production giant panes of glass. By this time, British pig-iron
production was 2.25 million tonnes, 18 times as much
Before the Industrial Revolution, iron producers had as in 1796. Similarly, the French put iron to use in 1889
to heat (smelt) the iron ore (rock) to extract the raw building Gustave Eiffel’s famous tower (see Source 6).
metal or ‘pig iron’ from it. Generating the necessary The Eiffel Tower is an iron lattice structure created as
heat to smelt the iron ore required charcoal, but the centrepiece of the 1889 World’s Fair in Paris. It is
making charcoal was time-consuming and demanded 324 metres tall – as high as an 81-storey building – and
large quantities of wood. Because of this, wood remained the tallest structure in the world until 1930.
supplies across Britain were dwindling. In 1709,
Abraham Darby, an iron producer at Coalbrookdale
in Derbyshire, England (see Source 5), found a way to
bake coal to make a substance known as coke. Coke
was a new, smokeless fuel that burned much hotter
than ordinary coal. Quickly, coke replaced charcoal
as the fuel used to smelt iron ore. Iron foundries were
established near coalfields (rather than forests), and the
iron and coal industries became strongly linked.
Other innovations also made the smelting process
more efficient. In 1784, iron producer Henry Cort was
able to combine two processes, known as ‘puddling’
and ‘rolling’, which made the large-scale production
of pig iron possible. The amount of pig iron smelted
in Britain rose from 25 000 tonnes in 1728 to 60 000
tonnes in 1788. By 1796, Britain was producing
125 000 tonnes.
As production increased, new uses were found for
iron. Iron utensils such as knives and forks became
common, as did iron pots and pans for household
kitchens. Iron was also used as a building material
in factories and houses, transforming the design of
buildings. For example, in 1851, London’s Crystal
Palace had a roof and walls made of iron frames and Source 6 The Eiffel Tower under construction, 1889
Source 5 Coalbrookdale ironworks operating at night, 1801 Source 7 Foundry workers using a large steam hammer to
shape red-hot iron, Manchester, England, 1832

The development of the

steam engine
The invention of the steam engine revolutionised
manufacturing and transport, and was later used to
generate electricity. Coal supplies were vital to fuel the
Industrial Revolution, and the ever-increasing demand
for coal led to the opening of new mines and the
deepening of older mines. The digging of deeper mines
in turn required better pumping systems to keep water
from flooding lower levels. Two inventors, Thomas
Savery (around 1698) and Thomas Newcomen (around
1710) developed early steam engines to pump water
from mines.
While repairing a Newcomen steam engine,
engineer James Watt realised that he could greatly
increase its efficiency. Watt did not invent the steam
engine but in 1769, he developed an improved version
that was more practical and powerful. In 1775, Watt
formed a partnership with Matthew Boulton to
manufacture the new steam engines (see Source 8).
Over the next 25 years, their firm manufactured almost
500 steam engines. They were used not only in the
mining industry, but also in cotton-spinning factories,
flour mills, breweries and sugar cane crushing mills
around the country. Source 8 James Watt’s steam engine for pumping water
from mines

Remember and understand 8 Why was James Watt’s invention so important at this
1 What were some of the problems with using charcoal time in history?
in the process of extracting iron from iron ore? 9 In your opinion, which of the four inventions
2 What is coke, and what difference did it make to the discussed was the most important for the textile
iron-making process? industry in Britain? Justify your response.
3 Name some of the new uses and products that Evaluate and create
developed from the availability of mass-produced 10 Create a poster that shows how new inventions
iron. transformed the textile industry during the Industrial
4 What was one of the major reasons for the increase Revolution. Make sure you include labelled diagrams
in demand for coal during the 1700s? or illustrations.
5 List three effects of the increased demand for coal 11 Imagine you are an 80-year-old weaver in the late
during the 1700s and early 1800s. 1700s. Write a short account of how your life and
6 Why was the cotton industry regarded as a ‘cottage work practices have changed over your lifetime
industry’ prior to the Industrial Revolution? because of new inventions in the textile industry.
Apply and analyse
7 Explain why the iron production and coal-mining
industries became so closely linked during the
Industrial Revolution.

8.6 Developments
in transport
At the start of the Industrial Revolution,
transport in Britain was slow and costly,
regardless of whether people travelled by
road, river or sea. From 1750 onwards,
growing numbers of wealthy merchants
and industrialists started demanding
quicker and cheaper forms of transport
to move coal to their factories, ship their
products to markets and speed up travel
between cities. As a result, a number of
new inventions and improvements were
made in the area of transport.
New inventions Source 1 The original Stephenson’s ‘Rocket’ locomotive,

from 1829, now housed at the Science Museum in London
Steam locomotives
The first steam locomotive was built by English Steamships
engineer Richard Trevithick in 1801. Unlike The first commercial steamship was developed by an
modern locomotives, it was driven on roads American named Robert Fulton in 1807. Like the steam
rather than rails. In 1804, Trevithick was the locomotive, the steamship went through many different
first person to drive a steam locomotive on the designs and improvements over the next 100 years.
rails of a tramway. For example, the more resilient screw propellers were
The first locomotive built
and used for commercial
purposes was known as
the Stephenson’s Rocket.
It was invented by George
Stephenson (see Source 1)
in 1829 and remains one
of the most famous steam
locomotives. From this point
on, the designs of steam
locomotives became more
sophisticated. They also
became far more powerful
and capable of reaching
greater speeds.
Source 2 The launch of SS

Great Britain in Bristol in 1843

developed to replace the easily damaged The internal combustion engine also allowed for the
paddle wheels of the early steam ships. development of an engine that would be light yet strong enough
By 1838, ships were crossing the Atlantic to power flying machines. American brothers Wilbur and Orville
Ocean driven purely by steam power. In Wright used a petrol engine connected to two propellers fitted onto
1843, the great British engineer Isambard a wooden glider to fly for 59 seconds in 1903. Powered flight was to
Kingdom Brunel (see the Significant develop rapidly, triggered by World War I.
Individual section on pages 260–261)
launched the SS Great Britain, the first iron-
hulled steamship with a screw propeller
designed to cross oceans. Steamships
quickly began to replace sailing ships as the
preferred means of ocean-going transport.
Although their cargo space was reduced
by the large amount of space required for
storing coal, they were faster and more
reliable.
The internal combustion engine

While the steam engine was useful for
factories, trains and ships, it was too large
to use in smaller businesses and smaller
vehicles. In 1859, Belgian engineer Etienne
Lenoir developed an engine that sucked
coal gas and air into a cylinder, where it
was ignited by a spark, pushing down a
metal piston that turned a wheel. This
invention became the basis for the internal
combustion engine – the same engine that Source 3 The world’s first motorcycle built by Gottlieb Daimler, 1855
is used in all modern cars and engines.
German engineers Gottlieb Daimler
and Wilhelm Maybach experimented with
an engine that used a new fuel, which later
became known as gasoline or petrol. Daimler
first used it in 1885 to power a wooden bike
called the Daimler Reitwagen (see Source 3).
A year later, another German designer and
engineer named Karl Benz patented the
world’s first petrol-powered car known as the
Benz Patent-Motorwagen (see Source 4).
As internal combustion engines became
more reliable and powerful, cars became more
and more common. At first, private cars were
painstakingly built by hand. Their high cost
meant they became the toys of the very rich.
It was not until 1908 that Henry Ford made
the dream of owning a car possible for the
common people. He did this by adapting
the factory system to create an affordable
car known as the Ford Model T. By using an
assembly-line technique with a sequence of
specialised workers who repeated the same
task on a series of components, he was able to Source 4 The first Benz motorcar, 1886
produce cars much more cheaply and quickly.

Other transport improvements and innovations
As new modes of transport became available, demand Railways added a whole new phase to the Industrial
for new and improved roads, bridges, canals, and Revolution. In 1830, a new track linking the Manchester
railway lines grew rapidly. cotton industry to the port of Liverpool opened to
transport goods for export. This was the first railway to
Improved roads and bridges link two major cities. Throughout the 1830s and 1840s,
In the early 1700s, most roads in Britain were built the building of rail tracks and strong, iron bridges for new
and maintained by local inhabitants who carried out train routes meant that iron production doubled at this
repairs only when absolutely necessary. This meant time.
that most roads outside London were in very poor Development of railways in Britain grew rapidly, with
condition. A few roads were managed by turnpike trusts permission for the construction of 438 new lines granted
– agencies that collected fees from travellers in return by parliament between 1844 and 1846. More workers
for keeping the roads in good condition (see Source 7). were needed in the iron factories to meet railway orders,
By the early 1800s, pressure from industrialists such and another 200 000 men were employed, just for laying
as Josiah Wedgwood (ceramics), John Wilkinson (iron) railway tracks. By 1848, over 40 million train journeys
and Matthew Boulton (coin minting) led to a dramatic were made in Britain.
increase in the number of turnpike trusts. By the 1830s Before the Industrial Revolution, the journey from
there were more than 1000 such trusts. As a result, roads London to Edinburgh – just over 640 kilometres – took
improved and travel times decreased. between 10 and 12 days by horse-drawn coach. By 1836,
As roads improved, demand for more reliable and the travel time had dropped to just under two days by
convenient ways of crossing rivers grew. In 1779, train. By 1850 – when all of Britain was linked by rail –
Abraham Darby began building the world’s first cast-iron this had dropped to around 12 hours (see Source 6).
bridge to link a small mining town with nearby factories Travel for holidays became more common and some
in the town of Coalbrookdale. A toll was charged for commodities became more readily available. These
using the bridge which became known as the Iron Bridge included fresh flowers and milk, delivered to London on
(see Source 5). The bridge became famous in 1795 when it early morning ‘milk trains’ from Cornwall and Devon
remained standing after a major flood. After that, many in the south-west.
more bridges were built using iron rather than stone.
Source 6 Changes in travel times (in hours) between London
and other key cities, 1836 and 1850
Railways
CITY 1836 1850
The world’s first railway line was built in 1825 between Edinburgh 43 12.5
the coalfields in Darlington and the seaport of Stockton Liverpool 24 6.6
in north-east England. It combined two innovations – Exeter 18 4.75
the steam engine (formerly used to pump water from Birmingham 11 3
mines) and rail-mounted mining trucks (formerly pulled Brighton 6 1.25
by horses).
Source 5 This bridge in the town of Ironbridge, England, Source 7 An artist’s impression of Tyburn Turnpike in London
designed by Thomas Pritchard and built by Abraham Darby in in 1813 showing the toll house and a toll being collected from
1779, is the world’s first iron structure. a horseman passing through the gate

Initially, barges pulled by horses walking beside

canals transported crops from the country the city and
manufactured goods from the city back to the country.
The canals were also used to move coal and other heavy
goods, replacing the slower method of coastal shipping.
As the high price of coal was mainly due to the costs of
moving it (rather than mining it), new canals caused
the price of coal to drop by half. The new lower price
fed even faster growth in cotton mills. Cheaper coal
transport also dropped the price of cotton weaving,
increasing the profits for mill owners.
Source 8 The Forth Railway Bridge in east Scotland under

construction. By the time of its completion in 1890, it was the
longest bridge of its kind. Check your learning 8.6
Just like roads, these new railway lines required Remember and understand
strong, reliable bridges that could carry locomotives and 1 How did developments in the use of canals lead to
their cargo across wide rivers and gorges. The designs a drop in coal prices?
of iron bridges – already being used to carry cars and 2 Use the information provided to answer the
other small vehicles – were modified so they would be following:
strong enough to carry much larger, heavier loads over a How were roads maintained in Britain before
larger distances (see Source 8). The surge in demand for the Industrial Revolution?
these types of railway bridges in turn led to increased
b What led to better upkeep of roads during the
demand for iron production.
early 1800s?
c Where and when was the world’s first railway
Canals line built?
Over 100 canals were dug across Britain from 1760 to 3 What commodities became more easily available
1820, linking the major rivers and creating a transport
as a result of improvements to the railway network
network for the transportation of food and freight. One
in Britain?
of the longest canals was the Liverpool to Leeds canal at
4 How were ships powered prior to steam power?
204 kilometres long. Work on it was begun in 1770 and
finished in 1816. Apply and analyse
5 What evidence is there in Source 2 to suggest
that the launch of the SS Great Britain was a
significant historical event? In groups, construct a
list of modern events that you believe to be equally
significant. Discuss your lists as a class and decide
which characteristics or impacts of both events
make them significant.
6 Why was steam power regarded as ‘more reliable’
than earlier forms of transport? What role did it
play in furthering the Industrial Revolution?
Evaluate and create

7 Conduct some additional online research in order
to design a poster advertising the advantages and
benefits of one of the following inventions:
• the Stephenson’s Rocket
• the Daimler Reitwagen
Source 9 Canals, such as this one in Leeds, played an • Benz Patent-Motorwagen.
important role linking mills with the sources of their raw materials.

8.7 Significant individual:
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
Isambard Kingdom Brunel was a British engineer,
builder and inventor who lived during the Industrial
Revolution. During his lifetime, Brunel worked on the
first-ever tunnel under the River Thames; engineered
the Great Western Railway, along with all its bridges
and tunnels; and designed the world's first iron-
hulled, steam-powered and propeller-driven ship. For
these reasons he is often described as one of the most
significant individuals in British history.
Early life
Brunel was born in 1806 in the town of Portsmouth
in south-east England. His father was a French civil
engineer who taught him technical drawing and
observational techniques from the age of four. When
Brunel was 15, his father was sent to prison for failing
to pay debts of more than £5000. After three months,
however, the British government ended up paying off
his debts to keep him from offering his engineering
skills to the Russians.
Although Brunel received a traditional education,
his main hobby was building model boats. After
completing an apprenticeship as a clockmaker in
France, Brunel returned to Britain, where he worked
with his father on a ground-breaking engineering Source 1 Isambard Kingdom Brunel, in front of the launching
project – the Thames Tunnel – a railway line under chains of the SS Great Eastern, c. 1850
the river. This project was plagued by accidents and
challenging engineering problems, but eventually
resulted in success. It also provided many opportunities might be embarrassed or shackled by recording or
for Brunel to develop his skills. registering as law the prejudices or errors of today.’
At the age of 27, Brunel was appointed the chief
Bridges and railways engineer for the Great Western Railway, whose tracks
eventually stretched 230 kilometres from London to
Although there was strong competition from other Exeter. Brunel surveyed the route himself in order to
engineers, the young Brunel’s plans for the Clifton ensure the trains would have the smoothest passage.
Suspension Bridge (see Source 3) in south-west England He also designed numerous iron bridges to carry the
beat all other contenders. Brunel replaced old- trains, as well as massive iron-supported train sheds
fashioned designs with a modern look. He believed that and buildings, such as the vast Paddington station in
innovation and experimentation were important and London. Brunel was personally involved in the design
would be welcome: ‘I am opposed to the laying down of of the railway itself, claiming that the ‘standard gauge’
rules or conditions to be observed in the construction was a relic from the days when rails were only used for
of bridges lest the progress of improvement tomorrow mining carts, and that better speeds could be obtained
by using wider rails.

A new kind of ship

Before the Great Western Railway was complete, Brunel
announced that he had a vision of an even greater
project – the construction of a steam-powered ship that
would allow passengers to continue their journey all
the way from the English coast to New York. In 1838,
his paddle steamer the SS Great Western, made of wood
but reinforced with iron, crossed the Atlantic in 15 days.
By 1843, Brunel’s ship the SS Great Britain was the first
truly ‘modern’ ship, built entirely of iron, and with a
Source 3 Clifton Suspension Bridge, as it stands today in Bristol
six-bladed screw propeller instead of a paddle wheel. Late
in his life, Brunel began work on the SS Great Eastern (see
match other lines in the country. He was nearly killed
Source 2), the largest steamship built before the 20th
during the construction of the Thames Tunnel and,
century. It was designed for the long return journey to
although the SS Great Eastern was the largest ship ever
India and Australia without refuelling, as it was believed
built at the time, it ran over budget and struggled to
at this time that there was no coal in Australia.
make a profit once launched. Also Brunel did not live to
see some of his most famous monuments. Neither the
Brunel’s legacy Clifton Suspension Bridge nor the SS Great Eastern were
completed until after his death.
Brunel hoped to retire to Brunel Manor, a house and
garden that he had designed himself to enjoy in his old Despite this, Brunel’s achievements were so long-
age. However, he died from a stroke in 1859, and did not lasting that many of them are still in use today. The
live to see it finished. Brunel is remembered as one of the Thames Tunnel is part of the London railway network,
pioneers of the Industrial Revolution, although history and dozens of Brunel’s British bridges are not only still
largely remembers his successes, not his failures. Many standing, but also carrying modern trains and traffic.
Victorian critics hated his noisy trains, and thought
his bridges were eyesores. His proposed ‘broad gauge’ Check your learning 8.7
rail size, although more efficient and comfortable for
passengers, was eventually phased out because it did not Remember and understand
1 What did Brunel train as before taking a job with
his father’s firm?
2 Why did the British government bail Brunel’s father
out of prison?
3 What two design innovations set the SS Great
Britain apart from earlier ships?
4 Which of his creations have stood the test of time?
Apply and analyse

5 Conduct some research to discover why Brunel’s
first steamship was called the SS Great Western.
6 What evidence is there to suggest that things did
not always go Brunel’s way?
Evaluate and create

7 Isambard Kingdom Brunel was a brilliant engineer
who designed and built ships, bridges and tunnels.
Conduct some research to find out more about
Brunel and create a PowerPoint (or other kind of
visual display with words and images) presentation
Source 2 The SS Great Eastern steamship, designed by to inform others about his work and influence.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel

8.8 Expansion of factories
and mass production
Progress and developments from the 1850s brought There were some obvious benefits. The overall standard
about advances in engineering and machine tools. of living improved, and salaries increased from £25 in 1750
Machinery both shortened the time required to to £44 in 1860. However, the new production methods
make a product and reduced the number of people also created new problems, leaving many skilled cottage
that were necessary for its production. Workers were workers jobless, and encouraging a factory system that only
needed to look after the machines, but they did valued large-scale production at low cost. Furthermore, the
not need to be skilled. Instead, production became role of the worker became closely linked to ensuring that
focussed on producing large volumes of machine- the machinery produced a certain quantity of goods or
made goods at far lower prices – a system known as material rather than ensuring it was of a certain quality.
mass production. Employment was offered to women and children because
Cotton became Britain’s chief export, replacing they could be paid less. Factories became notorious for
wool. British cotton goods accounted for 5 per cent of poor safety conditions and harsh working environments.
all national income. People such as Richard Arkwright, Until parliamentary reform began to regulate these
the inventor of the water frame in 1768, had predicted working conditions, workers had to endure long hours
that production would become centralised, with all and mindless repetitive tasks, unsanitary work areas, and
workers in the process being housed in one location. conditions in which they either froze or roasted depending
Many production centres turned into factory towns, on the season of the year.
with housing for the workers located close to the mill. Portrayals of the period often show the workers as
Manchester was one of the largest, with a population if they themselves were machines or part of machines
that grew from 25 000 to 300 000 between 1777 churning out their products in gloomy, smoke-ridden
and 1851. environments.
Source 1 An illustration of power-loom weaving in a textile factory, 1834

keyconcept: Continuity and change

The assembly line
Henry Ford (1863–1947) was an American
industrialist who introduced the concept of
the assembly line for mass production of
consumer goods. Although it has changed
significantly because of advances in
0 technology, it is still used in many factories
today. The assembly line adapted the factory
system to a new purpose with a sequence of
y specialised workers repeating the same task
e on a series of components. The Ford Model T
(1908) was the first affordable automobile.
It was initially available in grey, green, blue or
red. By 1914, Ford had famously insisted on
a new policy, that his car should be available
in ‘any colour … so long as it is black’.
Source 3 The assembly-line production of the Ford Model T, as seen
Source 2 here in a photo from the early 20th century, made automobile ownership
I will build a car for the great multitude. more than a dream for many.
It will be large enough for the family but
g small enough for the individual to run Ford was unusual for his time, in that he promoted
and care for. It will be constructed of the high wages for workers and low prices for consumer
best materials, by the best men to be hired, goods. This approach would become known as
after the simplest designs that modern Fordism. This, he believed, would allow ordinary people,
engineering can devise. But it will be so low not just those who were well off, to take part in what he
in price that no man making a good salary imagined would be the peace-enhancing qualities of
will be unable to own one and enjoy with his consumerism.
family the blessing of hours of pleasure in For more information on the key concept of
God’s great open spaces. continuity and change, refer to page 205 of ‘The history
Henry Ford, My Life and Work, 1922 toolkit’.

1 Why were women and children popular choices as 5 Write a short paragraph explaining how
factory workers? industrialisation led to the creation of ‘factory towns’.
2 Why did workers need less skill to work in factories 6 Using the information provided and your own research,
in the Industrial Revolution than previously? define the term ‘Fordism’ in your own words.
3 What were two of the benefits of new production
Evaluate and create
methods and two of the drawbacks?
7 Imagine you are a worker in an 19th-century factory.
4 What innovation allowed Henry Ford to manufacture
Write a short account of a typical day in your life,
the first truly affordable automobile?
making sure you highlight the advantages and
disadvantages of factory work in those times.

8.9 The spread of the
The Industrial Revolution in Britain marked a major
turning point in human history. Almost every aspect of
daily life was influenced in some way. At around 1850,
a whole series of new developments in technology led
to even greater technological and economic progress.
Many historians describe the period from 1850 to 1914
as the ‘second’ Industrial Revolution. The discovery
of electricity offered yet another source of power for
industry and further changes in lifestyle (see Source 1).
It also led to new forms of communication, such as the
telegraph and the telephone.
Recognising the potential for earning money from
new inventions and markets, investors gave strong
financial support to the new technologies. Although
Britain attempted to stop the spread of industrial
knowledge beyond its borders, it was not successful. Source 1 With the discovery and harnessing of electricity,
people quickly found ways to use it that made their lives easier.
Ideas, machines and designs were soon copied abroad.
Britain began to regard technology itself as a new
export. Manufacturing spread across Europe and then for melting ore to produce metals such as iron) and
into other parts of the world. developed railways to transport goods.
France’s development was slower. France had a
primarily agricultural economy until much later in the
Europe 1800s. In coastal areas such as Normandy, however, the
One of the first countries abroad to be affected by textile industries modernised in reaction to competition
the industrial developments in Great Britain was from Britain and Belgium.
Belgium. Belgium was similar to Great Britain in many Germany had large deposits of coal and iron
ways, with a strong textile trade and many potential ore, and these were quickly exploited using the new
investors. It also benefited from the large reserves of technologies. Between 1870 and the start of World
coal as a source of energy. Belgium’s iron exports to the War I in 1914, Germany developed at such a rate that
rest of Europe grew as it built blast furnaces (furnaces its manufacturing output outstripped Britain’s.
Source 2 France’s emergence as an ‘industrial’ country, with industries such as large-scale coal mining, came later than Britain’s.

USA as steamship travel along the coast and major rivers.

Wealth from the discovery of gold gave the Australian
After the birth of the United States of America following colonies opportunities to develop new railways and
the War of Independence, American industry began take advantage of new technologies such as the electric
to grow rapidly, especially in the north-east of the telegraph and electric lighting.
USA. By 1900, the USA had a larger percentage of Despite these advances, Australia’s industrial
world manufacturing than Britain. The USA was rich development was in many ways hectic and unplanned.
in natural resources and as settlements expanded into This became apparent after Federation in 1901, when
the western regions of the country, more and more the new country was found to have three different rail
of these raw materials became available to American gauges, which made it impossible to transport goods
manufacturers. American inventors and inventions across state borders without changing trains. In addition
proved to be as important as any in Britain in moving to this, the states had conflicting ideas about industry
the world into the modern era. (and its development or protection) and disagreed about
tariffs (taxes) and their use.
Japan
By 1868, Japan had been effectively cut off from
Western influences for 260 years, after the shogun
(military leader) expelled all Christian missionaries from
the country and closed the borders to all foreigners. The
arrival of American warships in the 1850s led to the
Meiji Restoration – a period in Japanese history when
the emperor was returned to power as the figurehead
of a new, modern government, and trade with the West
increased dramatically. Initially, large quantities of
goods were imported from Europe and the Americas.
Over time, however, Japan became the first country
in Asia to become industrialised, as it swiftly adopted
Western ideas and inventions. Japanese goods became Source 3 The settlement of Sydney, c. 1870
highly sought after overseas, particularly tea, silk, cotton
fabrics and buttons. Japan also imitated the West in its
adoption of an aggressive policy of overseas expansion,
seizing territory in China and Korea in the late 19th
century.
1 List some of the countries that were affected by
the Industrial Revolution after Britain.
Australia
Apply and analyse
The British decision to establish a penal colony in
Australia in 1788 was largely an attempt to solve some 2 Write a short paragraph comparing and
of the problems faced by Great Britain that were a contrasting the ‘first’ Industrial Revolution in the
consequence of the Industrial Revolution. Rising prison 1750s and the ‘second’ Industrial Revolution 100
populations were the result of increased crime rates in years later.
the new factory towns and among unemployed farm 3 Explain how the Industrial Revolution differed in
labourers. It was thought that this problem could be Britain and one other European country.
resolved by transporting criminals to a distant land. 4 Name three areas in which Japan’s modernisation
By 1813, a steam mill was operating in Sydney, followed a Western model, and name the countries
major roads had been constructed to transport goods from which it copied.
to and from the seaports and a strong pastoral (stock-
raising) industry had developed inland. By the mid- Evaluate and create
1830s, Australia had also become a colonial destination 5 What evidence was there in 1901 that the
for free British migrants. As other colonies were development of Australia had been hectic and
settled, the development of transport links increased. unplanned?
Railways were in use in Australia by the 1850s, as well

8.10 Later developments
in technology and science
Chemistry Electricity
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, scientific thought In 1791, Italian scientist Luigi Galvani discovered that
worked on the theory that four basic elements – fire, he could make a dead frog’s legs twitch if he struck them
earth, water and air – were the components of all things. with a spark. His fellow experimenter Alessandro Volta
Scientists began to extend this with the first creation recognised the potential of Galvani’s discovery, and
of a table of chemical elements in 1789. This marked developed a technology to store the energy (‘electricity’)
the beginnings of the modern periodic table. French in a cell or battery. This ability to store and use power was
chemist Antoine Lavoisier identified 23 elements. He to be successfully developed over the following few years,
named different chemical compounds made by the creating a new energy source.
combination of these chemical elements and developed In the 1880s, electric power stations were built.
a system that recognised the weight of atoms. These stations offered an alternative to steam engines
During the 1800s, other scientists broke down for driving machines and to gas for lighting. Electricity
over 70 000 chemical compounds, often in search of was not the work of one person or nation. The English
new materials for inventions or for improvements to scientist Michael Faraday produced the first continuous
existing materials. In the process, they discovered flow of electric current. His work in electromagnetic
how to make petroleum, vulcanised rubber, Portland induction (see Source 2) was the basis for dynamos and
cement and synthetic dyes. Polish–French researcher other electric motors. He produced current by rotating
Marie Curie (see Source 1) isolated the element radium a coil between the two poles of a horseshoe magnet. A
and coined the term ‘radioactivity’, which would dynamo turned the mechanical power needed to rotate
become a controversial source of power after the the coil into electric current. This current could then
Industrial Revolution. drive a machine by using the energy.
Source 1 Physicist and chemist Marie Curie Source 2 Faraday’s electromagnetic induction experiment, 1882
in her laboratory

Power stations were first

built as a source of power for
electric lighting. Developed
through the work of Joseph
Swan, an Englishman, and
Thomas Edison, an American,
they produced ‘Ediswan’ bulbs
to light houses and streets.
Power stations initially
used steam engines to turn the
dynamos to generate electricity.
In 1884, Charles Parsons
invented the steam turbine,
which allowed for a greater
speed of rotation by forcing
a blast of steam along a tube,
turning a rotor at great speed.
Factories driven by
electricity were cleaner and
safer, as they did not require
the large belts used to drive
machinery like those in steam- Source 3 An 1887 woodcut showing an early power station
powered stations. Newer
industries mainly used this new power source, and, By 1866, this transatlantic cable allowed rapid
unlike coal-powered industries, they could be located communication between Britain and the USA. The
anywhere, as long as there were power lines to carry the telegraph helped to bind together the distant parts of
electric current. In some areas water was used to drive the British Empire and was an important part of the
the electric turbines (hydroelectric power), so factories development of Australia. From 1858, the Australian capital
could be built in areas such as Scotland where there was cities were all linked by telegraph. The Australian overland
limited coal. telegraph from Darwin to Port Augusta in South Australia
Wires were strung around Britain to carry power to was completed in 1872. This, together with new undersea
factories and homes. Power grids were created to share the cables, provided an instant communication channel
electricity produced and to service high-demand areas between Australia, Britain and Europe for the first time.
such as cities. A reliable supply of electricity meant that
factories no longer relied on a supply of coal to power
them. As a result, they were free to move away from coal Check your learning 8.10
mines in the north and west of Britain closer to cities in
the south like London. Remember and understand
1 In what year was the modern periodic table first
Communications developed?
The discovery of electricity helped to develop an 2 Which scientist was responsible for the discovery
invention that revolutionised mass communications of the element radium?
– the telegraph. The telegraph allowed text messages
Apply and analyse
to be transmitted long distances without the need to
physically deliver a letter. Telegraphs were sent using
3 Describe some of the advantages of the first
a coded system of sounds to represent the alphabet. electric power stations.
For example, Morse code used short electrical impulses 4 Why was the development of the battery so
(dots) and slightly longer ones (dashes) to spell out the important for users of electricity?
letters of messages. 5 How did the growth of electricity-powered
In 1851, London and Paris were linked by an factories lead to a general movement of population
undersea cable and by 1858, the first transatlantic cable from the north to the south?
was laid, stretching from Europe to North America.

8A rich task
Inventions of the
Industrial Revolution Source 2 The flying shuttle allowed the thread to be shot
back and forth across a wider weaving bed, producing much
wider lengths of cloth much faster.
During the Industrial Revolution, new
technologies and inventions transformed the
way that people lived and worked. Major
changes in farming, mining, agriculture,
communication and manufacturing changed
almost all aspects of life.
In this chapter, you have learnt about many significant

inventions from the Industrial Revolution such as the flying
shuttle, the spinning jenny, the steam engine, the internal
combustion engine, electricity and the telegraph. These
are only a few of the many inventions and discoveries that
changed the way people lived and worked at the time.
Others include the sewing machine, the telephone, the
light bulb, the phonograph, the circular saw, the battery,
the typewriter and even the first revolver. All of these
inventions contributed to the modern world in some way.
Source 3 George Stephenson’s locomotive Blucher was the

first successful steam-powered train. It was completed and
tested on the Cillingwood Railway on 25 July 1814.
skilldrill
Creating and delivering an audiovisual
presentation
You have probably created several PowerPoint
presentations already. You may have also tried out
some other audiovisual presentation software, such as
Prezi, which is freely available on the Internet. Whichever
program you choose, it is important to use it effectively,
and avoid some common problems of these types of
presentations. Use the following steps to help you avoid
Source 1 A reconstruction of James Watt’s steam engine these issues.

8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?
Step 1 Design your presentation • One thing at a time! At any moment, what is on
• Plan your presentation carefully so it has a clear the screen should be the thing you are talking
beginning, middle and end. about. Your audience will quickly read every slide
• Make sure you present the content in clear, concise as soon as it’s displayed. If there are four points
dot-point form, not as large slabs of text. on the slide, they’ll have read all four points while
• Don’t fill up your PowerPoint with lots of random you are still talking about the first point. Plan your
pictures that are not related to the content. Make presentation so just one new point is displayed at
sure each visual is accompanied by a caption that any given moment. Navigate to the next point only
explains why it is relevant to the presentation. when you are ready to talk about that next point.
• A common mistake is to have objects and text • Speak clearly – not too fast, not too slow. Vary your
moving on the screen in a way that just distracts tone and pitch to make your presentation more
the audience. Use graphics, sounds, video, interesting.
animations and transitions only if they add value to • Make eye contact with different members of your
the point being made, not just because you think audience. Do not just look down at your cue cards.
they will look or sound good.
Apply the skill
• Use a design that ensures your audience can
clearly see and read the slides. Make sure there is 1 Research, prepare and present an audiovisual
enough contrast between the text colour and the presentation about three significant inventions
background colour on the slide, and make sure created during the Industrial Revolution that were not
your font size is large enough. discussed in this section. Use the following questions
to structure your presentation:
Step 2 Deliver your presentation
a Who invented it?
• When delivering a PowerPoint presentation to an
audience, you should do more than just stand up b When was it invented?
and read out the text on each slide. Instead, talk c How did it work?
in a way that develops and expands on the points d Why was it significant?
on each slide. Carefully plan in advance what you 2 Your presentation should be well researched and
are going to say during each slide. Record this plan based on relevant and reliable sources. For detailed
on cue cards, and refer to these cards during your information on this skill, refer to page 241 of ‘The
speech to remind you what to say. history toolkit’.

As you listen to the presentations of your classmates, Give each classmate your completed peer
complete the peer assessment proforma below. Ask your assessment. Collect the peer assessments that
teacher to photocopy several copies so that you can your classmates completed as they listened to your
complete one for each presentation you listen to. presentation. Read their feedback, and then complete
a short self-assessment by responding to the following
Name of presenter: Name of person questions:
completing peer
assessment: • What did I do well in terms of my PowerPoint design?
Component of What did the What could the • What could I improve in terms of my PowerPoint
presentation: presenter do well presenter improve
design?
in this regard? upon in this regard?
PowerPoint design: • What did I do well in terms of my oral presentation?
Oral presentation: • What could I improve in terms of my oral presentation?

8.11 Working conditions
While it cannot be denied that the Industrial Long working days took their toll on families, and
Revolution improved living standards of most people children were dragged into working life with little
across Britain, these improvements came at a high price. opportunity for education.
The obvious winners were the industrialists, the people The phrase ‘dark satanic mills’ was first used by the
who owned the mills, the factories and the mines. The English poet William Blake in 1808. It was frequently
new middle class also benefited from technological used in the 19th century to refer to the miserable
advances, making their lives more comfortable. working conditions of labourers in Britain. Many
However, many more people were forced to give up writers of the time were appalled by the plight of poor
their traditional rural lifestyle for a life in one of the people whose work seemed endless and unrewarding,
new industrial cities – working long hours and living in and whose lives were cut short by poverty, disease and
cramped and unsanitary conditions. injury. One of these concerned individuals, Friedrich
Engels, a German industrialist and philosopher, wrote
Britain’s ‘dark satanic mills’ extensively about this situation (see Source 2).
The working conditions and experiences of men, Source 2

women and children during the Industrial Revolution … a mass of children work the whole week
varied from person to person and from one industry through in the mills or at home, and therefore
to the other. The proportion of people in Britain cannot attend school. The evening schools,
working in manufacturing in 1801 was estimated at supposed to be attended by children who are
40 per cent. By 1871, this had risen to 60 per cent. employed during the day, are almost abandoned
Many people across Britain were still employed in or attended without benefit. It is asking too
agriculture, construction, domestic service or smaller much, that young workers who have been using
workshops, and their working lives remained largely themselves up twelve hours in the day, should
unchanged. However, life was very different for those in go to school from eight to ten at night. And
the factories and who struggled to survive on low wages those who try it usually fall asleep, as is testified
and were forced to work in harsh conditions, as owners by hundreds of witnesses in the Children’s
operated for a time without any government regulation. Employment Commission’s Report. Sunday
Factory and mine owners often cut corners with schools have been founded, it is true, but they,
safety and conditions in the pursuit of higher profits. too, are most scantily supplied with teachers,
This included enforcing long working hours and using and can be of use to those only who have already
cheaper labour in the form of women and children. learnt something in the day schools. The interval
from one Sunday to the next is too long for an
ignorant child to remember in the second sitting
what it learned in the first, a week before.
Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working-Class
in England in 1844
Child labour
When the Industrial Revolution began, children were
seen as ideal employees. They were small enough to fit
between the new machinery, they were cheap to employ
and their families were grateful for the extra income.
At the time, there was no real concern about their
education being affected as education was not compulsory.
Most working-class families could not afford to send their
Source 1 A 19th-century engraving showing copper children to school anyway.
foundries in Swansea, Great Britain

8B How did the Industrial Revolution affect the lives of men, women and children?
Children’s pay was well below that of adults – often

about 20 per cent of the full adult wage. Wages for children
were sometimes paid in the form of vouchers that could
only be used at stores owned by the factory owner. There,
the children could use them to purchase clothing or basic
foods such as flour. This system allowed the factory owner
to avoid paying wages in cash and helped them to make
extra profits on sales.
Even with long hours and low pay, children could still
earn more in the factory towns than in the country. Over
time, social reforms raised the minimum age, shortened
Source 3 An artist’s impression of a group of mill workers in the working day, increased wages and introduced some
Manchester, London Illustrated News, 1840 form of education.
Child labour in factories also declined as complex
machinery became more difficult for children to handle.
In other areas, such as mining, their use as labourers was
limited or barred. It is hard for us now to imagine their
lifestyles or the conditions in which these children worked.
Source 5 comes from evidence given to a British government
inquiry into child labour in factories in 1833.
Source 5
I work at Mr Wilson’s mill. I think the youngest child
is about seven. I daresay there are 20 under 9 years.
It is about half past five by our clock at home when we
go in … We come out at seven by the mill. We never
stop to take our meals, except at dinner.
William Crookes is overlooker in our room. He is
Source 4 Children working in factories were frequently cross-tempered sometimes. He does not beat me; he
exploited and injured.
beats the little children if they do not do their work
right … I have sometimes seen the little children
Children often started work at the age of four or five.
drop asleep or so, but not lately. If they are catched
Their jobs were often simple, but physically demanding and
asleep they get the strap. They are always very tired
dangerous. They included collecting dropped fluff from
at night … I can read a little; I can’t write. I used to
underneath the weaving machines or acting as helpers
go to school before I went to the mill …
in coalmines. In many cases, child workers were orphans
provided to the factories or mills by the local authorities. Evidence from a young textile worker, Factory Inquiry
Commission, Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers, 1833

1 Why did women and children make up a large part 3 Summarise Friedrich Engels’ findings in Source 2
of the industrial working population in the early years about the condition of the working class in England.
of the Industrial Revolution? 4 Why might a writer such as Friedrich Engels be
biased in his view? Carry out some research into
Apply and analyse
his political beliefs and show how they might have
2 In Source 5, what do you believe the young worker influenced
is trying to say about working conditions in the his writing.
factory and the treatment of other child workers?
5 Write a newspaper report in the role of a 19th-
century reporter investigating child labour in a cotton
mill. Describe what the children’s work day is like
and make recommendations for reform.

8.12 Living conditions
In the 1750s, before the Industrial Revolution began,
only 15 per cent of the population of Great Britain lived
in towns or cities. By 1850, the urban population had
risen to 50 per cent. By 1880 it had risen again to 80 per
cent. This process of urbanisation was due to changes in
farming practices, production methods and the lure of
new jobs in the factory towns. Between 1801 and 1871,
the proportion of the British population working in
manufacturing rose from 40 per cent to 66 per cent. All of
these changes had dramatic effects on how people lived.
Conditions for the rich and poor

Huge differences between the living conditions of the
rich and poor in Britain existed long before the start of
the Industrial Revolution. Prior to 1750, Britain’s feudal
history and strict class system dictated how people
Source 1 There were enormous differences between the
lived and where they worked. From 1750 onwards, living conditions of the rich and poor in Britain prior to the
rapid changes in technology and society gave birth Industrial Revolution.
to a new social class (known as the ‘middle class’).
Despite this change, the Industrial Revolution was common. There was no proper sewerage, no fresh water
initially responsible for widening the gap between rich and little or no garbage disposal. In Liverpool in 1865,
industrialists and poor factory workers even further. 40 per cent of young children died in such conditions,
Some key facts about living conditions for different and the average life expectancy was just 29 years. Birth
social classes in the 1800s are included in Source 3. rates were low, but the population continued to grow
due to the constant flow of people from the countryside.
On top of the social hierarchy were the aristocracy.
Those who endured such conditions often turned to
These people included people of royal blood – dukes,
alcohol and other drugs to help them cope with the
earls, lords and barons – with strong family traditions
harsh conditions. Crime was widespread, particularly
and reputations. They were often landowners who lived
in the slums of the larger cities such as London (see
off rental income and led privileged lives as members of
Source 2).
‘high society’ who lived in manors and stately homes.
They possessed enormous wealth, land and political
Source 2
influence. In this world, good breeding and a title were
… the social order makes family life almost
seen as more important than wealth – this was assumed.
impossible for the worker. In a comfortless, filthy
The middle classes included factory owners, house, hardly good enough for mere nightly shelter,
industrialists, doctors and lawyers whose generous ill-furnished, often neither rain-tight nor warm,
incomes allowed them to establish their homes on the a foul atmosphere filling rooms overcrowded with
outskirts of the new towns and cities where the air was human beings, no domestic comfort is possible.
clean and there was more space for larger homes. These The husband works the whole day through,
areas grew as a result of new railway lines that allowed perhaps the wife also and the elder children, all
the rich to commute from home to work in the city. in different places; they meet night and morning
By contrast, the majority of the working class only, all under perpetual temptation to drink; what
lived closer to the factories, in slum areas with poor family life is possible under such conditions? Yet
sanitation. Houses were built back-to-back to save space. the working-man cannot escape from the family,
New apartment blocks were also built quickly and must live in the family, and the consequence is a
cheaply to meet demand. There were very few building perpetual succession of family troubles …
or fire regulations so accidents and house fires were
Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working-Class
in England in 1844

Source 3 Conditions for British social classes during the 1800s
Living conditions for the aristocracy Living conditions for the middle class Living conditions for
(nobility) the poor
• Birth mattered more than income. The poor • Many middle-class people aspired to join • Working-class people lived in
and lazy cousin of a duke would be acceptable the upper classes. Wealthy middle-class cramped houses in city slums
in high society over a millionaire industrialist businessmen would socialise with the and had no access to running
from a lower class. aristocracy. Some donated large sums of water or sewerage systems.
• Some lords had large country houses, and money to be granted a knighthood. • Crime in the slums was rife
town houses in London. They were waited on • Middle-class people lived in houses in the and overcrowding led to the
by servants. suburbs and commuted to work in the city. spread of many diseases.
• During the 1800s, members of the aristocracy Even the poorest middle-class home would • At the start of the 19th
dominated all levels of government. have a servant. century, few poor people
• A young aristocratic lady who was eligible for • Many middle-class Victorian women enjoyed received an education.
marriage would ‘come out’ as a debutante, shopping – the first department store opened in In 1880, a new law made
when she was presented to Queen Victoria. London in 1863. primary school compulsory
On this special occasion she wore a white • Over time, some middle-class women for all children.
dress and a headdress. sought a university education. They also • Working-class leisure
• Boys of the nobility had governesses and became involved in the women’s suffragette activities included playing or
nannies, then attended elite schools. Girls movement. watching football, bicycling
were mostly educated at home then prepared • Many middle-class boys went to grammar clubs, reading the newspaper
for marriage. Some girls went to boarding schools. Girls increasingly went to school, but and attending the music hall.
school. By the late 1800s, a small number were still expected to find a husband and learn
were able to go to university. how to run a home.
As urban areas grew, new technologies were applied

Check new
in building, even in workers’ housing. Planned, drained and uncluttered your learning
urban 8.12replaced slums. Public
settlements
transport allowed workers to live further away from their
work places. Cities began to develop suburbs. In 1863,
the first part of London’s underground railway network 1 Why did people move from rural areas to the
opened, linking suburban trains to the city centre. By the towns and cities during the Industrial Revolution?
1870s, the ability to create skyscrapers allowed for even 2 Where did most unskilled workers live in Britain
denser retail and office areas in city centres, where land during the Industrial Revolution and in what sort of
was more expensive. conditions?
Better street lighting helped transform the atmosphere 3 Why did the population of factory cities continue to
of the cities at night, encouraging leisure activities later grow, despite low birth rates?
in the day and after dark, as people felt safer.
Apply and analyse
4 What was the average life expectancy in Liverpool
in 1865? Did people tend to actually die at this
age, or was there another factor that lowered life
expectancy?
5 Write a paragraph describing how, after a bad
start, the Industrial Revolution started to improve
living conditions for city dwellers.
Evaluate and create

6 Using the statistics provided and information
gathered on the Internet, create three graphs that
illustrate the key changes in urban populations that
took place in Britain from 1750 to 1880.
Source 4 An artist’s impression of poor people in Whitechapel,

a London slum

8B rich task It was not until the 1830s when certain politicians,
concerned about the working conditions that had
Working conditions developed as a result of industrialisation, began introducing

laws to regulate the factories in terms of conditions like the
for children during use of child labour and the length of the workday.
Each of the following sources provides different views
the Industrial about the nature of working conditions for children during
the Industrial Revolution.
Revolution Source 2
Q: Explain what you had to do.
Many of the early textile factory owners A: When the frames are full, they have to stop the frame, and
take the flyers off, and take the full bobbins off, and carry them
employed large numbers of children. Children
on to the roller, and then put the empty ones on.
were seen as good workers because they Q: Suppose you slowed down a little, what would they do?
were paid less, and were small enough to A: Strap us. The girls had black marks on their skin many a time,
crawl under the machines to repair broken and their parents dare not come in about it, they were afraid of
threads. They were often forced to do this losing their work.
when the machines were operating, and Q: What part of the mill did you work in?
many children were injured as a result. The A: In the card-room. It was very dusty. The dust got up my lungs,
I got so bad in health. When I pulled the baskets all heaped
factory owners paid overseers to make sure up, the basket pulled my shoulder out of its place and my ribs
the children worked as hard as they could. have grown over it. I am now deformed.
The more work the children did, the more the An extract from an interview with Elizabeth Bentley, who
overseers were paid. began working in factories at the age of six. The interview was
conducted as part of a parliamentary inquiry into conditions in
the textile factories in 1832.
Source 3
I have visited many factories, both in Manchester and the surrounding districts,
during a period of several months and I never saw a single instance of corporal
punishment inflicted on a child. The children seemed to be always cheerful
and alert, taking pleasure in using their muscles. The work of these lively elves
seemed to resemble a sport. Conscious of their skill, they were delighted to
show it off to any stranger. At the end of the day’s work they showed no sign
of being exhausted.
An extract from ‘The Philosophy of Manufactures’, 1835, by Dr Andrew Ure.
Dr Ure was a supporter of the new industries.
Source 4
… In such an establishment [i.e. a factory] … between 700 to 1400 persons,
of all ages and both sexes, almost all working by the piece, and earning wages
of every amount between two shillings and 40 shillings a week, are engaged
in producing one ultimate effect, which is dependent on their combined
exertions. Any stoppage, even any irregularity in one department, deranges
the whole. A strict and almost superstitious discipline is necessary to keep this
vast instrument going for a single day. Now how, ask the mill-owners, could
this discipline be kept up, if the sub-inspectors were at liberty to walk over our
establishments at all hours; listen to the complaints and jealousies of all our
servants, and at their instigation [urging] summon us as criminals before the
magistrates?
An extract from a letter of complaint by Nassau Senior, a factory owner,
Source 1 This photograph, taken in 1908, to parliament after the Factory Act of 1833 was introduced to give some
shows a young barefoot girl standing next to a
protection to child workers. He believed that the Act would allow government
spinning frame in her workplace, a North Carolina
inspectors to interfere with the smooth running of cotton factories.
cotton mill.

skilldrill
Using information from a range of • Title: What were conditions like for children in
Britain working in 19th-century factories?
sources as evidence in a historical
• Introduction: The Industrial Revolution led to a
argument massive increase in … (introduce the context of
The primary sources that historians use to form opinions your piece and the focus on the working conditions
and arguments about the nature of working conditions of children within that context).
for children in the early-19th-century factories tell different • Paragraph 1: Some sources say … (explain which
stories. It is the job of historians to analyse these sources, sources indicate that conditions were bad; give
identify what evidence they provide to support or refute examples of some of the bad conditions).
(not support) particular arguments, and come to a • Paragraph 2: However, other sources say …
conclusion about their usefulness and reliability. (explain which sources indicate that conditions
It is important to: were acceptable or necessary; give examples of
• identify who created each source and the reason why some of the arguments provided).
it was created • Paragraph 3: We have to be careful about which
• identify any potential bias sources we use because … (explain the problems
• write your argument, using the sources as evidence with some of the sources in terms of reliability and
bias).
• explain why each particular source supports your
argument • Conclusion: Overall, the evidence suggests …
(summarise the evidence and give your informed
• give reasons why you consider the sources that do
opinion about the nature of working conditions for
not support your argument to be not as important or
children in this period).
as valid.
Apply the skill Extend your understanding

1 Examine Sources 2–4 carefully and complete a copy
of the table below in your notebook. 1 Some important people were strongly opposed to the
use of child labour in factories during the Industrial
Source 2 Source 3 Source 4 Revolution. Eventually, parliament passed several Acts
What evidence does this that attempted to impose regulations that would lead
source provide about
conditions in factories to improved conditions for children. Use the Internet
for children during the to find out about this legislation, and complete a new
Industrial Revolution? table in your notebook:
Who wrote or created it?
Name of Act Year it was How did it How
introduced attempt to effective
Why was the source improve was it?
created? conditions
Is the source reliable? for children?
2 Once you have completed the table, use the

information you have gathered to write an historical
argument about the working conditions for children in
the early 19th century, using the plan provided below.

8.13 Short-term impacts
of the Industrial Revolution
Between the 1750s and 1914, Britain, the USA and most countries in Europe
transformed into industrial societies. New technologies and production
methods changed societies in positive and negative ways in both the short and
long term. Growth in the development of cities, changes in living and working
conditions and the introduction of new laws became apparent fairly quickly.
Other changes took place over much longer periods and were not initially
obvious. Indeed, many argue that we are only now beginning to see many of
the long-term effects of the Industrial Revolution.
Population growth and urban planning

One of the most obvious short-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution
was the dramatic increase in world population. In 1750, the population of
England and Wales was around 5.5 million people. By 1900, this figure was
around 32.5 million. Throughout Great Britain and the rest of Europe, there
was a mass movement of people from the rural areas to the growing cities.
In 1801, only 17 per cent of the population of Europe lived in the cities.
By 1891, this had grown to 54 per cent. In Britain, the growth cities were
Leeds, Manchester and Birmingham, as well as London. After terrible initial
problems with disease caused by poor or non-existent sanitation, city reform
began with the introduction of some urban planning. Over time, conditions
in the urban slums of factory towns and cities improved. The tenements
(overcrowded rooming houses) were pulled down and replaced with new
urban settlements, with positive consequences for residents. For example:
• Residents in new housing, who previously had no running water and shared
an outside toilet, now had access to running water, central heating and
improved sewerage systems (see Source 1) that included their own toilets.
Health conditions improved and there were fewer outbreaks of disease.
• Planned, drained, and uncluttered and open spaces were created for sport
and entertainment.
• Gas-powered (see Source 2), and then electric, street lighting helped
transform the atmosphere of the cities at night, reducing the gloomy,
dangerous streets and encouraging leisure activities after dark, such as visits
to theatres and music halls.
• Cities began to develop suburbs (outlying communities) and new public
transport systems allowed workers to live further away from the factories in
which they worked. First there were horse-drawn trams and then came cable
trams or electric trolley systems. The opening of London’s underground
railway network in 1863 encouraged more people to use public transport
to move between their homes in the suburbs and work. As the population
increased, so did the transport capacity and new lines were developed to Source 1 The building of a London
service growing areas. sewer, 1845

8C What were the short- and long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution?
Source 2 ‘A peep at the lights in Pall Mall’ is a satirical look

at people’s reactions to the new invention of gas-burning Historians and economists agree that standards of
streetlights in London in 1807. living did improve in the 19th century, although they
disagree about the timing of its benefits to the working
Improvements in living standards class. For example, were large improvements in the lives
of working-class people evident in the early or mid-
There were other positive consequences of the Industrial 1800s? Some studies have shown that workers’ incomes
Revolution in the lives of many people. grew rapidly from the 1820s. However, others contest
• Improvements in agriculture throughout the period of whether this indicator of improvement balanced out
the Industrial Revolution reduced the risk of famine the negative consequences of the Industrial Revolution,
through crop failure. Increased food production also such as the harsh working conditions, high rents and
meant that people could afford better food in larger crowded living conditions, and pollution.
quantities, which in turn helped them stay healthier.
• Sport was encouraged in ‘leisure time’ in order to keep
workers healthy. Sport and recreation became more
important as working hours reduced during the 19th
century.
1 Identify the ways in which cities began to change
• Mass entertainment, such as theatres and spectator
sports, developed alongside newspapers and magazines in the second half of the 19th century.
for people of all classes. Literature was no longer just 2 Explain why sport and entertainment became
for the wealthy and learned. more popular in this period.
• The development of railways meant that travel times Apply and analyse
were speedier. It also meant that travel for leisure was
3 Using Source 2 outline the ways in which the
affordable, even for the working classes.
introduction of street lighting changed people’s
• Mass-produced consumer goods, such as clothing
way of life.
and crockery, became more affordable.
• The use of the telegraph and telephone meant Evaluate and create
that news could quickly be reported from around 4 In two columns, list the positive and negative
the world. Industrialists, merchants and ordinary
aspects of the Industrial Revolution for working-
people benefited from these more immediate ways of
class Britons in the 19th century. Decide whether
communicating, as well as from faster postal times
it was a positive or negative development for the
from improved road and rail networks.
working class, giving reasons for your decision.

8.14 The emergence of socialism
and trade unions
Urbanisation brought with it new social classes and In his influential book, Capital: A Critique of
social divisions. Investors (entrepreneurs) could earn Political Economy (1867), German philosopher Karl
vast fortunes. Their luxurious lifestyles and homes Marx suggested that the Industrial Revolution
reflected their new status, a world removed from the was driven by an economic system known as
poverty-stricken conditions of many of their employees. capitalism. Marx argued that capitalism was based
Many workers found it hard to adapt to their new on the exploitation of the workers by the owners
lives in the city. Some embittered workers began to of land, factories, railways and roads, shops and
demand better conditions and political rights. The banks for profit. For capitalism to work, it relied on
result was a rising interest in social revolution, with an ‘army’ of urban workers who would work for less
philosophers and activists such as Karl Marx and than the value of their labour. Later theorists would
Friedrich Engels gaining a following among the build on Marx’s work to promote alternative systems
working classes. that they argued would deliver a fairer distribution
of wealth.
These ideas were the beginning of socialism.
They laid the foundations for the welfare state
(under which the state took responsibility for all
its subjects, rich or poor) and also for communism
(under which the state attempted to abolish
ownership of private property).
Luddites
The first violent reaction to the Industrial
Revolution occurred in Britain in 1811, when
factory owners and manufacturers in Nottingham
received threatening letters signed by ‘General Ned
Ludd and the Army of Redressers’. In protest at wage
reductions and job losses caused by the adoption
of stocking frames and automated looms in textile
mills, former weavers attacked factories, smashed
machines and killed the owner of one cotton mill.
In response, the British Parliament made it a capital
offence (a crime punishable by death) to destroy
machines. Twenty-three Luddites (as the protestors
became known) were executed in 1812 and many
more were transported to Australia as punishment.
The Luddites were stamped out, but their
actions showed that there was a need for political
action that would benefit workers and improve the
conditions that they were forced to accept.
Source 1 An illustration showing Karl Marx (seated) and

Friedrich Engels

Poor Laws and the rise of Britain and emigrated to other countries such as the
USA, Italy and Australia.
Chartism
Source 3 The Chartist claims
In 1834, the British Parliament attempted to deal with
changing social and economic conditions by reforming The six points of the People’s Charter
the 233-year-old Poor Law. The Poor Law Amendment 1 A VOTE for every man twenty-one years of age, of
Act 1834 decreed that any poor or homeless person sound mind, and not undergoing punishment for
requiring assistance from the state (except for the old crime.
and sick) had to enter a government workhouse. These
2 THE SECRET BALLOT—To protect the elector in the
institutions kept people off the streets but often fed
exercise of his vote.
their residents poorly, worked them extremely hard and
broke up families. 3 NO PROPERTY QUALIFICATION for members of
Widespread discontent over the Poor Law Parliament—thus enabling the constituencies to
Amendment Act reminded many people that they return the man of their choice, be he rich or poor.
had little say in government. Reform bills in 1832 had 4 PAYMENT OF MEMBERS, thus enabling an honest
extended the right to vote, but only to about 600 000 tradesman, working man, or other person, to serve
out of three million men over the age of 21. At this a constituency, when taken from his business to
time, all members of parliament were required to own attend to the interests of the country.
property, which limited the number of men who could
5 EQUAL CONSTITUENCIES, securing the same amount
afford to stand for office. In 1838, a group of reformists
of representation for the same number of electors,
published a People’s Charter written as a bill that could
instead of allowing small constituencies to swamp the
be presented to parliament, demanding a better life for
votes of larger ones.
people through the use of parliamentary change (see
Source 3). 6 ANNUAL PARLIAMENTS, thus presenting the most
effectual check to bribery and intimidation, since
The movement in support of the People’s Charter
though a constituency might be bought once in
became known as Chartism. It spread through Great
seven years (even with the ballot), no purse could buy
Britain and in June 1837, Chartists held a general
a constituency (under a system of universal suffrage)
meeting at the British Coffee House in Cockspur Street,
in each ensuing twelve-month; and since members,
London. One faction wanted to use peaceful persuasion
when elected for a year only, would not be able to
while another suggested physical force, even revolt.
defy and betray their constituents as now.
The House of Commons rejected the Chartist petition,
even though it had 1.2 million
signatures. The Chartists suggested
that a general strike be called on 12
August but then called it off. Other
groups were involved in destroying
factory machinery and in strikes,
often clashing with police and
soldiers. By 1840, over 500 Chartists
had been put in prison.
A second petition was drawn up in
1842 and presented to parliament in
May, this time with over
three million names. Again it was
rejected by parliament. A third
petition was drawn up in 1848, when
revolutions in Europe encouraged
a revival of the Chartist ideas. This
petition was signed by two million
people but again it was ignored. As
a result, many Chartists gave up on
Source 2 An illustration of a Chartist meeting in 1848

Source 4 An artist’s impression of Robert Owen’s cotton
mill at New Lanark in 1818. Unlike many industrialists at the
time, Owen supported the rights of workers at his mills and
The Factory Acts
established one of the largest trade unions. The Factory Acts were inspired by complaints about
the employment of child labourers, who worked
Emergence of trade unions long days in appalling conditions. In 1802 and 1819,
British politician and industrialist Robert Peel was
Over time, workers found ways of banding together instrumental in passing laws that restricted the hours
to protect their interests. Skilled workers realised that that children had to work. Unfortunately, many mill
they needed to protect their jobs and incomes (in owners had influence over local judges, so these laws
case of illness or injury) so they would not become were not enforced. By 1830, most of the 250 000 mill
victims of the Poor Laws. As a result, many formed workers in Britain were still under the age of 18.
Friendly Societies. Workers each paid a weekly In a push to reduce the working day to 10 hours,
subscription to their Friendly Society that would social reformer Lord Ashley succeeded in making it
provide them with a small income during illness, illegal for children under the age of nine to work at
an old-age pension, or money for a funeral when all. Those under 13 could work only a 48-hour week
they died. and, those aged 14–18, a 69-hour week. In addition,
Some industries developed trade clubs, which all children were to receive two hours of schooling per
quickly developed into unions that fought for week, and inspectors were appointed to enforce the
common aims, such as higher wages. A union’s main new rules.
weapon against employers and industrialists was In 1840, the Royal Commission on Children’s
the threat of work stoppages known as strikes. The Employment discovered that women and children were
Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 banned workers expected to carry loads of coal of up to 150 kilograms
in Britain from meeting to demand increased wages either on their shoulders or dragged behind them
or shorter working hours. If caught, the punishment through narrow, low passages. A Mines Act was passed
for this crime was three months in jail. in 1842, banning all females as well as boys younger
After protests and debate, trade unions were than 10 from working underground. Other European
legalised in 1825, swiftly leading to the establishment countries introduced similar laws: in France in 1841
of groups such as the National Association for and in Prussia in 1839, laws limited the working
the Protection of Labour, with over 100 000 hours of people under the age of 16 and banned the
members. The largest union was the Grand National employment of children under nine in mines and
Consolidated Trades Union, established in 1833 by factories.
a mill owner, Robert Owen. Unlike many other mill In 1847, women in factories were restricted to a
owners, Owen supported the welfare of his workers. 10-hour day, which effectively reduced many of the
He abolished child labour in his mills (for those men’s hours as well. The final major change for this
under the age of 10), and provided schooling and period came in 1874, when a maximum of 56 hours’
good housing. He also paid good wages, including work a week was introduced – 10 hours a day from
sick pay. Monday to Friday, and six hours on Saturdays.

Emergence of modern lifestyles were pulled down, and open spaces were created for
sport and entertainment. Sport was encouraged in
Robert Owen was not the only factory owner who came ‘leisure time’ in order to keep workers healthy.
to see that happier workers would work harder. Titus Increased leisure time led to other changes. Mass
Salt, an industrialist and politician from the English entertainment, such as theatres and spectator sport,
town of Bradford began experimenting with the idea developed alongside newspapers and magazines for
of providing well-built homes with drainage for his people of all classes – not just literature for the well
employees, as well as a local hospital, public baths, educated.
churches and schools. Compulsory education for children eventually grew
In France, workers were allowed to gradually buy the into educational opportunities for other workers, with
cottages in which they lived. These workers’ cities also Mechanics’ Institutes offering courses in technology
had schools, hospitals and baths. Similar ‘cities’ were and self-improvement. Eventually, these broadened to
developed in other European nations. offer other subjects, including literacy and arithmetic.
Improving health conditions led to fewer outbreaks Improvements in agricultural production gave
of disease and more efficient workers. Even the harshest people better diets and reduced the risk of famine
of mill owners began to clear slums. Cesspools were through crop failure. Workers could now afford more
removed, tenements (overcrowded rooming houses) and better food that, in turn, helped them stay even
healthier.
Source 5 Young
American boys working
as mine helpers,
c. 1900, before the
introduction of child
labour laws in the USA

Remember and understand want to abolish the property qualification for
1 What did Karl Marx think was the driving force members?
behind the Industrial Revolution? 6 Explain how workers benefited from joining Friendly
2 Look at the first point of the People’s Charter in Societies.
Source 3. What large group was left out of their Evaluate and create
demands for voting rights?
7 Many people today who avoid using computers or
3 In your own words define the term ‘Luddite’. new technology are called ‘Luddites’. Given what
4 Prior to 1825, what was the legal punishment if you have learnt, describe how the original ‘Luddites’
workers gathered to discuss demands for higher differ from modern-day ‘Luddites’.
wages? 8 Create a poster advertising a Chartist meeting.
Apply and analyse Include the six proposals shown in Source 3 on your
poster, ensuring that you explain each proposal in
5 Read Source 3. In your own words, explain what a
your own words so that they can be understood by
‘property qualification’ was. Why did the Chartists
young people today.

8.15 Long-term impacts
of the Industrial Revolution
Although it is impossible to accurately identify a date on approximately one billion people. By 2027, this number
which the Industrial Revolution came to an end, many is estimated to exceed eight billion. Many academics now
historians argue that this coincided with the beginning argue that this number of people is unsustainable and is
of World War I in 1914. In the century since then, many placing the world’s resources at risk from overuse.
of the long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution In the short term, the advantages brought by the
have started to become apparent. Some of these long- Industrial Revolution – including higher standards of
term impacts are positive while others are negative. living, education, better food and medical treatment –
only benefited the industrialised world. Other areas of the
Long-term population growth world – such as the colonies of major European powers
– were left behind or exploited for their resources. Today,
and global inequality these countries are striving to bring themselves into line
with the developed countries and former imperial powers
Although rapid population growth was one of the
that controlled them in the past.
major short-term effects of the Industrial Revolution,
in the 100 years since then world population has In many ways, increased levels of global trade have
continued to rise. Today, this growth has slowed in the allowed the industrialised world to export many of the
industrialised nations but continues to increase rapidly problems of the Industrial Revolution – long hours, poor
in the developing world. In 1801, world population was working conditions, child labour – to developing countries.
Source 1 An abandoned 19th-century lead mine

Environmental impacts
One of the most significant long-term impacts of the
Industrial Revolution is related to the environment. New
sources of air and water pollution were introduced that we
are only now beginning to acknowledge as directly linked
to 19th-century industrial processes. Coal burnt in the
production of steam power produced heavy layers of smog
that hung over the factory towns and cities. Evidence
of the effects of this pollution was found when modern
scientists tested hair samples from famous people such as
Isaac Newton and Napoleon Bonaparte. They discovered
high concentrations of lead and mercury.
Today, not much has changed. The modern world is
still heavily dependent on fossil fuels such as coal and
oil. Not only do we use petroleum products in our cars,
ships and planes, we also use them in the manufacture
of our tablets, smartphones, computers and similar
devices. The only difference is that these fuels we burn
to maintain our affluent lifestyles are running out.
Air pollution Source 2 The effects of industrialisation are seen in scenes such as
The British were aware of the soot and dirt that hung this, where chemicals from a nearby chemical plant have killed the trees.
over their industrial towns, but they could not foresee
the long-term effects of their industry into the 21st example of the industrialised nations by becoming large
century. They did not realise fossil fuels such as coal and producers of pollution as they strive to improve the
oil could run out or have a global environmental impact. living conditions and wealth of their populations (see
The Industrial Revolution left humanity dependent on Source 3).
carbon fuels (such as petrol and gas). In recognition of By the mid-1900s, the effects of these changes to the
this, governments worldwide are encouraging the search Earth’s atmosphere were becoming apparent. In the 1960s,
for greener energies through policies aimed at limiting a new environmental movement sought to stem the tide
carbon production or taxing those that produce it. of pollutants flowing into the planet’s ecosystem. It is now
The developing world and its growing economies, widely accepted that pollution has changed the Earth’s
particularly those of India and China, have copied the climate and could lead to further unexpected changes.
Source 3 Today, modern China

follows the example set by Britain
in the 1800s.

Water pollution and sewage difficulties
The Industrial Revolution led to the building of many
factories, tanneries and industrial buildings along the
banks of the Thames. Waste from these industries,
along with the flow of the London cesspits, badly
polluted the river. By 1833, salmon could no longer be
found upstream from London Bridge. The Building Acts
of 1844 and 1847 improved sanitation in the city itself,
but only by dumping more sewage into the river.
The river was toxic to fish but was still used to
provide drinking water for people. This led to four
Source 4 Modern cleaning of the Thames; this device collects
serious outbreaks of cholera between 1831 and 1866. floating rubbish, such as plastic and wood.
Pollution continued as the city’s population grew
and more industries developed. This problem was not burned off. Large areas of land were damaged or poisoned
resolved until late in the 20th century. The first salmon by unknown or unrecognised chemicals dumped without
in 150 years returned to the Thames in 1974. any special care or consideration. The run-off from some
It was not until the 1960s, long after the Industrial of these chemicals often entered the water supply. Rivers,
Revolution, that people truly came to recognise the creeks and underground water supplies were affected,
problems caused by industrial waste and ground while dangerous elements such as lead entered the food
contamination from new industries. Leftovers from chain through animals’ drinking the water or through
production, by-products and waste were dumped or infected food.
keyconcept: Significance
‘Smellbourne’
In the 1850s, the majority of sewage and human waste
from houses across Melbourne was emptied into open
drains that flowed into street channels. This waste mixed
with other waste from stables and industries making
these open street channels extremely smelly. As a result,
Melbourne was given the nickname ‘Smellbourne’.
Although there was a collection system (waste
products collected from outhouses or ‘dunnies’ behind
city homes by ‘nightmen’) it was disorganised and often
resulted in the outbreak of diseases like typhoid.
After hundreds of people died, the Melbourne and
Metropolitan Board of Works (MMBW) was established
to build an underground sewerage system and a
treatment plant at Werribee. This treatment plant still
operates today.
The system was opened in February 1898, when the
chairman of the MMBW, Mr Fitzgibbon, proudly stated,
it ‘was not a question of how much the scheme was
going to cost, but how much it was going to save in the
lives of the citizens’.
For more information on the key concept of
significance, refer to page 209 of ‘The history toolkit’.
Source 5 An engraving showing works on the new
sewerage scheme for Melbourne, 1892

Source 6 A modern
example of the effects
of deforestation in Haiti
Deforestation and land clearance

During the Industrial Revolution, forests were cleared create the housing areas around them where the workers
to an ever greater extent, at first for fuel and building could live. In many cases, the forests lost contained
materials, then to make space for new farmland. A old-growth trees that had stood for decades. These trees
rising population required more buildings; railways had held together soil on mountain slopes or soaked up
required miles of wooden sleepers. Land was also rainwater. The loss of these trees led to landslides and to
cleared to build the new factories and mills, and to floods downstream.

1 In what ways did the Industrial Revolution encourage 5 Write a paragraph describing some of the long-term
an increase in overall world population? environmental effects of the Industrial Revolution.
2 Use the information provided to complete the 6 Explain why the Industrial Revolution did not benefit
following tasks: developing countries such as India.
a Why was Melbourne nicknamed ‘Smellbourne’? 7 Over the centuries, what has been the relationship
b How did Melbourne resolve its difficulty with between industrialisation and outbreaks of serious
sewage? diseases and illnesses? Use examples from this text
c Why is the Melbourne sewerage system still and from your own research to answer this question.
considered significant to this day? Provide examples to support your answer.
3 What effect did industrialisation have on waterways
Evaluate and create
such as the Thames?
8 Create a poster that advises people how to limit their
4 What were the unexpected consequences of the
pollution of waterways.
removal of trees from some mountain areas?
9 Write a letter to the newspaper arguing the need to
investigate alternative energy sources of industrial
and domestic power.

8C rich task
skilldrill
Population growth Using graphs to communicate
in Britain during the historical information
Sometimes, complicated numerical information
Industrial Revolution presented in writing or in tables can be difficult to

understand. Historians need to be able to read and
The Industrial Revolution meant the interpret this information and communicate it visually.
transformation of countries’ populations from Graphs can be a very effective communication form
for historians. They can condense information, make
being predominantly rural to being predominantly
a point clearly and concisely, and show relationships
urban. In England, millions of people migrated and trends visually.
from farming areas to the cities springing up Bar graphs are very useful for showing how
near the coal and iron fields. The population of something has changed over time. Use the following
Manchester, England, grew from 25 000 in 1772 steps when constructing a bar graph:
to 303 000 by 1850. Overall in Britain, the number Step 1 Decide upon a title for the bar graph. The
of cities with populations of 50 000 or more rose title should say what the graph is about in a
from three in 1785 to 31 in 1860. By 1850, Britain very specific and concise way. For example,
had become the first nation in history to have a when graphing the information in the first row
larger urban than rural population. of the table in Source 1, the title ‘Population of
Britain between 1750 and 1900’ is more specific
than the title ‘Population of Britain’, or the title
Source 1 ‘Population between 1750 and 1900’. It is
Britain 1750 1900 also more concise than the title ‘The changing
Population 7 million 37 million population of Britain between the years 1750
People living in towns 13% 87% and 1900’.
Life expectancy Men: 31 years Men: 45 years
Step 2 Determine the labels for the x-axis (the
Women: 33 years Women: 48 years
horizontal axis). The x-axis is usually used to
Deaths at birth 65% 15%
show items, categories or time periods. To
determine the labels, you need to consider the
42
data you are using to make your graph. For
example, when graphing the information in the
35
first row of the table in Source 1, we have put
two labels on the x-axis: 1750 and 1900.
28
Step 3 Draw the x-axis and mark where the bars
21 will be.
Step 4 Determine the scale for the y-axis (the
14 vertical axis). The y-axis is usually used to show
the frequency of something happening or the
7 amount. Again, you need to consider the data
you are using to make your graph. (For example,
0 when graphing the information in the first row of
1750 1900
Year the table in Source 1, we have used a numerical
Population growth in Britain between 1750 and 1900 scale which goes from zero to 37 million). You
then need to choose an appropriate scale interval
Source 2 Graph showing population growth in Britain between
1750 and 1900 (e.g. 1 cm = 10 million).

Step 5 Draw the y-axis and mark your chosen intervals Apply the skill
with the appropriate numerical labels (e.g. 10 million, Using the information in Source 1, follow the steps outlined
20 million). to create three bar graphs in your notebook that show:
Step 6 Write an appropriate y-axis title beside the y-axis 1 the difference in life expectancy of men and women in
and an appropriate x-axis title underneath the x-axis. Britain in 1750 and 1900
For example, when graphing the information in the
2 the difference in the number of babies that died at birth
first row of the table in Source 1, the y-axis title is
in 1750 compared to 1900
‘Population’ and the x-axis title is ‘Year’.
3 how many more people were living in towns in 1900
Step 7 After looking closely at your data, draw each bar.
compared to 1750.
If the value falls between two of your marked intervals
on the y-axis, approximate where the correct value
would lie.
Step 8 Each graph should be uniquely numbered, for
example, ‘Figure 1’. (Note that all other images such as Extend your understanding
diagrams, pictures, photos and maps are also included
1 Conduct some independent Internet research
in this numbering series.)
to find out why populations increased so rapidly
Step 9 Whether creating your own graph using
during the Industrial Revolution, both generally
another source’s data, adapting their graph, or
and within cities. Using the information you have
reproducing their graph as a whole, you must quote
gathered, write a 200-word historical explanation
(cite) the source. Place the citation below the graph,
describing the population boom and the reasons
and precede it by either ‘Source:’ (for an exact
why it occurred.
reproduction) or ‘Data source:’ (when you have
modified the original).
Source 3 Manchester’s population grew rapidly between 1772 and 1850.

Depth Study 2: Investigating
World War I
World War I
(1914–1918)
World War I is often called ‘the Great War’,
‘the first modern war’ or ‘the war to end all wars’.
It was the first war in which modern machine guns,
chemical weapons, tanks, fighter aircraft and
submarines were used to cause devastation on
a global scale. Regardless of what it is called, the
events of World War I destroyed entire cities and
towns and took the lives of millions of soldiers
and civilians.
At the end of World War I, the map of Europe
was redrawn. Once-powerful empires were broken
up and new nations were created in their place.
The war also tested Australia’s commitment to
Great Britain. Although Australia displayed a strong
sense of loyalty to Britain by committing troops and
resources, the Australian public was divided over the
issue of conscription.
Today, the sacrifice of those who fought and died
in World War I is commemorated in many nations
around the world – including Australia.
9A
What were the causes
9B
How and where was
of World War I? World War I fought?
1 There were several short-term and long-term 1 During World War I, there were major developments
factors that led to the outbreak of World War I in in warfare and weaponry. Much of this new
1914. Make some predictions about what some of technology was blamed for extending the war.
these might have been. Why do you think this might have been?

chapter
9
Source 1 Trench warfare was a major part of the fighting that took place across Europe during World War I.
This photograph shows the remains of a fallen soldier photographed in the trenches during World War I.
It illustrates the horror of daily life in the trenches for soldiers on both sides.
9C
What impact did World War I
9DHow is World War I remembered
have on Australia? and commemorated?
1 World War I had a significant impact on people 1 It has been argued that wars are essential to a
at home in Australia, especially for women and nation’s development and sense of national identity.
people of German background. Explain why and Do you believe this is true? Discuss your ideas as a
how the war might have affected these two groups class, making reference to the way in which World
of people in particular. War I is commemorated each year.
chapter 9 world war I (1914–1918) 289

9.1 World War I: a timeline
5–10 September 1914
French and British
armies halt the
Germans in
Belgium and France
1882
the Triple Alliance is formed
between Germany, Italy
and Austria–Hungary 28 July 1914 December 1915
Austria–Hungary the Anzacs
declares war withdraw
on Serbia from Gallipoli
15 September 1914
trench warfare on the
Western Front begins
4 August 1914
Britain declares
war on Germany
1880 1905 1914 1915 1916
1907 1–4 August 1914

the Triple Entente is Germany declares
formed between Britain, war on Russia and
France, and invades 29 October 1914
France and Russia
neutral Luxembourg Turkey enters
28 June 1914 and Belgium. the war on the
Ma
Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the World War I begins. side of Germany
25 April 1915 the
Austro–Hungarian throne) and his wife For
are assassinated in Sarajevo, the Anzacs land
at Gallipoli aga
Bosnia–Herzegovina the
Australian soldiers at Gallipoli
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of

Austria
Source 1 A timeline of key events leading up to, during and immediately after World War I.

9A What were the causes of World War I?
A key moment in the Russian

Revolution; the storming of
the Winter Palace in 1917
July–November 1916
the Battle of the
Somme; tanks are
used for the first time
The signing of the Armistice between the Allies and

October 1917 Germany in a railway carriage in the French forest of
Communist revolution Compiègne on 11 November 1918
28 October 1916 in Russia
the first referendum April 1918
on conscription is Australian troops
held in Australia 11 November 1918
recapture the town of
July 1918 the Armistice
Villers-Bretonneux in
the Battle of (ceasefire) is signed;
France – costing the
April 1917 Le Hamel World War I ends
lives of around 1200
the USA enters Australian troops.
the war
916 1917 1918 1919
8 August 1918
1917 the Battle of Amiens begins;
Fighting continues this day will later come to be
on the Western Front. known as the ‘Black Day for
Battles are fought at the German Army’
Passchendaele, Ypres,
March 1916 Pozières and Bullecourt.
March 1918 January–June 1919
the Australian Imperial
the Ludendorff Offensive the Paris Peace Conference
Force (AIF) joins the fight
begins – a final attempt by is held to decide the fate
against Germany on
Germany to break through of Germany; the Treaty
the Western Front
the Allied lines and win the war of Versailles is drawn up

1 When did Britain declare war on 4 Using the timeline, calculate how long
Germany? the Gallipoli campaign lasted.
2 When did the USA enter the war? 5 Conduct some research to discover
3 On what day did World War I end? why 8 August 1918 became known as
the ‘Black Day for the German Army’.

9.2 Background to World War I
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was
the result of a complex interaction of
tensions that had been building between
countries in Europe for more than 20
years. National rivalries, jealousies over
territory, competition over economic
progress, competition over the size
of armies and navies, and the race to
colonise new parts of the world all
contributed to the tension.
The last major war in Europe (the
Franco–Prussian War) was fought
between France and a number of
independent German kingdoms. The
war ended in 1871 when the French were
defeated. As a result of their victory,
the German states unified to form
the German Empire (Germany). After
unification, Germany attempted to limit
France’s power and secure its place in
Source 1 An English recruitment poster from World War I
European politics by developing a system
of alliances with other countries across
Europe. This system changed the way in which many In the lead-up to World War I, it seemed unlikely
European countries interacted with each other and that close relations would become involved in armed
resulted in the development of two major alliances. conflict – let alone fight on opposing sides.
All of the most powerful European countries belonged Europe seemed prosperous during this time.
to one or the other of these alliances. These countries The Industrial Revolution had transformed Western
believed that their alliances would act as a deterrent Europe, with new production methods and advances
to war because if a member of one alliance was in technology affecting almost every sector of
attacked by a member of the other alliance, all the society. Governments had made improvements in
members of both alliances would have to become health care, sanitation and assistance for the poor.
involved. This became known as ‘balance of power’ Roads, canals and railways were making trade and
politics. transport cheaper and more accessible. Literacy levels
were also rising. On the whole, members of the
Europe in the lead-up to war middle classes across Europe had fought for greater
political rights and now enjoyed a higher standard of
In 1901, the situation in Europe appeared peaceful. living. The working classes had also won some basic
Queen Victoria had occupied the British throne rights, such as the right to vote in Britain after 1867.
for over 60 years and many of her relations and However, this prosperity masked both
descendants had married into royal houses all over international and domestic tensions. Despite their
Europe (see Source 2). As a result, many of the royal close family ties and relationships, there were
families of Europe were closely related. Tsar Nicholas jealousies among many of the royal families in
II of Russia, Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany and King Europe. Issues such as the different rates of economic
George V were all first cousins (see Source 3). The wife progress, the size of colonial empires and the
of Tsar Nicholas II was also one of Queen Victoria’s development of weapons, armies and ships all
granddaughters. caused rivalry between major European nations.

For example, the rate of economic progress and Many working-class families lived in cramped,
improvements in the standard of living were unevenly unsanitary conditions or in urban slums. Women were
spread across Europe. The Industrial Revolution of still not allowed to vote in Europe, and new political
the 18th and 19th centuries led to many advances movements divided people along class and ethnic lines.
in Britain and Germany, but had little impact on the Many governments and people were afraid of the rising
nations of Eastern Europe such as Austria–Hungary, influence of radical political movements like socialism
the Balkan states and Russia. This contributed further and anarchism.
to the rivalry between nations. Even in industrialised So although Europe seemed to be peaceful before
nations like Britain and Germany there was a huge World War I, these rivalries and tensions bubbled away
gap between rich and poor. beneath the surface.
Source 2 Queen Victoria (seated front centre) photographed with members of her Source 3 Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (left)
extended family in 1894. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany is seated front left. with his cousin King George V of England
(right) – their mothers were sisters

1 Which country was responsible for developing a 4 How would you summarise the social and political
system of alliances in the 1870s? situation in Europe around 1900? Explain your
2 Why did European countries at the time believe that answer.
these alliances would help to prevent war?
Evaluate and create
3 Explain how it was that so many of Europe’s royal
5 Conduct some research into the meanings of
families were related.
socialism and anarchism. Why do you think
governments in the early 1900s would have been
afraid of the growing influence of these movements?

9.3 Causes of World War I
There were four main factors that contributed to the France and Russia (see Source 2). Entente is a French word
growing tensions between European countries in meaning an ‘understanding’ or ‘alliance’. By joining one
the lead-up, to World War I including: of these alliances, each participating nation promised
• the alliance system to provide military support if one of its members was
• nationalism attacked by a member of the opposing alliance.
• imperialism Ironically, one of the main goals of the alliance
system was actually to prevent the outbreak of war. It
• militarism.
was assumed that no single country would go to war
against another if there was a risk that a small conflict
The alliance system between two nations could easily build into a large
One of the key factors that led to the outbreak of conflict between many countries.
World War I was the alliance system. From the Unfortunately, the alliance system had the opposite
1870s onwards, Europe’s leading nations grouped effect (see Source 3) and over time these alliances
themselves into two alliances. Over time, these alliances increased the tension between Triple Alliance and Triple
became more formal and legally binding. In 1882, the Entente countries.
Triple Alliance was formed between the countries of In addition to the key countries shown in Source 2,
Germany, Austria–Hungary and Italy. In 1907, the Triple many other countries, colonies and territories around
Entente was formed between the countries of Britain, the world were drawn into the alliance system (see
Source 3).
EUROPE: BEFORE THE OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR I EUROPE: DEVELOPMENT OF ALLIANCES 1879–1907
LEGEND
Triple Alliance
Triple Entente
Neutral countries
ATLANTIC
OCEAN Norway Norway
Sweden Sweden
Great Britain North North

S ea
Sea
Sea Sea
Denmark Great Britain Denmark
lti lti
c
Ba Ba
The Russian Empire
Netherlands Netherlands
AT L A N TIC The Russian Empire
Belgium Germany Belgium Germany
OCEAN
France France
Switzerland Austria-Hungary Switzerland Austria–Hungary
Portugal Romania Portugal Romania
Black Sea Black Sea
Spain Corsica Bulgaria Spain Bulgaria
Italy Corsica Italy
Sardinia Albania The Ottoman Empire Sardinia Albania
The Ottoman
Mediterr Mediterr
ane ane Empire
an an
Morocco Morocco
N Tunisia Sea N Tunisia Sea
0 1000 km 0 1000 km
Source 1 Source: Oxford University Press Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press

Source 3 This cartoon illustrates how World War I

escalated as a result of the alliance system.
However, Austria–Hungary was not only made

For example, all British colonies (such as India) up of people who thought of themselves as Germans
and dominions (such as Australia and New Zealand) and spoke the German language; it was also made up
automatically became part of the Triple Entente. Japan of many other ethnic and language groups, such as
had signed a treaty with Britain in 1902 that also meant Hungarians, Serbians and Bosnians.
that they could all be drawn into war if a conflict broke From around 1900 onwards, a number of ethnic
out in Europe. Bosnia–Herzegovina was also considered groups began fighting for independence from
a member of the Triple Entente because Russia was a key Austria–Hungary. One region attempting to assert its
supporter of Bosnia–Herzegovina’s bid for independence independence was Bosnia–Herzegovina, an area in
from Austria–Hungary. A conflict between Bosnia– south-eastern Europe known as the Balkans (see Source
Herzegovina and Austria–Hungary would therefore 2 on page 298). In the years before World War I, Bosnia–
become a conflict between all the countries that were Herzegovina was under the control of Austria–Hungary.
members of the two alliances. However, Bosnia–Herzegovina was made up of many
different ethnic groups, including Bosnians, Serbs and
Nationalism Croats, who did not see themselves as historically,

ethnically or culturally linked to either Austria or
Nationalism was another important factor that Hungary. Instead, most of the people of Bosnia–
contributed to the outbreak of war in 1914. Put simply, Herzegovina wanted to join with Serbia to form their
nationalism is a sense of pride in, and a love of, one’s own nation.
nation. Nationalism grows out of an understanding Russia had been supporting moves by Bosnia–
of common goals and beliefs between the people of a Herzegovina to become independent and unite with
nation – for example, a shared language, culture and Serbia, so when a Serbian youth was accused of
history. In Europe, nationalism played an important assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in
role in the lead-up to World War I. 1914, Russia was drawn into the conflict that followed.
Nationalism can either unite or divide the people
of a nation or region. For example, feelings of
nationalism contributed to the unification of many
Imperialism
small German kingdom states to form the German Another factor that led to tensions between
Empire (Germany) in 1871. A sense of nationalism also European countries in the lead-up to World War I
encouraged cooperation between Germany and Austria– was imperialism. Imperialism is a policy by which a
Hungary, because German-language speakers ruled country increases its power by gaining control over
both empires. new territories to create an empire. This is usually
carried out for financial and strategic reasons.

European powers, such as Britain, Spain, France and again in 1911, Kaiser Wilhelm (William) II, the
and Portugal had been building empires around the ruler of Germany, attempted to block further colonial
world since the 15th century. Since that time they had expansion by France. He did this by sending German
claimed new territories and colonised much of North troops to take control of a number of French colonies
and South America, Australia and parts of Asia (see in North Africa. In both cases, France, with Britain’s
Source 4). By the late 19th century, European nations support, resisted Germany’s attacks, resulting in the
were engaged in a new wave of imperialism. This time, defeat of Germany. Once again, these events escalated
they competed to be the first to claim new territories the tension between major European powers.
across Africa. Historians often refer to this period as the
‘scramble for Africa’.
Militarism
The main rivals in the race for new colonies in
Africa were Britain, France and Germany. At this time, Militarism is the belief that all nations should build
Britain had the largest empire, with colonies and and maintain strong armed forces so that they are
dominions (such as Australia) all over the world. France prepared to defend themselves against attack or
also had many colonies around the world. Germany, promote their national interests. In the lead-up to World
however, had only been a unified nation since 1871 War I, many European countries competed with each
and was still trying to build a large colonial empire other not only over the size of their empires, but also
in order to compete with France and Britain. In 1905, over the size of their armies. Between 1870 and 1914,
WORLD: EUROPEAN EMPIRES BY 1914
PACIFIC
PACIFIC OCEAN
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
OCEAN
INDIAN
Belgium OCEAN
France
Germany
Great Britain
Italy N
Netherlands
The Ottoman Empire
0 3000 km
Portugal
The Russian Empire
Spain
Source 5 Military spending and soldier numbers of key European powers, 1913–14
Country Size of population Military spending Soldier numbers
(millions) (US$ millions) (millions)
Germany 67 60 8.25
Britain 45.8 50 0.75
France 39.6 40 1.5
Austria–Hungary 52.8 22.5 0.65
Russia 139 15.5 1.25
Italy 35.5 10 0.75

military spending in many European countries 35

Britain
increased on average by about 300 per cent. After 1871, Germany
30
all the major European nations except Britain also
Total number of Dreadnoughts

introduced conscription, which meant that all men over
25
the age of 18 were forced to serve a minimum period in
the armed forces such as the army or navy. 20
By 1900, Britain had developed the largest and
strongest navy in the world. It needed a navy of 15
this size to administer and control its huge overseas
empire. When Germany started to build up its own 10
navy, Britain became suspicious. Germany and Britain

5
began competing over who could build the most
‘Dreadnoughts’ – a very fast, powerful and heavily
0
armoured battleship (see Source 7). By early 1914, even 1908 1911 1914
Year
though the leaders of Europe were still talking of peace,
Source 6 Graph comparing the growth in numbers
they were clearly involved in an arms race and were
of Dreadnoughts held by the British and German
preparing for war.. navies in the lead-up to World War I
Source 7 A picture taken

of the Royal Navy’s HMS
Dreadnought. It made such
an impact when introduced in
1906 that all battleships built
after that time became known
as ‘Dreadnoughts’.

1 Define the following terms in your own words: 4 Using Sources 5 and 6, explain what is meant by the
a imperialism term ‘arms race’. Explain the possible reasons why
b nationalism major European powers began to increase the size
c the alliance system. of their armed forces between 1900 and 1914.
2 What were the two major alliances formed before Evaluate and create
World War I? Which countries were the members of
5 Do you think an arms race necessarily means that
the two alliances?
war is likely? Give reasons for your answer.
3 Why was Germany’s colonial empire so much
smaller than Britain’s in the lead-up to World War I?

9.4 The outbreak of World War I
The event that finally triggered the outbreak of World together to form their own nation. They began a
War I in 1914 took place in the Balkan states. The nationalist movement and began protesting to achieve
Balkans is an area of south-eastern Europe made up of independence from Austria–Hungary. The Russian
countries such as Romania, Serbia, Greece, Bosnia and Empire supported the Serbian nationalists because they
Herzegovina, and Bulgaria (see Source 2). The Balkan wanted Bosnia–Herzegovina to become part of Serbia.
states were politically very unstable in the lead-up to The emperor of Austria–Hungary was aware of this
World War I. Three major imperial powers were actively growing tension in the Balkans. Believing that the
involved in the region: Austria–Hungary, the Russian people of Bosnia–Herzegovina would be charmed and
Empire and the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire. won over by a royal visit, he sent his nephew, Archduke
The complex relationships between these powers Franz Ferdinand, and the Archduke’s wife Sophie, on a
made the Balkans a potential crisis point. Austria– goodwill visit to the city of Sarajevo. On 28 June 1914,
Hungary controlled parts of the Balkans. In 1908 while many people lined the streets to welcome the royal
Austria–Hungary annexed (took control of) Bosnia– couple, a Serb nationalist by the name of Gavrilo Princip
Herzegovina. Different ethnic groups in Bosnia– took the opportunity to show his feelings towards their
Herzegovina, such as the Serbs, did not see themselves imperial rulers. During the parade, he shot and killed the
as either Austrian or Hungarian and wanted to join Archduke and his wife (see Source 3).
EUROPE: 1914 DETAIL OF THE BALKAN STATES IN 1914

Vienna
LEGEND Budapest
Countries and their associated territories
AUSTRIA–HUNGARY
France Italy
Germany The Ottoman Empire Zagreb
Great Britain Spain
Norway
ROMANIA
BOSNIA-
Belgrade Bucharest
Sweden HERZEGOVINA
Sarajevo
Great Britain North SERBIA
BULGARIA Black
Sea
Sea MONTENEGRO Sea

Denmark Sofia
lti Cetinje
c
Ba Adriatic
The Russian Empire Sea
Netherlands Constantinople
ATL ANTIC Tirane
(Istanbul)
Belgium Germany ITALY ALBANIA
OCEAN
France
THE OTTOMAN
Switzerland Austria–Hungary EMPIRE
Aegean
Portugal Romania GREECE Sea
Black Sea
Spain Corsica Bulgaria
Italy Athens
Sardinia Albania
The Ottoman
Mediterr
ane Empire
an
Morocco N
N Tunisia Sea
0 1000 km 0 300 km Mediterranean Sea
Source 1 Source: Oxford University Press Source 2 Source: Oxford University Press

The Schlieffen Plan and the

invasion of Belgium
At this point, Germany was faced with hostile forces
preparing for war on both its eastern and western
borders. This was a threat that Germany had feared
ever since France and Russia became members of the
Triple Entente in 1907. The German response was to use
a special military plan devised by a military strategist
called Alfred von Schlieffen. It became known as the
Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan called for German
troops to launch an all-out attack on France by passing
through neutral Belgium. The aim was that the French
forces could be defeated before the huge Russian army
was ready to go to war. That way, Germany would not
Source 3 An artist’s impression of the assassination of the have to fight France and Russia at once. Instead, with
Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo France defeated, it was thought that Germany could
concentrate solely on fighting Russia. The Schlieffen
Plan was based on the following assumptions:
The ‘July Crisis’ and declarations • Russia would take at least six weeks to get its army
of war ready for war.
• France would be easily defeated in six weeks.
From that point on, the results of a single event in the • Belgium would not resist any German attack.
Balkan region of south-eastern Europe escalated into a • Britain would remain neutral.
European war. The key to the spread of the conflict was
The main problem with the Schlieffen Plan was that
the complex alliance system that developed in Europe
it violated Belgium’s neutrality. Britain had signed a
between the 1870s and 1907.
treaty with Belgium in 1839 guaranteeing to come to
Immediately after the assassination, Austria– its defence if another country attempted to invade its
Hungary blamed the government of neighbouring borders. As a result, the German invasion of Belgium
Serbia. The following month was a confusing and forced Britain to become involved in the growing
frantic period of bluff, threats and negotiations conflict.
between key European powers that became known
as the ‘July Crisis’. The Austrians issued a series of 10 Source 4
harsh demands to Serbia. Serbia agreed to nine of the Key dates in the lead-up to World War I
demands, but to accept all would have meant that 28 June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated.
Serbia lost any real independence, so negotiations
23 July 1914 Austria–Hungary presents 10 demands to Serbia.
broke down.
25 July 1914 Serbia agrees to only nine of the 10 demands.
Exactly one month after the assassination, Austria–
Hungary declared war on Serbia. The next day, Serbia 28 July 1914 Austria–Hungary declares war on Serbia.
turned to its ally Russia for support. Russia was also a 29 July 1914 Russia promises support for Serbia.
Slavic nation and promised to protect Serbia against 1 August 1914 Germany declares war on Russia.
Austria–Hungary and its ally in the Triple Alliance,
Germany declares war on France and invades
Germany. Russia then began preparing its army for war. 3 August 1914
Belgium.
On 31 July, Germany demanded that Russia stop these
Britain declares war on Germany (Australia
preparations. When Russia did not respond, Germany 4 August 1914
becomes involved).
declared war. At the same time, the Germans also asked
6 August 1914 Austria–Hungary declares war on Russia.
the French government what its intentions were. France
issued a vague response, stating that it would ‘follow its 23 August 1914 Japan (an ally of Britain) declares war on Germany.
own interests’. In reality though, France was obligated 29 October 1914 Turkey enters the war on the side of Germany.
to support its ally Russia as both were members of the Italy enters the war on the side of the Triple
Triple Entente. 23 May 1915
Entente.

The war escalates
On 3 August 1914, British Prime Minister Herbert were not to support each other if one had been the
Asquith and Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey sent a aggressor. Italy used this clause to remain neutral
message to the German government announcing that at the start of the war and to switch to the Triple
Britain would declare war if Germany did not withdraw Entente in May 1915.
its troops from Belgium by midnight. There was no Turkey entered the war on the side of the Triple
response to the message, so on 4 August 1914, Britain Alliance in October 1914. It was against Turkey that
and its empire found itself at war with Germany. Australia’s first land battles took place. The USA also
Italy was also a member of the Triple Alliance came into the war, on the side of the Triple Entente (or
with Germany and Austria–Hungary. It was expected Allies), in April 1917 after German submarine attacks
that Italy would join the war on their side. However, on passenger ships resulted in the deaths of hundreds of
under the wording of the Triple Alliance, members American civilians.
keyconcept: Contestability
The Schlieffen Plan Zuber points out that the Schlieffen Plan was for
a war against France on a single front, yet in 1914
Historical events can become contestable with the
Germany was planning for a war against France and
release of new sources of information. The Schlieffen
Russia. The actual document outlining the Schlieffen
Plan is a good example of this because it has become
Plan was also in the possession of Alfred von Schlieffen’s
the accepted explanation of German tactics in 1914.
daughters in 1914, rather than with the military.
More recently, however, historians like Terence Zuber
have used material released from German archives after Historians have to be prepared to accept the
the fall of the Berlin Wall to challenge this view. They emergence of new evidence that challenges accepted
argue that the 1905 Schlieffen Plan was not a practical beliefs. The Schlieffen Plan has long been accepted as
war plan, but actually a theoretical training exercise. fact, but as Zuber argues, it can now be regarded as
This argument is based on inconsistencies between contestable.
the 1905 Schlieffen Plan and the German mobilisation For more information on the key concept of
plans implemented in 1914. contestability, refer to page 210 of ‘The history toolkit’.

1 Which European power took control over Bosnia– 6 Explain why there is now historical debate
Herzegovina in 1908? surrounding the importance of the Schlieffen Plan
2 Which Balkan state believed that Bosnia– in understanding Germany’s actions at the start of
Herzegovina should break away from Austria– World War I?
Hungary and join it? Why did Russia support this
Evaluate and create
move?
7 Use the information provided to construct a flow
3 Why did Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife tour
chart that clearly explains the key events that lead to
Sarajevo?
the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
4 Why did Serbia refuse to comply with the last of
8 Using the Internet conduct research about the
10 demands issued by Austria–Hungary after the
difference between the 1905 Schlieffen Plan and the
assassination?
plans used by Germany in 1914. Put this information
5 What was the event that involved Britain in the war in
into a table to compare the two plans.
Europe?

9.5 Australia’s entry
into World War I
Before the outbreak of World War I, Europe had been
relatively peaceful for over 40 years. The last major
The great adventure
war (the Franco–Prussian War) had been fought in When World War I began in 1914, Australia had been
1871, meaning that a whole generation of young men a single, federated (united) country for only 13 years.
and women across Europe had grown up with no real Although Australia was a self-governing country, it was
experience of war. The same was true of Australia. Apart still a dominion of the British Empire and was obliged
from a small number of soldiers who had fought for to follow the instructions of Britain in many areas of
Britain in Africa during the late 1800s, Australians had government. As a result, when Britain declared war on
no experience of war and had little understanding of Germany, Australia automatically became involved,
what it meant. as did all other countries that were part of the British
Largely as a result of this inexperience, there was a Empire.
perception that war was glorious, exciting and heroic. In Australia, a wave of enthusiasm for the war effort
Young people, especially boys, were brought up on swept the country. The men of Australia rushed to enlist
military stories and were taught military drills in in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). According to
school. In these stories, the heroes were rarely wounded legend, many were concerned that the war might end
or killed; they won their battles effortlessly, and the before they got to Europe. The Australian government
drills taught them to obey orders and work together. initially promised to supply 20 000 men to the British
This idealistic outlook on war and military involvment war effort by the end of 1914 – in reality, the number of
encouraged a romantic view of military action. men enlisted by this time was around 50 000.
Source 1 An Australian recruitment poster from 1915

of Australian workers, minus the cost of rations.
The promise of regular pay also encouraged many
unemployed men to volunteer. As the war progressed,
hatred of the enemy also became a motivation for
enlistment. Propaganda stories (often exaggerated) of
German atrocities were used in recruiting campaigns.
In every city and town, recruiting rallies were
held. Platforms would be set up with the Australian
and British flags side by side as a backdrop to the
speeches. High-profile sportsmen such as footballers,
cricketers and athletes would be planted in the
crowd. When the call went out for young men to step
forward and sign up, it was frequently one of these
sportsmen who led the charge.
Among those who offered to enlist were also
Aboriginal Australians. Only 400 Aborigines were
accepted for service – all others were rejected on the
basis that they were not ‘of substantial European
origin or descent’. When Australian soldiers returned
from World War I, there were many benefits available
to them to assist their readjustment to civilian life.
Aboriginal soldiers, however, were denied access to
these benefits.
Of course, not all motives for joining the war
effort were noble. There were stories (perhaps just
rumours) of soldiers changing their names before
Source 2 An Australian recruitment poster from 1917
enlisting in order to get away from their wives or
other commitments. Others enlisted to escape the
boredom of jobs they hated, to leave school early, or
The reasons for enlistment were varied and complex. to escape the strict rules and confines of their family
Some men were driven by a desire to show what homes.
their new nation could contribute to a world conflict. Those who had fought in the Boer War (1899–
Others went to war purely out of loyalty to ‘the mother 1902) in Africa had some understanding of the
country’ – Britain. Many of the first wave of volunteers brutality of war but, for most, war seems to have
who enlisted to fight were former British soldiers. meant adventure. Based on all of the thoughts
Others were British citizens who happened to be living that ran through the heads of those who enlisted,
in Australia. In addition to these people, some wanted particularly in the first few months, the idea of death
to show their support for Britain in case Australia or even injury seems to have been very much in the
should need Britain’s help at some stage in the future. background.
There were young men who joined out of a spirit of
adventure. These men saw the war as an opportunity
to leave home, see the world, meet beautiful foreign
Questioning voices
women and experience life beyond Australia’s shores. Despite the positive response by many, not all
Whole football and cricket teams joined, as did groups Australians were enthusiastic about the war. Some
of workmates from businesses and factories in cities argued that it was not Australia’s war and that
and country towns. Many women encouraged their Australian troops would make little difference to the
husbands, boyfriends, brothers and even fathers to final outcome of the war. Others were opposed to
enlist. Many young women preferred to socialise with the war because they were pacifists – people who are
men in uniform. opposed to violence and war. One group of pacifists
The opportunity to earn a good income also acted were the Jehovah’s Witnesses, a religious group whose
as an incentive. The pay was 6 shillings (60 cents) per beliefs prevented them from participating in any
day, a figure calculated to match the average wage armed conflict or wars.

There was also a small group known as

conscientious objectors – people who opposed war Check your learning 9.5
and refused to perform military service because it
went against their beliefs, religion or conscience. The Remember and understand
Women’s Peace Army, led by a woman named Vida 1 What was the attitude of most Australians to war
Goldstein (see Source 3) was a women’s organisation before 1914? Why did they hold this attitude?
made up of pacifists and conscientious objectors. Their 2 What were three reasons why an Australian might
mission was to mobilise women in Australia who have wanted to enlist?
opposed the war. Goldstein, who was also a well-known
3 Why were some Aboriginal Australians not
suffragette (a woman demanding the right to vote),
accepted for service?
attracted large numbers of people to public meetings.
4 Why were some people or groups not enthusiastic
Finally, there was a small number of Australians who
about the war?
did not enlist because they were afraid, or because they
believed it was in their best interests financially to stay Apply and analyse
at home. Very few records relating to these people exist 5 Examine the two recruiting posters (Sources 1
today, but we do know that those who were reluctant to
and 2).
go to war often used excuses such as poor health
a Identify the techniques used on these posters
or family responsibilities to explain their decision not
to encourage Australian men to enlist such as:
to enlist.
• the overall message of the poster (what it
In total, however, all of the groups who objected
wants the viewer to do)
to the war only made up a small percentage of the
total population. In 1914 and through most of 1915,
• any emotions the poster taps into
the dominant feeling towards the war was positive • the effect that the poster may have had on
and supportive. It was only as the harsh reality of war people at the time.
became clear to Australians that this initial enthusiasm b Now identify the key features, such as:
began to fade away. • symbols and images
• words
• arrangement of the images and words
• colours of the posters.
c Which poster do you think would have been
more successful at the time? Justify your
answer based on the techniques and elements
used.
Evaluate and create

6 Use a range of print and digital resources to locate
and print a series of recruitment posters from
World War I (two of which must be Australian).
Be sure to include posters from a range of different
countries that were involved in World War I.
Analyse these posters, looking for points such as:
• appeal to sense of national identity
• appeal to sense of adventure and excitement
• appeal to sense of outrage and anger at the
enemy.
Create a PowerPoint presentation in which you
identify the key features and techniques of the
posters in each category. Discuss whether you
think each poster was successful in encouraging
Source 3 Vida Goldstein, president of the Women’s Peace people to get involved in the war effort and why.
Army, was both a suffragette and a pacifist.

9A rich task Source 2
Turn your eyes to the European situation and give the kindest
Why Australians feelings towards the mother country at this time. I sincerely
hope that international arbitration will avail before Europe is
enlisted to fight convulsed in the greatest war of any time. All, I am sure, will
regret the critical position existing at the present time, and pray
that a disastrous war may be averted. But should the worst
When Britain declared war on Germany, happen after everything has been done that honour will permit,
Australians will stand beside our own to help and defend her to
Australia (part of the British Empire) was also
our last man and our last shilling.
obligated to enter the war. The Prime Minister An excerpt from a speech by Andrew Fisher, Leader of the Opposition
of Australia Joseph Cook said in August 1914: (later Prime Minister), in 1914 just before the outbreak of war
…Whatever happens, Australia is part of the

Source 3
Empire, right to the full. When the Empire is
I wasn’t eighteen. I was working on the lathe [carpentry tool],
at war, Australia is at war.
next to another chap … I said to him ‘Why don’t you enlist?’
All major political parties, churches, I said ‘I’ll enlist if you do’… I went right up to Victoria Barracks
community leaders and newspapers seemed and enlisted. We left the factory and I had to get my father’s
signature. Well, I forged that.
to support Australia’s entry to war. It was seen
Stan D’Altera (in A Thomson, Anzac Memories,
as a moral and necessary commitment. Oxford University Press, p. 27)
There was a rush to the recruiting offices.
Early in the war, only the very fittest and Source 4
healthiest men were accepted. I have joined the Australian Army … it’s not bad money here,
5/- [shillings] a day and clothes and food … nearly as good as
cabinet making and not half as hard. You may [think] it’s funny
[my] turning up such a good job, but … this [employer] had only
about three days work left for us … things are so bad out here
for there is a drought on and we haven’t had any rain for months,
so I thought I would join the army.
Corporal RE Antill in a letter to his parents, 1914 (defencemagazine)
Source 5
I have enlisted and I don’t regret it in the very least. I believe it is
every young fellow’s duty. There are far better men than any of us
have already gone… we are the sort of men who ought to go.
Private AJ McSparrow (in B Gammage, The Broken Years, p. 7)
skilldrillEvaluating the reliability and
usefulness of sources
Evaluating the reliability and usefulness of sources is
one of the most important, and perhaps most difficult,
Source 1 historical skills you need to master. The first thing to
A recruitment understand is that these terms ‘reliable’ and ‘useful’ are
poster for World not interchangeable. A source can be both unreliable and
War I issued by
the Queensland useful at the same time, or both reliable and not useful at
Recruiting the same time.
Committee

Step 1 Evaluating reliability For example, anti-Chinese propaganda during the gold
To determine the reliability of a source, you need to rushes may be very useful when considering Australian
identify whether it is biased. Being biased means having attitudes towards migrants in the 19th century, but not
an unbalanced or one-sided opinion. Bias is found in much use as evidence about the important role that
secondary and primary sources. It is natural for people Chinese migrants played in the development of the
to show their opinion when they write something. To Australian economy. So to reach a conclusion about
recognise bias in a source, ask yourself the following whether a source is ‘useful’, you need to be very clear
questions: about what you want to use the source for.
• Who wrote it or made it? Use the following steps to evaluate a source’s
usefulness.
• When was it written or made?
• Be clear about what historical question you are
• Why was it written or made?
investigating.
• Was the person who wrote or made it paid? If so,
• Identify whether the source is biased/reliable using the
who paid them?
process described.
• Does it distort the facts?
• Look at what the source is telling you and compare it
• Does it give one side of the story, or is it balanced? to what you need/would like to know. Remember to
• Can the views expressed in this source be verified by consider both explicit and implicit messages.
another source? • Ask yourself: what are the uses of this source for
By finding the answers to these questions, you can answering my historical question?
come to a conclusion about whether the source is biased. • Ask yourself: what are the problems of using this
Make sure you give specific reasons for your conclusion. source to answer my historical question?
You need to explain how and why a source is biased,
• Make a final judgement about the source’s usefulness
and how this bias affects its reliability. The more biased
for your purposes.
the source, the less reliable it is. But remember, no single
source is ever completely reliable or unreliable. Apply the skill
Step 2 Evaluating usefulness Read each of the sources provided in this section.
Some historical sources are more useful than others. Then, using the steps provided:
But sources are not simply useful or not useful in their 1 Evaluate each source’s reliability.
own right. They are useful or not useful depending on 2 Evaluate how useful each source would be in
what you wish to find out from them. explaining the factors that motivated Australian men to
Just because a source is biased does not enlist.
automatically mean that it is not useful. It may be 3 Evaluate how useful each source would be in
extremely useful if you are investigating the opinions of a explaining the methods used by the Australian
particular group at a particular time. However, if you are Government to encourage men to enlist.
investigating ‘the facts’ of an event, a biased source may
be much less useful. Be sure to explain how you reached your conclusions.

1 Think about some of the reasons why young men 2 Visit the Australian Army Reserve website.
decided to enlist for World War I. Do you think the a Identify some of the methods used by the creators
same reasons apply for young Australians who enlist of the website to encourage Australians to join the
to fight in wars today? Reserves.
b Create a Venn diagram to demonstrate the
similarities and differences between these methods.

9.6 The nature of warfare
in World War I
Unlike earlier wars, World War I was fought across a matched battle of technology and tactics, with neither
large part of the world and involved many countries. side able to break the deadlock. Unlike earlier wars, in
Britain, France and Russia fought against Germany and which the soldiers moved around constantly to gain an
its allies on the Western Front (a zone of fighting in advantage, both sides on the Western Front were forced
Western Europe). Germany also fought against Russia to dig trenches for protection, bringing the armies to a
on the Eastern Front (a zone of fighting in Eastern stalemate.
Europe). There was also fighting in Turkey and the
Middle East, and in North Africa. Finally, there were Guns and artillery
small conflicts in the Pacific Ocean, where a combined Machine guns, which had first been used during the
effort of Japanese and Australian forces took over American Civil War, were improved for use in World
German colonies in New Guinea. The common feature War I (see Source 2). Many were capable of firing up
across all regions and theatres was the emergence of to 600 rounds of ammunition (bullets) per minute in
new technologies. short bursts. Facing one machine gun was similar to
facing 250 soldiers with standard rifles. Although these
New technologies new machine guns often overheated and were heavy
and difficult to move through the mud, they were
Over the course of World War I, many new technologies devastating when used against oncoming troops.
were introduced and existing technologies such
Heavy artillery guns were also used widely in World
as military vehicles and weapons were improved.
War I for the first time. Like canons, these guns could
Developments in powerful long-range weaponry,
fire large shells over a long distance, usually projecting
such as the machine gun and heavy artillery, were
them in an arc to land on the target from above. Like
particularly important. Deadly new chemical weapons
machine guns, heavy artillery guns were heavy and
and gases were also a significant development.
difficult to move. They were usually mounted on wheels
Much of this technology is blamed for extending that often became bogged down in the mud or got stuck
the war, as the conflict quickly became an evenly in bomb craters.
Source 1 British aircraft like the ones shown here played a vital role in World War I.

9B How and where was World War I fought?
Source 2 British machine gun operators wearing gas masks

fire on the enemy during the Battle of the Somme in 1916.
Gas
In April 1915, Germany introduced poison gas as a
weapon of war (see Source 4). Chlorine, which was
blown over the enemy trenches, burned and destroyed
the respiratory tracts (airways) of anyone without
a gas mask, causing terrible pain and death. Other
gases were introduced throughout the war, including
mustard and tear gas. Poison-gas attacks were so
horrific that the use of chemical and biological Source 4 A soldier and dog wearing gas masks work to
weapons was banned under a treaty signed in 1925 find the wounded in areas where poison gas has been used.
known as the Geneva Protocol.
Aircraft
Tanks Large-scale aerial warfare was conducted for the first
The British army introduced the first tanks into the time during World War I. At first, small planes were
war in September 1916 at the Battle of the Somme used to scout for enemy positions. Later, planes armed
in France. While they were successful at overcoming with machine guns were used in aerial combats, known
barbed-wire obstacles and trenches, the mechanical as dogfights.
unreliability of these early tanks meant they were Huge airships called zeppelins (named after their
not always so useful. The first tanks were designed inventor Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin) were used
and built quickly, so they frequently broke down or by the Germans in the first air raid over England in
became stuck in muddy trenches. The crews inside January 1915. Made of a cylindrical metal frame covered
the tanks had to endure unbearably hot and noisy with fabric and filled with gasbags full of hydrogen,
conditions, almost constantly choking on the fumes zeppelins were able to fly higher than conventional
inside the cab. By the end of 1917, improvements in aircraft and drift almost silently over their targets. This
the design and manufacture – and tank battle tactics – made zeppelins difficult to shoot down with normal
made tanks more effective. anti-aircraft guns. The ability to hit targets accurately
from a zeppelin was poor though, and they were also
vulnerable to strong winds that could blow them off
course. Towards the end of the war, zeppelins were
largely replaced by multi-engine bomber planes, such as
the Gotha G.V. bomber (see Source 3). Britain responded
with its equivalent, the Handley Page Type O bomber
(see Source 1, bottom left corner).
Source 3 German airmen attach a 100-kilogram

bomb to the underside of a Gotha G.V. bomber.

War at sea
In 1914, the sea was vital for
transportation, trade and communications.
Protecting the sea lanes in your own waters
– or striking at those of the enemy – was
an essential part of the war effort.
Submarines were widely used during
World War I. Initially they were used by
the Germans to attack and sink trade
ships carrying imported food and vital
goods between allied countries. German
submarines were commonly referred to as
U-boats, short for Unterseeboote (undersea
boats). U-boats were able to disrupt the Source 5 A surfaced German U-boat during World War I
movement of goods and people by sea and
struck fear into those travelling by sea.
Another naval tactic that reduced
the ability of ships to carry soldiers and
supplies was the laying of underwater
mines (explosives) in the North Sea.
Although agreements had been made
regarding where mines could be placed,
neither side was very strict when following
them. Mines made the North Sea a very
dangerous place for ships. This was also a
problem for the neutral nations of Norway
and Sweden, which were heavily reliant on
the North Sea for fishing and trade with the
rest of the world.
Communications
Advances in communication technologies Source 6 Dogs were sometimes used to carry messages to and from the
during World War I allowed faster contact battlefield. This dog is bringing orders to a soldier in the trenches.
between commanding officers behind the
scenes and soldiers fighting on the front
line. The development of telephone and
wireless (radio) systems allowed instant Remember and understand
reports from the battlefield to be passed
1 Identify three ways in which the technologies used in World
to command centres. Tactical decisions
could be made much more quickly. On the War I were different from those used in earlier wars.
downside, telephone lines had to be laid 2 In what ways did submarines change the way World War I was
in each new location where fighting took fought?
place and were easily damaged by artillery.
Apply and analyse
Wireless radios were also very heavy and
difficult to move. Despite the increased use 3 Do you think new developments in technology actually
of these new technologies, soldiers still acted prolonged the war? Explain your answer.
as runners to relay information. Motorbike 4 Why do you think that the use of poison gas was banned
couriers, carrier pigeons and even dogs were under the Geneva Protocol in 1925, while the use of other
used at times (see Source 6). types of weapons was not?
5 What were the advantages and disadvantages of new
developments in communication technologies?

AT L A N T I C
FINLAND
9.7 Where World War I was

OCEAN SWEDEN
NORWAY
Petrograd
GREAT NORTH
SEA
18
BRITAIN SEA
TIC
DENMARK
fought
Moscow
BAL
Jutland 1916
Dogger Bank 1915 17
14
NETHERLANDS Eastern RUSSIAN
London 14 15
Berlin Warsaw Front EMPIRE
14 16
18 GERMANY 15 18
18 14
FRANCE 14 16
18
17
Western Front
AUSTRIA-
WORLD WAR I: MAJOR BATTLES AND ALLIANCES 18
SWITZERLAND 18 HUNGARY
CA
LEGEND
SP
Isonzo 1915 16
16 Eastern Front
IA
PORTUGAL 18 Sarajevo
N
MONTENEGRO 15 ROMANIA Neutral states
SE
SERBIA
16 BLACK SEA 16
A
16
SPAIN 15 16
Rome BULGARIA 15 Allies
18 15
ITALY
OTTOMAN PERSIA 14 Allied offensives, year
Gallipoli 1915 EMPIRE 15
ATLANTIC
GREECE Battle front
FINLAND 16
OCEAN ALBANIA
SWEDEN 18
ALGERIA NORWAY 18
Major battle
(France) Petrograd 17
GREAT NORTH
SEA
M E DI T E RRANE18
AN SEA 15
BRITAIN SEA Central Powers
KUWAIT
TIC
17
DENMARK
Moscow Beersheba 1917 Occupied by the Central Powers
BAL
Jutland 1916
Dogger Bank 1915 LIBYA Suez Canal
0 500 1000 km 17 ARABIA
(Italy) 14 EGYPT 14 Central Powers offensives, year
NETHERLANDS Eastern RUSSIAN
London 14 15
Berlin Warsaw Front EMPIRE
14 16
18 GERMANY 15 18
FRANCE
18
14
14
16
Australian forces had driven
18
Western Front AUSTRIA-
17
the Germans out of New
18
SWITZERLAND 18 HUNGARY Guinea by the end of 1914.
CA
LEGEND
SP
Isonzo 1915
16 16
World War I was also Eastern Front
IA
PORTUGAL 18 Sarajevo
N
MONTENEGRO 15 ROMANIA Neutral states
SE
SERBIA
16 BLACK SEA 16 fought in the Middle East.
A
16
SPAIN 15 16
BULGARIA Allies
Rome
18
15
15 The Gallipoli campaign,
ITALY
OTTOMAN PERSIA for14example, was designed
Allied offensives, year
Gallipoli 1915 EMPIRE 15
GREECE
16
to open up access
Battle front for the
ALBANIA 18
Allies. They needed this
ALGERIA 18
Major battle
(France) 17 access in order to get troops
MEDITERRANEAN SEA 15
Central Powers
and supplies into Russia to
17 KUWAIT
Beersheba 1917 aid the Occupied
campaign by theon thePowers
Central
LIBYA Suez Canal
0 500 1000 km
(Italy) EGYPT ARABIA Eastern
14
Front. In the end,
Central Powers offensives, year
the Gallipoli campaign was
Source 1 Source: Oxford University Press abandoned, but not before
the deaths of around 140 000
In World War I, the greatest loss of life took place in soldiers from countries including Britain, Canada,
Europe. Many of the best-known land battles of World France, Australia, New Zealand, India and Turkey. More
War I were played out in an area in France and Belgium than half of those killed were from Turkey.
known as the Western Front (see Source 1). However, the Following the withdrawal from Gallipoli in
Eastern Front was also very important, especially in terms December 1915, some of the Allied troops, including
of the conflict between Germany and Russia. A third the Australian Light Horse, were redeployed to Palestine
front, along the border between Italy and Austria, was the where they fought alongside Arab tribes against Turkish
scene of fierce fighting and great loss of life. troops from the Ottoman Empire.
Because so many European nations had large colonial Japan, a rapidly modernising nation, was also
empires, people from all over the world participated in involved on the side of the Triple Entente. In response
the conflict. Members of the British Commonwealth to a request from Britain in 1914, Japanese ships led
(such as Australia, India, South Africa, Canada and New raids on German naval vessels around Chinese waters.
Zealand) were involved in the conflict. The war came close The Japanese further provided 17 battleships to assist
to Australia because Germany had colonies in Samoa British naval actions in the Mediterranean Sea and
and New Guinea. As early as August 1914, New Zealand in South Africa. Japan also took advantage of the war
forces occupied German Samoa with no loss of life. situation to extend its power and influence in China.

keyconcept: Contestability
Lawrence of Arabia
When World War I began, TE Lawrence (see Source 2) was a university student,
specialising in the study of Middle Eastern archaeology. In October 1914, he
became a member of British intelligence and shipped out to Cairo in Egypt. Over
the course of the war, Lawrence became a close adviser to an Arabic prince by
the name of Emir Faisal. Lawrence and Faisal helped to unite a number of Arabic
tribes and convince them to fight against the troops of the Ottoman Empire.
During the war, the Ottoman Empire was a member of the Central Powers fighting
against the Allies (see Source 1). Lawrence convinced the Arabic tribes to support
British troops and military strategies.
Lawrence also worked with the Arab tribes against the Ottoman Turks and
supported their demands for independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1916 – an
event known as the Arab Revolt. His adventures earned him the title ‘Lawrence of
Arabia’ and made him a popular hero in Britain during the war. Later, Lawrence’s
reputation as a heroic figure was questioned by historians who contested the
accuracy of his reports and writings about the role he played in the Arab Revolt.
Source 2 TE Lawrence –
For more information on the key concept of contestability, refer to page 210 in also known as Lawrence of
‘The history toolkit’. Arabia – in 1915
Source 3
The USA enters the war A sketch of
the passenger
At the start of the war in 1914, the USA remained a ship Lusitania
neutral country, but its sympathies definitely lay with sinking on a trip
from Liverpool
the members of the Triple Entente – Britain, France
to New York
and Russia. In the early years of the war, the USA after it was hit
continued to trade with Britain and provided indirect by a torpedo
support for the war effort in Europe by transporting from a German
U-boat
supplies across the Atlantic Ocean.
In an attempt to stop this trade, the Germans
began to use submarine warfare. On 7 May 1915, Check your learning 9.7
the British passenger ship Lusitania was sunk by a
German submarine, killing 1198 passengers (see Remember and understand
Source 3). Among the dead were 128 Americans. 1 World War I was predominantly a European war.
Following the sinking of two more British ships Why then were people from so many other parts of
carrying American passengers, Germany agreed to the world involved?
stop submarine attacks on ships carrying civilians. 2 What was the main purpose of the Gallipoli campaign?
This pledge lasted until March 1917, when German
submarines sank American ships. As a result of these Apply and analyse
attacks, on 6 April 1917, the USA declared war 3 What impact do you think the early Australian and
on Germany. New Zealand successes in the Pacific would have
Another suggested motivation for the USA joining had on attitudes to war in Australia?
the war was the large amount of money that American
bankers had lent to the British and French. It was Evaluate and create
important that the Triple Entente countries win the 4 Using the information provided, together with your
war in order for them to pay back the debt to the USA. own research, identify the main reasons why the USA
The USA also supplied extra food, facilities and became involved in World War I. Which do you believe
money to fund the final months of the campaign. to be the most important? Why?

9.8 The Western Front
The most common image that comes to mind when people think
about World War I is the image of the trenches, and the mud,
blood and barbed wire that were features of the long, drawn-out
war on the Western Front. Although this was generally regarded as
the most important area or ‘theatre of war’ in which the war was
fought, there were also many others (see Source 1).
At the start of the war in August 1914, the Germans had marched
through Belgium into France. Fierce resistance from the British and
French stopped them from moving further into France. However,
the Allies were unable to drive the Germans back, and by Christmas
1914 there was a deadlock. The Germans and the Allies faced each
other across a line of trenches (see Source 1) that stretched from
Ostend on the Belgian coast in a south-easterly direction to the
Swiss border (see Source 2 for more detail).
Many historians see the Western Front as the defining
experience of World War I. New weapons, such as gas and tanks,
were introduced there. Defensive tactics using machine guns,
trenches, barbed wire and artillery meant that rather than
a rapid war of movement, war on the Western Front became
Source 1 French soldiers wait in their trenches on the
bogged down in a senseless series of attacks and counter-attacks, Western Front during World War I.
each achieving little but costing
millions of lives. EUROPE: THE WESTERN FRONT IN 1915
AMSTERDAM
GREAT
Breaking the stalemate BRITAIN NORTH SEA NETHERLANDS
ROTTERDAM
Between 1915 and 1918, many attempts
were made to break the stalemate v er
of trench conflict. These attempts Do
Rh
Ostend
ine
Antwerp
tended to follow a pattern. Initially ofNieuport
Dunkirk Cologne
there would be a long and sustained Calais BELGIUM
it
Ypres Aachen GERMANY

ra
Neuve Chapelle Brussels

St
artillery attack – opposing trenches Boulogne

Ri
ve
Loos
r
would be bombarded with explosive Douai

Mons Koblenz
Arras
shells. These attacks could go on for a Vimy Ridge Frankfurt
Mainz
few hours or sometimes for many days. Bapaume
Amiens Peronne
It was believed that this would force Mezieres LUXEMBOURG
the defending troops underground,
Rouen
destroying their fortifications and Soissons
Reims
Se
clearing the way for troops to cross in
e Marn
Verdun
e St Mihiel
no man’s land (the narrow strip of
land between opposing trenches that PARIS River Nancy Strasbourg
er FRANCE
belonged to neither army). Riv
Weighed down with heavy LEGEND Epinal

equipment, soldiers would cross the Trenches line
strip of territory to their opponent’s Points of attack with gains

Belfort
trenches. German occupied
0 50 100 km SWITZERLAND
Source 2 The two-trench system along the Western Front ran unbroken from the
Belgian coast to Switzerland. Source: Oxford University Press

Source 3 Allied soldiers at the Battle of the Somme, 1916 Source 4 The remains of Commonwealth soldiers who died
during the Battle of Fromelles, and objects recovered at the site,
are recorded by specialists of the Oxford Archaeology Institute
after being recovered in mass graves in Fromelles
Struggling through mud-filled shell holes created
by their own artillery, they might learn that the to 8 August 1916. After making early gains, Australia
bombardment had not destroyed the barbed-wire suffered over 23 000 casualties. By the end of the
obstacles between the lines. More frightening still Somme campaign, casualty figures for the Allies were
was the possibility that the artillery attack had failed around 620 000 dead and wounded, and 500 000 for the
to destroy the enemy’s position. Often, as soldiers Germans.
made their way across no man’s land, the enemy
would emerge from deep bunkers to fire on them with
machine guns. Australian engagements on the
Generally, such assaults on enemy trenches failed to Western Front
achieve their goals. Confusion, smoke, noise and death
turned plans into chaos. If attackers reached enemy Australians fighting on the Western Front between
lines, hand-to-hand (or one-on-one) combat with rifles, 1916 and 1918 were engaged in numerous battles that
bayonets, pistols and grenades often followed. If ground earned more than 50 Victoria Crosses for the soldiers
was gained, it could be retaken in a counter-offensive who participated. The Victoria Cross is the highest
only weeks later. The only real consequence of most of Commonwealth military decoration for valour ‘in the
the battles that took place on the Western Front over face of the enemy’. Australians again distinguished
four years was death and injury. themselves in battle and earned a reputation for courage
and toughness, especially in 1918, under the leadership
of General Sir John Monash.
The Somme There was also terrible loss of life. In battles along
The first Battle of the Somme (in an area along the the Somme, and at towns such as Passchendaele, Villers-
banks of the Somme River) was one of the most costly Bretonneux, Ypres and Amiens, thousands of soldiers
attempts to break the stalemate of the trenches. were killed or wounded, often for little gain in the futile
Between July and November 1916, the Allied forces ‘game’ of trench warfare.
tried to break through German lines. Focused on a Two of the most destructive battles involving
19-kilometre front in northern France, the soldiers Australians were at Fromelles in northern France in 1916
managed to push the Germans back by about and at Bullecourt, closer to Paris, in 1917. At Fromelles,
8 kilometres. These gains came at an enormous price. an attack on the German trenches was designed to
The initial ‘softening up’ bombardment used over draw German attention away from an onslaught on the
1.5 million shells in a week-long attack. British deaths German lines 80 kilometres to the south, on the banks
on the first day of the assault are estimated at over of the Somme River.
19 000. Thirty-five thousand were injured and 2000 The attack was unsuccessful and the cost was
were counted as missing. French casualties for the first terrible. In one day, 1917 Australian soldiers were killed
day alone were around 7000. and over 3600 were injured, some to die later of their
Later in the Somme campaign, Australian and injuries. This event has been described as ‘the worst
New Zealand troops fought at Pozières from 23 July 24 hours in Australia’s entire history’.

Because the Germans quickly regained any territory Source 5

they had lost, the Australians had no opportunity to I cannot remember what came next, or what I
bury the dead. The Germans buried many in mass pits. did, except that I kept calling for the orderly to
During the 1920s, most of the bodies were reburied help me and thought he was funking [showing
in Commonwealth War Graves cemeteries, but one cowardice], but the poor boy had been blown to
mass grave remained undiscovered until 2007. In bits. Somebody got the tent up, and when I got to
that year, as a result of painstaking research by war the delirious pneumonia patient, he was crouched
historian Lambis Englezos, a burial site was identified on the ground at the back of the stretcher. He took
on the edge of the town of Fromelles. It has since been no notice of me when I asked him to return to bed,
confirmed that up to 400 Australian soldiers are buried so I leaned across the stretcher and put one arm
in this mass grave. The process of identifying these around and tried to lift him in. I had my right arm
soldiers and preparing them for reburial (see Source 4), under a leg, which I thought was his, but when I
with full military honours, in a newly built cemetery lifted I found to my horror that it was a loose leg
is slow and delicate. Up to 75 soldiers have been with a boot and a puttee on it. It was one of the
positively identified so far through the use of DNA orderly’s legs which had been blown off and had
technology. landed on the patient’s bed. The next day they
found the [body’s] trunk about 20 yards away.
Nurses on the Western Front Sister Kelly, an Australian nurse in France describing
her experiences when a bomb hit a casualty clearing
At the start of the war, a small number of women station behind the lines
wanted to join the services but were told that war was
‘no place for ladies’. The only women allowed to enlist
and serve overseas were nurses.
The nurses worked under appalling conditions,
especially on the Western Front where makeshift field
hospitals were often set up in trenches behind the
lines (see Source 6). The nurses became known as ‘the
roses of no man’s land’.
Over the course of World War I, 2562 Australian
nurses joined the AIF as members of the medical
units. Out of this number, 2139 served overseas in the
Middle East and on the Western Front. Twenty-five
women lost their lives while serving overseas and 388
received military honours.
Source 6 A nurse in a makeshift hospital on the Western Front

1 In your own words, define ‘the Western Front’. 6 What qualities did nurses need to possess in order
2 Why had the war become ‘bogged down’ on the to do their jobs successfully under such difficult
Western Front by the end of 1914? circumstances?
3 What was ‘no man’s land’? 7 When it was obvious that little or nothing was gained
4 Describe the pattern followed in most of the attempts through repeated assaults on enemy trenches, why
to break the stalemate on the Western Front. do you think military commanders continued to order
5 Why is the first Battle of the Somme regarded as one these assaults?
of the most disastrous battles of the war? 8 Despite their knowledge of terrible loss of life and
injury, soldiers continued to take part in the assaults
on the Western Front. Suggest three reasons why
they did so.

Early fighter aircraft
9.9 Trench warfare engaged in ‘dogfights’

– aerial battles at
close range.
The trenches along the Western Front were approximately

700 kilometres long, stretching from the coast of Belgium
to the border of Switzerland (see Source 2 on page 311). In
most cases, trenches were 2 metres deep by 2 metres wide.
The Allies used four types of trenches. The ‘front-line’
trench was usually about a kilometre from the German’s
front trench. Further behind this front-line trench was the
‘support’ trench, with men and supplies to assist those on the
front line. Further behind again was the ‘reserve’ trench, with
more emergency supplies and men. Smaller ‘communication’
trenches connected all the trenches and allowed for the movement
of messages, supplies and men. Soldiers took turns being in the front-
line trenches. Sometimes they would be there for eight days, then have
four days in the support trenches. However, during major battles, soldiers
could be in the front line for much longer.
Soldiers were aware that conditions could change at any time. Artillery
from the enemies meant that death and injury could come at any time,
leaving smashed and dismembered bodies and wrecked trenches.
Intricate trench systems
zigzagged across the
landscape, from the
Swiss border (in the
south) to the Belgian
coast (in the north).
Many soldiers
suffered greatly
from the trauma
of battle, and
shell-shocked
Field hospitals, troops were
transport depots frequently
and staff positions regarded as
were located cowardly.
behind the lines,
and often featured
bunkers.
Source 1 An artist’s impression of trench warfare during World War I

Primitive tanks lumbered
through no man’s land.
Observation balloons
were used to locate
enemy positions.
Far behind the front

lines, artillery positions
were established to
shell enemy trenches.
No man’s land was a
maze of barbed-wire
entanglements, shell
holes and rotting corpes.
Life in the trenches was a lice-

infested, miserable existence.
Often standing ankle-deep in
mud and slime, soldiers suffered
trench foot and other illnesses.

1 The trenches along the Western Front spanned what distance?
2 What was the purpose served by each of the four types of
trenches used by the Allies?
Evaluate and create

3 Soldiers who suffered from ‘shell shock’ were often regarded
as cowardly.
a Why do you think this was so?
b If you had lived during World War I, do you think that you,
too, would have regarded such soldiers as cowards?
Give reasons for your response. Remember to use your
rI historical empathy skills when you answer this question.

9.10 The Gallipoli campaign
In an attempt to break the stalemate that had developed
on the Western Front, Winston Churchill (Britain’s First
The Gallipoli landing
Lord of the Admiralty), who was in charge of the Royal The Gallipoli campaign was launched because Britain
Navy, argued for an attack on Turkey. Turkey was part and France needed to move troops, equipment and
of the Ottoman Empire and an ally of Germany. The weapons to allied troops in Russia. In order to do this
Gallipoli campaign, as it became known, was the first they needed to travel across the Mediterranean Sea, pass
major battle of World War I for Australian troops. It took through Turkish waters and cross over the Black Sea
place on the Gallipoli Peninsula in Turkey. Although into Russia (see Source 3). As a result, the plan required
many Australian men who enlisted in the early months Turkey (part of the Ottoman Empire and an ally of
of the war believed they would be travelling to Europe Germany) to be forced out of the war.
to fight against the Germans, many were instead sent to The first part of the campaign plan was launched
fight against the Turks. in March 1915. This involved a naval attack through
the Dardanelles – a sea passage from the Mediterranean
Formation of the Anzacs Sea to the Black Sea (see Source 4). This action failed
because the entrance to the Dardanelles had been laid
When the war began in 1914, there was an enthusiastic with underwater mines. Three Allied battleships were
response from people in Australia and New Zealand. destroyed by these mines, and another three were badly
Initially the two military forces of Australia and New damaged.
Zealand were separate. The Australian troops formed the A plan was then developed to launch a land attack on
First Australian Imperial Force; and the New Zealanders the Gallipoli Peninsula from the Aegean Sea coast. The
formed the First New Zealand Expeditionary Force. hope was that the Allies would surprise the Turks, defeat
Early in 1915, as the two forces were training in them quickly and then march on to take control of the
Egypt, General Birdwood, commander of the Australian Turkish capital, Constantinople (now known as Istanbul).
and New Zealand forces, decided to combine both forces This would open up the desired supply lines through
to form a single corps and the title Australia and New to Russia, and help the Allies to fight Germany and
Zealand Army Corps (or ANZAC) was adopted. It was Austria from the east.
under this banner that the soldiers of both countries
fought at Gallipoli and throughout World War I.
Source 1 Anzac Cove following

the landing of the Australian and New
Zealand troops on 25 April 1915

On 25 April 1915, ground troops Hamilton’s decision to persist with the campaign was supported
from Britain, France, Australia, New by news of the success of the Australian submarine AE2. On 25 April
Zealand, India and the British dominion 1915 (the same day as the landing), the AE2 became the first Allied
of Newfoundland (now part of Canada) warship to penetrate the Dardanelles. It attacked a Turkish gunboat
landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula. but was eventually discovered on 30 April and destroyed.
The campaign was in trouble from the In May 1915, the Turks launched a great counter-offensive to take
beginning. As the Australian and New back the territory taken by the Allies, but were driven back.
Zealand troops landed at what is now
called Anzac Cove, they faced cliffs up to
100 metres high and heavy gunfire from ALLIANCES IN EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST
behind the Turkish fortifications. Those
LEGEND
soldiers who made it to the beach were A Moscow Neutral
GREAT NORTH DENMARK SE
IC
unprotected as they faced the Turkish BRITAIN SEA
BA
LT Allies
NETHERLANDS
guns. The Anzacs managed to secure the ATLANTIC London
Berlin Warsaw RUSSIAN
Central Powers
beach and made limited progress up the OCEAN GERMANY EMPIRE Occupied
cliffs and inland. FRANCE AUSTRIA-

HUNGARY
Although the plan had been to take SWITZERLAND
CA
S
PI
7 kilometres of territory, the day ended PORTUGAL Sarajevo
AN
MONTENEGRO ROMANIA
SE
SERBIA BLACK SEA
with barely a single kilometre achieved.
A
SPAIN
Rome BULGARIA
More than 600 Australian soldiers were ITALY Constantinople
PERSIA
Gallipoli OTTOMAN
killed on the first day of the campaign. GREECE EMPIRE
On hearing news of the disastrous ALGERIA

ALBANIA
(France)
landing, the British commander of the N MEDITERRANEAN SE A
campaign, General Sir Ian Hamilton, KUWAIT
ordered the troops to ‘dig, dig, dig until 0 1000 km LIBYA

Suez Canal
(Italy) EGYPT ARABIA
you are safe’.
DETAIL OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA
Source 2
LEGEND Suvla
Bay TURKEY
Turkish
Troops
It is stated in messages from
Battery (weapons unit)
Cairo that the majority of Fortress
wounded who have arrived Minefield The Nek
Anzac Cove
there deny the stories of Anzacs
ir
Lone Pine
Ba
Turkish atrocities. They state Troops Mai Tepe

ri
Sa
Objective
that the Turks are fighting Territory gained
most fairly. In one case, a Battleship
Turk dressed the wounds of
a British soldier under fire.
Another left his water bottle
with a wounded Australian. 0 10 km
Chanak
An Australian who was taken Kilid Bahr Plateau
prisoner, but subsequently
escaped, stated he was very well AEGEAN SEA
treated.
An extract from the
Melbourne newspaper Cape Helles
The Argus, 22 June 1915
British battleships hit by mines
es
Dardanell
Kum Kale TURKEY

In August 1915, the Australians and New Zealanders Source 5
launched two famous diversionary attacks – the Battle
of Lone Pine and the Battle of the Nek. The Australians
captured Lone Pine, in fighting so fierce that seven We landed on Gallipoli in what we were
Victoria Crosses were awarded to their men. At the Nek, wearing and continued to wear it day and
a charge by Australian troops cost the lives of 234 in an night until the socks were the first garments
area about the size of three tennis courts. to become unwearable, and they were cast out
and we went barefoot in our boots.
Despite these battles, the situation on Gallipoli
remained largely unchanged for the eight months of There were parasites which caused an
the campaign. abominable itch to which ever part of the
Over this time, respect grew between the Turkish skin where they operated. They lived and bred
soldiers and the Anzac troops on the battlefield. Each side mainly in the seams of the inner garments
saw the other as honourable, and agreements were made and as there was no hot water or chemicals
to hold fire and bury the dead respectfully (see Source available for their control or destruction
2). Both sides had an amnesty (agreement) to enable a the field was open for them to multiply and
number of dead Turkish soldiers to be buried under the flourish. The best control means available was
Red Crescent flag of their nation. Over time, the two sides to wear the clothing inside out and then there
even began trading with each other. were no seams next to the skin for the pest to
hide away in and breed. This I did with my
Conditions at Gallipoli flannel shirt, but I simply could not come at
wearing my trousers inside out, even though
Conditions at Gallipoli were extremely difficult for the
many of the other men did. It simply looked
Anzacs. As the Turks held the high ground, the Anzacs
too awful.
were always exposed to enemy fire. Nowhere was safe. They
An extract from a letter that Lieutenant Frank
were in constant danger day and night, from snipers (expert
Boyes wrote about conditions at Gallipoli
shots) or artillery bombardment from the Turkish guns.
The Allies landed in the Turkish spring, and a
sweltering summer followed. When winter arrived,
the bitter cold and snow took its toll on the troops. For
men used to the mild weather conditions in Australia,
the icy north wind and snowfalls cut right through
protection offered by their uniforms and light blankets.
Frequent rainfalls flooded the trenches and turned the
battlefields to mud.
Despite the rain and snow, drinking water was in
short supply. It had to be shipped in to the troops, and
this could be difficult if a supply ship ran into problems.
Water was rationed carefully and soldiers were so
conscious of the shortages that they often shaved with
leftover cold tea. Food was more plentiful, although
lacking in variety. Rations commonly included canned
meat, corned beef (called ‘bully beef’) and hard biscuits.
Fresh food was rarely available.
Poor health was a major problem. More Australians
and New Zealanders died or were forced into hospital
as a result of disease rather than enemy action. Painful
conditions and diseases such as trench foot, dysentery,
diarrhoea and gastroenteritis were common in the damp
conditions of the trenches. Illness was also spread by rats,
lice, flies and mosquitoes. Many pests were attracted by the
strong odour of decomposing bodies and human waste.
Poor sanitation and food-handling practices meant the
germs were often transferred to food and water supplies. Source 6 Australian soldiers resting in a trench at Gallipoli

Withdrawal
In December 1915, the Anzacs were finally ordered to withdraw from
Gallipoli. To hide the fact that they were leaving, they rigged up some Remember and understand
rifles to fire at random. They did this by attaching tins to the rifles’
1 What does the term ‘ANZAC’ stand
trigger mechanisms with string. When the tins filled with water
for?
dripping from other tins suspended above, their weight caused the
triggers to be pulled and the rifles to fire. This tactic became known 2 What was the outcome of early
as the ‘ghost guns of Gallipoli’. Soldiers also carefully wrapped the attempts by Allied forces to pass
horses’ hooves in cloth to muffle the sound of their leaving. The last through the Dardanelles?
Australian soldiers were evacuated overnight on 19–20 December. 3 Where was the Australian infantry
Because of its efficiency, the silent withdrawal is usually remembered (soldiers who fought on foot) deployed
as the most successful part of the Gallipoli campaign. to after the Gallipoli campaign?
Over the course of the campaign, 8709 Australians died, and What happened to members of the
19 000 were wounded. Over the same period, over 80 000 Turks were Australian Light Horse (soldiers who
killed. During their time on Gallipoli, the ‘diggers’ – as Australian fought on horseback)?
troops became known – displayed a courage and ingenuity that
would form the basis of the Anzac legend. This legend would
Apply and analyse
contribute to the Australian sense of identity over the course of the 4 Write a paragraph explaining why
20th century. the Gallipoli campaign was ultimately
unsuccessful.
The Australian Light Horse 5 Why do you think the Anzac soldiers
Following the withdrawal from Gallipoli, the Australian infantry earned high praise, even though they
were deployed to the Western Front in France and Belgium. However, did not achieve what they hoped to?
the mounted troops remained to continue fighting against the Turks 6 Explain why some people argue that
in Egypt. They became involved in what was known as ‘the Sinai and the withdrawal of the Anzacs from
Palestine campaign’. Gallipoli was the most successful part
The Australian Light Horse was a combination of cavalry and of the campaign.
mounted infantry that had been developed during the Boer Wars
in Africa (1899–1902). Traditional cavalry forces were becoming
Evaluate and create
obsolete as nations developed more powerful infantry and artillery 7 Do you think the Gallipoli landing and
weapons. However, Australia’s vast distances made military leaders the Anzac legend would have become
reluctant to do away with mounted soldiers. The answer was a as central to Australian culture and
mounted force of trained infantry soldiers who would ride swiftly folklore if it had not been the nation’s
into battle, but fight on the ground like regular infantry. Australian first experience of war? Explain your
mounted troops made a significant contribution to the defeat of answer.
Turkish troops in the Middle East. 8 Draw a sketch of the beach at Anzac
The most famous battle fought by the Light Horse was the Battle Cove where the troops landed
of Beersheba in October 1917. The charge was aimed at capturing during the Gallipoli campaign (see
the important Turkish base of Beersheba, and has been called the Sources 1 and 4). Label your sketch,
last successful cavalry charge in history (see Source 7). and highlight the difficulties that the
soldiers faced on arrival.
Source 7 The Charge of the Australian

Light Horse at Beersheba, 1917, George
Lambert (1920)

9.11 The end of the war
After the failure of the Gallipoli campaign, the With the war over against Russia, Germany was able
stalemate on the Western Front dragged on through to divert its troops in the west in order to face the new
1916, 1917 and into 1918 with little change. By early American soldiers.
1918, troops on both sides were exhausted, resources
were depleted and morale was at rock bottom. For
the original Anzacs who had enlisted with such
Events on the Western Front
enthusiasm in 1914, there was a feeling that the war The freshness and enthusiasm of the American troops
would never end. made a huge difference to the Allied troops on the
Western Front. After years of almost constant defeat and
The USA’s involvement huge numbers of casualties, by early 1918 the Allies had
begun to slowly gain the upper hand over the Central
Although the USA did not declare war on Germany until Powers (Germany, Austria–Hungary, the Ottoman
1917, it had been involved in the war from the beginning, Empire and Bulgaria).
supplying the Allies with weapons and supplies.
After German submarines sank ships carrying The Battle of Le Hamel
American civilians, Americans were outraged and In July 1918, Australian and American soldiers launched
put pressure on their government to enter the war. an attack on the Germans in and around the town
US President Woodrow Wilson (see Source 1) initially of Hamel in northern France. The battle was planned
campaigned for a peaceful end to the war, but was and commanded by an Australian by the name of
unsuccessful. When the Germans announced in March Lieutenant General John Monash.
1917 that they would continue to sink any ship that The Battle of Le Hamel in July 1918 was said by some
approached Britain, including passenger ships carrying to be the most well-prepared battle in World War I.
civilians, this was the catalyst for the USA to finally General Monash distinguished himself by developing
intervene. and using innovative tactics for coordinated infantry,
On 3 April 1917, President Wilson made a speech artillery, tank and aircraft attacks. This meant that
declaring that the USA would enter the war and restore Allied battle objectives were achieved in 93 minutes.
peace to Europe. Three days later, they Using conventional tactics would
officially declared war on Germany. have meant that the fighting would
American troops joined the French have lasted for weeks, with much
and British in the summer of 1918. higher casualty rates.
Russia’s withdrawal The Battle of Amiens

The Battle of Amiens, which began
As the United States was entering
on 8 August 1918, was an important
World War I, Russia was getting ready
event because it would come to
to get out. In 1917, Russia became
mark the final offensive by the Allies
swept up in an internal revolution. The
before bringing the war to an end.
new communist government, wanting
Allied forces advanced over 7 miles
to focus on internal troubles, looked
on the first day and, from then on,
for a way to remove Russia from World
German defences were continually
War I. Negotiating separately from
penetrated and forced to retreat.
the rest of the Allies, Russia signed
For this reason, the first day of the
the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty with
battle is often referred to as the
Germany on 3 March 1918.
‘Black Day for the German Army’.
Source 1 US President
Woodrow Wilson

to withdraw troops, surrender artillery,

trucks, aircraft and naval vessels, return
prisoners of war, and make promises
about repatriation (repaying the costs of
the war). The Armistice also stipulated
that the fighting was to end later
that day, at 11 am Paris time (i.e. the
11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th
month). The news was quickly given to
the armies during the morning of 11
November, but even after hearing that
the Armistice was due to start at 11 am,
intense warfare continued right until the
last minute.
While the Armistice put an end to
the fighting, it was initially only to last
for 30 days and it did not determine how
peace could be secured and maintained.
Source 3 Armistice Day celebrations in Hay Street, Perth, on 11 November 1918
The ceasefire was made permanent
the following year when members of
This battle also marked the end of trench warfare on
the Commonwealth and the League
the Western Front, as fighting became mobile once
of Nations signed the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty
again.
(a binding agreement) was the official document that
On 26 September 1918, from their retreated position ended World War I and outlined the terms of surrender
at the Hindenburg Line, the Germans were infiltrated between the victorious Allies (including Australia, Britain
by the Allies in only hours. German commanders began and the USA) and the defeated Central Powers (including
accepting that defeat was imminent. Germany, Austria–Hungary and the Ottoman Empire).
News of the Armistice spread quickly around the
The Armistice world. People celebrated by dancing and singing in
the streets. But at the same time as people celebrated,
At 5 am on 11 November 1918, the head of the German
many were also overcome with sadness and horror as
delegation, Matthais Erzberger, signed the Armistice
they reflected on the millions of soldiers who had lost
(ceasefire) that marked the end of ‘the war to end all
their lives, or the many more who returned home with
wars’.
physical and mental scars.
The terms of the Armistice were written by French
Marshal Ferdinand Foch, and required the Germans

1 In what ways was the USA involved with the war 5 Even after the Armistice was signed at 5 am on
before their official entry into it in 1917? 11 November 1918, there were many more
2 What event finally triggered the USA into declaring casualties later that morning before the official
war on Germany? ceasefire at 11 am. For each of Britain, France,
3 When and why did Russia withdraw from the war the USA, Canada and Germany conduct some
against Germany? research to find out:
a What was the name of the last soldier killed?
Apply and analyse b What time did they die?
4 How and why did the entry of American troops c How and why were they killed?
into the war on the Western Front contribute to the Present your findings in a short report.
defeat of the Germans?

9B rich task
Life in the trenches

The trenches that soldiers dug during World
War I were typically around 2 metres deep
by 2 metres wide. On both sides, conditions
were barbaric, although German trenches
tended to be better engineered and more
comfortable than the French and British
equivalents. To avoid snipers (marksmen
trained to ‘pick off’ enemy soldiers from
concealed locations), soldiers spent most
of the daylight hours under the trench line
– most attacks took place at dusk or in
the early morning when visibility was poor.
Soldiers were often bored during the day, and Source 1 German soldiers display the result of a night’s
rat-catching in a trench on the Western Front.
caught brief moments of sleep where they
could. Those falling asleep on watch could be
Source 2
severely punished.
We are lousy, stinking, ragged, unshaven, sleepless. Even
when we’re back a bit we can’t sleep for our own guns.
I have one puttee [fabric strip wound around the lower
leg for protection], a dead man’s helmet, another dead
The soldiers had to share the trenches with millions
man’s gas protector, a dead man’s bayonet. My tunic is
of rats (see Source 1) that fed on the remains of dead rotten with other men’s blood and partly splattered with a
soldiers left on the battlefields. With so much available comrade’s brains. It is horrible but why should you people
food, some rats grew to be as large as cats. They bred at home not know.
constantly and spread disease as they ran over the Excerpt from a letter written to his family by John Alexander Raws,
a South Australian soldier, who spent only four weeks on the
faces of the sleeping soldiers.
Western Front before he was killed on 23 August 1916
Lice were also constant companions that lived and
laid eggs in the seams of the soldiers’ uniforms. The Source 3
troops were often unable to bathe or change their
Enormous noise. Continuous explosion. A deserted
clothes for weeks at a time. Even when washed, it landscape. Complete immobility of everything. Men were
was almost impossible to rid clothes of the lice eggs. eating, smoking, doing odd jobs but no one was fighting.
Lice were responsible for the spread of ‘trench fever’. A few were peering in periscopes or looking through
If soldiers were fortunate enough to end up in military loopholes. I tried, but could see nothing but upturned empty
hospital, it took them up to 12 weeks to recover from fields. Then suddenly there was a terrific crash which flung
me yards. I picked myself up and did my best to laugh.
this painful illness.
Nearby a man lay with a tiny hole in his forehead and close
Relentless rain turned the trenches to canals of to him another limped with blood pumping out of his leg.
stagnant mud. Trench foot, acquired from standing for They were both carried away. A casualty was not a matter
long periods in wet, muddy conditions, was a fungal for horror but for replacement. I regarded the incessant
infection that caused swelling. Serious cases could bombardment as temporary and expected every moment
to see men going over the top to put the guns out of action.
result in amputation. The winter of 1916 was one of
Nothing happened, however. That was how I first saw war.
the harshest on the Western Front. The cold was so RH Mottram, from RH Mottram, John Easton and Eric Partridge,
intense that water was carried to the troops as Three Personal Records of the War, Scholartis Press, London, 1929
blocks of ice.

skilldrill
Identifying and locating relevant sources, using ICT and other methods
Being able to locate relevant primary and secondary • What is the purpose of the website? Is it trying to
sources using the Internet is an important historical skill. inform, persuade or sell?
However, you need to keep in mind that not all information • Is the site objective? Is the author’s point of view
you find on the Internet is necessarily true, accurate, biased?
reliable or credible. So, in addition to being able to find • Is the information accurate? Can the information be
source material online, you need to be able to evaluate verified if you cross-check it with other sources of
the reliability and credibility of the information you find. information?
Use the following steps to apply this skill: • Does the site contain spelling mistakes or
Step 1 Identify key words related to your topic and type grammatical errors? (If so, this is usually an
these into a search engine such as Google. (Use only indication that the site is not particularly reliable.)
these key words – do not type in whole sentences or • Is the information current? Can you find evidence
questions.) of recent updates?
Step 2 Add further relevant key words to refine your
search if you cannot find what you want on your first Apply the skill
attempts. 1 Conduct an Internet search to find relevant, credible
Step 3 Look beyond the first page of results. The best and reliable source material about life in the trenches
results do not always appear first. during World War I using the steps outlined.
Step 4 Assess the reliability of each site by asking yourself: 2 Copy the data chart below into your workbook. Read
• Who is the author or creator? If it is an individual, the source material you have located and record the
do they have their credentials listed (e.g. a degree key points in the appropriate column. Make sure you
or title)? If it is an organisation, is it a reputable also record the URLs of the sites you have used.
organisation like a government or university
department?
Life in the trenches – data chart

URL Food, clothing Hygiene Entertainment Mateship Injury, death
and shelter and medicine
Source 1
Source 2
Source 3
Source 4

1 Read the letter written from the trenches by John Raws 2 Use the text and sources included here, as well the
(Source 2). notes you have recorded in the data chart as a result
a Why do you think he felt that people at home of your research, to write three brief diary entries from
should know what he was going through? the perspective of a soldier that describes life in the
b What impact do you think such letters would have trenches. Write one diary entry about a calm period,
had on the views of war at home? Suggest several another about a bombardment, and the final diary
responses. entry about the lead-up to ‘going over the top’.

9.12 The impact of war
on Australian society
World War I had a significant impact on Australian
society. A young nation with a population of less than
five million in 1914 lost over 60 000 young men as a
result of the war. Many of these men were the fittest
and most able of the male population. As a percentage
of total troops sent to war, Australia’s losses were
the highest of any of the Commonwealth nations
(see Source 2). A summary of the numbers of those
who served and of the numbers of deaths and other
casualties makes it clear that Australia made a major
sacrifice for the Allied war effort.
The initial enthusiasm with which most Australians
greeted the outbreak of war did not last. By the middle
of 1915, the reality of war began to dawn. Following the Source 1 An Australian poster from 1917 encouraging
landing at Gallipoli, Australians received the news of Australians to enlist. After heavy casualties on the Western Front,
Britain pressured Australia to make a bigger contribution to the
more than 2000 deaths. As a result, many in the nation
war effort.
took a more sober view or became disillusioned. There
was still strong support for the war and the soldiers, but
any excitement had evaporated. Source 2 A comparison of British Commonwealth casualties,
World War I
By late 1916, Australia was a bitterly divided country.
Country Total Total casualties % of
Not only was there a growing dissatisfaction with
soldiers (captured, missing, casualties
the war, but a real sense that there was ‘inequality of sent to war wounded or killed)
sacrifice’. Many working-class Australians felt that they Britain 5 000 000 2 535 424 50.71
had contributed the most in terms of enlisting soldiers,
Canada 422 405 210 100 49.74
and that they were also being exploited at home.
Australia 331 781 215 585 64.98
There was a perception that middle- and upper-class
New Zealand 98 950 58 526 59.01
people were less affected by the war. Some were even
India 1 096 013 140 015 12.77
seen to be profiting from lucrative government war
contracts. These perceptions were not always accurate, Statistics from Australian Campaigns in the Great War,
but they still had an impact on the growing divisions Lt The Hon. Stanisforth Smith
in the nation.
The War Precautions Act Impact on the Australian economy

World War I had a major economic impact on Australia
In 1914, the federal government passed the War
and other nations. The cost of providing weapons,
Precautions Act, which gave the government increased
ammunition and supplies to the forces at home and
powers for the duration of the war. This Act gave the
overseas was vast. To meet these expenses, the federal
federal government the legal right to, among other
government introduced income tax. It was also necessary
things, monitor and intern German–Australians,
to borrow funds from overseas. Australia borrowed
impose a direct income tax, censor letters and
heavily from Britain to build vital wartime infrastructure,
publications, and set fixed prices for certain goods.
such as expanded railways. Australia would take over 20
years to pay back loans taken out during the war.

The redirection of
raw materials to the war
effort and the needs
of wartime industries
caused inflation. As a
result, the cost of living
in Australia rose by up
to 50 per cent during the
war years. The war also
disrupted international
trade. Naval blockades and
the use of shipping for
military purposes meant
fewer ships were available
to move trade goods to
overseas markets. The
Australian government
had introduced tariffs
(taxes) on imported goods
to protect its local wartime
supplies. Many countries Source 3 Aspro was Source 4 Wool, used to make soldiers’ uniforms, was a valued
looked elsewhere for trade developed in Australia as commodity during the war.
and discovered new sources a direct result of the war.
in Japan and the USA. However, many workers felt that they were not sharing
On the positive side, however, Australia developed in the wartime profits. Wages fell but the cost of living rose.
new industries. The fact that fewer goods could This led to some resentment and even strike action in the
be brought in from overseas meant that inventive coal industry, and on the railways and the wharves. These
Australians began to develop alternatives that were strikes drew much criticism. The strikers were described as
made here. By the end of the war, 400 new products unpatriotic and selfish, and they were largely unsuccessful.
were being manufactured in Australia. The Newcastle
steelworks, opened in 1915, was flourishing, the
Australian National Shipping Line had been established
and the role of the Commonwealth Bank expanded
considerably.
One new product, developed as a direct result of the 1 How many Australian men died in World War I? How
war, was a medication called Aspro (see Source 3). Before does this figure compare with the losses suffered by
the war, aspirin (which at the time was a trademarked other Commonwealth nations?
German-made pain reliever called Aspirin) had been 2 What were some of the factors causing division
widely used for pain relief in Australia. After the in Australian society by 1916?
outbreak of war, the use of Aspirin became unpopular 3 What did the Australian federal government do in
and unpatriotic because it was made by the German order to cover the great cost of the war effort?
company Bayer. Two Australian pharmacists, George
Nicholas and Henry Smith, analysed Aspirin and came Apply and analyse
up with an Australian version, which they called Aspro. 4 Explain how the war influenced Australian
Aspro became one of the most widely used over-the- manufacturing.
counter medicines available in Australia.
Evaluate and create
There were people who profited from supplying
goods needed for the war effort. These included 5 Aspro was developed because Bayer Aspirin was
farmers who supplied wheat, dairy products and meat no longer imported from Germany. Research other
to feed the soldiers here and overseas. Wool was in products that were imported from Germany and
great demand for soldiers’ uniforms (see Source 4) and Austria before the war to see if the bans placed on
munitions factories were working overtime to support them led to the development of Australian alternatives.
the war effort.

9.13 The impact of war
on Australian women
Historians often describe World War I as the first ‘total
war’, because it was the first time that nations had
Women in the paid workforce
mobilised all of their industries, resources and citizens Before the war, most women had been homemakers, with
for the war effort. Before World War I, most people’s a small number working in traditionally female roles
involvement in wars was usually limited to paying taxes such as teaching, nursing, dressmaking or domestic work.
and worrying about friends and family members engaged However, with around 500 000 young men off at war,
in fighting overseas. By comparison, ‘total war’ placed women wanted to support the war effort at home. There
many new pressures on those left at home. was some resistance by trade unions to hiring women in
With so many men away at war, there was an traditionally male jobs, as it was thought that this might
expectation that women would take on many duties lower wages. However, women were able to take on some
that had previously been the responsibility of men. traditionally male roles, such as store clerks and bank
Women did a great deal of voluntary work, including tellers. The government controlled war-related work and
fundraising and assisting with recruiting. They also women were rarely able to gain jobs in these areas.
moved into previously male domains in the workforce, The Australian Women’s Service Corps was formed
such as working in munitions factories. In Britain, with the aim of training women to take over male jobs in
women were also able to join the armed forces, but only the services at home, to free more men to fight overseas.
for home defence. However, women were told that their services were not
Most women were supportive of involvement at the necessary.
start of the war and more than 2000 served, generally as
nurses. While these women faced dangerous conditions Source 2
overseas, the women on the home front also found their
lives changing.
The Australian Women’s Service Corps, which has
a membership of 1000, and which was formed
recently with the object of training women to
undertake the duties of motor-drivers, orderlies,
clerks, and kitchen hands, in order to release men
for fighting purposes, a few weeks ago made an
offer to the Defence authorities to provide 700
women for such duties. A reply has been received
from Mr T. Trumble, secretary of the Defence
department, thanking the corps for its patriotic
offer, but intimating that there are no positions
available wherein the services of women could be
utilised.
The Argus, Melbourne, 4 January 1917
By the end of the war, the percentage of women

working outside the home had risen by about 13 per
Source 1 This photograph, taken in 1915, shows women cent. However, there was an expectation after the
making uniforms at the Commonwealth Clothing Factory in
Melbourne. Women were offered better working conditions and war had finished that women who had taken on the
wages here than those offered by private employers, but they traditional roles and jobs of men would return to the
were also expected to work extremely hard for the war effort. home, making way for returned soldiers.

Women’s voluntary work Australian Comforts Fund

during the war The Australian Comforts Fund was established in
1916. Their main goal was to raise money, which they
During World War I, women were strongly encouraged to used to provide ‘comfort boxes’ for the soldiers. These
help the war effort by joining voluntary organisations. boxes contained things like knitted socks, pyjamas and
Vast numbers of women and girls sewed and knitted to cigarettes.
ensure that the troops had warm clothing, and raised
money to help those affected by the war. Women and recruitment
Women who took on
voluntary work developed Women were also active in
skills and confidence. For many influencing and encouraging
women, especially younger ones, men to enlist. Some women
these opportunities helped to refused to speak to men who
shape their lives as the nation had not enlisted. Other women
moved into the 1920s. sent white feathers, a symbol of
cowardice, to men who had not
Australian Red Cross enlisted.
Images of women were
After it was founded in
regularly used in posters
Melbourne in 1914, the
published by the government to
Australian Red Cross grew to
encourage recruitment. Women
have branches in every state of
were portrayed as ‘helpless and
Australia. Women volunteering
vulnerable victims’, in need of
for the Red Cross attended
Australian soldiers to protect them
working bees where they made
from the ‘evil Germans’.
packages for the men serving
overseas. These packages included Other women encouraged
things like soap, toiletries, food, men not to enlist. Vida
clothing and medical supplies. Goldstein, for example, was a
The Red Cross also raised money Melbourne woman who actively
to assist soldiers’ families, and promoted pacifism (opposition
Source 3 Australian Red Cross poster,
established homes for wounded to war) and formed the Women’s
1914–18
soldiers to recover in. Peace Army in 1915.

Remember and understand money developing her skills and knowledge. When
1 What roles were open to Australian women during your former employee returns from the war, he
World War I? expects to be re-employed. He has lost a leg and is
suffering from shell shock. You have to decide what
2 Describe some of the main activities of the volunteer
to do. You cannot afford to employ them both.
organisations that existed to help the war effort.
a On a sheet of paper, write all the arguments for
Apply and analyse sacking the woman and re-employing the man.
3 Why do you think the offer of the Australian On the other side, list the reasons in favour of
Women’s Service Corps was rejected? keeping the young woman and telling the man to
look for work elsewhere.
Evaluate and create b Decide which candidate you should employ to
4 Put yourself in the role of a business operator during fill the position. Write a letter to the unsuccessful
World War I. When one of your male employees candidate explaining your decision and outlining
enlisted, you employed a young woman who has the reasons for it.
proved to be excellent. You have spent time and

9.14 The conscription debate
Despite the changes brought about in Australia by Over 27 000 Australian
World War I, it did not impact on the Australian home soldiers had just been killed
front to the same degree as in France, Belgium, Italy, in the first five weeks of
Russia, Turkey and Britain, where fighting took place. the Battle of the Somme
In these countries, civilians suffered through food in July 1916. Due to the
shortages and regular military attacks. Because of the decline in the number of
immediate danger faced, all of these countries had Australian volunteers, heavy
systems of conscription (compulsory service in the Australian losses and the
army) during the war. In Australia, however, service was critical state of the war on
not compulsory. This did not stop it from becoming one the Western Front, Hughes
of the most divisive and bitter arguments of the war. announced that there
would be a referendum (a
Enlistment special national vote) to
give the Commonwealth
When the war began in 1914, many Australian men saw Government the power to Source 2 William Morris
(Billy) Hughes
participation in the war as an exciting and noble cause. force men of military age
Men flocked to enlist as most expected the war to be to join the army.
over quickly. But as the war dragged on and information Hughes believed that Australia needed at least
about the number of deaths and casualties emerged, 7500 men to enlist per month if it was to maintain its
volunteer numbers began to drop. Although there was fighting strength. To achieve this, he announced that
a peak in enlistments after Gallipoli, from late 1915 we needed to introduce conscription. This was despite
numbers steadily declined. the fact that only a year earlier he had declared, ‘In no
As the numbers of men enlisting declined, the circumstances would I agree to send men out of this
Australian Government tried to pressure men to enlist country to fight against their will.’
through propaganda campaigns that either encouraged
or shamed men into enlisting. The process of asking The conscription plebiscites
people to enlist is called recruitment.
The issue of conscription triggered a major debate
Recruitment became an issue when the Australian around Australia. In October 1916, Australians were
Prime Minister William Morris (Billy) Hughes returned asked to vote for or against conscription in a plebiscite
from a visit to Britain and the Western Front in 1916. (a public vote or opinion poll). A plebiscite is similar
to a referendum, but its outcome is not legally binding
100 000 and does not result in a change being made to the
Constitution. The 1916 plebiscite was narrowly
defeated. Most of Hughes’ Labor parliamentarians were
80 000
Number of men enlisted
opposed to conscription and, as a result, the Labor

Party split. At the end of 1916, Hughes and 24 of his
60 000 supporters left the Labor Party and formed a new party
known as the Nationalist Party. The Nationalist Party
40 000
was made up of Hughes and his supporters, along with
most of the former members of the Liberal Party. One
year later, in 1917, a second plebiscite was held. Again,
20 000
it was defeated. Hughes could still have introduced
conscription, because the results of the plebiscites were
0 not legally binding, but he chose not to.
1915 1916 1917 1918
Year
Source 1 Enlistments in the First AIF 1915–18

Australia divided
Supporters of conscription tended to be middle- and upper-class
people of British and Protestant background. These people, known
as pro-conscriptionists, argued that it was the patriotic duty of
Australians to continue to support the war effort. They accused
opponents of being lazy and selfish, of being ‘German lovers’
and of letting down the thousands who had already given their
lives. In pro-conscription propaganda, images of noble Australian
soldiers and their families are shown suffering for the good of the
country as they fight the Germans.
Opponents of conscription were more likely to be working
class, Catholic and of Irish background. Catholic Archbishop
Daniel Mannix was the unofficial leader of the anti-conscription
campaign and he urged Catholics to vote ‘no’. Those who opposed
conscription claimed that Australia had already given enough of
its young men. They said that it was not really Australia’s war.
They also argued that several hundred thousand soldiers had
gone voluntarily to the war and that it was not necessary to force
Australians to fight. Anti-conscription propaganda urged people
to vote ‘no’ in the plebiscite or ‘Death Ballot’ (see Source 4).
Many trade unionists opposed conscription, arguing that
Source 3 A pro-conscription poster produced in
the war was a capitalist war and should not be supported. Some
Australia around 1918. The word ‘Hun’ is a derogatory
trade unionists also argued that if the majority of able-bodied term being used here to refer to the Germans.
Australian men were sent to the front, employers would begin to
employ non-whites at lower wages, undermining the gains that
Australian workers had made. Women were equally divided on
the issue and were used by both sides of the campaign. Images
of women and children frequently appeared in conscription
propaganda (see Source 3).

1 Why do you think both sides of the conscription debate used
women, especially mothers, in their propaganda?
Apply and analyse

2 Why do you think that Billy Hughes held two plebiscites
when he had the power to introduce conscription without the
nation’s support?
3 Can you explain why middle- and upper-class people were
more likely to support conscription than working-class people?
Evaluate and create

4 Do you think the war might have affected Australia differently if
conscription had been introduced? Conduct some additional
research and write a 250-word report to outline the possible
Source 4 An anti-conscription cartoon, printed
effects of conscription on the war effort and the home front.
in 1917, from the No Conscription Council
Campaign Comittee

9.15 Anti-German sentiment
in Australia
Throughout the second half of the 19th century, many rumours were circulated (see Source 1). Life became very
Germans had settled in Australia. Most German settlers difficult for anyone of German descent.
arrived in Port Adelaide, and then moved on to settle in Two months after the war began, the Australian
areas such as the Barossa Valley (in South Australia), the Government created more tension between British–
Riverina (in New South Wales) and south-east Queensland. Australians and German–Australians with the
Many German immigrants found these regions suitable introduction of the War Precautions Act. The Act
for wheat and dairy farming, the planting of vineyards authorised the Commonwealth government to do
and wine making. By 1914 over 100 000 people of German whatever it felt necessary to secure the safety of the
descent lived in Australia. Many of these had been granted nation. This Act, together with later regulations and
full Australian citizenship before 1914, Acts, set out a number of restrictions on
while others were second- and third- the lives of people of German descent.
generation Australians. On the whole, In particular, it specified that all
German–Australians were a well- ‘enemy aliens’ (foreign residents from
established and well-liked community enemy nations) had to register and
prior to the outbreak of the war. report weekly to local police stations
or military authorities, pledge their
The outbreak of war allegiance to Australia and the British
Empire, and inform the authorities of
With the rising tension between the any change of address.
British and German Empires, German–
Australian communities began to find
themselves the subject of suspicion and
hostility in Australia. When war broke
out in 1914 this changed to outright Source 1 This 1916 poster shows Australia
aggression. renamed ‘New Germany’, and Australian cities
given German names; such scare tactics were
At the time, many German– common during World War I.
Australians had come to think of
themselves as Australian first. Indeed
many of them enlisted in the AIF. For
example, the first Australian commander
of the AIF, General John Monash, was
the son of German migrants.
However, when Australia and the rest
of the British Empire were at war with
Germany, German–Australians were
considered potential threats to national
security.
Many Anglo–Celtic Australians
believed the German–Australians had
divided loyalties or even that they
were spies. Almost overnight, German–
Australians became the target of hate
campaigns. Propaganda and vicious
Source 2 Holsworthy Internment Camp in Liverpool, New South Wales

Internment
Over the course of the war, nearly 7000 people were
classified by the government as ‘enemy aliens’ and
imprisoned in internment camps. Most of these people
were of German or Austro–Hungarian descent who had
been residents in Australia when the war broke out. Some
had lived here for many years or had even been born in
Australia. There were no hearings or appeals.
Initially, internment camps were set up all across
Australia, but in July 1915, all internees were moved
to camps in New South Wales. Here, the three main
internment camps were at Trial Bay Gaol, Berrima Gaol
and Holsworthy Army Barracks. Germans who were not
placed in camps were carefully watched by the police
and neighbours.
Hostility towards Germans in Australian society at
the time was so strong that many people of German
or Austrian heritage decided that life inside the
internment camps would be preferable. Many of them
had lost their jobs and could not feed their families.
During the war, 1500 people chose to enter internment
camps voluntarily. Source 3 Australian propaganda cartoons, such as this one
by artist Norman Lindsay (published around 1915), did much to
fuel anti-German sentiment in Australia. The cartoon shows a
Other reactions to ‘enemy aliens’ ‘Hun’ (a derogatory word used to refer to Germans) as a brutal
ape-like monster reaching out to crush the world, the blood of
In response to the threat of German–Australians, its victims dripping from Europe down towards Australia.
the government closed down German schools and
changed the names of towns that it thought sounded Check your learning 9.15
‘too German’. In New South Wales, Germantown
became Holbrook; in Tasmania, the town of Bismarck Remember and understand
became Collinsvale; and in Victoria, Mount Bismarck
1 How many people of German descent were living
was renamed Mount Kitchener – after the British Field
in Australia at the start of World War I?
Marshal, Lord Kitchener. In Townsville, the German
2 What were some of the suspicions held about
Gardens became the Belgian Gardens.
German–Australians after war broke out? Who
Many families of German descent changed their
held these views?
names to stop harassment from the government and
a war-mad community. German schools and churches 3 What restrictions were placed on German–
were closed, German music was banned, and German Australians as a result of the War Precautions Act?
food was renamed. 4 Why did some German–Australians voluntarily
After the failure of the second conscription plebiscite enter internment camps?
in 1917, the anti-German campaign was increased
Apply and analyse
further. People of German descent were stopped from
joining the army, and from holding civil positions such 5 Negative attitudes towards Germans, even
as local councillors or Justices of the Peace. those who were born here or were naturalised
Many Australians also refused to work beside people Australians, were widely held by British–Australians
of German descent, striking until they were sacked during World War I.
from their jobs. People refused to buy anything from a How do you explain this reaction?
German-owned businesses. b Do you think the same reaction would happen
today if Australia were at war with a country
from which many Australian citizens had
migrated?

9.16 The impact of war on
Australia’s international
relationships
World War I had a significant influence on the growth
of Australia as a nation; in fact, many historians
describe it as ‘our nation’s coming of age’.
When World War I broke out in 1914, Australia was still
a very young nation. Federation – the process by which
six British colonies united to form the Commonwealth
of Australia – had only taken place in 1901, so this was
the first time Australia had ever committed its own
troops and fought under its own flag (rather than the
flag of Great Britain). To this day, World War I remains
the most costly conflict ever for Australia in terms of
the number of deaths and casualties suffered. In total,
around 300 000 men enlisted from a total population
of less than five million. Of these, more than 60 000 Source 1 Australian soldiers carry Australian Prime Minister
were killed and around 155 000 were wounded. As Billy Hughes – fondly called ‘the little digger’ – along George
a percentage of total population, this meant that Street, Sydney in triumph after returning home from the Paris
Australia’s sacrifice was greater than that of any other Peace Conference.
country in the war. This sacrifice gave Australia a
certain amount of influence and acknowledgement on Australia’s relationship with Britain
the world stage that it had not had before the war.
World War I brought about many changes for Australia’s
relationship with Britain. The service of the Australian
Australia gets a seat at the table troops in the Middle East and on the Western Front
After the war ended in 1918, the victorious Allied earned high praise from the British military command.
Powers met to discuss terms for the surrender of the By the end of the war, Australia’s relationship with
defeated Central Powers. The talks, held in Versailles Britain was still strong, but Australia was a little more
outside Paris, became known as the Paris Peace independent.
Conference. In 1919, Australian Prime Minister William This growing self-confidence was shown through
‘Billy’ Hughes travelled to Paris to attend. He was away Australia’s contributions at the Paris Peace Conference
for 16 months and at the end of this time signed the (see Source 2). During the 1920s and 1930s other steps
Treaty of Versailles on behalf of Australia – the first time were taken towards independence. In 1931, the British
Australia had signed an international treaty. Hughes’ parliament gave Australia the right to make its own
major achievement at the Paris Peace Conference was to foreign policy and trade treaties.
gain a mandate (permission) for Australia to govern the Despite these changes, loyalty to Britain remained
former German colony of New Guinea. He also strongly strong. One way that this was shown was through
supported arguments for severe reparations (penalties responses to the many royal visits after the war. For
and fines) to be placed on Germany. example, in 1920, the Prince of Wales visited Australia
and was greeted with enthusiasm everywhere he went.
When the Great Depression hit Australia in 1929,
Prime Minister James Scullin initially relied on advice
from Britain and the Bank of England. The close

relationship with Britain was also reflected by Prime Over time, trade and military agreements with the
Minister Robert Menzies when he announced in 1939, United States led to Australia looking away from Europe
‘Great Britain has declared war upon her (Germany) ... and strengthening ties with the United States. Although
as a result, Australia is also at war.’ the Australian government had extended military
connections to the USA as far back as 1908, it was only
Australia’s relationship with Asia in the lead-up to World War II that the United States
came to be seen as a major ally of Australia.
Prior to World War I, Australia did not have a very
positive relationship with Asia. Instead, Australia’s
international relationships were heavily focused on
Britain and countries in Europe. At the time, Australia
also had very strict and discriminatory immigration
laws towards people from Asia.
One of the outcomes of the Paris Peace Conference
was the formation of the League of Nations – an
international organisation designed to prevent future
wars and promote peace. When the charter (founding
statement) for the League of Nations was debated, Japan
argued that a clause be added outlining ‘the equality
of all nations and fair treatment of all peoples’. Prime
Minister Hughes argued strongly against this clause
being added and was successful. The Japanese were Source 2 At the end of World War I, the leaders of the
offended by Australia’s position on the issue and it victorious Allied Powers met in Paris. This photograph of the
strained relations for many years. Despite this, trade Paris peace talks shows Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes
seated in the centre of the front row.
between Australia and Japan increased steadily (as it did
with other Asian countries such as China).
In the 1930s, Japan began to flex its military muscle Check your learning 9.16
in Asia and expand its territory by force. As a result,
Australia was forced to take a more independent Remember and understand
approach to foreign policy. Australia’s closeness to Asia 1 What was the Paris Peace Conference and when
meant that the government had to look at Australia’s was it held?
interests in its own region and respond to local events.
2 What was Prime Minister Hughes’ major
achievement at the Paris Peace Conference?
Australia’s relationship with the 3 What was the League of Nations and what was it
USA designed to achieve?
Prime Minister Hughes gained considerable respect Apply and analyse

from world leaders at Versailles, but not from everyone. 4 Why was Australia’s relationship with Asian
Hughes was a demanding presence at the Conference countries strained around the time of World War I?
and was able to secure a number of victories for 5 Why did US President Woodrow Wilson describe
Australia in the negotiations. Hughes often disagreed Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes as ‘a
with US President Woodrow Wilson, who described pestiferous varmint’?
him as ‘a pestiferous varmint’.
Despite these tensions between Prime Minister Evaluate and create
Hughes and President Wilson at Versailles, relations 6 Despite increasingly close relationships with Asia
between Australia and the USA were largely positive and the USA, many Australians still support the
in the 1920s and 1930s. Australia began to increase its idea of the British Queen as Australia’s Head of
diplomatic relations with America and trade between State. Research the arguments for and against this
the two countries also increased. After the war, there issue. Conduct a class debate on the topic:
was also an increasing interest among Australians in ‘Australia is mature enough to choose its own
American culture, especially films and music. Head of State.’

9C rich task Source 2
… It is only twelve months since the people of Australia
Conscription pronounced their emphatic verdict … that Australia is a

democratic country, and that there is no room here for slavery
and conscription. Now you are asked to pronounce on the
The issue of conscription was one of the same question again. I hope that your answer will be the same
most bitter and divisive debates in Australian as before, but more emphatic and decisive.
history. Even though both plebiscites were We are quite ready to hear anything that the conscriptionists
defeated, and achieved no change at all, the have to add on what they said on the previous occasion. Many
things said then have since been unsaid, because they were
impact on the nation was lasting. The issue untrue. This time, I hope that, even at the cost of some effort,
divided friends, neighbours, workmates they will stick as closely as they can to the truth. We were told
and even families. Well into the 1920s the a year ago that we should vote for conscription because there
was some great secret locked up in the bosom of the Prime
scars of these bitter battles could be felt in Minister. I hope there is no secret there now! Let us hear the
the Australian community. Prime Minister worst. Indeed, we are likely to get very gloomy news from this
Billy Hughes and Archbishop Daniel Mannix to the taking of the referendum. We always get the news that
fits the occasion. At other times, all our battles are victorious
were two of the most important figures in
and our losses are very light. But now the Allies will suffer one
the debate, with Hughes being the greatest defeat after another – and all for the lack of conscription in
proponent of conscription and Mannix being Australia and of a few more Australians in the trenches. Do not
its loudest critic. take my word for this. Just watch the papers. Wait and see
what they have ready for you during the next few weeks. You
will be appealed to as if everything depended on what Australia
does or leaves undone …
Excerpt from a speech delivered by Archbishop Daniel Mannix to 6000
Source 1 people, two months before the second conscription plebiscite in 1917
Britain has raised, I say, an army and navy of over five
million men. She has raised more than one-tenth of her total
population. We have raised, at the outside, about one-
twentieth…The time has come when (Australia) must do
better…
Does anyone who loves his country… doubt that if
Germany wins in this war she will lay her predatory hands
on this country of ours? … Is there in the world a greater
prize than Australia? … I tell you, and I am armed with
knowledge, that our position is hopeless … We may say
what we like, but once the Allies’ line is broken in France…
there is an end of us. Get that into your minds. But for the
allied armies and the British navy we are doomed men.
We may bleat and we may struggle, but we are like sheep
before the butcher, and nothing can save us.
… Tens of thousands of our kinsmen in Britain have died
that we might live free and unmolested. Is there one man
who will say that we ought not to pay the debt we owe to
Britain, with our lives if need be, for shielding our country
with the bodies of her glorious soldiers and sailors from the Source 3
scorching blast of war? Australians! This is no time for party A leaflet
strife. The nation is in peril, and it calls for her citizens to produced by the
defend her. Our duty is clear. Let us rise like men, gird up ‘Reinforcements
our loins and do that which honour, duty and self-interests Referendum
Council’, a pro-
alike dictate.
conscription group
An excerpt from a speech by Prime Minister Billy Hughes, in Melbourne,
18 September 1916 Victoria, in 1917

9C What was the impact of World War I on Australia?
skilldrill
Identifying the origin, context and Step 3 Identify purpose
purpose of primary and secondary • Why was the source written or created?
sources • Was it designed to entertain, persuade or argue a point

of view?
Historians use primary and secondary sources to gather
evidence about the past. Both primary and secondary • Does the author have anything to gain personally from
sources are useful, but sources will almost always reflect the source?
the perspective of the person who created them, as well • Does it give a detached, balanced account?
as the attitudes and beliefs of the time they were created • Were there political reasons for the creation of the
in. All sources are affected by the author’s own point of source?
view, and in some cases an author may have been paid or • Is it propaganda?
forced to write in a particular way or ignore certain facts.
This is why historians must carefully analyse and evaluate Apply the skill
sources. Historians need to identify: 1 Identify the origin, context and purpose of the three
• what a source is and where it came from (origin) sources in this section (Sources 1, 2 and 3) by
• what life was like when the source was created following the steps provided.
(context) a For each source, work through the questions
• why the source was created (purpose). listed in steps 1, 2 and 3. Create a table in which
Ask yourself the following questions to identify the origin, to record your answers at each step. In order to
context and purpose of a source: answer some of these questions, you will need to
draw on information from this chapter. You may
Step 1 Identify origin also need to conduct some additional research
• What type of source is it? about Prime Minister Billy Hughes, Archbishop
• Who wrote, produced or made the source? What Daniel Mannix and the Reinforcements Referendum
do you know about their age, gender, occupation, Council.
position in society or religious background? b Once you have completed your analysis of the three
• When was the source written, produced or made? sources, write a 300-word report that explains the
origin, context and purpose of each.
• How old is the source?
• Is it an eyewitness account or was it written by
someone at a later date? Extend your understanding
• Is the source complete?
1 Many women wrote letters to newspapers arguing for
Step 2 Identify context and against conscription during World War I. Choose
• What was life like when this source was created? one side of the conscription debate and write a letter
to the editor from the perspective of a parent whose
• What other events may have been happening at the
son is a soldier on the front line.
time and might have influenced the author or source?
• What was the political environment like at the time the
source was created?
• What sort of common prejudices and social norms
existed at the time that may have influenced the author
or the source?

9.17 Anzac Day and
the Anzac legend
Source 1 The State War Memorial in Kings Park, Perth, commemorates Western Australians who gave their lives in World War I.
Even before World War I had ended, Australians Despite the disastrous landing and loss of life,
began looking for ways in which the whole nation Australians at home met the news from Gallipoli with
could recognise the efforts of the Australian forces a sense of pride. In the first news reports that reached
and commemorate their sacrifices. Today, we Australia, the soldiers were praised for their courage and
continue to remember World War I with two official gallantry. British war correspondent (journalist) Ellis
commemoration days – Anzac Day and Remembrance Ashmead-Bartlett wrote of the Anzacs, ‘There has been
Day – along with a number of other symbols and no finer feat in this war than this sudden landing in
traditions. the dark and storming the heights, above all holding on
For Australians, commemoration of World War I has whilst the reinforcements were landing’. (The Argus, 8
always been closely tied to the Gallipoli landing on 25 May 1915). His views were echoed by British General Sir
April 1915. Despite Australians being involved in more Ian Hamilton.
successful campaigns and battles during World War I, it
is Gallipoli that has come to symbolise Australia’s war Source 2
experience. … History contains no finer record of dauntless
bravery than is here described, while the

knowledge of the magnificent part Source 4

taken in this spectacular drama by They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old;
our own gallant troops will thrill
Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn.
every heart in our own land.
At the going down of the sun and in the morning
Ian Hamilton, ‘Australia’s Glorious
Day: The Official Story of the Landing We will remember them.
and Attack by Our Combined Forces at
the Dardanelles’ ‘For the Fallen’, Laurence Binyon
The greatest praise of all came from King

George V, who stated that the diggers had
‘indeed proved themselves worthy sons of
the Empire’.
Anzac Day
commemoration
Anzac Day, 25 April, was made a day
of commemoration in 1916. That year,
ceremonies and marches were held all
around Australia. A march was also held in
London, England, where the Anzac troops
were hailed by local newspapers as ‘The
Knights of Gallipoli’. By 1927, Anzac Day
had become a public holiday in Australia,
with marches and dawn services held
around the country annually.
The events of 25 April 1915, on a
peninsula in Turkey, continue to resonate
with Australians today. More than any other Source 3 This plaque near the State War Memorial in Kings Park
commemorates the 2500 Anzacs who lost their lives at Gallipoli. The area
event in Australia’s history, the Gallipoli
was renamed Anzac Bluff in 1974 because it resembles the site at Anzac
landing occupies a special place. A legend Cove where soldiers first landed.
has developed around Gallipoli that grows
stronger as the years pass. Schoolchildren
learn about the Gallipoli landing and
relish legends such as the story of Simpson
and his donkey. Hundreds of thousands
of Australians join in or watch Anzac
marches through large capital cities and
small country towns. Many more take part
in commemorations and wreath-laying
ceremonies at war memorials throughout the
country.
Each year, increasing numbers of young
Australians find their way to Gallipoli to
be present at the Anzac Day dawn service
there. It has become something of a rite of
passage. Anzac ceremonies, wherever they
are held, traditionally conclude with the
words from Laurence Binyon’s poem ‘For
the Fallen’: Source 5 A dawn memorial service is held on 25 April each year at Anzac
Cove, Gallipoli.

Origins of the legend
The significance of the Gallipoli campaign, and the
origin of the Anzac legend that surrounds it, can
largely be linked to the fact that it was the first time
that Australia had fought in a war as a nation. Australia
had only existed for 13 years as a united country at the
time it went to war. Australians at home waited eagerly
for accounts of the first encounter of the Australian
Imperial Force. When news of the first battles at
Gallipoli appeared in Australian papers on 8 May 1915,
the fact that the landing had been a failure was almost
completely overlooked.
Commentators at the time, and in the years since
1915, have developed the theme that Gallipoli was
a defining national experience. It has been said that
‘Australia became a nation on the shores of Gallipoli’.
Historians have referred to the Gallipoli experience
as Australia’s ‘baptism of blood’ or ‘baptism of fire’.
Australian historian Bill Gammage wrote of the
experience, ‘The circumstances of a national army, an
arena, a brave enemy … led three nations, Australia, Source 7 Anzac soldiers in the trenches using periscope rifles
New Zealand and Turkey, to create national traditions
from the Gallipoli Campaign’.
It has also been suggested that, although they were
enemies, a sense of respect developed between the Anzac
soldiers and the Turks. Engraved at Anzac Cove are the
words written in 1934 by Kemal Atatürk, Commander of
the Turkish 19th Division during the Gallipoli campaign,
and the first President of the Turkish Republic, from 1924
to 1938:
Source 6
Those heroes that shed their blood and lost

their lives … you are now lying in the soil of a
friendly country. Therefore rest in peace. There
is no difference between the Johnnies and the
Mehmets to us where they lie side by side here in
this country of ours. You, the mothers, who sent
their sons from far away countries, wipe away
your tears; your sons are now lying in our bosom
and are in peace. After having lost their lives on
this land they have become our sons as well.
Memorial written by Kemal Atatürk, 1934
Source 8 ‘A present from home – “Do they think we’re on

a bloomin’ picnic?” ’, cartoon from The ANZAC Book, 1916,
edited by CEW Bean, p. 64

keyconcept: Significance
Alec Campbell
The last living direct
Australian link to the
Gallipoli campaign
was lost on 16 May
2002 with the death
of Alexander William
(‘Alec’) Campbell,
aged 103. Campbell
enlisted in the AIF at
age 16, after lying
about his age to meet
the required minimum
age of 18. Campbell
landed at Gallipoli in
November 1915. He
carried ammunition,
supplies and water to
the trenches. He was
discharged on medical
grounds around a
year later. Campbell’s Source 10 Alec Campbell
funeral in 2002 was
attended by the then Prime Minister John Howard
and the chiefs of the defence forces. On this day,
around Australia and overseas, flags were flown at
half-mast to pay respect to this final link to Gallipoli.
Source 9 As this photo (taken on 19 August 1966 during For more information on the key concept of
the Vietnam War) indicates, Australian soldiers have significance, refer to page 209 of ‘The history toolkit’.
maintained the spirit of ‘mateship’ in battle first evident
at Gallipoli 50 years earlier.

Remember and understand 5 The Anzacs were fighting the Turks on their home
1 What was the immediate reaction in Australia to the soil. They could be said to have invaded Turkey.
news of the Gallipoli landing? However, there seems to have been a mutual
respect between the two peoples, which has grown
2 In what year was Anzac Day made a day of
through the years. What reasons can you think of to
commemoration?
explain this? Conduct research online to help you if
3 In what year did Anzac Day become a public
necessary.
holiday?
Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse
6 Re-read the memorial written by Kemal Atatürk
4 Why do you think the Gallipoli landing is such a
(Source 6). Imagine you are one of the mothers
significant event in Australia’s history?
whose sons are buried at Gallipoli. Write a letter of
gratitude to Atatürk.

9.18 Other forms of
commemoration
Symbols, traditions and events that
commemorate war are important
elements in almost all nations. Well-
tended war cemeteries can be found
wherever significant battles have been
fought. The Australian War Memorial in
Canberra is one of the most visited sites
in Australia. War memorials, avenues
of honour and statues of war heroes
can also be found in virtually every
Australian town and city.
The legacy of World War I has shaped
many aspects of Australian society and
culture over the course of the 20th
century, both positively and negatively.
The restrictions on trade imposed by
the war forced Australia to develop new
industries.
The War Service Homes scheme was
responsible for the development of new Source 1 During World War I, red poppies were the first plants to bloom on
suburbs – streetscapes of comfortable the battlefields of France and Belgium. Today, the red poppy has become a
Californian bungalows that are so symbol of sacrifice and remembrance.
desirable today. New hospitals, including
the Repatriation General Hospital the Western Front and also in Turkey. At these
established in Hobart in 1921, were set up to care for ceremonies, the poem ‘In Flanders Fields’ (see Source 2)
those who had returned from war with physical or, is frequently read.
sometimes, mental injuries. The Returned and Services
Source 2
League (RSL), established in 1916, continues to provide
support and advocacy for the veterans of any war that In Flanders fields the poppies blow
Australia has engaged in over the past century. Between the crosses, row on row,
That mark our place; and in the sky
Remembrance Day The larks, still bravely singing, fly

Scarce heard amid the guns below.
Anzac Day is the main day for war commemoration in We are the Dead. Short days ago
Australia and New Zealand. However, Remembrance Day, We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow,
11 November, is a more general recognition of the sacrifices Loved and were loved, and now we lie
made in war. This date marks the day and the hour when In Flanders fields.
the Armistice (ceasefire) was signed, bringing an end to Take up our quarrel with the foe:
World War I. To you from failing hands we throw
In many countries, people pause for one minute The torch; be yours to hold it high.
at 11 am on Remembrance Day to remember those If ye break faith with us who die
who gave their lives in war. Red poppies are worn We shall not sleep, though poppies grow
to symbolise the dead. Red poppies grew wild along In Flanders fields.
‘In Flanders Fields’, John McCrae (1872–1918)

The Australian War Memorial,

Canberra
The Australian War Memorial in Canberra is Australia’s
national memorial to all those who have died or
participated in the wars of the Commonwealth of
Australia. It was opened in 1941, but the idea for it was
conceived on the shores of Gallipoli.
Charles Bean (1879–1968), a journalist, was
Australia’s official war correspondent during World
War I. He went ashore on Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 and
stayed close to the front line for the rest of the war. It
was he who, in 1918, first imagined how the Australian
War Memorial would appear.
Source 3
… on some hill-top – still, beautiful, gleaming
white and silent, a building of three parts, a
centre and two wings. The centre will hold the
great national relics of the A.I.F. One wing will
be a gallery – holding the pictures that our artists
painted and drew actually on the scene and
amongst the events themselves. The other wing
will be a library to contain the written official
records of every unit.
CEW Bean, 1918, cited in Australian
War Memorial website
The Australian War Memorial features a Roll of Source 5 An aerial view of the Australian War Memorial,
Canberra, 1945
Honour that lists all those who died in World War I, as
well as a Commemorative Roll which lists all those who
died as a result of war injuries after the war finished.
1 Why are red poppies worn on Remembrance Day?
2 What is the purpose of the RSL?
Apply and analyse

3 Why do you think that wars and war experiences
are such significant elements of so many national
stories?
4 What is the main purpose of the Australian War
Memorial? What information is featured there?
Create and evaluate

5 The poem ‘In Flanders Fields’ (Source 2) is often
read at Remembrance Day ceremonies. Think
carefully about the emotions and sentiments that it
expresses. Write your own poem that also reflects
these sentiments and that commemorates World
Source 4 Charles Bean at work on war histories in his War I.
Victoria Barracks office, Sydney, c. 1935

9D rich task Source 2
HR: [Anzac Day] is a day on which Australia remembers the war
The Anzac legend dead from all wars and grieves and mourns their death and their
sacrifice. But there’s another quite different aspect of it, and that
today is it’s suggesting that the actual landing at Anzac was an event of
overwhelming historic importance, and in fact many people would
argue, and do so, that is was the creation of the Australian nation.
The Anzac legend has not remained static. … We … fully accept and appreciate that every nation has some
It was expected that as the last of the World kind – some day – in which to remember the sacrifice of those
who have gone to and have died in war, or have suffered in war.
War I diggers died, the significance of Gallipoli There’s no problem with that whatsoever. It is what is built upon
would begin to fade. There was some decline in that. We are simply pointing out that the whole interpretation of
interest in Anzac Day in the decades after World Australian history is distorted by this view of Anzac.
War II, but since the 1980s Anzac Day has AG: Australia’s achievements in nation building and social areas –
a living wage and decent working conditions, the 1967
grown in significance. referendum relating to Aborigines – all these things … are cast
aside in favour of a new militarised view of history.
HR: [Governments in the last 15 years] have put a great deal
The reasons for this resurgence of interest in the Anzac of money, particularly addressed at children, … at schools,
legend and the Gallipoli story are complex. The attention curriculum material, films … an unprecedented amount of
paid to the declining numbers of World War I veterans government money going into promoting a particular view of
combined with the popularity of films such as Gallipoli history.
have brought the events of 1915 to the attention of the … we can only presume it was done with a view that Australians
wider community. The pilgrimage of Gallipoli survivors needed a unifying myth; they needed something to feel proud
about their country. But …, by 1914, Australia was … a society
in 1990, to mark the 75th anniversary of the campaign,
which would be the envy of many countries even today. And yet
brought widespread media and popular awareness of the the argument of the militarists is that this achievement wasn’t as
Gallipoli landing. great because, at the time, there was this view that nations didn’t
Today, interest in Anzac Day has never been stronger. become complete until they’d had their baptism of fire.
School assemblies, church services, television and … Our argument is not with the mourning-aspect of Anzac Day,
radio programs and even sporting events are linked to it’s more with the way in which a whole interpretation of history
the commemoration of the Gallipoli landing. The nation has been built upon that and, in a way, sanctified by that.
commemorated the centenary of Gallipoli in 2015, and the
An extract from an interview with the historian Professor Henry Reynolds,
place of the Anzac legend is firmly and securely at the centre ABC, News, AM, Brisbane, 24 April 2010. Henry Reynolds [HR] is
of national consciousness. speaking with reporter Annie Guest [AG] about the book What’s Wrong
with Anzac? The Militarisation of Australian History, UNSW Press, 2010,
Yet despite the significance of Anzac Day in Australian
which he and Professor Marilyn Lake co-edited.
society, opinions on its origins and importance vary. The
following sources (see Sources 1 to 3) show how Australians
have debated the meaning of the Anzac legend across time.
Source 1
No one can express all that this day means to us Australians and
New Zealanders. ‘It is’, said Australia’s great historian Manning
Clark, ‘about something too deep for words.’ But in the stillness
of the early dawn, and in the silence that will settle once more
along this shoreline, we feel it in the quiet of our hearts. The sense
of great sadness. Of loss. Of gratitude. Of honour. Of national
identity. Of our past. Of the spirit, the depth, the meaning, the very
essence of our nations. And of the human values which those first
Anzacs – and those who came after them – embodied and which
we, their heirs, must cherish and pass to the future.
May they rest with God.
Address by His Excellency the Governor-General Sir William Deane Source 3 Australian soldiers in a boat heading towards Anzac
at Gallipoli, 25 April 1999 Cove, 25 April 1915 (AWM AQ2781)

skilldrill
Identifying and analysing different historical interpretations

As explained earlier, historians use two types of sources For these reasons, it is very important that you are able
to gather evidence about the past: to identify and analyse different historical interpretations.
• primary sources – objects or materials created or Ask yourself the following questions:
written at the time being investigated • What historical event is being interpreted?
• secondary sources – accounts about the past that • What particular features, incidents, actions or
were created after the time being investigated. behaviours are seen as negative in this interpretation?
Much of the historical study and research you • What motives or characteristics are being attributed to
will complete in secondary school involves reading the humans involved in this interpretation?
secondary sources (for example, textbooks and websites • What primary sources are used to support the
about the historical period you are studying). While interpretation? How?
these secondary sources at first glance may appear • What primary sources might have been left out of or
to provide a balanced, objective and unbiased view ignored by this interpretation?
of historical events or periods, this is not always the
• Does this interpretation involve a critique of other
case. All historians write from a particular perspective.
interpretations? If so, what is being said about other
There is no single objective, unbiased ‘truth’ – instead,
interpretations?
all historians have to interpret historical events and
issues from their own perspectives. Historians must use Apply the skill
evidence to support their interpretations, but there is no
1 Consider Sources 1 and 2. Using the questions above
absolutely ‘correct’ way of interpreting evidence. They
as a guide, identify and analyse the way that the
are also required to use (or disregard) different sources
writer of each source has interpreted the events that
of evidence to support many different interpretations.
occurred on 25 April 1915 on the shores of Gallipoli.
For example, many historians writing in the early 1900s
Write a 250-word report explaining your findings using
about the British settlement of Australia presented this
additional background information from the Internet if
in a very positive light, and more or less ignored the
required.
negative experiences of Indigenous Australians.

1 Interview 10 people (males and females of various 2 The Peter Weir film Gallipoli (1980) is thought to have
ages and occupations). Use these interviews, plus played an important role in the revival of interest in the
other material in this chapter, to write an article for your Anzac legend. View the film and suggest why it may
school newsletter titled: ‘What Anzac Day means to have had this impact. Refer to specific features of
Australians today’. the film (scenes, characters, incidents, symbols and
music).

3
part
344 oxford
oxford
bigbig
ideas
ideas
economics
humanities
& business
and socialcivics
sciences
& citizenship
9 western 9australian
& 10: australian
curriculum
curriculum

economics
and business
Concepts and skills
Chapter 10 The economics
and business toolkit 346
Australia and the global economy

Chapter 11 Understanding the economy 360
Chapter 12 Managing financial risks 398
and rewards
Chapter 13 The changing work 420
environment

Concepts and skills
The economics
and business
toolkit
Economics – why is everyone so concerned about
it? It is important because economics is about people
producing goods and services to be consumed,
used and shared. It is about maximising the goods and
services that can be produced with a limited amount of
resources.
Over 23 million people live in Australia, which
amounts to a lot of production and consumption of
goods and services. To coordinate and organise these
processes we have an economic system that is
modelled on how a market works.
The government and the Reserve Bank also have
roles to play in managing the Australian economy.
At the heart of every economy is business. Business
is about producing goods or providing services in
exchange for money. In the 21st century, young people
will need to adapt to change and seek new and
innovative ways to do business in a global marketplace.
10A
What are economics and
10B
What are economics and
business concepts? business skills?

in business.
10C
What career opportunities
10
chapter
Source 1 The Internet allows buyers and sellers to easily exchange goods and services on a global basis. It’s an exciting time to be
are there in economics and

business?
chapter 10 the economics and business toolkit 347

10.1 Economics and business
concepts
Economics and business students can use a wide range The six key concepts of economics and business are:
of concepts to help them understand the world of • scarcity • interdependence
economics and business. These concepts may be used • making choices • allocation and markets
together or as separate ideas. As you learn to use each • specialisation and • economic performance
of these key concepts you will begin to think like an trade and living standards.
economist or business person.
Scarcity Our limited access to resources means we are not

all able to have everything we need (or think we
Scarcity is the economic problem of having unlimited need). Businesses or individuals are not always able
needs and wants, but limited resources available. to obtain all the resources they need, which means
Resources can include natural or made materials; they must manage what they do have carefully.
for example, water, electricity, soil and sugar are An important part of economics is examining the
all examples of resources that may be used in decisions that result from our need to manage scarce
the production of goods or services (the items or resources.
activities we buy) that are used to fulfil our needs and
wants. People can also be considered resources; for
example, skilled workers are also an important part
of developing products that will meet our wants and
needs.
In economics and business, resources can be
divided into four categories, known as the factors of
production (or economic resources). These categories
are:
• land (natural resources such as coal or water)
• labour (human resources such as workers)
• capital (manufactured resources such as
equipment)
• entrepreneurship (management resources: the
skills or talents required to bring the other
resources together successfully).
Let's take a closer look at natural resources in
particular. In Australia water is a natural resource
that can be scarce and therefore must be managed
carefully. The scarcity of this resource impacts many
businesses that supply us with goods and services,
including many Western Australian farmers who
must manage water so that they may continue to
produce crops for us to consume as the goods we
need or want. Our reliance on limited resources such
as water means we cannot produce an endless supply Source 1 Wheat farmers standing with their crop in Amuri,
of goods such as wheat, because the resources we near Geraldton
need to produce them are not endless.

Making choices prioritise what we wish to produce or consume using
the resources available to us.
Making choices is an important part of economics. As
consumers, we make choices about what we want to
Specialisation and trade
buy to satisfy our needs and wants. These decisions
can be small, such as what we will buy for lunch, or Many countries around the world are unable to
big, such as whether or not to buy a house. produce the variety of goods and services required
In order to make a good economic decision, we to support the wants and needs of their population.
consider our options. We evaluate these alternatives, This can be for a number of reasons, including the
weighing up the costs and benefits of each, in order availability of resources. When a country is unable
to choose the option that is best for us. to produce a good or service, it can import goods or
services from other countries. For example, many
Throughout our lives we will be faced with
Asian countries rely on Australia’s farming industry
many economic decisions. In addition to consumer
to provide their population with goods such as beef,
decisions, we might need to make:
as they do not have the resources to produce their
• financial choices (such as how much money to
own beef on a large enough scale.
save or spend)
Specialisation refers to the way an individual,
• business decisions (such as what to produce or
business, or entire country can focus on the
where to sell a product)
production of a particular good or service in order to
• employment decisions (such as what career path
develop a more efficient and competitive production
to follow)
process. Australia is rich in natural resources and
• legal decisions (such as whether or not to take this influences the types of goods and services we
legal action over a faulty product) produce for domestic consumption and export. For
Part of our need to make choices results from the instance, Australia is one of the world’s largest and
concept of scarcity. Because our resources are limited, most efficient producers of livestock and exporters of
we are not able to produce, buy or own everything red meat. This is because we have the resources, such
we want or need. We therefore must decide or as land area, to support a large agricultural industry.
Source 2 Japan is one of the biggest importers of Australian beef.

The beef industry is worth around $18 billion to the The Circular Flow
Australian economy. Since Australians only consume Goods and services
around $7 billion of beef each year, this leaves the
Expenditures
remainder, known as the surplus, to be exported to
other countries around the world.
Like many other countries, Australia also needs
Individuals Businesses
to import products which we are unable to produce
competitively ourselves. For example, while Australia
is technically capable of manufacturing cars, we
import most of our vehicles from countries that Income
specialise in the automotive industry because it is
Labour
much cheaper. Specialisation in an industry allows
a country to become more efficient over time as Source 3 The simple circular flow of income shows how
production increases and the country is able to consumers and producers rely on each other, or are
take advantage of economies of scale. This means interdependent
that the mass production of goods is cheaper than
consumer’s ability to earn an income, and therefore
producing goods or services in smaller quantities.
purchase goods and services, is dependent on
Producing goods or services in larger quantities
producers. Similarly, producers rely on consumers to
reduces costs, because the cost of producing a
provide work for them and also purchase their goods
product is spread across many products. To use a
and services. This interdependence is often referred
simple example, the cost of electricity is the same
to as a simple circular flow of income.
whether you bake one cake or four cakes in an oven.
If you bake four cakes your costs are spread across
a larger number of products. When a country is
Allocation and markets
able to specialise and produce goods or services in The concept of allocation refers to the way we
larger quanitiies they may have a price advantage distribute our scarce resources among producers. It
over less specialised countries, who would be unable also refers to the way we then distribute scarce goods
to produce a product for the same price without or services among consumers. As we learn as we study
economies of scale. economics, the scarcity of resources available means
that we cannot fill all of our wants and needs.
Interdependence There are many ways to distribute resources. The
exchange of goods and services (or resources) among
Interdependence refers to the way we rely on others
buyers and sellers is referred to as a market. It is our
to satisfy our wants and needs. Participants in our
market economy that most often determines how
economy, including producers and consumers,
resources will be distributed. This means we often
businesses or government, depend on each other to
rely on price in order to determine how much we are
produce, specialise and consume goods and services.
able to produce and consume.
If you are not able to produce everything you need
When the cost of producing or obtaining a
for yourself – for example the electricity you use,
particular resource is high, not everyone will be
the clothes you wear or the food you eat – you are
able to obtain it. For example, the cost of medical
considered dependent. We rely on others to help
treatment for certain conditions or illnesses such
fill the gaps in our needs and wants that we cannot
as cancer, diabetes and multiple sclerosis (MS) can
produce ourselves.
be very expensive. Some treatments of MS can cost
As consumers, we must pay for goods and services
thousands of dollars each month, and treatment must
to meet our needs. In order to afford these things, we
continue for the rest of the patient’s life. While the
rely on earning an income, such as by working for
government in some countries can assist people to
businesses. Businesses or producers rely on being able
access important resources such as these, patients in
to sell their goods and services to consumers so that
poorer nations may be unable to access the treatment
they can continue producing. Source 3 shows how a
they require because it is too expensive.

Economic performance and most of our population has easy access to food or
services that allow us to fulfil our wants and needs.
living standards Non-material living standards are harder to measure
Economists measure how well an economy is doing, and include things that may contribute to our
known as its economic performance, using a wide happiness, such as freedom, low crime levels, access
variety of methods. It is important to measure our to facilities or free elections.
economy so that we can understand what problems Measuring economic performance and living
exist, to develop solutions for our problems and plan standards is an important part of understanding
for our future. Often economies will set objectives, and managing our economy. By knowing our areas
such as reducing national debt, and then measure of strength and weakness, governments can develop
their performance against these objectives. Some key policies to improve our economy and as a result our
indicators of economic performance include: standard of living.
• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – the total value
of goods and services produced in a country over
a year
• inflation – the general increase in prices of goods
and services
• the unemployment rate – the percentage of
people who are unemployed out of all people who
are able to work
We can measure an economy at a number of
different levels, such as Western Australia’s economy,
Australia’s economy, or the global economy.
Economists also measure living standards. Living Source 4 Our scarce resources, goods and services are
often allocated to consumers and producers based on their
standards can be material or non-material. Material
price. Items that can be expensive to produce and therefore
living standards refer to our access to physical goods expensive to purchase, such as medication, can be more
and services. People in Australia are considered to difficult to obtain than items that can be cheaply made and
have very high material living standards, because sold.

Remember and understand c making choices and allocation and markets
1 What is scarcity? d scarcity and allocation and markets
2 How is making choices related to scarcity? e economic performance and living standards and
scarcity.
3 Why do some countries specialise in producing a
particular product? Evaluate and create
4 How does the market influence the allocation of 7 Research one of Australia’s major industries (for
resources? example, farming, mining, transportation or tourism)
5 What is the difference between material and non- and answer the following questions:
material living standards? a How much does this industry contribute to the
Australian economy?
Apply and analyse
b What would be the benefits of Australia
6 Many concepts of economics and business are
specialising in this industry?
interrelated. Describe the relationship between the
c What are the challenges faced by this industry?
following concepts:
Does it relate to any of the key concepts we have
a scarcity and making choices discussed (i.e. scarcity, allocation of resources,
b interdependence and specialisation and trade interdependence)?

10.2 Economics and business skills
Economics and business students use real-life economics and business examples
to help them generate questions, interpret information and argue their point
of view. They also learn through experience where they make use of role play,
simulation games and enterprising activities that provide an opportunity to be
innovative, show leadership and the ability to make wise business decisions.
Studying economics and business requires you to analyse information and ask
a range of questions to find out more about a topic. You will learn to question and
research information by asking what, why, when, who and how to uncover the
Source 1 ‘Learning on the
truth about an issue. Your investigation may involve weighing up the costs and
job’ provides great insights and
benefits of an economics or business proposal and making recommendations. opportunities for economics and
business students.
• Identify current personal knowledge, gaps, misconceptions, currency of information, personal perspective and
possible perspectives of others
Questioning plan for, and inform, an investigation
and research • Use a range of methods to collect, select, record and organise relevant and reliable information and/or data from
multiple sources that reflects the type of analysis of information that is needed (e.g. questionnaires, surveys, emails,
tables, field sketches, annotated diagrams), with and without the use of digital and spatial technologies
• Use appropriate ethical protocols, including specific formats for acknowledging other people's information, and
• Use criteria to analyse the reliability, bias, usefulness and currency of primary sources and/or secondary sources
• Analyse information and/or data in different formats (e.g. to explain cause-and-effect relationships, comparisons,
Analysing
• Draw evidence-based conclusions by evaluating information and/or data, taking into account ambiguities and
Evaluating response to contemporary events, challenges, developments, issues, problems and/or phenomena
• Select a range of appropriate formats based on their effectiveness to suit audience and purpose, using relevant
digital technologies as appropriate
Communicating between the information and the hypothesis, using subject-specific conventions, terminology and concepts
and reflecting
• Reflect on why all findings are tentative (e.g. changing nature of knowledge, changes in circumstances or values)
Source 2 The four categories of skills used in economics and business inquiries

10.3 Questioning and research
Develop questions and
hypotheses about an economic
or business issue, then plan and
conduct an investigation
Economics and business students ask lots of
questions. They seek out economic and business
cases and undertake an investigation to try to learn
from and avoid mistakes made in the past. They
also check facts and look at the arguments for and
against a certain issue before reaching their own
conclusions. When economists state their own
viewpoint they support this with evidence such
as statistics, cases from the past, quotes from what
others have said and sound reasoning.
Source 1 It is important as an economics and business student

that you continue to ask questions in the classroom whenever you
need more information.
skilldrill
Developing a hypothesis The following sentence may help you to create

your hypothesis: ‘IF____________________
Developing a hypothesis is a useful tool in economics
THEN________________.’ (You can then reword the
and business. A hypothesis is a proposition that
hypothesis to make it read better if you need to.)
provides an explanation or reason why something
Step 2 Make an educated guess about whether your
has occurred or a problem exists. It can be likened to
hypothesis is correct. Test your hypothesis by using
taking an ‘educated guess’ or prediction. In business,
data and surveys, analysing any information about
developing a hypothesis and testing whether it is true
the topic and learning what experts in the field say
or not could mean that personal and financial loss is
about it.
avoided. Here is an example of a hypothesis that could
be tested.
Apply the skill
‘Youth unemployment is unacceptably high because
1 Janet plans to sell her unique brand of handmade
of insufficient training and education programs.’
knitted jumpers via her own website, which she
It may help you to write a hypothesis on an
intends to build herself. These jumpers are made
economic or business issue or event by remembering
from pure wool and are more expensive than other
the ‘If and then’ model of hypothesis writing. For
jumpers on the market. It takes Janet at least three
instance, ‘IF the employer pays extra bonuses for good
days to make one jumper. Write a hypothesis about
performance THEN his employees will work harder’.
the likely success of Janet’s business.
Step 1 Identify a question or make a statement that
2 How could you test whether your hypothesis about
will become your hypothesis.
Janet’s business is likely to be correct?

Gather relevant and reliable data and gather information from secondary sources (sources
about the time or event being investigated) such as
information newspaper articles, census data or websites. When using
Although books and newspapers are valuable sources of these sources, it is important to be able to distinguish
information, most research today is conducted online. between them and to know where, when and who the
In order to ensure that sources gathered online are source came from.
accurate, reliable and relevant, a number of guidelines
should be followed: The ethics of research
• Search engines such as Google are useful research
When gathering information, it is important to follow
tools, but much of the material on these sites is not
ethical protocols to use this information appropriately.
reliable and may contain inaccuracies, false and
This might include:
misleading information or material that is out of
• informed consent – getting permission from
date. When using search engines, be sure to define
someone to use information about them
your search using keywords. Your librarian is a
• citation – giving credit to the right person if you are
good person to ask for help and information. Most
going to quote them or use information they have
schools will also have a website devoted to providing
collected
information about developing good research skills.
• integrity of data – making sure your data is accurate
• A reliable way of searching for sources is to use sites
and not made up
linked to educational institutions, government
departments, reputable companies and universities. • confidentiality – protecting people’s personal
A quick way of telling if a site is reputable is to look information if they do not wish you to use it.
at the domain name in the URL (Internet address).
• Avoid blogs posted by unknown individuals. If you
find information relevant to your investigation on a
blog or social media site, always verify it by using a
more reliable source.
• Never cut and paste information from the internet
straight into your own work. Taking someone else’s
work, ideas or words and using them as if they were
your own is called plagiarism and can result in very
serious consequences.
In your research, you may collect information from
primary sources (sources from the time or event being
investigated) such as photographs, letters, films, diary Source 2 Taking someone else's work in any form whether it is
entries or official documents such as laws. Or you may from a book or the Internet is a form of stealing called plagiarism
that can result in serious consequences.

Remember and understand b Krupa owns an ice cream shop. During the
1 Why is it important for economics and business summer months, business is good and she sells
lots of ice cream, but during winter, not many
students to ask a lot of questions?
people want to buy her ice cream.
2 How can economics and business students ensure
the sources they find online are reliable? Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse 4 Develop five questions that might help an economist
investigate whether or not it is a good idea for Sandy
3 Develop a hypothesis to explain the following
to open a fish and chip shop in the main street of her
situations.
town.
a In order to pay his business’ bills, John has
decided to pay his employees less. Not long
after, many of his employees quit.

10.4 Analysing
Analyse data
Economics and business students use charts, statistical
tables, case studies, interviews and simulation games
to help identify the cause of a problem or event and
its likely outcome or effects. For example, the decline
in demand for mining commodities such as coal, iron
ore, zinc, nickel, copper and bauxite (the cause) has led
to unemployment (the effect) in some parts of rural
Australia. This is an example of a cause-and-effect
relationship.
In economics and business, the answer to a question
may be not always black or white but many shades of
grey. This is because it is a subject area where there
are many alternative perspectives. For example, there
are many reasons why youth unemployment is higher
than the general rate of unemployment in Australia and
statistics may not provide all the answers. Many issues
require you to weigh up alternative perspectives, all of
which may be valid.
Source 2 Interviewing different people in your community, such

as your friends, neighbours or local business people, about a
problem can offer a variety of interpretations.

1 Why is there often more than one answer to an
economic question?
2 What sources of information can economists use
to identify the cause of a problem?
Apply and analyse

3 Identify the cause and the effect for each of the
following scenarios.
a A lot of people were angry when a concert
featuring singer Sam Smith was cancelled.
b As the Zika virus spread around the world and
Source 1 In economics, there may be multiple perspectives on
a certain issue or event. Sometimes, statistics can be illustrated more people became affected, the federal
to give the wrong impression. government decided to put more funding into
researching a cure for the virus.
c Fewer people bought CDs after the first MP3
player was released.

10.5 Evaluating
Evaluating information, perspectives supermarkets and other schools in your area, and have
come to the conclusion that it is overpriced. What do
and contentious issues you do now?
There’s usually more than one way to solve an economic You could decide to do nothing if the problem isn’t
problem or find the right solution in business. Before that bad, or you can propose action. This action might
examining possible options, you must first do some include writing to your principal or school council.
preliminary work to find out about the topic. Read Or you might encourage others to bring their lunch to
widely, consult your textbook, conduct an internet school rather than buying it.
search and find out what experts say about the issue It is possible to take action as an individual or as a
or question you are examining. Write a summary group. Sometimes trying to get things done by yourself
and then refine these notes by writing a list of all the can be a lot of work, and help from a team is useful.
options. Next to each option write the advantages and In order to make a change, the strength of a collective
disadvantages or costs and benefits and then delete group can make more of a difference than one
those that are weak. Concentrate on the stronger options person alone.
and either make a decision about which one is best or do
further research before deciding the best option.
Reading about economics or business in your Check your learning 10.5
textbook or using online resources can only teach
you so much. Applying knowledge to a real business Remember and understand
situation is a valuable experience and there are a 1 Why do you think it is important to find out about
number of ways you can do this: an issue before making a decision on how you will
• Talk to someone in business about their experiences deal with it?
to see how the things you have learned in class apply 2 Name three ways you could apply your knowledge
in real life. of economics and business to real-life situations.
• Observe the world around you. When you next go
shopping think about some of the things you’ve Apply and analyse
been studying such as customer service, competition, 3 Imagine you must choose how to spend the
marketing techniques and types of businesses. weekend. Conduct an analysis of the options
• Try coming up with your own innovative business below, based on your personal preferences, and
idea and discuss it with others. decide which option is the best. Your analysis
• Use opportunities to role play or play simulation should take into account advantages and
games as a chance to hone your skills and put what disadvantages for each option:
you have learned into practice. a bike riding
b watching a movie
Proposing a plan of action c doing homework
Part of evaluating evidence is to decide on a course d reading a book
of action. Imagine your research question asked if the e playing footy with your friends
price of food at your canteen or tuck shop is reasonable. f visiting your grandparents
You surveyed people, compared the prices with g cleaning your room.

10.6 Communicating and reflecting
Terminology for economics and • An explanation of your results – you might like
to present your results as graphs or tables.
business • A conclusion – explain how you came to your
Just like in science, a common language is used conclusion.
in economics and business. Source 1 defines some • A proposal for action – what needs to be
commonly used terms; additional economics and done now? Predict the consequences of your
business terms can also be found in the glossary at the proposal for action.
end of this book.
Reflect on economic and business
Communicating your findings decisions
You can present your findings in many ways, such as
The decision to change a product, undertake a
through audiovisual presentations, posters or reports.
marketing campaign or change the price of a product
Whichever format you decide to use, it is good to
or service can lead to business success or failure.
include the following:
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, more
• An introduction – explain your question and define
than 60 per cent of small businesses close within three
key terms.
years of starting out. Good business planning, research
• An explanation of what research you did – why did and reflecting on previous experiences can provide a
you use those sources? valuable guide for future business success.
business Activity that involves producing goods or providing services in exchange for money
cost–benefit analysis Estimating what will need to be paid (costs) and possible profits (benefits) derived from a business proposal
economics The study of how people produce, consume and share wealth
Gross Domestic The total market value of all goods and services produced within Australia in a given time frame
Product (GDP)
interest rates The amount a borrower must pay to a lender for the use of assets such as money; usually expressed as a
percentage of the total amount borrowed
investing Putting money into shares, property or other financial schemes in the hope of making a profit
opportunity cost The cost of the next-best alternative use of resources
unemployment rate The percentage of people who are in the labour force who are unemployed; the labour force includes those
who are employed and unemployed
Source 1 Some useful economic and business terms

Remember and understand school and develop a partnership with the school
1 Use your own words to define business. filling lunch orders. They have a big sign out the
front of their bakery, but decide not to do any other
2 Why is it important to reflect on business decisions?
advertising such as dropping flyers in letterboxes
Apply and analyse or sponsoring the local netball team. Elan and Judy
3 Reflect on the following scenario and determine which find most of their business comes from the primary
decisions were good or bad economic decisions. school, but they don’t get many other customers.
Elan and Judy open a small bakery together. They
decide to rent a shop opposite a local primary

10.7 Careers in economics
and business
There are lots of different career paths that can lead from studying economics and business. While all jobs relate
to business or economics in some way, people can specialise in particular aspects of the field. The abundance of
jobs available in the field of economics and business is likely to extend well into the future. As economies continue
to change and businesses develop all over the world, people will play an important role in managing change,
improving on business ideas and monitoring our economy’s progress. Some of the many career options that lead
from economics and business are listed in Source 1.
Career Description
A person who owns a business and earns an income by making profit from the success of the business. You can
Business owner
become a business owner by buying or starting your own business.
A person who supervises the activities and employees of a business from day to day. A manager can have a
Business manager
diverse range of responsibilities depending on the business they work with.
Accountant A person who inspects and helps individuals or businesses to organise their finances.
Auditor A person who audits (inspects and analyses) an individual’s or business’ accounts.
Bank manager A person in charge of the business of a local bank branch (or number of bank branches).
A person who studies the activities and trends of the economy. They can be employed by businesses or
Economist governments to understand and make recommendations on economic issues. There are many fields of economics,
including market analysis, financial analysis, statistics, and many more.
A person employed by a business to analyse different aspects of their business (such as their operations, use
Business analyst of resources, structure or processes) and assess them. They can identify a business’ needs and recommend
solutions to help the business to improve or become more successful.
Stockbroker A person who buys and sells shares on the stock market on behalf of an individual or business.
Treasurer A person who manages the finances or spending of a group or organisation.
Human resources A person who organises the hiring, firing, and employee wellbeing on behalf of a business. Human resources is a
manager good career for people who enjoy working with other people.
Sales consultant/ A person who works with consumers and businesses to sell goods and services. Sales consultants can work with
manager individual customers or large companies on behalf of the business they work for.
A person who gathers information about consumer wants, needs and preferences to help businesses make
Market researcher
decisions about what to produce and for whom to produce.
Source 1 Careers in economics and business

Career profile: Jessica Harris – particular because it lets her ‘talk to lots of different
people, which can be really interesting’.
market researcher Jessica enjoyed studying economics and business at
Jessica Harris works for a market research company that high school, so she completed a degree in Commerce
undertakes product research on behalf of both small at Curtin University where she majored in marketing.
and large businesses. In order to obtain information for Since graduating, Jessica has found that as a specialist
her clients, Jessica uses a number of methods, including in market research, there are opportunities to work
working with consumers in focus groups, organising not just in Perth, but all over Australia and in other
surveys and using programs like Google Analytics. countries too.
These methods all help her to gather information that Her career in the business world has put her people
she can use to assist businesses in understanding what skills to work, communicating with different businesses
they are doing well and what needs to be improved. and people every day. Jessica strongly recommends that
Recently, Jessica has been running a number of focus students going into Years 11 and 12 consider studying
groups to help a client gain some feedback from the economics and business as it opens up so many
market about what consumers do and do not like about opportunities and provides us with important skills and
their new brand of biscuit, before it is officially stocked knowledge that many of us will need as we enter the
in supermarkets. Jessica loves this part of the job in world of work.
Source 2 Jessica Harris works for a market research firm, helping businesses to understand what consumers want.

Australia and the global
economy
Understanding
the economy
At its most basic level, economics is the study of
how people produce goods and provide services for
other people to consume or use. More specifically,
economics is about maximising the amount of goods
and services that can be produced from a limited
supply of resources. Every country has its own way of
organising the production and consumption of goods
and services. This is known as an economic system.
In Australia, we use a market capitalist system. Under
this system, producers exchange goods and services
with consumers in return for money.
Countries all over the world also exchange goods
and services with each other. This is called trade.
Today, international trade is more common than ever
before.
11A
How does the economy work?
11B
How does Australia participate in
1 Make a ‘wish list’ of all the items you would love the global economy?
to buy. Explain why most of us can’t just buy
1 Do you buy Nike runners or have an Apple iPad?
everything we want. Why can’t the economy
These are imported goods. What other imported
produce everything that people wish to consume?
goods do you like to buy? Why?
2 Have you ever purchased an item on sale?
2 Have you ever bought any of the items in Source 1?
Why do you think the price of the item was
Many foods are produced by foreign-owned companies
reduced? Why is buying the sale item good
operating in Australia or are imported from overseas.
for both the buyer and seller?
Why might a country such as Australia import food?

11
chapter
Source 1 Today, many food products that were once made and sold in Australia by Australian companies are produced by
multinational corporations. More than ever before, Australia is part of a global economy.
11C
How do businesses create a
competitive advantage?
1 Do you know a business that has closed down?
Why did it close?
2 Why do you think fast food chains regularly change
the products on their menu?
chapter 11 understanding the economy 361

11.1 The Australian economy —
an introduction
Most of us know more about economics than we think. If you answered yes to the first two quiz questions
Test your own economic knowledge by answering yes or and no to the rest, you already have some understanding
no to these simple questions. of economics. Our needs and wants are virtually
unlimited and many of us would like to purchase more
Test your economic instincts Yes No goods and services. Read the case study ‘What do you
1 You are given a wardrobe of new spend your money on?’ Goods are physical items you
clothes. Would you still like to can feel and touch, such as clothes, a skateboard, an iPad
purchase other goods such as or even food. Services are non-physical things that assist
shoes or a new backpack?
us in some way or that we experience, such as attending
2 You already have a television, but a concert, having a haircut or getting help from a tutor.
have the opportunity to purchase
At a very early age we learn that we ‘can’t have
a better one at a very reasonable
price. Are you likely to purchase everything we want’. It’s the same in the wider
the new television? economy. We have to make choices about what can be
3 If you were selling homemade
produced and therefore consumed, because resources
pies and knew they were popular, (used to make goods and services) are limited. Choices
would you keep the price low? must be made about how best to use limited resources.
4 Mango farmers have experienced
bumper crops. Is the price of
mangoes likely to rise?
Resources in the economy
5 Are bananas more expensive Natural resources, labour resources and capital resources
than diamonds? are the ingredients used to make all goods and services
(see Source 3). These resources are limited.
Source 1 Quiz: See what you know about economics
casestudy
What do you spend your secondary school students had a part-time job.
Many teenagers now have the technology that
money on? allows businesses to market and advertise their
products. Advertising through social networking
How much money do you spend per week and what
sites and emails keep teenagers abreast of the latest
do you spend it on? According to market research
consumer goods on the market. Video games have also
company TRU, average spending per week ranged
become a popular marketing tool to reach teenagers.
from $56 for those aged 12 and 13 to $192 for 18 and
19 year olds. Based on an online questionnaire, and
using the answers of a sample of 810 young people,
the study found that the most popular items to spend
money on were clothes, transport, mobile phones,
electronics and fast food. Favourite brands were Apple,
Coca-Cola, Nike, McDonald’s and Adidas. Source 2 Many
businesses are now
Teenagers receive money from parents, part-time
using social networking
jobs, gifts and allowances. According to the Australian sites to market their
Bureau of Statistics (the ABS) a third of full-time products.

11A How does the economy work?
How to deal with the problem of

scarcity – opportunity cost
There aren’t enough resources available to satisfy
all our needs and wants. This is because resources
devoted to one type of production cannot be used to
produce something else. Economists call this scarcity.
Natural resources such as: Resources are limited, so we must make the best use of
• milk them. Economics is about how to make the best choices
• wheat with our limited resources. At an individual level, for
• sugar example, purchasing a car worth $20 000 means that
• eggs person cannot afford their next best preference – going
• cocoa. on an overseas holiday. Forgoing the overseas holiday
is the real cost of buying the car. Economists refer to
this as opportunity cost – the cost of the next-best
alternative use of resources.
Labour resources such as:

• technicians Check your learning 11.1
• marketing executives
• bakers
• sales representatives 1 Why are needs and wants unlimited and resources
• managers. limited?
2 Complete the following table by giving examples
of the different resources used to produce each of
the goods or services listed.
Capital resources such as: Good or Natural Labour Capital
• ovens service resources resources resources
• mixers Car wash
• cooling conveyors Bunch of
• packing machines flowers
• factories and buildings Guitar lesson
• trucks.
Apply and analyse
Source 3 Resources used in the production of a chocolate
biscuit 3 Assume a farmer can grow either wheat or rice or
both. The sale price of both crops is the same.
Natural resources are resources that come from
Production A B C D
nature, from above or below the ground. These can possibility
include coal extracted from the ground, fish from the
Wheat (tonnes) 0 100 200 400
ocean, or wood from trees.
Labour resources are the intellectual or physical Rice (tonnes) 200 150 100 0
skills of a worker that are needed to make a good or a What production possibility (A, B, C or D) would
provide a service. The different jobs people do every give the farmer the best outcome?
day – whether it be a store manager, bricklayer or nurse b What is the opportunity cost (the next-best
– are all classed as labour. Capital resources are man- option) of the farmer producing 400 tonnes of
made resources such as machinery, buildings, roads wheat?
and bridges that are used to produce and transport the
goods and services we purchase. Evaluate and create
4 Do you think you spend more than your parents or
carers did when they were teenagers? Why?

11.2 Economic systems and
their characteristics
All countries use an economic system to ensure they to develop a mini-economic system. ‘What to produce?’
use their scarce resources wisely. An economic system will depend on what is available – perhaps fish and
is a way of organising the production and distribution coconuts are readily available. The next question is ‘How
of goods and services. There are many different types to produce?’ Perhaps someone will cook the fish on a
of economic systems, but all of them must answer the camp fire and someone else will use a rock to split the
three economic questions shown in Source 1. coconuts. Once you’ve produced the items, you will need
Imagine you are stranded with your classmates on to decide ‘for whom to produce?’ Perhaps each classmate
a remote island, completely cut off from the rest of the will be allocated the same amount of produce.
world (see Source 2). In order to survive, you would have
Types of economic systems
There are different types of economic systems that
answer the three basic economic questions in a different
way. Before we discuss each type of economic system,
it is important to understand that political beliefs
influence the economic system chosen. In a capitalist
economy, there is a belief that resources (natural, labour
What How For whom
and capital) used in production should be owned
to produce? to produce? to produce?
privately. Producers are motivated to provide goods and
services for consumers with the aim of making a profit
for themselves.
Source 1 The three economic questions all economies must
answer
Source 2 If you were stranded on a desert island with your classmates, how would you organise what had to be done?

In a socialist economic system, it is believed that

social ownership of resources is much fairer. In many
socialist economies, this has meant the government
(referred to as ‘the state’) owns all the resources
on behalf of the people. Karl Marx, who wrote The
Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, observed that
workers were exploited in the capitalist system and
would eventually revolt, overthrowing the rulers and
creating a classless society (see Source 3).
1 Traditional or subsistence economy

In a traditional or subsistence economy, producers
are self-sufficient, producing enough to survive, rather
than aiming to make a profit. Money is not used. ‘What
to produce?’ depends on what is available through
hunting, gathering and growing food. Shelter is basic.
Custom and religious beliefs may influence the question
‘How to produce?’ Production is usually shared, solving
the question ‘For whom to produce?’
There are very few subsistence economies in
existence. Some villages in rural Alaska are self-
sufficient, with its inhabitants fishing and hunting for
food. The following case study illustrates how one man
in England opted for a subsistence lifestyle.
Source 3 An anti-capitalism poster printed in 1911
casestudy
Could you live without money? Boyle, an Irishman now living in Bath in the UK, is one
of a number of individuals who live without money. An
Mark Boyle, pictured in Source 4, is also known as the American man by the name of Daniel Suelo stopped using
‘moneyless man’. He embarked on a life without money in money in 2000 and currently lives in a cave in Utah.
2008. He now lives by growing his own food and foraging,
scavenging and bartering.
Surviving has led to some creative thinking as Boyle
runs his laptop and shower using solar power. His stove
is made of huge olive tins. Going to the toilet just requires
a spade and some recycled newspaper to use as toilet
paper. Toothpaste is no problem when you can make
it from cuttlefish and fennel seeds. Nettles found in the
forest make a healthy green tea.
Boyle says, ‘If we grew our own food, we wouldn’t
waste a third of it as we do today. If we made our own
tables and chairs, we wouldn’t throw them out the
moment we changed the interior decor. If we had to clean
our own drinking water, we probably wouldn’t contaminate
it.’
Source 4 Mark Boyle lives without money. Could you?

2 Market capitalist economy
In a market capitalist economy such
as Australia, producers exchange goods
and services with consumers in return
for money. This exchange takes place
in a market, which may or may not be
an actual physical space (see Source 5).
Producers decide ‘what to produce’ based
on what consumers want and the price
they are willing to pay. ‘How to produce?’
is solved by the producer choosing the
most cost-effective method of production.
The question ‘For whom to produce?’ is
determined by who has the money to pay
for the goods and services. The majority of
productive resources (labour, natural and
capital resources) are owned by individuals
and firms. Most countries, including
Australia, the United States, Germany,
France, the UK, Malaysia and Japan, have
adopted a market capitalist economy.
3 Planned capitalist economy

In a planned capitalist economy,
individuals and firms own the productive
resources but the government determines
‘what to produce’, ‘how to produce’ and ‘for
whom to produce’. This type of economy
does not currently exist.
4 Market socialist economy

In a market socialist economy, the three
basic economic questions are answered Source 5 In a market capitalist economy, buyers and sellers come together
in the same way as the market capitalist in what is called a market. When there is an oversupply of a good, the price
system, but productive resources in this falls and many consumers will be enticed to buy, clearing the oversupply
type of economy are mostly owned by the of goods.
government (‘the state’) on behalf of the
people of the country. The former Socialist
producing the goods and services consumers want but may be
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is considered
directed to areas the government sees as desirable, such as defence.
to have had a market socialist economy.
As a result, shortages of consumer goods may occur. North Korea
has a planned socialist economic system. Many consumer goods in
5 Planned socialist economy
North Korea are in short supply and trade in illegal goods through
In a planned socialist economy it is the the black market thrives.
government that determines ‘what to
produce’, ‘how to produce’ and ‘for whom
to produce’. It is called a planned economy
The tale of two cows
because production takes place in line The tale of two cows (see Source 6) is a simple and humorous story
with the government’s long- and short- that is commonly used to explain how different economic and
term plans. The majority of productive political systems work. Here we will use it as a tool to understand
resources are owned by ‘the state’. In these the main differences between the economic systems we have been
economies, the emphasis may not be on learning about.

1 2 3 4 5
Traditional or Market capitalist Planned Market socialist Planned
subsistence economy capitalist economy socialist
economy You have two cows… economy You have two cows… economy
You have two cows… You sell the cows’ milk You have two cows… The government owns You have two
You milk the cows and and have enough money You continue to own your cows but you cows…
make enough cheese to buy a sheep. You sell the cows but the decide what to The government
for your own needs. the wool from the sheep government tells you produce (perhaps takes your cows,
This allows you to feed to buy a chicken and what to do. For cheese), how to sets up a dairy farm
your own family. then sell the eggs. example, they may produce and who to produce milk
You’re getting rich, but want you to produce you will sell your and decides who the
some others in your butter. product to. milk will be sold to.
community might
be poor.
Source 6 The tale of two cows – how different economic systems work

1 What is an economic system? 3 Explain why very few subsistence economies exist
2 Match the statements below to the correct economic today.
system: 4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of living
a Firms are told what to produce by the without money, as Mark Boyle does?
government who owns most of the productive 5 Look closely at the anti-capitalism poster (Source 3).
resources. What criticism is being made about the capitalist
b Workers produce what they need to survive and economic system?
money is not used.
Evaluate and create
c This is a market economy in which productive
resources are owned by the state. 6 Some North Koreans have recently been willing
d This is a market economy in which productive to pay up to a day’s wage for chocolate biscuits
resources are largely owned by firms and called ‘choco pies’ on the black market. Why might
individuals. there be a black market for items such as chocolate
e There is no money, and people only produce biscuits in North Korea?
enough to meet their own needs. 7 Which type of economic system do you think is the
best? Why?

11.3 Participants in the
Australian economy
Australia has a market capitalist economy. Let’s first consumers earn wages (by providing the resource of
look at two key participants or players in the Australian labour) to pay for these goods and services.
economy – consumers and producers, as shown in One important characteristic or feature of Australia’s
Source 5. Producers provide consumers with the goods economy is free enterprise, where individuals can
and services they need, and in return consumers set up a business and make a profit. Businesses are
spend money buying these goods and services. Some expected to pay tax to the government and comply
casestudy
What are some of Australia's booming businesses?
Carman’s Fine Foods Adriano Zumbo Patissier
When Carolyn Creswell was 18, she used her $1000 Adriano Zumbo is an Australian patissier and chef.
in savings to buy a muesli business. Twenty-one years You may have seen him on television making his
later in 2014, she was ranked 25th on the BRW Young intricate desserts. After Year 10, Adriano finished
Rich list, with her wealth estimated at $83 million. school and started an apprenticeship as a pastry
Carman’s Fine Foods chef. Although he now
produces a range of owns six patisseries in
muesli products that are Sydney and Melbourne,
Australian made and employing more than 100
owned. Carman’s is a staff, Adriano started out
major food retailer, small, selling homemade
exporting to over cakes and pastries to
32 countries and local cafes.
employing up to 20 staff.
Source 1 Carolyn Creswell Source 2 Adriano Zumbo
Milan Direct Shoes of Prey

Milan Direct is a market leader in selling designer Jodie Fox, Michael Fox and Mike Knapp didn’t think
furniture online and now has the biggest share of the that their business idea for Shoes of Prey in 2009
Australian online household furniture market, according would become a multimillion-dollar business within
to a recent IBISWorld report. Dean Ramler, co-founder two years. The concept was unique, though, as the
and CEO of Milan Direct, comes from a family of customer can design their own shoes using the 3D
furniture makers. Dean’s designer. The business
concept of selling designer has five offices globally
furniture online only, with and employs 150 staff.
no retail store, has paid
off. Milan Direct sells its
furniture in Australia, the UK
and Europe. The company
employs 20 staff and is a
multimillion-dollar business.
Source 3 Dean Ramler Source 4 Jodie Fox

with regulations. Businesses similar to those in the case country’s currency. For example, $1 in Australian
study benefit the economy because the government currency might be worth 72 US cents. If the Australian
is able to collect more tax (boosting its revenue), dollar rises in value against other currencies, it means
consumers are provided with goods and services, Australian exports will be more expensive and imports
and individuals are employed and earn a wage. The cheaper. If the Australian dollar falls in value against
individuals in the case study used their own resources other currencies, Australian exports will become
to establish their businesses. cheaper and imports will become more expensive (see
The Australian economy doesn’t just consist of Topic 11.4 for more information on Australian trade).
consumers and producers. The government and
financial institutions also play an important role, as Australia and the global
outlined in Source 5.
Economic decisions made by any of the participants economy
in Source 5 will have economic consequences. For Globalisation is a term you will have heard before,
example, if you decide to set up your own IT business, probably in the news. It means that all the countries
you will need capital equipment such as computers, of the world are linked and should be seen as one
desks and chairs. People will be employed making these worldwide, or global, economy.
capital products, and you may also have to employ IT
Australia is linked to the global economy because of:
consultants and administrators to help you run the
• trade with other nations – we import goods and
business. These people will in turn earn wages, and
services made overseas into Australia, and export
they will spend their earnings on more goods and
goods and services from Australia to other countries
services after they have paid tax to the government.
Some of the wages earned will also be saved by financial • foreign direct investment – foreign funds used to
institutions, which will then use those savings to lend establish new or existing businesses in Australia
to consumers. In this way, participants in the Australian • an international market for labour – Australians work
economy are interconnected. overseas and people from other countries come to
The overseas sector, where we are linked to work in Australia
international markets, is another key part of the • technology – allowing us to quickly and efficiently
Australian economy. communicate with potential customers all over the
Australians buy imported goods and services from world
other countries and we also export goods and services • migration – settlers come to live in Australia.
overseas. This trade with other nations directly affects Australian businesses are crucial to the economy’s
our economic welfare. There are many factors that success and have had to adapt to the changing business
influence trade, especially the constantly changing environment. Many businesses now source products
exchange rate. The exchange rate is the value of from overseas or have part or all of their products made
one country’s currency when swapped with another overseas.
Consumers Producers Government Financial institutions

• buy goods and services • produce goods and services • charge taxes • hold savings
• earn wages and salaries • aim to make profit • pay wages • lend money
• pay taxes • pay wages • spend on goods and services • aim to make a profit
• receive government benefits • pay taxes • provide benefits, payments • pay taxes
• save • borrow money and services to Australians
• import and export goods • borrow money
and services
Source 5 Key participants in the economy are consumers, producers, the government and financial institutions.

casestudy
Where are your clothes made?

The garment trade and sweatshops
It’s highly likely the clothes you are wearing were not
made in Australia. Have a look at the labels on your
clothes and you might discover where they were made.
Australian retailers such as Rivers, Coles, Target,
Kmart and Cotton On order clothes from factories
in Bangladesh. Bangladesh is one of the cheapest
locations to make clothes, because wages are so low.
Four million people work in the Bangladesh garment
industry, typically working 12 hours per day. China,
India and Cambodia also supply Australia with cheap
clothing.
The global garment trade came under scrutiny
and inspired protests (see Source 7) when more than
1100 people died in a garment sweatshop in Dhaka,
Bangladesh, in 2013. This particular sweatshop was
making clothes destined for the US and Europe.
Building inspectors had requested the building be
evacuated the day before it collapsed, but supervisors
at the sweatshop declared it to be safe.
Challenges for Australian fashion businesses

At the higher end of the fashion market, many
Australian designers are struggling to keep their
businesses afloat. Perth fashion designer Poppy
Lissiman, for example, has put her fashion label
on hold while investigating having her garments
Dress
designed
Dress
in Australia
imported back
to Australia to
sell in various
Australian
stores
Source 7 An anti-sweatshop protest in Washington, D.C.
Dress manufactured overseas to cut the costs of production.

material Fierce international competition has also led
manufactured some designers to close their businesses. Smaller
in China then
businesses in particular may struggle, as some large
Dress sewn sent to Fiji
manufacturers overseas will only do business if the
together
in Fiji
order is substantial. Online shopping has also had a
significant impact on local fashion designers.
Some Australian fashion designers have managed
Source 6 Many Australian designers have their clothes international success, however. Australian fashion
made overseas.


1 Imagine you set up a hairdressing salon.
a What service are you providing for the
consumer?
b What does the consumer give you in return for
cutting their hair?
c List some of the costs you incur as the owner
of your hairdressing salon.
d In what ways does the government affect your
hairdressing business?
e Why might you need the services of a financial
institution such as a bank in running your
business?
2 List the economic consequences of opening up a
new restaurant in your area.
3 Explain what happens to the price of exports when
the Australian dollar rises.
4 Explain why Australia is part of the global
economy.
Apply and analyse
5 In 2014, ALCOA (a metals and engineering
company operating in 31 countries) closed its
Point Henry aluminium smelter and two rolling
mills. List the economic consequences of this
decision in relation to:
a employment
b taxes
c government payments, such as unemployment
benefits.
6 List five businesses that sell their products or
services worldwide.
7 Would companies such as Milan Direct and Shoes
of Prey have been successful if they had not sold
their products overseas? Why/why not?
8 Take a few minutes to daydream.
a If you were going into business, what product
designers Peter Strateas and Mario-Luca Carlucci or service would you be most interested in
launched their label during Paris Fashion Week. They selling?
bypassed Australia and went straight to the Paris b Is there an international market for your product
catwalk with their striking designs, and now have 20 or service?
stockists around the world. c How will your product or service stand out from
Source 6 shows how a dress might be made other products on the market?
in various parts of the world – it’s the process of
globalisation in action.

11A rich task
• Pressure from imports. Australians now have 65
The decline of the brands and 365 car models to choose from, making it
the most competitive automotive market in the world.
automotive industry • The more cars that are produced, the cheaper they
become, and Australia did not produce cars in large
in Australia enough volumes.

• The high Australian dollar made our exported cars
more expensive overseas and imported cars cheaper
Increased competition from overseas is in comparison.
one of the adverse effects of globalisation. The Holden, Ford and Toyota closures have also
This has led to some business closures sparked concern for those businesses supplying car
in Australia. parts. Lawyer Evan Stents, who specialises in the
automotive industry, raised concerns about job losses in
those businesses supplying car parts. In relation to Ford
Mitsubishi closed its last Australian car manufacturing he said, ‘For every one manufacturing job at Ford, there
plant in 2008. Holden, Toyota and Ford no longer are probably another four jobs that are threatened in the
manufacture cars in Australia (see Source 1). GM Holden parts industry.’
boss Mike Devereux declared, ‘As painful as it is to say, Workers made redundant have their own personal tale
building cars in this country is just not sustainable.’ to tell. Fifty-five-year-old Moji Behbahani, who has worked
Reasons for the decline in the Australian automotive for Ford for 23 years, described losing his job, his hands
industry include: shaking.
‘I have to work,’ Mr Behbahani said. ‘I have so many
friends there, it is like a second family.’
ions
Holden closes its Australian operat Toyota close
s its Australi
operations in an
in 2017. Expects 2900 job losses. 2017. Expect
2500 job loss s
es.
an
Ford closes its Australi
operations in 2016 .
.
Expects 1200 job losses
Mitsubishi
closed its la
Australian st
manufactu
in 2008. Jo ring plant
bs lost: 100
0.
Source 1 The end of car manufacturing in Australia

skilldrill
Identifying the consequences of Step 4 How will groups/people be affected by the

business decision? Identify how each group might be
business decisions affected by the business decision. Brainstorm possible
effects on each group.
Businesses make decisions all the time, such as whether
to hire staff or produce a new product using sustainable
Apply the skill
resources. The closure of a business is an example of a
Identify the consequences of cars not being made in
decision that can have far-reaching consequences, not only
Australia anymore.
for the business owners and staff, but for the economy as a
whole. Identifying the consequences of a business decision 1 Read the information provided on the decline of
is vital to: the automotive industry in Australia, then copy the
following table (adding as many rows as you need)
• reduce unwanted side effects
and fill it out. Remember that the information provided
• provide assistance to those who are affected by the
will not provide all the answers; you will have to think
decision
about how the decision will affect certain groups
• turn a negative business decision into a positive
yourself. The first answer has been done for you.
outcome.
Step 1 Clarify exactly what you are being asked to Those affected How groups/people will be
do. You must specifically ‘identify consequences’. by cars not affected by not making cars in
being made in Australia
Consider using a dictionary for the meaning of ‘identify’ Australia
and ‘consequence’. It is also helpful to find synonyms
for these words. Rewrite the task if it is easier for you Car manufacturer Their business will now survive and
so that ‘identify consequences of a business decision’ operations will continue in other countries
where profit can be made.
becomes ‘look for the effects or outcomes of the
Car sales may decline in this country.
business decision’.
Redundancy payments (when the
Step 2 Be clear about what business decision has employer makes a payment to the
been made and try to state the decision in just one employee whose job is no longer
sentence. needed) will need to be made, affecting
profit outcomes.
Step 3 Who will be affected by the business decision? The factory site will be sold and some of
Identify groups/people that will be affected by the the proceeds returned to the company.
decision.
2 Write 2–3 paragraphs about the consequences of the
decision to stop car manufacturing in Australia.
Identify another industry in Australia that is in decline.

Those affected by the How groups/people will be
1 Use the following table to help you identify who will be decline of the industry affected by the decline of
affected and how they will be affected by the decline of the industry
the industry. Search the internet for more information.
2 Write 2–3 paragraphs about the consequences of the

decline of this industry in Australia.

11.4 Australia’s place in Asia
and the global economy
Australia’s economy is relatively small by global Australia is not a large exporter by world standards
standards, representing around 2 per cent of the (see Source 2). Trade with other nations is important,
world’s production. Nevertheless, international trade though, because:
– buying from and selling goods and services to other • Australia earns money by exporting our goods and
countries – is important to us. services
Australia is both an exporter and importer of goods • international trade provides employment for both
and services. Exports are goods and services produced Australians and people overseas
locally and sold overseas. Australia exports around • Australia can buy products it does not produce itself
one-fifth of what it produces. Examples of Australian from other countries
exports include beef, wheat, pharmaceuticals, wine, • Australia can sell products that other countries need.
beer, and education and travel services. Imports are
In addition to the exchange of goods and services
goods and services produced overseas and sold to
between Australia and the rest of the world, other
Australia. Australia imports the equivalent of around
countries invest directly in Australia by setting up
one-fifth of its production. Examples of goods and
business or expanding their existing business operations
services imported by Australia include cars, computers,
in Australia. Chances are your favourite chocolate bar
telecommunications equipment and personal travel
was made in Australia, but the company that produced
services.
it was the foreign-owned British company Cadbury.
Australia has an abundance of natural resources
such as coal, iron, copper, gold, natural gas, uranium The top 30 exporting countries
and renewable energy sources (see Source 1). These
types of natural resources are sometimes referred to United
1 China 11 21 Switzerland
as commodities. These natural resources have been in Kingdom
high demand by Asian countries, particularly China, European Saudi

2 12 Mexico 22
for the manufacture of consumer goods sold around Union Arabia
the world. China's recent economic slowdown has,
however, resulted in falling commodity prices. 3 United States 13 Canada 23 Thailand
4 Germany 14 Singapore 24 Malaysia
5 Japan 15 Russia 25 Poland
United Arab
6 South Korea 16 26 Brazil
Emirates
7 France 17 India 27 Australia
8 Hong Kong 18 Taiwan 28 Vietnam
9 Netherlands 19 Belgium 29 Turkey
10 Italy 20 Spain 30 Indonesia
Source 1 Australia is rich in natural resources such as gold, Source 2 This table, constructed using figures from the CIA
which we export to the world. Australia is one of the largest gold World Factbook website, shows the ranking of countries
producers in the world. according to the value of export goods in 2015.

Australia’s major trading Britain. This strong relationship continued into the
1950s, seeing Australia trading mainly with the United
partners Kingdom and other European countries. Since then,
there has been quite a dramatic shift in the countries
The United Kingdom was Australia’s major trading
we predominantly trade with. As you can see in Source 3,
partner in 1900, receiving nearly 60 per cent of all
the United Kingdom now only receives 2.4 per cent of
Australian exports. This was because Australia was once
our exports, while China receives almost a third of our
a British colony and had strong historical ties with
total exports of goods and services.
9
United Kingdom
2.4%
1 3
China Republic of Korea
32.5% 6.8% 4
2 United States
Japan 15.4%
5.1%
8
Taiwan 2.5%
7 10
India Malaysia 2.2%
3.2%
6
Singapore
3.3%
5
New Zealand 3.5%
Source 3 The top ten countries Australia exported to in 2013–14.
What Australia imports and

exports
What Australia imports and exports is called the
‘composition’ of trade. Nearly 78 per cent of our
exported goods in 2013–14 were in primary products.
These are products that are produced from raw materials
and are not manufactured. Nearly 16 per cent of our
exported goods in 2013–14 were manufactured goods.
Agriculture, fishing, mining, and forestry are examples
of primary industries. Referring to Source 5, count how
many of Australia’s major exports are primary products.
Nearly 72 per cent of all the goods we imported in
2013–14 were manufactured products and just over
24 per cent of imports were primary products. Refer
to Source 9 and count how many of Australia’s major Source 4 Primary products make up 75 per cent
imports are primary products. of Australia's exports.

Australia’s principal exports 2011–14
Iron ore &

concentrates
Coal
Natural gas
Australia’s principal exports
Education-related
2013–14
travel services
2012–13
Personal travel
(excl. education) services 2011–12
Gold
Crude petroleum
Beef f.c.f
Wheat
Aluminium ores &

conc (incl alumina)
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000 80 000

A$million
Source 5 This chart shows Australia’s principal exports. Iron ores and concentrates are Australia’s largest individual export items.
Source 6 This iron ore mine in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, is one of the largest artificial
holes in the world. Iron ore and other mineral concentrates are by far Australia’s largest export.
Source 7 A huge coal loader prepares shipments of Australian coal for export to China. Source 8 In 2013–14, gold represented
Coal is Australia’s second-largest export. Australia’s sixth-largest export.

Australia’s principal imports 2011–14
Personal travel
(excl. education) services
Crude petroleum
Australia’s principal imports
Refined petroleum
Passenger motor vehicles 2013–14

2012–13
Freight services 2011–12
Telecom equipment
and parts
Medicaments
(incl. veterinary)
Computers
Passenger transport
services
Goods vehicles
0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000

A$million
Source 9 This chart shows Australia’s principal imports. Many Australians travel. Our top import from 2010 to 2013–14 was personal
travel services.
Source 11 Crude petroleum, used to manufacture a range of products from petrol

to plastics, is Australia’s second-largest import.
Source 10 In 2013–14, Australians travelled

overseas in record numbers. Personal travel
services, that is people travelling overseas
for holidays, is Australia’s largest import,
with countries such as Indonesia, Thailand
and the United States among the hottest Source 12 Passenger vehicles manufactured overseas in countries such as Japan,
destinations. Korea and Germany are Australia’s fourth-largest import.

casestudy
How do you make a plane

these days?
Soon there might have to be a label that reads
‘Made in the world’. Products are increasingly
being created internationally. A product may, for
example, be designed, manufactured, assembled
and marketed in several different countries.
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an example of a
global product. Source 14 shows that the plane’s
parts or components are sourced from countries all
over the world. Part of the plane’s wing is designed
and produced in Melbourne at Boeing Aerospace
Australia. Assembly takes place in the United
States. Source 13 The Boeing 787 Dreamliner took to the skies
for the first time on 15 December 2009.
Producing a global product may be beneficial
for a number of reasons. The latest information technology
in the world can be sourced. Costs of production may also
be reduced by choosing the country that can assemble or
produce the components the most cheaply.
Wing tips
Busan, Korea (KAL-ASD)
Wing
Mid forward fuselage
Nagoya, Japan Nacelles Forward fuselage
Nagoya, Japan
Fixed trailing edge (Mitsubishi) Chula Vista, Wichita, Kansas US
(Kawasaki)
Nagoya, Japan California, US (Spirit)
(Kawasaki) (Goodrich) Cargo access doors
Moveable trailing edge Linköping, Sweden (Saab)
Melbourne, Australia (Boeing) Centre fuselage
Flap support fairings Grottaglie, Italy
Busan, Korea (KAL-ASD) (Alenia)
Tail fin
Frederickson
Washington, US
(Boeing) Wing/body fairing
Landing gear doors
Tail cone Winnipeg, Canada
Centre wing box
Auburn, (Boeing)
Nagoya, Japan (Fuji)
Washington, US
(Boeing) Passenger entry doors
Toulouse, France
Aft fuselage (Latécoère)
Aft fuselage Charleston,
Basan, Korea Sth Carolina, US
(KAL-ASD) (Boeing)
Engines
Main landing Evendale, Ohio, US (GE)
gear wheel Derby, UK (Rolls Royce)
Horizontal
stabilser Nagoya, Japan
Landing gear
Foggia, Italy (Kawasaki)
Gloucester, UK Fixed and moveable
(Alenia) (Messier-Dowty) leading edge
Tulsa, Oklahoma,
US (Spirit)
Source 14 Countries from all over the world work together to make the Boeing 787 Dreamliner.


1 What is the difference between an import and an
export?
2 Which two countries receive the largest proportion
of Australia’s exports?
3 Describe the change in Australia’s major trading
partners from the 1950s to today.
Apply and analyse
4 What type of products does Australia mostly
export and why?
5 Why can trade with another country affect
employment?
Evaluate and create
6 The following is a list of the top 10 countries
Australia sourced its imports from in 2013–2014:
Malaysia 3.8%, United States 12.2%, Japan 6.3%,
Singapore 5.5%, Thailand 3.9%, China 15.4%,
Germany 4.1%, United Kingdom 3.7%,
New Zealand 3.3%, Republic of Korea 3.6%
a Rank the countries in order from 1 to 10.
Source 15 The cockpit of a Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Number one ranking is the country we import
from the most.
b Using these statistics, create a bar chart (either
in Excel or by hand) to display the top 10
countries we import from.
7 Describe Australia’s place in the global economy in
relation to the following:
a our world ranking as an exporter
b the total percentage of world exports Australia
produces
c the total percentage of world production
Australia is responsible for.
8 Go to the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
website and select the ‘Countries and regions’
section. Each country has a fact sheet. Choose
a country you are interested in and create a
PowerPoint presentation of our trading relations
with that country. Include the following:
a a map showing where this country is in relation
to Australia
b the major goods and services exported and
imported between the countries
c the total value of our exports and imports with
Source 16 The economy cabin of a Boeing 787 Dreamliner
this country
d our trade relations and trading history with
the country.

11.5 The global supply chain
What is the supply chain? different countries. The manufacture or making of
chocolate may take place within Australia or overseas so
A supply chain refers to the many links or activities we can add factory workers and managers, technicians,
that are required to move a product or service from cleaners and transport workers to the supply chain.
a supplier to a consumer. Source 1 provides a broad The Cadbury chocolate manufacturing process, for
summary of the supply chain for a chocolate bar. To example, begins in Singapore where the cocoa beans are
make chocolate, raw materials such as cocoa beans processed into cocoa mass, which is a combination of
and sugar must first be sourced. At this stage, farmers, cocoa and cocoa butter. This mass is then transported
labourers, transport workers and contractors may enter to factories in Victoria and Tasmania.
the supply chain. Australia has only just begun to grow Once chocolate is made, it needs to be packaged,
cocoa beans so most of the cocoa beans used to make so this may involve packaging companies, graphic
a chocolate bar might be sourced from plantations all designers, marketers and advertisers entering the supply
over the world in countries such as Brazil, Ecuador, chain. When the product is ready for sale it must be
Papua New Guinea and parts of Africa and Asia. Other distributed and sold in stores and vending machines,
ingredients such as sugar may be sourced from Australia requiring another set of workers from buyers to shop
or other major sugar producers such as Brazil and India. assistants, warehouse supervisors and truck drivers.
You can begin to see that a simple chocolate bar
involves many different workers often from many
Retail –
The chocolate
Distribution – is sold in places
Chocolate bars such as supermarkets,
are transported vending machines
Marketing and and petrol stations
from the factory
advertising –
to retailers all
Chocolate bars
over the country,
are marketed to
Manufacturing – and sometimes all
consumers on
Materials are over the world
television,
turned into billboards, internet
chocolate bars, ads and YouTube ads
a process that
Supply –
requires a
Materials,
workforce
such as
and equipment
cocoa beans
and sugar,
are sourced
Source 1 Supply chain for a chocolate bar

Importing goods and services means that we rely

Dependence on other countries on other countries to produce the goods and services
in the supply chain we use. Many consumers are becoming increasingly
concerned about imported foods and the safety standards
All countries need to import goods and services to meet that are used in various countries in the supply chain.
the demands of consumers at home. Many products we For example, in 2015, some consumers who ate imported
buy are not produced in Australia. Even services may frozen berries contracted hepatitis A. As a result, a new
be sourced from overseas, such as technical support system to ensure clearer food labels showing country
required for mobile phones and computers. Many of origin was introduced by the Federal Government so
companies in Australia outsource, using resources the consumer can decide whether they wish to buy a
outside of their business, often overseas. For example, product made overseas.
the Australian boot company Blundstone now makes
most of its boots in India and Thailand. Australia’s
airline Qantas outsources the heavy maintenance of its
remaining 747-400 airliners overseas.
There are several reasons why we import some of
our goods and services from other countries. One major
reason is that production costs may be lower, allowing
goods and services to be produced at a cheaper cost
than would be possible at home. Wages, for example,
are a cost of production and in many countries the
minimum wage that can be paid to workers may be
much lower than in Australia. According to latest
figures from the Fair Work Commission, the minimum
hourly rate in Australia is $17.70 compared with a
minimum hourly rate in some other countries that may
range between $1.68 and $3.98.
The natural resources each country possesses, such
as forests, petroleum and coal, may determine what a Source 3 Food companies should be aware of the safety
country can produce. Climatic conditions also play a standards used in their supply chains. In 2015, frozen berries
role in production decisions. For example, the cocoa gave some consumers hepatitis A.
tree only grows in hot, rainy and tropical climates, so
countries such as Iceland would be unable to grow these
trees in the open. Transnational corporations
in the supply chain
A transnational corporation is a company that
operates in more than one country. Transnational
corporations don’t consider their home to be any
particular country as they are a worldwide business.
The food and drink company Nestlé is an example of a
transnational company. Nestlé produces global brands
such as Nescafé coffee and the Kit Kat chocolate bar.
Nestlé has its global headquarters in Switzerland, has
factories in 85 countries and employs 335 000 people
worldwide. It is thought that by spreading the business
geographically across the world, the company can
respond more quickly to customers’ needs at a local
Source 2 Cocoa pods hanging from a tree in Huayhuantillo level. General Electric, Siemens and Toyota are other
village near Tingo Maria in Peru. We source our cocoa beans examples of transnational corporations.
overseas. Australia’s cocoa industry is only just beginning, with
some plantations in Queensland producing cocoa for boutique
chocolate that is truly made in Australia.

Transnationals bring many benefits to the Some transnationals, however, have been criticised
country they operate in. They provide employment for contributing to pollution and threatening the health
opportunities and, because of their size, may be able and environment of those who live in the country
to buy a failing Australian business and improve its where the transnational operates. Some transnationals
business prospects through providing the capital in the garment trade have been criticised for not taking
required (such as machinery) to expand the business, enough care to ensure their supply chains are socially
make a profit and compete on a global scale. responsible.
casestudy
Who made your T-shirt? mean not only cheaper clothes but also higher profits
for businesses that sell clothing. Unfortunately it is the
The T-shirt you are wearing is most probably not made worker who is sometimes exploited.
in Australia. Perhaps it was made in Bangladesh, Transnational companies have a responsibility
because wages are much lower there. Wages are to ensure that workers who are part of their supply
a significant cost of production and if they are low it chain are working in safe conditions and are paid
means the costs of production are lower. Low wages appropriately.
Source 4 An anti-sweatshop protest

The impact of global events on agricultural exporters who had to find new markets for
their products.
the supply chain Disruption to the importing of oil to Australia is
another factor that could disrupt Australia’s supply
Australia is part of the world or global economy and is
chains, affecting our production and transport systems.
therefore affected by events overseas. Natural disasters
Australia is oil dependent, importing just over 90 per
such as tsunamis and earthquakes can have an impact
cent of its crude oil and refined petroleum from the
on supply chains. For example, the earthquake and
Middle East.
tsunami in Japan in 2011 slowed down the manufacture
of Toyota cars in Australia. This is because Australian
manufacturers relied on Japanese factories to supply
them with parts that could not be accessed in the
aftermath of the natural disaster.
Political unrest in and between countries can also
affect the flow of trade and therefore our supply chains.
For example, in 2014, Russia imposed a ban on food
imports from many Western countries, including
Australia, in retaliation for sanctions imposed on Russia
caused by its military intervention in the Ukraine. This
ban was extended in 2015 and impacted Australian
Source 5 The manufacture of Toyota cars in Australia slowed
down after the tsunami and earthquake in Japan, 2011.

1 What is a supply chain? 7 Make a list of five products you or your family would
2 Give an example of a transnational corporation. normally buy from the supermarket on a weekly
3 Why are transnational corporations that produce basis. Do some research using the Internet and the
clothes sometimes criticised because of their supply packaging of those products to uncover where that
chains? product or its ingredients are from. Present your
4 Give one reason why another country may be able to findings as a poster that maps the supply chain of
produce a product more cheaply than Australia. these five products.
8 Some chocolate producers have been criticised
Apply and analyse for not ensuring that workers who are part of their
5 Imagine a disease wipes out all cocoa trees in Africa, supply chain are not exploited. Use the Internet to
the world’s largest cocoa-growing region. How will find out what fairtrade chocolate is and how it can
this affect the supply of chocolate bars in Australia? protect cocoa farmers and their families
6 Why does Australia import goods and services from 9 Pick at least four food items from your pantry or
other countries? refrigerator and fill in the following table.
Food item A Was it made in Australia? If the product was made totally or partly
B Was it totally made overseas? overseas, suggest reasons why this might be the
case.
C Was part of it made overseas?
1

11B rich task
The rise of China as Since 1979, China’s economy has grown very
rapidly. It is estimated that this growth has helped
Australia’s largest around 500 million people in China to move out of

extreme poverty. This growth has led to higher living
trading partner standards and increasing urbanisation, as people

move from farms to large cities to live and work. China
is now the second-largest economy in the world
China is Australia’s largest trading partner. behind the United States.
China’s economic reforms in the 1970s saw it Major Australian exports to China include iron ores
change from a planned socialist economy to and minerals, coal, gold and crude petroleum. These
a more market-based economy. China also exports are needed for China’s huge manufacturing
increased its trade with the rest of the world, industries, which produce consumer goods sold
throughout the world. Major Chinese imports into
reducing its tariffs (taxes on imported goods
Australia include telecommunications equipment and
and services) and other barriers to trade.
parts, clothing, computers, furniture, mattresses and
The China–Australia Free Trade Agreement homewares.
was signed between Australia and China In the Australian business news we hear
in 2015. When the agreement is fully daily reports about how the Chinese economy is
implemented, 95 per cent of Australian performing. The performance of the Chinese economy
exports to China will be tariff-free. That means is important to Australia because it affects Australia’s
Australia’s goods and services will be cheaper export performance. Over a quarter of all Australian
to buy in China, so the hope is that demand exports are currently sent to China. It is hoped that
there will be continued demand for our exports in the
for Australian exports will rise. Australian tariffs
future. Also, as incomes in China grow, there may be
on Chinese imports will also be eliminated
increasing demand for Australian food products,
over time, resulting in lower prices and greater manufactured products requiring skilled creation and
availability of Chinese products in Australia. assembly, and services.
Australia’s goods and services trade with China (A$ millions)
Description 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Total exports from Australia to China (A$ millions) 47 763 64 304 77 596 79 260 101 590
Total imports from China to Australia (A$ millions) 37 399 41 029 44 030 46 402 49 329
Source 1 The value of Australia’s imports and exports with China, between 2009 and 2013
Source 2 China is now Australia’s major

trading partner. In 2013 we exported
28.1 per cent of our total exports to
China and imported 14.5 per cent of our
total imports from them.

skilldrill
Reading and interpreting data Step 2 Now try to make some observations about the
data you see. As you read the value of exports for
tables each year, try to observe whether there is a trend. Are
the numbers generally increasing or decreasing or do
A table consists of rows of data that run horizontally and
they fluctuate? It’s not enough to say that Australian
columns of data that run vertically. The first row and
exports to China have increased over the last five years
column of the table typically do not include any numerical
to 2013. Has there been a gradual increase from one
information. Instead, they identify the names of what is
year to the next or has there been drastic growth in
being shown.
the value of exports to China? Are there any years that
Being able to read and interpret a table of statistics
stand out as exceptionally good or poor? It may also
provides the information we need to solve problems,
help if you calculate the percentage change from one
investigate reasons why a problem has occurred, prove a
year to the next.
point and strengthen an argument we are trying to make.
Step 3 Consider drawing a chart from the data so you
Step 1 Read the table heading to gain an overall idea
can more easily see the trends. Copy the table into an
of what the table is about. Then, read the names of
Excel spreadsheet, select the table, click the ‘Insert’
the columns and rows that do not have numbers in
tab and choose a chart.
them. The first row in Source 1 tells us that the data is
annual data. The second row of column 1 tells us that Apply the skill
the data contained in each square or cell is the value
1 Interpret the table in Source 1 and describe the
of total exports in millions of Australian dollars. Read
change in Australia’s total exports to China in the
across to the year 2009 and then down to the next
five years to 2013. Provide an Excel chart with your
row to see the value of total exports from Australia
description.
to China for that year (A$47 763 000 000, or over
47 billion!).
Choose chart
13
590
329
Source 3 How to create a simple chart in Excel
1 Compare imports and exports in the year 2013. Did 2 Explain why the performance of the Chinese economy
we export more goods and services to China than we may affect Australia’s export performance.
imported from them?

11.6 Gaining a competitive advantage
A competitive advantage gives a business the ability
to outperform other similar businesses in a market.
Offering the consumer a better
The business is able to better satisfy the consumer than price
other similar businesses and this may result in increased
Lower prices are an important way of enticing the
sales and profit. Profit is the revenue a business receives
consumer to buy goods and services. Some businesses
minus any expenses such as the cost of raw materials,
are able to offer consumers lower prices because they
the cost of labour (wage costs) and taxes.
find ways to reduce the cost of making a good or
Businesses that gain a competitive advantage have
providing a service. New technology may be used to cut
worked out how to best satisfy the consumer – the buyer
labour costs. Self-scan checkouts in supermarkets, for
of their good or service. There are several methods a
example, may reduce the need for employees to work
business can use to gain a competitive edge.
on a checkout (see Source 2). Sourcing cheaper materials
from suppliers may be another method of cutting
production costs.
Source 1 Some businesses strive to gain a competitive edge

by creating something entirely new in the market. They stand
out from the crowd because their business idea is unique. Nick
D’Aloisio, an Australian-born entrepreneur, created an app
Source 2 Self-service checkouts such as this are one of the
called Summly from his London home when he was just 17.
ways in which businesses can use technology to reduce their
Summly summarises news for smartphones. The technology
labour costs, in an attempt to offer consumers cheaper prices
behind it was sold to Yahoo! for millions of dollars.
on the goods they sell.

e Larger businesses have the advantage of lower costs

of production because it is cheaper to produce larger
Offering consumers better
volumes of goods or services than smaller volumes. quality or perceived quality
This is referred to as economies of scale. The reason for
There are some goods and services that many
this is that firms have fixed production costs such as
consumers are willing to pay more for because of their
equipment, advertising and marketing costs. Consider a
quality. There are many different aspects of quality.
cake manufacturer, who has the capacity to cook 10 000
David Garvin developed the concept of there being
cakes per day. The electricity costs of using ovens might
eight dimensions of quality.
be the same whether 8000 cakes or 10 000 cakes are
produced so there is an advantage in producing more, 1 Performance – how well does the product work?
rather than fewer, cakes. 2 Features – what additional features does the product
Outsourcing part of their operations is another have compared to similar products?
cost-cutting measure some businesses choose to use. 3 Reliability – can the product be tested to work
This can mean that work that was once undertaken in without fail?
Australia is now completed overseas at a reduced cost. 4 Conformance – does the product meet expected
Qantas, for example, has recently outsourced the heavy standards?
maintenance of two of its largest planes to a company 5 Durability – will the product last a reasonable
in Hong Kong. amount of time?
Cost cutting is one way of reducing the price of a 6 Serviceability – how quickly and efficiently can the
good or services, but a business may also decide it is in product be repaired if it does break down?
their interests to lower prices, accepting lower profits 7 Aesthetics – does the product’s look, feel, sound,
in order to ensure continued sales, and ultimately the taste or smell appeal to the consumer?
survival of their business. 8 Perceived quality – does the consumer think the
product is a quality product?
Making the consumer aware of
the product or service Showing corporate social
In order to buy a particular product or service, the responsibility
consumer must first be made aware that it exists. Strategies to improve brand reputation also include
Advertising is one way a business can gain a competitive corporate social responsibility (CSR). CSR requires
edge. Advertising involves drawing the public’s attention a business to contribute positively to society, such
to a product through various media such as websites, as through environmental, economic or charitable
social networks, television, print material such as initiatives. Some companies, such as The Body Shop
newspapers and magazines, or even product placements and Thankyou, have made social responsibility a part of
in film and television. Blended marketing is the their business practice and branding. Their work with
combination of digital and traditional marketing and is charities and sustainable practices has made them an
said to be the key to reaching the most consumers. appealing choice for consumers. CSR helps a business to
increase its competitiveness in the following ways:
• It improves the reputation of the brand.
• Consumers are more willing to purchase goods and
services from the business because it makes them feel
good about themselves.
• It can save money on costs while being more socially
responsible, for example, adopting environmentally-
friendly practices to cut down energy consumption.
Source 3 Next time you’re browsing your favourite website or

watching your favourite TV show, see if you can detect any
product placement.

casestudy
Would you buy a bag for $5000? – perceived value. This is intangible and cannot be
measured. It may be about how that product makes
What makes a customer buy a luxury handbag for them feel and how they are viewed by others when they
nearly $5000 when they could buy a handbag for use it. According to Uché Okonkwo, a management
less than $50? Some say you pay for quality and consultant specialising in the luxury sector, ‘Luxury
craftsmanship. But is a well-made quality handbag that is neither a product, an object, a service, nor is it a
costs close to $5000 really worth it? concept or a lifestyle. It is an identity, a philosophy and
For some customers, the worth may be in a a culture’.
combination of beautiful craftsmanship, the aesthetics Creating a brand helps the consumer to quickly
(how the leather feels, looks and smells) and the bag’s identify who made the product and sets the product
features – whether it is versatile, allowing the customer apart from similar products sold by others. Advertising
to remove the straps and carry it in different ways, and marketing can therefore have a dramatic effect on
for example. whether a company gains a competitive advantage.
However, there may be something else that the Examples of well-known global brands include
customer is buying when they buy such a handbag Apple, Google, IBM, Microsoft, General Electric and
McDonald’s. Source 5 lists the top seven luxury brands.
Do you recognise any of them?
Rank in top 100 Brand Value

Brand Name
brands ($m)
17 Louis Vuitton 24 893
38 Gucci 10 151
54 Hermès 7 616
60 Cartier 6 897
72 Prada 5 570
75 Tiffany & Co. 5 440

Source 4 Louis Vuitton is an example of one of the world’s 77 Burberry 5 189
biggest luxury brands. The company sells a range of luxury
products, such as handbags, luggage, small leather goods, Source 5 Most valuable luxury brands in 2013, according to
shoes, stationery, timepieces and jewellery. Interbrand’s top 100 brands
Being more responsive to ensuring staff are properly trained. Technology may
also assist a business to deliver faster, more efficient
consumer needs customer service. For example, airports that provide
customers with self-check-in facilities minimise delays.
Being responsive to consumer needs may be as simple
Responding to consumer needs is not just about
as bringing products to market ‘on time’. The motor
customer service and fast delivery. Businesses who
mechanic that is known for their quality work will
produce new products in response to consumer needs,
soon grow out of favour if the customer has to wait an
such as Nick D’Aloisio did, also gain a competitive edge.
unreasonable amount of time for their car to be repaired.
Many consumers also demand that ethical business
Responding to consumer needs also means treating
practices are used in the production of goods and
the customer well. Helping the customer when and if
services. Ethics are standards that provide us with
they need help is called customer service. Depending
a guide to what is right and wrong. Goods or services
on the product, many customers need staff that have
produced without harming humans, animals or the
product knowledge. After-sales service is also important.
environment are considered favourable by many
Businesses can improve their customer service by consumers today.

Larger supermarket
chains can afford to invest Larger supermarket
in better technology chains can create their own
such as inventory retail brands, taking a larger
management share of the market for
software that tracks orders, that product.
sales and deliveries.
Larger supermarket Larger supermarket

chains provide other chains can buy
benefits in addition greater volumes of
to low prices such as goods and therefore
loyalty cards and negotiate better
cheaper petrol. prices from suppliers.
Source 6 Supermarkets use many methods to gain a competitive advantage. In Australia, the two largest supermarket chains are
Coles and Woolworths. These supermarkets combined take up 71 per cent of the national food market share in Australia.

1 What is the main advantage of a business obtaining a 8 Select a food product and have five people undertake
competitive advantage? a blind taste test. Choose at least three different
2 List five ways a business might reduce their brands of the same food and ask five blindfolded
production costs in order to obtain a competitive testers to rate each from one to three, with one being
edge. the best rating.
3 What is the difference between quality and perceived a What was the most expensive product out of the
quality? three and what rating did the taste testers give it?
b What have you learned from this experiment
Apply and analyse about the power of brands?
4 Each of the eight dimensions of quality consist of 9 Describe when you were last given poor customer
a question. Answer each question in relation to service in a store and how the business could improve
a product you were given for your birthday or at in this area.
Christmas. 10 Look in your pantry, laundry or bathroom cupboard
5 Why is a brand so important when it comes to selling and list any products that claim their product is
luxury goods? superior because of the ethical way it was produced.
6 Consider the goods you buy. Explain why you buy For example, the label claims the product is
these goods. Do you think it is because they are environmentally friendly. Do you think these claims
considered to be ‘cool’? are true? Why or why not?
7 Why is blended marketing believed to be the best way
to advertise a product or service? Do you agree?

11.7 Innovation in business
Innovation is changing an existing process or product
so that it is more effective than ever before. It is
Innovation in marketing
important to understand that innovation can be used A company’s marketing methods can influence a
in many parts of a business to create a competitive consumer’s decision to buy a product. Marketing is
edge. Let’s first look at how innovative ways to market a conveying the value of goods or services to a customer
product can lead to business success. in order to sell that product to them. Marketers today
realise that they will be more successful if they produce
goods and services consumers want. They do extensive
casestudy
How do marketers reach young particularly among younger adults. The ‘Share a Coke’
campaign used both traditional and online marketing
people? to get their message across. Sales increased by 7 per
cent after the campaign. The company printed 150 of
Marketers now have to communicate with consumers the most popular Australian names on Coke bottles,
in the digital world to ensure they continue to influence inviting consumers to share a Coke with a friend.
buying decisions. This means communicating via Consumers could go online and create a personalised
websites, email, apps and social networks. Recent virtual Coke can and even SMS one of their friends’
statistics found that both teenage boys and girls spend names, which would then display on a huge Coca-
2.5 hours a day using the internet, so businesses that Cola billboard at Kings Cross in Sydney. The campaign
wish to connect to a younger audience of consumers succeeded in creating awareness among younger
need to have online marketing strategies. users and gaining media attention, and was rolled out
In 2011, Coca-Cola Australia embarked on an successfully in other countries, including the United
innovative marketing campaign to increase sales, Kingdom in 2013–14.
Source 1 Coca-Cola’s
‘Share a Coke’ campaign

research to find out what consumers want and set about

creating goods or services that meet consumer needs
Innovation in business culture
better than other competitors in the same market. Each business will have its own particular way of
Marketers use different techniques to influence conducting business. The ‘culture’ of each business
consumers to buy their products. Not all consumers is influenced by factors such as values, beliefs, the
have the same needs and wants, so marketers set about vision for the business and habits. If an organisation
dividing the market into groups or subsets of consumers is considered to be a good place to work, labour
who have common needs and characteristics. This is productivity (the amount of goods and services that a
called market segmentation (see Source 2). For example, worker produces in a given amount of time) is likely to
all consumers eat, but what and how we eat is affected be higher.
by our culture, and perhaps religion. To illustrate, Businesses that have an innovative business culture
McDonald’s does not sell beef and pork products in their take active steps to ensure creativity is encouraged
Indian restaurants because of Hindu and Muslim beliefs. within their business. A business may, for example,
Segmentation is used so that consumers with have employees undertake training to help foster
common characteristics can be pursued or targeted to creativity and innovative thinking. Innovation may
purchase the product. For example, older people are be specifically stated as a business goal, and time and
usually targeted to buy funeral insurance so that in the resources may be devoted to help staff develop great
event of their death the person’s family is paid a lump ideas. Amantha Imber, the founder of Inventium (an
sum to cover funeral expenses. innovation consultancy firm) says, ‘If you do not
A technique called positioning is also used by innovate, you risk becoming irrelevant because so
marketers. This technique aims to create a distinct many other companies are innovating and looking to
image for the product that differentiates it from other stamp out their competition. We’re seeing it becoming a
similar products on the market. The benefits of the priority for more and more CEOs.’
product are communicated to the consumer as well as Innovation can be applied to how a business operates.
how unique that product is. For example, chocolate- John Lewis (see case study on page 392) is a UK company
covered popcorn called ‘chocorn’ has managed to gain that has a different way of conducting business, which
consumer attention among other snack foods because has contributed to its business success.
consumers see it as a new and distinct product.

A consumer’s buying habits may be influenced by
the following:
Geographical
Where the consumer comes from,
market
for example their nation, state or region
segment
Demographic
The age of the consumer, gender, amount
market
of income, ethnicity and religion
segment
Behavioural Includes the level of knowledge the

market consumer has of the product or whether
segment the consumer uses the product regularly
Includes the consumers’ attitudes

Lifestyle
and opinions or the way they spend
segment
their leisure time
Source 3 Garth Midgley came up with his chocorn idea when
he accidentally mixed his chocolate icecream with popcorn at
Source 2 Marketers may target their product or service at a
the movies.
particular segment of the market.

casestudy
Would you like to work for this Waitrose supermarkets in the United Kingdom.
All workers, from top management to cashiers,
business? receive the same percentage cash bonus each year,
provided that the company makes a profit. In 2013 this
Imagine working for a business that divides a
amounted to 15 per cent of each worker’s annual pay;
percentage of its annual profit among the people
an amount roughly equivalent to eight weeks’ wages.
who work in the business. At John Lewis, a chain of
The radical idea to give employees a share of the
upmarket department stores in the UK, this is exactly
profits came from John Spedan Lewis (1885–1963) who
what happens. The 91 000 employees (who are referred
began distributing profits to employees in his stores in
to as ‘partners’ rather than ‘employees’) each own a
1926. The John Lewis department stores and Waitrose
share of the 31 John Lewis department stores and 319
supermarkets have been a financial success, with
both increasing their share of the market for the fifth
consecutive year. The chairman of John Lewis, Charlie
Mayfield, believes that ownership by the partners plays
a key role in the businesses success.
Employee ownership is popular in the United
States, Britain and Europe but is yet to catch on in
Australia. Research suggests that there are significant
productivity gains to be made through employees
owning a share in the business they work for.
John Lewis’ business success cannot only be
attributed to its profit share policy. The company has
been leading the charge in online retailing and actively
uses technology to appeal to its customers. In-house
Source 4 Employees or ‘partners’ at John Lewis find out staff have just produced an app which shows a sofa in
about their annual bonus, which is linked to the business' 3D, where the shape and colour of the fabric can be
performance.
changed to give the customer a more informed choice.
Source 5 Innovative ideas can sometimes occur when many people work together on a project.

Innovation in business processes

All businesses use a number of processes to create a
product (either a good or service). A process is a series
of tasks or actions. Business processes must be efficient
or productivity will decline. If you have ever waited a
long time for a meal in a restaurant, it may have been
because the process of ordering a meal
could have been more efficient (see Source 6). To use
another example, if a shop regularly runs out of a
product, it may be because the process of keeping track
of its stock is inefficient. Computerised stock systems
can help a business control stock. Some manufacturing
businesses use just-in-time inventory systems so that Source 6 Tired of seeking the attention of waiting staff himself in
materials arrive at the right time without the need to restaurants, restaurateur Noel Hunwick came up with the idea
hold vast amounts of stock, thus reducing storage costs of an interactive table. The customer chooses from the menu by
tapping the touchpad on the table and the order is sent straight
and the possibility of waste or damage to stock.
to the kitchen.

Remember and understand 8 How did Coca-Cola manage to increase sales
through the ‘Share a Coke’ campaign?
1 What is innovation?
2 Why is the UK business John Lewis considered Evaluate and create
to be an innovative company? 9 Read the following cases and give each business
3 Why would marketers use different techniques to owner some ideas on how to be more effective in
influence the buying choices of consumers? their business.
4 Describe two marketing techniques commonly used a Maree owns a bakery but has noticed that the
to influence consumers. bakery at the end of the street is much busier
than she is. Maree has been making the same
Apply and analyse
cakes since she started the business three years
5 In order to make a product or service more effective, ago and has not changed anything about the
it is useful to think about the problems that might shop.
be experienced using it. For example, one of the b Lee runs an online rubber stamp business.
problems with buying a fresh lettuce is that it has to Businesses can order a custom-made business
be washed. Many supermarkets now supply washed stamp and ink pads. Lee analyses the number
lettuce for consumer convenience. Think of at least of customers to his website and realises that
three products or services that you use that have his business is just not being seen. He set up
been improved or could be improved. a business to get customer feedback and one
6 What particular market segment or segments would customer said she had trouble visualising what
the following products likely appeal to: the stamp looked like, so wouldn’t buy it.
a shaving cream c Kyla has an online gift shop. She prides herself
b hairspray
on having the greatest range of gifts for the home
but her competitors are more popular. Customers
c walking frame
find it difficult to find what they want and the
d Nike runners
photography is very unappealing.
e outdoor heater.
7 Think of two products you have purchased and
explain how these products have been specifically
marketed to consumers in your age group.

11C rich task
Product or service innovation can give a business
The importance
a competitive edge. One of the keys to innovation,
though, is realising that change is necessary. Change
in technology has meant that businesses must change
of innovation in the way they produce their product or service, or be left
behind. One small business operating a 1950s clothes
business shop in the historic country town of Braidwood in NSW
understands the importance of innovation. The co-
owner of the business, Michelle Watkins-Sully, knew the
Innovation can be the key to business
business could not survive on local custom alone, so set
success. Take the Rubik’s Cube, for up an online store to capture customers further afield.
example, invented by sculptor and professor The business has also used social media to build a strong
of architecture Ernö Rubik in 1974. We customer base.
had all seen puzzles before, but not a 3D Innovative products or services that allow other
combination puzzle that was so entertaining businesses to reduce labour costs, reduce materials
it became the best-selling puzzle game in needed to make a product, or reduce environmental
the world. damage are much sought after. Japanese scientists have
just unveiled their first robotic newsreader that has perfect
language skills and can read the evening news (see
Innovation isn’t always about the creation of novel (i.e. Source 2).
new and original) products such as the Rubik’s Cube,
though. Innovation can be used in all businesses to add
value to existing products and services. For example,
we all need and are familiar with shoes, but normally we
buy them ready-made in a shop or online. One Australian
business called Shoes of Prey is changing the way we
think about shoes, as customers can design their own
shoes, choosing the shape, colour and height of their
shoes, which are then custom-made and delivered.
Source 1 The Rubik’s Cube is an example of a novel innovation Source 2 The world’s first robotic newsreader was unveiled in
that has enjoyed huge commercial success. Tokyo in 2014.

skilldrill
Being innovative in business Apply the skill

Practise your innovation skills by devising a new way to
You may not have ever thought about innovation as a skill produce each product or service outlined in the table on
before, but like many aspects of business, it is something the following page (first column).
that can be learned, practised and improved upon. A
The following task focuses on Seed 1 from La Salle’s ‘four
business that strives to add value to their product or
seeds’ approach that relates to changing a product or
service and changes according to consumer demand is
service. Here are just some of La Salle’s suggestions to
more likely to stay in business and remain competitive.
get innovative ideas flowing.
Businesses now compete in a global market and the
1 Make a wish for the product. For example, if you
emphasis is not only to produce good products but to
take a simple product, such as a pen, you may wish
produce them in a cost-effective way.
it did the writing for you if you told it what to do. Make
Roger La Salle is an innovation expert and has
a wish for each product or service listed in the first
developed a ‘four seeds’ approach to product innovation.
column and put your answer in each row of column 2
This approach provides a structure that can be followed
of the table. The first answer has been done for you.
to help a business find innovative ways to improve their
business, whether it is creating a new product, improving 2 Think about the life cycle of the product or service.
an existing service, streamlining work processes or simply For example, if we use the example of a pen again, it
finding new business opportunities. might only last a month depending on how much you
write. State the life cycle of each product or service
Follow these steps to use the ‘four seeds’ approach to
in column 1 and put your answer in column 3 of the
business innovation:
table.
Step 1 Change the product or service. How can the
3 Analyse the problem with the product currently. For
product be changed for the better? (Seed 1)
example, pens are never there when you need them!
Step 2 Add accessories. It’s not just the product that is State the problem with each product or service in
important, it is the accessories, such as the iPad cover column 1 and put your answer in column 4.
or the mobile phone holder, that can add value to a
4 Review your answers for each of the products or
business. (Seed 2)
services in the table. State (a) what your innovative
Step 3 Add complementary products. When a business idea is and (b) whether your idea would have
is selling a product such as a hamburger, fries and commercial success. Put your answer in the last
drinks that might go along with it are offered for column.
purchase as well. (Seed 3) Source 3 on the next page will help you practise your
Step 4 Enhance the sales channels. A sales channel is a innovation skills. See the sample answer to the first
business’ access to a customer. You might have heard product (tablecloth) as an example.
a salesperson ask you whether there is anything else 5 If you have a great idea, this becomes your intellectual
they can do for you. Coles is an example of a business property (IP). You can legally protect this idea from
that has used their relationship with customers to sell being taken by others. Access your obook link and
other products, such as insurance, in addition to their go to the IP Australia website and use the interactive
main business of selling groceries. (Seed 4) called ‘IP in everyday life’. List the products or services
you have used today and tick the ones you think have
protected intellectual property.

The product or A wish for the The life cycle of the The problem with the Innovation
service to change product product or service product currently (a) What is your idea?
(b) Do you think it
would have commercial
success? Why/Why not?
Tablecloth It’s always clean, It becomes stained and Requires constant (a) Design a table for
you can design your only lasts a year or so. laundering. You can’t restaurants that consists of a
own tablecloth and find one to suit your table that has a self-cleaning
change the colour. decor and are tired of the tablecloth.
colour. (b) Further research and
development required.
Mobile phone
Can of drink
Chair
Calculator
Getting a haircut
Going out to dinner
Source 3 This table can help you practise your innovation skills.

1 Choose two of the following Australian innovations

and conduct some research on the Internet to find out
more about them.
Australian innovations:
– fire-stick farming
– Granny Smith apples
– Pink Lady apples
– Vegemite
– pre-paid postage
– School of the Air
– Clean Up Australia (and the world)
– Earth Hour
– Speedos
– Sydney Opera House
– Caroma dual-flush toilet
– Solar Sailor
– wave-piercing catamaran.
2 For each innovation, explain:
a why this product or service was innovative
b how it has been successful
c who led the innovation and when did they do it.
Source 4 Vegemite, Earth Hour, Pink Lady apples and the Sydney Opera House are just a few Australian innovations.

economy
Managing
financial risks
and rewards
This man is practising an extreme balancing sport
known as highlining. Managing your finances can be like
walking on a tightrope – both exciting and risky at the
same time.
Sometimes, we can spend or borrow too much
money or make risky investment decisions in the hope
that we will secure our financial future. Other times,
we can be tricked by scammers who set traps to steal
our money or encourage us to invest in bad business
opportunities.
Thankfully, people can protect themselves from
financial risk. Knowing how to save and invest properly
can provide financial rewards that will keep you
balanced and safe on that tightrope. Knowledge of
scammers who try to throw you off balance can also
protect you from a financial fall.
12A
How can I save more and
12B
What strategies can be used to
spend less? increase financial rewards?
1 Do you save more money than you spend, or is it 1 Some people lose money on their investments.
often the other way around? Are your family and Would you be willing to trade greater risk for the
friends like you? Why do you think people are chance of higher returns on your investment?
different in this way? 2 Why do you think people invest in real estate? What
2 If you bought a car, would you expect to eventually risks could be associated with buying property as
sell it at a higher price? Why or why not? What an investment?
factors do you think might affect the sale price?
12_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_FL_SI.indd 398 18/10/2016 11:16 am

Source 1 Managing your finances can be a challenging balancing act.
12C
How can individuals safeguard
12
chapter
against financial risk?

1 Have you, or someone you know, ever lost money
because of a financial scam?
2 What things can you do to protect yourself against
not having enough money in the future?
chapter 12 managing financial risks and rewards 399

12.1 Saving
Put simply, saving means putting money aside to spend If you answered ‘yes’ to any of these questions,
at a later date. Some of us are better savers than others. chances are you already know something about saving
Compete the quick quiz (Source 1) to find out if you and are a reasonably good saver.
have what it takes to be a good saver. There are two simple ways to increase the amount of
money you can save:
Quick quiz: Are you a good saver? Yes (✓) No (✗) 1 Earn more – you may have a casual job, so it is likely
1 Have you ever saved to buy something
you will be able to save some of the money you earn,
you really wanted but couldn’t afford even if it is just a small amount. You could also earn
straight away? more through investing your money (see page 64).
2 Before you spend money on 2 Spend less – give yourself a ‘financial check-up’ by
something, do you ask yourself monitoring what you spend your money on. Identify
whether you really need it or not? areas where you might be wasting money and hold
3 Have you thought about doing extra off buying items you can easily live without.
work, such as babysitting, walking
dogs, or delivering papers, to earn
some extra cash?
4 Have you considered ways your family

could save money on things such as
Source 1 Answer these questions to find out if you are
energy bills, food or clothing?
a good saver.
casestudy
problems would be solved if we earned a bigger
Is it really a bargain?
income. Experience has taught me this isn’t always a
If you love going to sales, those bargains paid for by magic cure. We have a tendency to increase spending
credit card might be quite expensive, especially if you as our income rises.’
cannot quickly pay your credit debt. Recent Reserve
Bank figures show that Australians owed $51.07 billion
on credit cards. Credit card holders are wise to pay the
balance on their credit card each month to avoid paying
interest. It’s advisable to reduce spending if monthly
repayments cannot be made.
Even if you pay the minimum monthly credit card
repayment you will most likely be paying a considerable
amount in interest. The MoneySmart website has
a credit card calculator that allows you to calculate
how much interest you would pay if you only pay the
minimum monthly repayments. Based on an 18-per-
cent interest rate it would take 33 years to pay a $5000
credit card debt off. The interest you would repay on this
debt would be $12 181.
Source 2 Getting into debt
Financial commentator Paul Clitheroe comments
can become hard to beat.
that getting into debt is more about spending too It’s like a cat chasing its tail,
much. He says, ‘I often encounter the view that money running around in circles and
never quite getting anywhere.

Source 3 Many people

save in case of an
emergency. Having
money ready in case of an
emergency for car repairs,
medical expenses or the
prospect of losing a job
can ease the burden. Other
reasons for saving include
education, holidays, large
purchases such as a family
home, or retirement.
casestudy
Where is the best place to keep my valued at $4000 in 2009 would have cost $4612.58 in
2015, because prices on average rose by 2.6 per cent
life savings? per annum over this period. Theft or fire could also
Some people keep their savings at home in what destroy savings kept at home.
they consider to be a safe place – perhaps under the
mattress or even buried in the backyard. One Californian
couple recently reaped the rewards of this practice when
they came across some rusty cans containing gold coins
worth 10 million dollars. The cans were buried under an
old tree on their property.
Those who keep their money at home, however,
risk losing it. A Chinese couple recently found their four
year-old son had ripped up their savings for a house
deposit. Their little boy was regularly in the habit of
ripping up books – a habit they thought was harmless
until he destroyed the paper money that was their life
savings.
In another alarming incident in Tel Aviv, Israel, a
daughter surprised her mother with a new mattress,
only to find out her mother’s life savings was hidden in
the old one she had thrown away!
It’s not advisable to keep savings at home for
another reason – it will be earning no interest. Money
Source 4 A couple in California found rusty cans buried
kept at home will also lose value over time because of in their backyard that contained gold coins worth millions
rising prices. For example, the same basket of items of dollars.

Deposits Loans The Bank
Shweta deposits The Bank takes The Bank keeps the

$1000 in the bank for Shweta’s deposit and difference of $20.
a year and earns $10 lends it to Ben,
in interest. charging him $30
interest.
Source 5 Banks, credit unions and building societies make money from taking deposits and then loaning these deposits and
charging interest.
1750
1500
1250
Your strategy:
Savings ($)
1000 Initial deposit: $1000

750 Regular deposit: $0
500 Total interest: $611
Total savings: $1611
250
0
1 2 3 4 5
Years
Source 6 This diagram was created using the compound interest calculator on the MoneySmart website. A five-year investment of
$1000 using compound interest will earn an extra $611.
Setting savings goals Interest is often calculated per annum, or year. This is
how to calculate simple interest:
Saving regularly can be easier if you set a savings goal. • Take the amount deposited (called the principal),
This is how to go about it: multiply by the interest rate, then multiply by the
1 Identify what you would really like to have in the length of time (e.g. number of years).
future and how much it will cost. • For example, if you deposit $1000 in an account at
2 Identify the amount of money you can put aside per 10 per cent for two years it would be worth $1200.
week or month. Compound interest is interest added to the
3 Identify how long it will take you to reach your goal. principal. This amount is then used to calculate interest.
For example, if your goal is to go on a holiday For example, if compound interest is calculated on
costing $2000 and you can save $100 per month, it a deposit of $1000 for two years at 10 per cent, $100
will take you one year and eight months to reach your interest would be earned in the first year. Then, in
saving goal. the second year, the interest rate would be calculated
on $1100, giving a total of $1210. Source 6 shows the
Earning interest compounding interest over a five-year period using the
MoneySmart website compounding interest calculator.
Saving is not enough on its own. When we put aside Which would you rather – simple or compound interest?
money for future use, we must decide where we are
going to put it so that it earns additional money. This
is called investing. Putting money in the bank, for
Good and bad debt
example, will most likely mean the bank will pay an Sometimes it is not possible or convenient to wait until
additional sum of money, called interest. The amount savings grow. Debt occurs when money is owed to
of interest you earn depends on the amount deposited, another party (the lender) and must be paid back (by
how long the deposit is left in the bank, the current the borrower) within a certain timeframe with interest.
interest rate and what type of interest is being paid. Generally, debt can be considered to be ‘good debt’ if

the money borrowed is used to purchase something Debt is usually considered to be ‘bad’ if it is used to
that will provide income or increase in value. For purchase something that will decrease in value over
example, a loan to pay for university tuition fees might time and/or will not earn an income. A car loan may be
generally be considered ‘good debt’ as it increases considered to be ‘bad debt’ as a car is likely to lose value
a person’s ability to secure a job and earn a higher (depreciate) over time.
income. A loan taken to purchase a house could also be Before taking out any loan, careful consideration
‘good debt’ if the value of the property increases must be given to whether the borrower has the ability to
over time. comfortably make future repayments.

1 Draw a flow diagram illustrating how a savings goal
is set.
2 What are the two ways of increasing money available for saving?
3 You deposit $5000 in the bank at an interest rate of 10 per cent
per annum for two years. Calculate the:
a simple interest
b compound interest.
4 What determines the amount of interest earned from a bank
deposit?
5 List at least four reasons people might want to save money.
Apply and analyse

6 Why do you think some people keep their savings hidden at
home?
Source 7 Some people are able to spend
7 Explain how keeping large amounts of savings at home may in fact less and save more when they don’t have a
reduce what can be purchased with that money in the future. credit card.
Evaluate and create

8 Brainstorm ways you and your family could save money using the following table as a guide. Some ideas have
been added to help you get started.
Transport Food Clothes Entertainment Credit cards Phone

Walk to school Shop at Visit the Go to the beach Pay the credit card Check your mobile phone
discount opportunity shop off each month plan to see whether you
supermarket are getting the best deal
9 Go to the MoneySmart website and read about the simple ways to save money. Decide which of these
suggestions may be helpful for you and your family, and add them to your table.
10 What do the following sayings mean? Write a short paragraph on each, explaining whether you think the saying
is relevant to you and your spending habits.
a ‘A penny saved is a penny earned.’
b ‘Beware of little expenses. A small leak will sink a great ship.’
11 Identify an item you would like to buy, such as a new phone, and explain why it might it be better to save up for it
rather than just borrowing the money to purchase it immediately.

12A rich task
need – or just want – the items you are thinking of buying.
Am I spending too Here are reasons some people spend:

1 Marketing and advertising – Clever marketing
much? convinces us we need a range of different items.

2 Keeping up with the Joneses – It’s human nature to
want to have what others have.
Reducing your spending is one simple way
to increase your savings. Australians are a 3 Social power and prestige – Cars, clothes, holidays
and houses can all contribute to our social and
nation of spenders and our credit card debt
economic status in society.
is growing. The average debt per credit card
4 Credit availability – Some people buy more because
holder in Australia is around $3200.
they have access to credit and don’t think about the
Many people end up paying large amounts fact they will have to pay later (often with interest).
of interest on borrowed money. Borrowing 5 Impulse buying – Some
money is convenient but it must be managed people see something they
so that regular repayments can be made even love and make a quick
when interest rates rise. purchase without really
thinking about whether
they can afford it.
We all need to spend to ensure we have basic items such 6 The pursuit of happiness –
as food, clothing and shelter but we are probably all guilty Some people think that the
of spending more than we really need to at times. When more they buy, the happier
you are next shopping, ask yourself whether you really they will be.
skilldrill
Conducting a survey and Step 1 Decide on the focus of your study.

Step 2 When you have decided what your study will be
presenting the results about, work out what information you are interested in
We use surveys to explore people’s opinions, ideas and finding out. For example, your study might be about
activities. By analysing the results, we can gain valuable internet shopping, and you may want information on
insights into personal and social behaviour. The key to how often people shop online.
finding useful information from a survey is asking the Step 3 Decide what people you will survey. You will
right questions. need to talk to at least 10 people to get data you can
Try to ask closed questions (yes/no questions or report on. Make sure that you have enough forms for
questions that provide a limited selection of options to all of the people you intend to survey. The more people
choose from) as much as possible. Closed questions in you survey, the more useful and reliable your results
surveys are commonly multiple-choice and ask people to will be.
choose their reply from a set of answers that you provide.
Step 4 Write a series of closed questions about your
Open questions (questions that don’t give options to
study. A closed question might look like this:
select from but encourages an individual’s own thoughts
How often do you use the internet at home for
to be expressed) are sometimes important too, but
shopping?
because you may receive a huge range of replies you may
not be able to use the data so easily. At least once a day ____
Follow these steps to design a survey and present At least once a week ____
the results. At least once a month ____
No Internet at home ____

Step 5 Once you have your questions written, go over Apply the skill
them to ensure that they are all focused on the 1 Design and complete a survey about the ways in which
subject of your study and are geared to find out the people in your class and members of your family shop
information you want. Make sure they are clearly on the Internet. Include a minimum of 10 questions.
worded and cannot be misinterpreted by people Survey a minimum of five classmates and five family
completing the survey. Ask a friend to read over your members (or other people you know outside of class).
questions if you are uncertain. You might want to include questions such as:
Step 6 Conduct your survey. Ask the questions and fill Do you shop online?
in the forms yourself, or you can get your participants Yes ________
to fill them in. Make sure the responses have been
No ________
entered correctly and that you have accurate records.
If yes, how many hours a week would you spend
Step 7 Once you have completed your surveys, it is time browsing online stores?
to put the results together into a form you can use –
0–2 hours ________
this is called data analysis. This is often best done in a
2–6 hours ________
table such as the one shown in Source 1.
6–10 hours ________
10 hours or more ________
How often do use the Number Percentage (%)
Internet at home for 2 Once you have completed the survey, analyse the
shopping? results and present them in table and graph formats.
At least once a day 14 58.3
At least once a week 7 29.1
At least once a month 1 4.2
No Internet at home 2 8.4
Total 24 100
Source 1 Data can be presented in a visual format such as

a table so the researcher can access information quickly
and easily.
Step 8 Present your survey results in a way that make

them easy to understand. Rather than a lot of numbers
and writing, use graphs. Make sure you clearly label
Source 2 Reserve Bank figures released in 2015 showed that
each graph with the question you asked. Below each Australians owed $51.07 billion on credit cards compared to
graph write a short summary of the results. $49.9 billion at the same time the previous year.

1 Compare your findings with those of a classmate. 2 Present the results of your study to the class. Use
Write a report based on both sets of results, explaining your table or graph from the previous question as a
how often and in what ways people used the internet visual aid, and talk through the most popular websites
for shopping purposes. that people used, as well as the differences or
similarities between the ways your family members and
classmates used the Internet.
12_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_FL_SI.indd 405 21/10/2016 1:26 pm

12.2 Investing Short-term goal
(0–3 years)
‘I want to go on a holiday
to Europe’
Investing is the process of putting money into a
business or commercial venture (such as property
or shares) with the expectation of making a profit. Medium-term goal
Put simply, investing is a way of making your money (3–7 years)
‘I want to buy my own
work for you. Investing can be a good way to help you place to live’
increase your personal financial rewards.
Setting personal investment Long-term goal

(7+ years)
goals ‘I ‘I need to start saving
for retirement’
Thinking ahead is essential when setting personal goals
such as buying a car or house, or saving for retirement.
You need to think about the things you would like to
purchase in the future and when you would like to
make these purchases.
Assessing your risk profile

Investing money means taking a risk. Taking an
investment risk means there is a possibility of losing
money. Some investments are riskier than others.
Putting your money in an Australian deposit-taking
institution such as a bank is generally considered low
risk. Investing in the sharemarket or in property is
considered to carry a higher risk. Higher investment
risks often come with the potential to earn higher
Source 1 Investing can help to achieve personal goals.
rewards, but there is also the risk for higher losses.
Relaxed Distressed
INVESTMENT RISK TOLERANCE
Source 2 Some of us are bigger risk takers than others. If a high-risk investment is causing a person to worry and lose sleep,
a lower-risk investment is advisable.

12B What strategies can be used to increase financial rewards?
Each individual has to decide the level of financial risk they need access to their money. For example, money in
they are willing to take (see Source 2). the bank can be converted to cash more quickly than
Another factor when considering risk is the money invested in a property, which may take months
timeframe of your personal investment goal. If you have to sell.
25 years to wait for your investment return, you may Many people would prefer that decisions about
decide to take a higher risk, understanding that there investments are made by a professional, and some
may be some short-term losses. However, over a more may choose to invest in a managed fund. Money from
substantial timeframe, your investment is expected to investors is pooled together and an investment manager
grow. For example, the price of a property may have decides where the money will be invested. This provides
fallen in the short-term, but over a longer period the the investor with the opportunity to invest in a wider
price may increase as the property market improves. variety of options, such as equities, property and
fixed-interest investments. Managed funds help spread
Investment options the financial risk – the loss suffered from one poor
investment may be countered by other investments in
Source 3 outlines the many investment options the fund that have performed well.
available. Investors should consider how volatile, or There is much to gain and much to lose when
subject to change, the investment is likely to be. They investing money. Many people enlist the services of a
should also consider the likely money that can be made financial planner to help them establish and achieve
from the investment – sometimes called ‘return on their investment goals.
investment’. Investors should also consider how readily
Interest-earning investments Property
There are many types of interest-earning investments. Term Property is an investment where a house, unit, factory, building or
deposits are a common form of interest-earning investment where land is purchased with the aim of that property increasing in value.
money is invested for a fixed term at a fixed rate of interest. Bonds The property may be rented out, raising additional money.
are another interest-earning investment, where money is lent to
the government or a company at an agreed interest rate for a
certain amount of time.
Equities Superannuation
Equities are shares, sometimes called stocks. A share is a unit of Superannuation is a method of saving for retirement. Employers
ownership in a company. Share investors become part-owners contribute to their employees’ super funds, and personal
of the company and hope the value of their shares will rise. If the contributions can also be made to a super fund. For most people,
company makes a profit, it may also make a payment, called a superannuation is taxed at a lower rate than other non-super
dividend, to the shareholders. BHP Billiton is an example of a investments.
company that the general public can buy shares in.
Source 3 There are many different investment options to choose from.

casestudy
Are you interested in making money some enthusiasm for the subject, and qualities of
temperament which may be more important than IQ
from investing? points. These will enable you to think independently and
Warren Buffett is an American investor and to avoid various forms of mass hysteria that infect the
businessman who is consistently ranked among investment markets from time to time.’
the world’s wealthiest people. Buffett is also a
philanthropist who has pledged 99 per cent of his Only buy securities that you understand
wealth to charity.
‘Investment must be rational; if you can’t understand it,
At a young age, Buffett loved the world of business. don’t do it.’
In high school, he made money from activities such
as selling newspapers, golf balls and stamps. Buffett
started investing when he was 11 years old, buying
three shares at $38, only to see them fall to $25 a short
time after. However, he waited till the same shares
reached $40 and then sold them. Buffett learned that
sometimes it is better to have patience and wait – he
later saw these stocks climb to $200 a share.
Here are some of Buffett’s words of wisdom on
investing in the sharemarket.
Earnings
‘If the business does well, the stock eventually follows.’
Having the right tools

‘You should have a knowledge of how business
operates and the language of business (accounting), Source 4 Warren Buffett
Source 5 Investing in the sharemarket can be nerve-wracking!


1 Finish the following sentence: 7 Make a list of goals you may have, then group
Investments with the potential to grow dramatically them into the age brackets listed in the table below.
also mean there is potential to _______ a significant Identify the time in your life you will most likely need
amount of money. to start saving and investing to reach these goals.
2 What are the two monetary benefits that can be For example, if you are a teenager and want a car, it
gained from: is best to start saving straight away. If your goal is to
a buying a property buy a house, you might delay starting saving for this
b buying shares? until you are in your early 20s.
3 What is the purpose of superannuation as an 8 Check the latest interest rates for term deposits on
investment? one of the bank websites. Take one of your short-
term goals and use the savings goals calculator on
Apply and analyse the MoneySmart website to find out how long it will
4 Assess whether the following investors are risk- take to reach your goal if you invest in an interest-
tolerant or not. earning investment.
a Jun has $100 000 to invest but the thought of 9 Read each of the following quotes and explain the
losing any of it means she can’t even sleep at point the author is making
night. a ‘In the long run, it’s not just how much money
b Julian wants to make a reasonable amount of you make that will determine your future
money from his investments and is not overly prosperity. It’s how much of that money you put
concerned if his investments lose value in the to work by saving it and investing it.’ Peter Lynch
short term. b ‘If investing is entertaining, if you’re having fun,
c Chris has $20 000 put aside to go overseas. you’re probably not making any money. Good
He decides to invest the money for a year, but investing is boring.’ George Soros
cannot bear to think his investment could lose c ‘Behind every stock is a company. Find out what
money, which might mean he would have to it’s doing.’ Peter Lynch
cancel his trip. d ‘If you don’t study any companies, you have
5 Why do you think it is important to have a basic the same success buying stocks as you do in
understanding of a company you decide to buy a poker game if you bet without looking at your
shares in? cards.’ Peter Lynch
6 According to Warren Buffett, what personal
characteristics do you need to be an effective
sharemarket investor?
Age Goal Short-term/medium-term/ Approximate cost Time to start

long-term goal saving
16–20 years
21–30 years
31–40 years
41–60 years

12B rich task
Share investors hope that their shares increase in
Playing the value. The company may also pay a dividend, a payment
made if the company makes a profit.
sharemarket
There is risk associated with investing in the
sharemarket. Shares purchased may decrease in value,
and will make a loss.
The sharemarket is like any other market Playing a hypothetical share investment game can
where goods are bought and sold at a provide valuable knowledge before you take risks with real
certain price. In a sharemarket, shares are money. John Forsyth won the ASX Schools Sharemarket
Game in 2013 and makes the following comments.
bought and sold – this is called trading.
Over the past few months I have taken part in the
A share is a unit of ownership in a publicly
ASX Sharemarket Game…I started with $50 000 like
listed company. Myer, David Jones, Harvey everyone else in Australia, and over the course of 10
Norman and Telstra are public companies you weeks I watched my portfolio grow to nearly $61 000
might know. dollars. With the money, I thought it would be best to
buy fewer types of shares, but of greater amounts…
I put roughly $12 500 on each share, and with the
left over money I purchased two other shares. I only
The Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) operates made a few trades throughout the entire game; I
the sharemarket. It approves companies that wish to be knew I would benefit from this, because if I was to
on its trading list and ensures they abide by trading rules. constantly change my shares around there would not
be any real growth. My main investment strategy was
You can become a shareholder in a company through
to wait and watch; patience was probably my main
purchasing shares from a stockbroker. A stockbroker can strategy to be honest. So overall, the three keys to
buy and sell shares through ASX on your behalf for a fee. my game were: not to trade often, to spend all the
This is called brokerage. money I was given and to be patient.
Game 2 winner 2013: John Forsyth, Year 11,
Mercedes College, South Australia
skilldrill
Using a game to understand the Step 1 Go to the ASX website using the link in your
obook and choose company information from the
sharemarket ‘Prices and research’ tab. View the complete list of
Playing games in economics is fun, and it can also be a stocks by clicking on the ‘View all companies’ link
great way to learn about how the sharemarket works. below the ‘Search by code or company’ search bar.
In this activity, you will be playing a hypothetical Step 2 Scroll though the list and investigate a company
sharemarket game. It is important to understand that you recognise or have heard about. Each company will
there is a lot to learn about the sharemarket. Don’t be have a three letter code (hyperlinked) so click on that
disheartened if, like Warren Buffett, your shares lose value code to take you to more specific information about
soon after you buy them! that company.
In this game, you will select a portfolio of shares in up Step 3 Use the menu bar on the left to find out more
to five companies and calculate their value over the next information about your chosen company. In particular,
five weeks. You will have $50 000 to ‘spend’. Remember look at the price history for the last five days. The
that this is a learning exercise so you will be guessing last price is the price the share sold for at the end of
which stocks to choose at this stage. Before you play this that trading day. Also check the chart showing the
game on paper you will need to: share price history for the company you have chosen.
Remember that even if the chart shows the share price
is performing well, it may decrease tomorrow!

Source 1 Myer and

Harvey Norman
are both public
companies you can
buy shares in.
Step 4 You can ‘buy’ shares to the value of $50 000 by Apply the skill
completing the table below, and hold them until the 1 After holding your share portfolio for five weeks, did
end of the game. Choose up to five companies to you make or lose money?
invest in. You may spread ‘your’ $50 000 over these
2 What did you learn about the risk involved in buying
five companies, or choose to invest in just one.
shares?
Step 5 Each week, fill in the table, again using the last
3 What could you do to make a more educated guess
price the shares sold for. Complete the total value of
about companies to invest in?
the portfolio into the table below.
4 If you had actually bought these shares, what is the fee
you would have been charged called?
Company Code (unique abbreviation Last share Number of shares Value of shares
that identifies the price purchased in each company
company) (share price x
number of shares
$ $
$ $
$ $
$ $
$ $
Total value of portfolio $

(add all values in the
last column)
Total value of Total value of Total value of Total value of Total value of
portfolio at Week 1 portfolio at Week 2 portfolio at Week 3 portfolio at Week 4 portfolio at Week 5
Date Date Date Date Date
1 Ask your teacher to set up an account on the ASX choose from 200 stocks, play in teams or individually,
website, playing the Sharemarket Game online (follow and see how you would do in real market conditions
the link in your obook) where you can actually trade without actually risking any real money.
shares online for a period of ten weeks. You can

12.3 Minimising financial risk –
avoiding scams
Scams are traps to dishonestly take a person’s money.
There are many different types of scams that you
Avoid being scammed!
should avoid. Putting down the phone or not opening Every one of us might be fooled at some stage in our
an email from an unknown source – and definitely not lives, but there are ways to reduce the risk of being
clicking on a link – can be the best course of action you involved in a scam (see Source 1).
could take to avoid being scammed out of your money. If you are party to a scam, you should report it to the
appropriate authority. For example, if the scam involves
Scams that target your emotions someone gaining access to your online bank account,
you should contact your bank immediately. You can
Scams that set out to personally target you with the also report a scam to SCAMwatch, which is run by the
ultimate aim of taking your money have become more Australian Competition and Consumer Commission
common in recent years. Here are just some of the (ACCC).
personal scams that are currently in operation:
• Charity scams – the scammer poses as a genuine Even if you have a trusting nature, be
charity and takes advantage of the giver’s generosity. aware that others (particularly those
Be suspicious
• Psychic and clairvoyant scams – the victim may that you don’t know well) may not be
be told that they will be in some sort of trouble in honest in their dealings with you.
future. To avoid this, they inevitably have to pay
money for something like a lucky charm. In some
cases the victim is threatened with a curse if they
Don’t give strangers your money, credit
don’t pay a fee to the scammer. Be cautious card or bank account details. Keep your
• Romance scams – the scammer takes advantage of credit and ATM cards in a safe place.
someone looking for romance.
Investment and online account Don’t be pressured into doing something
scams Be patient
quickly. If you are interested in a deal, get
a second independent opinion on what
There are a range of investment scams that offer the is being offered.
investor a ‘rare’ opportunity to make money very
quickly. These operators may make an unsolicited
phone call, or send an email. Some investment
scammers promise huge tax reductions. Check bank and credit card statements
Be alert
for any unexplained transactions.
Paying for goods and doing banking online can be
convenient, but consumers need to be aware of scams
such as:
• phishing emails that pretend to be sent on behalf of
your bank asking for account details Understand that there is little chance of
Be wise
• phone calls from a scammer informing you there is getting rich quickly from a business scheme.
a problem with your account, asking you to provide
your account details or passwords
• the copying of information from the magnetic strip Source 1 Some golden rules to help you avoid
being scammed
of an ATM or credit card so that a ‘clone’ of your
card can be produced and used illegally.

12C How can individuals safeguard against financial risk?
casestudy
How would you feel if your online Many victims of romance scams never see their
money again, but the woman in this case was able to
romance was a scam? recall some of the repayments from the bank, once she
Nigerian online dating scams have become notorious learned Gary was a conman.
in recent years. In one such case, a 51-year-old woman
from Perth lost thousands of dollars. The Perth woman
(who does not wish to be identified) developed an
online relationship in 2013, with a man who called
himself Gary. He was, however, a Nigerian scammer
who had stolen a photograph from a website and set
up a fictitious profile on the RSVP dating site.
Shortly after meeting online, Gary quickly declared his
love for the woman and asked her to send him money
because he was in financial crisis. The woman sent
three payments, and then Gary asked the woman for
her bank details so he could transfer some money into
her account. This is when the victim realised she was
probably part of a fraud and contacted police. The police
actually caught the scammer by matching fingerprints
found on a document he had sent, to a person who was
known to the Nigerian police. ‘Gary’ has been charged Source 2 If someone you’ve met online through a dating
with obtaining money under false pretences. site asks you to give them money, it could be a scam.

Remember and understand c Someone you met on a dating site, but haven’t
1 What is a scam? met in person yet, asks you for a loan.
d You go to the ATM and never cover the keypad
2 Why is it important to know about the types of
while entering your PIN. You check your
scams that exist today?
credit card statement and find there are many
3 Describe a scam you know about, or research one
transactions you know nothing about.
online, and outline what happened in the scam.
e You receive a call from a well-spoken young man
Apply and analyse who lets you in on a secret deal to make money
from shares.
4 In the following examples, identify what consumers
can do to protect themselves. Evaluate and create
a You open the door and a young man is standing 5 How wise are you when it comes to scams? Take
there with a donation tin. When you ask for his the online scam quiz at the Consumer Affairs Victoria
identification, he says he didn’t bring it with him.
website. Write a paragraph outlining your results. Is
b You receive an email from your bank asking you there anything you could do to improve your safety
to confirm your account details with them. against being scammed?

using your bank account wisely
In order to protect yourself against unnecessary risk
when it comes to banking, there are a number of
Minimising banking fees
strategies you should be aware of. Two of the most Most of us have an everyday transaction account,
important include keeping your personal information which is really an account used to pay bills and
secure and protecting yourself against unnecessary withdraw money for spending. Many people have a
bank fees. separate savings account linked to their transaction
account so that they receive a higher interest rate on
Keeping your personal their savings.

Some banks and other financial institutions offer
information safe transaction accounts that do not charge a fee for
allowing you to use their banking facilities (called
Your Personal Identification Number (PIN) allows
account-keeping fees). Banks may also provide the
you to withdraw and deposit money into your bank
customer with a free monthly statement listing all
account. Your PIN and other passwords (such as your
banking transactions.
internet bank password) should be kept safe at all times.
casestudy
What would you do if money was 1 Don’t tell anyone your PIN.
stolen from your bank account?
Criminals with knowledge of the latest technology 2 Don’t write your PIN on your card.
steal millions of dollars each year through ‘skimming.’
Skimming involves copying card details while also 3 Don’t keep your recorded PIN with your card.
video recording people as they enter their PIN into an
ATM. These video-recording devices have become Don’t use your birthdate or part of your name as
more sophisticated as they are able to record a person 4
your PIN.
entering their PIN from a variety of angles now. Once
retrieved, this information is used to create a copy of the Check bank statements for unauthorised
5
card to withdraw or spend the victim’s money. transactions.
Many people are in the habit of covering their hand
when entering their PIN but it is also advisable to Cover your hand over the keyboard when entering
6
use a newspaper or purse to ensure the keyboard is your PIN.
completely blocked out.
To combat skimming, many new ATMs now have A financial institution should not need to ask you for
7
your PIN.
what is called ‘jitter’ technology so that the ATM card
vibrates as it enters the existing machine, making it
8 When using internet banking, remember to log out.
impossible to capture card details. If, however, you
are a victim of skimming, the banks will cover the
Source 1 Your PIN is the key to your money so make sure
loss, provided you have not contributed to the loss by it is safe. If you think that someone knows your PIN or
disclosing your PIN, for example, or accidentally leaving your card is lost or stolen, you should contact your bank
your card in an ATM. immediately.

It is advisable to check the banking fees charged

before setting up an everyday transaction account with Check your learning 12.4
a bank or other type of financial institution. Consider
switching to another account or bank if you already Remember and understand
have an account but are being charged too much. 1 Why should savings be kept in a separate
Banking fees to check include: savings account linked to an everyday transaction
• EFTPOS fees – when purchasing goods using EFTPOS account?
(Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale), money is 2 As an account holder, are you responsible for
transferred electronically from your account to pay money lost as a result of ‘skimming’?
for the goods. A fee may be charged for this. 3 What is the latest technology is being used to
• ATM fees – when withdrawing money from an ATM, combat ‘skimming’?
banks may often charge a fee for this service. Try
4 In your own words, define what exception fees are.
to avoid using another bank’s ATM or you may be
5 What does EFTPOS stand for? How many
charged a higher fee.
EFTPOS transactions are made in Australia
• Phone and internet banking fees – banks often
everyday?
charge customers fees for transferring money or
checking balances via phone or internet banking Apply and analyse
services. Check the fees associated with your online
6 Why do banks charge fees on accounts and
bank account.
credit cards?
• Exception fees – exception fees are charged if there
7 In the scenario below, identify at least five faults in
are insufficient funds in an account to cover a
the way Debra uses her ATM card:
transaction. For example, you may have a monthly
direct debit set up from your account and if there are Debra receives her new ATM card and leaves
insufficient funds to pay the bill, an exception fee her old ATM card in her wallet as well. She
may be charged. quickly writes her PIN on the new card so she
It is important to understand that a bank is a doesn’t forget it when withdrawing money. She
business and it therefore charges fees for its banking never covers the keypad when entering her PIN
services. If banking fees increase it is easy just to ignore at the ATM. She withdraws money and puts
it, but these small fees add up and some can be avoided. her card back in her wallet with the cash, but
Check your bank statements next time to see how much throws the transaction record in the bin. She
you are actually paying the banks in fees. receives a phone call from the bank telling her
there is something wrong with her card and
provides her PIN to the caller in order to ‘solve’
the problem.
Evaluate and create

8 Access the MoneySmart website using the link in
your obook. Read the information on credit cards.
a Write a list of the fees associated with most
credit cards.
b Explain why it is crucial to keep up to date with
credit card repayments.
c Write a paragraph detailing why you think you
should get a new credit card. What factors
might influence your choice of credit card?
Source 2 Almost six million EFTPOS transactions are made

each day in Australia. Many customers find this a convenient
and safe way to shop. Getting ‘cash out’ while making an
EFTPOS transaction is one way of avoiding a separate ATM fee.

knowing your consumer rights
It’s important that you know your rights when you go
shopping so that you receive the goods and services you
The consumer is treated honestly and fairly
have paid for (see Source 1).
A consumer who purchases a good with a major
problem is entitled to have the good repaired, replaced False, misleading or deceptive claims cannot
or refunded. A problem is considered to be ‘major’ if: be made about a product or service.
• The problem, if known, would have prevented the
consumer from buying the item. Products advertised must be supplied.
• The good is unsafe or was significantly different from
its sample or description. The consumer must not be harassed or
The product did not do what the business claimed it coerced (threatened in any way).
could or what the consumer asked for, and can’t easily
be fixed.
A consumer who purchases a service with a major
problem (for example, a car service) is also entitled The consumer receives quality goods and services
to a repair, replacement or refund in the following
circumstances:
The product is safe to use, durable, free from
• The problem, if known, would have prevented the
defects, acceptable in appearance and finish
consumer from buying the service. For example, the car and matches the description.
mechanic was not qualified and this wasn’t disclosed.
• The service performed is substantially unfit for its
The product is fit for the purpose
common purpose and cannot be fixed within a for which it was made.
reasonable time. For example, the car was drivable
but now the engine won’t even turn on.
Services are delivered
• The service does not meet the specific purpose with care and skill.
you asked for and cannot easily be fixed within a
reasonable time. For example, the car was spray- Guarantees made
painted instead of serviced. must be honoured.
• The service creates an unsafe situation.
Displaying a sign that says that refunds are not
given in any circumstances is against the law. It is also
against the law for a business to tell the consumer it
is their policy not to give refunds. Another common The consumer is given accurate information
misconception is that, when returning an item that
has a major problem, it must be returned in its original
The consumer is entitled to a receipt upon
packaging. request.
Consumers who have a complaint should first contact
the business that provided the good or service. If the If more than one price is displayed, the
problem is still not resolved, consumers might contact consumer is entitled to the lowest priced item.
their state or territory consumer protection agency.
The consumer is entitled to see the total price
of the item.
Source 1 The Australian Consumer Law protects all consumers.

Your rights when buying online there is no opportunity to try the clothes on so you
must make sure that you are able to return the items if
If purchasing goods online from an Australian business, they do not fit. There is also the added danger that you
the Australian Consumer Law still applies. The same will purchase the item but never receive it, or that you
protections may not apply, though, when purchasing will be sent a faulty or worthless item. Some scammers
goods online from a business overseas. also set up websites offering cheap items for the sole
Buying online can be tricky as you can only view a purpose of stealing your credit card details. Source 2
photograph of the item and may not adequately be able provides some tips on how you can minimise the risk
to assess its quality. If you are buying clothes or shoes, involved when you shop online.
are
k t here l
c a
Che ddition s
o a o s t
n en c y from
hidd the Use websites that If you bu an
ali
and ness is and start with 'https' an Austr ou
i y ,y
Pay for y bus worthy and have a closed compan d by
ou t te
using a s r goods tr s le.
u padlock symbol to are pro te c
afe relia
b
ensure others A u s tr alian
method the
such as e r Law.
PayPal,
BPay, or
cannot access your Consum
your cre private information.
dit card.
Source 2 Tips for consumers who shop online

Remember and understand c Jason purchases a clock but it does not keep
1 Are all consumers in Australia subject to the same correct time.
consumer laws? d Jazzlyn purchases a hairdryer that breaks down
after a week.
2 If two prices for a product are displayed, at which
price is the consumer entitled to buy the product – e Georgia asks for the gold buckle on her black
shoes to be replaced, only to find the gold buckle
the lower or higher price?
has been replaced with an orange buckle.
3 If there is a sign warning the consumer to choose
f Ed unwraps his new tracksuit only to find there is
wisely because no refunds are given, is the
a small hole in the fabric.
consumer entitled to a refund if there is a major
problem with the item? Evaluate and create
4 What can the consumer do if they have purchased a 6 Have you or someone you know ever purchased a
good with a major problem? good or service with a major problem? If so, explain
the situation and what was done to resolve the issue.
Apply and analyse
7 Pick a product you would like to buy online.
5 Explain why the consumer would be entitled to
a Find out what the return policy is on the item.
a repair, replacement or refund in the following
b Jot down as much information as you can about
circumstances.
the seller.
a Mario buys an electric mixer and sparks fly from
c How can you tell whether the private information
the mixer as soon as he uses it.
you provide online is going to be secure?
b Philippa has long hair she wears in a ponytail.
d Explain why buying online from an overseas
She asks her hairdresser to trim her hair. The
business can be riskier than dealing with an
hairdresser cuts the ponytail off, leaving Philippa
Australian business online.
with short hair.

12C rich task
Warranties
A major financial All new cars come with a manufacturer’s warranty
decision – buying
providing some protection should faults or defects occur.
Used cars sold by a licensed motor car dealer also have
a statutory warranty if they are less than 10 years old
a car and have travelled less than 160 000 kilometres. The
consumer should check the terms of the warranty to
ensure they know how long the car is under warranty for.
Now that you’ve learned about minimising
financial risk, it’s time to put what you have Taking out a loan
learned into practice. Buying a car is a major Check the interest rate and how much interest you will
purchase so it is important to do some have paid on the loan after you have repaid it. Shop
research so you make the right decision. around for the best loan deal rather than just accepting a
Here is a guide to help you get started. loan deal the car dealer may offer you.
Insurance
Choosing the right car at the Comprehensive car insurance protects you against car
fire, theft, accident and damage to your car and damage
right price to other cars and property. Third-party property insurance
After you have determined whether you are going to buy a gives you less cover, protecting you only against damage
new or used car, there’s some extensive research to do, caused to other cars and property. The amount of car
both online and on foot, to ensure you purchase the car insurance you pay will vary depending on the car make
that is right for you. and model chosen.
Don’t be afraid to ask for a discount. Car dealers
often match the deal another car dealer makes in order Service and repairs
to get the sale. If you do make a decision in haste, or are Whether you buy a new or used car, you need to maintain
pressured into buying a car, you can change your mind a car in good condition to avoid breakdowns and more
provided the car is purchased from a licensed motor car extensive repairs. New cars may come with capped
trader and you notify the dealer in writing. A cooling-off pricing schemes so that you know the cost of maintaining
period of three clear business days commences when a your car upfront, but it is important to check and compare
contract to purchase the car has been signed. the servicing schemes being offered.
Additional costs and charges Fuel efficiency

Be aware of additional costs associated with buying a car. Consider buying a car that does not need as much fuel
You may not be aware of the following charges. so you save on fuel costs, while reducing greenhouse gas
• Goods and Services Tax (GST) will be charged at a emissions and air pollution.
rate of 10 per cent.
• Stamp duty is another form of tax that must be paid
(the cost of this varies from state to state).
• Registration fees must also be paid when a vehicle is
first registered and then annually from that date.
• New vehicles may also incur a dealer delivery fee to cover
the trader’s costs of preparing and delivering the vehicle. If
the car is a luxury vehicle, a luxury car tax will be imposed.
• If buying a used car, a registration transfer fee will be
Source 1 Australia is a nation of car users with approximately
charged to transfer registration to a new owner. 7 out of 10 Australians aged 18 years and over travelling to work
or full-time study by car – either as a passenger or driver.

skilldrill
Conducting a cost–benefit analysis Apply the skill

A cost–benefit analysis identifies all the strengths and 1 Conduct a cost–benefit analysis of buying a particular
weaknesses of taking a particular course of action. car. You have up to $55 000 to spend over a five-year
Analysing costs and benefits may be useful in business to period. This includes the initial cost of the car and its
determine whether the project is likely to be profitable. It running costs. Refer to the RACV’s Car owning and
may also help a business decide which of several projects operating costs guide on their website. A link to this
should be undertaken. is available in your obook. Choose at least three cars
you would like to purchase within this price range.
Step 1 Identify the costs and benefits of a particular
The guide itemises the cost for buying and running
project or purchase. Costs should take into account
a selection of cars over a five-year period (driving
initial outlay, as well as interest paid over time. The
15 000 km per year).
analysis also should take into consideration the
possibility of a successful project/purchase, but also 2 Identify costs and benefits and put a value on these
the costs if the project/purchase is not successful. It benefits. Complete the following table in Source 3,
should also consider the timeframe involved to reap listing the weekly and annual cost over five years
any benefits. according to the RACV guide. Use the Internet to find
more information on the benefits of the three cars of
Step 2 Attempt to put a value on those costs and
your choice.
benefits. Factors such as inflation and interest
rates need to be considered. A program such as 3 Assess whether the costs outweigh the benefits. Make
Excel’s cost–benefit analysis template could help a decision about which car would be the best buy for
you with this. you and explain the reasons for your choice. Take into
consideration costs and personal benefits you think
Step 3 Assess whether the costs outweigh the benefits.
the car would bring you.
Step 4 Taking this information into account, assess
whether the project or purchase is worth the investment.
Assess
Attempt to Assess
whether the
Identitfy costs put a value on whether the
costs
and benefits those costs project is
outweigh the
and benefits worth it
benefits
Source 2 Steps in cost–benefit analysis
Car Costs Benefits

e.g. Ford Focus Ambiente 5D Hatchback Weekly costs $ e.g. Bluetooth® hands-free phone,
1.6L 6 SP Annual cost over five-year period $ air-conditioning, rear parking sensors
Car 1
Car 2
Car 3
Source 3 Cost–benefit analysis table

1 Undertake a cost–benefit analysis of taking out a $15 000 loan to buy a car as opposed to using public transport,
such as the train.

economy
The changing
work
environment
‘Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work
a day in your life.’ For actors such as Chris Hemsworth
and Anthony Hopkins, working involves using acting
skills to portray characters in a film. However, a film
is more than its actors. Costume designers, hair and
make-up artists, film crew, special effects artists and
stunt performers are just a few of the workers that may
also be involved.
When choosing a career, you should consider factors
such as skill, ability, educational requirements, pay and
working conditions. While you are studying, you may
work part-time to gain experience and earn extra money.
It’s important to understand what is expected of you
once you enter the workforce and what you can expect
from your employer.
13A
How do changes in the
13B
What are the roles and
workplace affect people? responsibilities of people in the
1 In what ways have new technologies changed the workplace?
work of a teacher, builder and shop assistant? 1 Why might an employee be dismissed from a job?
2 Why do you think people today change jobs more Can you think of any reasons this might be justified?
often than they did in the past? 2 Imagine you start a new part-time job. On your first
3 What careers interest you the most and why? six-hour shift you do not get a break, you have to use
the cash register without any prior training, then your
boss says he is going to reduce your hourly rate of
pay. Is your employer meeting his responsibilities?

13
chapter
Source 1 Just another day at the office for actors Anthony Hopkins and Chris Hemsworth on the set of the blockbuster Hollywood
film, Thor.
chapter 13 the changing work environment 421

13.1 The world of work is
constantly changing
Work has changed dramatically over the last 50 years services, financial and insurance services, education
both in Australia and around the world. In the 1960s, and training services, and healthcare.
men traditionally went to work full-time in order to Globalisation has also affected the world of work.
support their wives and young families. Women often Some Australian businesses have been unable to
married at a relatively young age, and it was common compete against countries such as China that pay lower
for them to leave the workforce in their early 20s to wages and can therefore produce goods more cheaply.
start a family. Today, nearly 60 per cent of the female Some businesses, however, have thrived, and have been
population in Australia over the age of 15 are either able to employ more people and produce new products
employed or seeking employment. Many of these for larger consumer markets than those found in
women now juggle both work and family commitments. Australia.
Many men are now choosing to stay at home with their Australia’s ageing population will also affect work
young children. in the future. By 2060 it is expected that the number
In addition to these changes, there has also been of people in Australia aged 75 or over will increase
great change in the industries that people work by 4 million. This represents an increase from about
in. In Australia in the 1960s the manufacturing 6.4 to 14.4 per cent of the population. There will also
industry employed 26 per cent of all workers. Today, be fewer new workers entering the workforce because
manufacturing employs only 8 per cent. Instead, the of a decline in the number of babies being born each
service sector is now our largest industry. Examples of year in Australia. These factors mean that skilled and
large service industries include tourism and hospitality experienced workers may be much harder to find.

Remember and understand e Switchboard operator
1 What Australian industry has declined since the f Iceman (a person who delivers huge ice blocks to
1960s? people’s homes)
2 What percentage of the population is expected to g Garbage collector
be 75 or over in 2060? h Accountant
i Milkman
Apply and analyse j Store elevator operator
3 Give one example of an occupation in each of the 5 Think of three reasons why female participation in
following service industries: the workforce has increased over the last 50 years.
a Education and training
b Tourism and hospitality Evaluate and create
c Financial and insurance services 6 Explain why globalisation can lead to both increases
4 Circle the following jobs that are no longer required in employment and increases in unemployment
today and explain why this is the case. depending on the type of industry.
a Clerical worker 7 Ask your grandparents or an elderly friend how work
b Lamplighter (a person who lights street lamps) has changed since their first job. Create a set of
questions for your interview, then report your findings
c Shopkeeper
back to the class.
d Sweeper (a person employed to physically sweep
streets and keep them clean)

Jobs have changed Increased female participation in workforce

Common jobs Women in workforce
1966 Today 1983 44.5% 2013 58.5%

• Tradesmen • Professionals
• Production process • Clerical and
workers administrative
• Labourers workers
• Farmers • Technicians and
• Fishermen trades workers
The female workforce participation rate has grown from 44.5% in
• Timber workers July 1983 to 58.5% in July 2013 according to Australian Bureau of
Statistics (ABS) figures.
Fall in union membership

%
24
There are more highly skilled
workers in our workforce
57%
22
than ever before.
Australians are 9%
more educated
20 Proportion
of employees The proportion of people aged
with trade union 15–64 years with a non-school
18 Expect to retire before 60
membership in main qualification increased from
47% in 2001 to 57% in 2013,
16
job 2003–2013
according to the ABS.
Australians expect to
retire later
3
3
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
201
201
201
201
The average age for men who
9%
retired less than five years ago
Technology alters the way was 63.3 years, while the average
age of retirement for women was
we work 59.6 years according to a recent
• Fewer workers may be required to do the
Employees job hop ABS study.
same job. more frequently The age at which a person can
• New jobs may arise in areas such as than ever before qualify for a pension will increase
Information Technology. to 67 by 2023, meaning many
• Global products can be created increasing Nearly one in ten people have Australians will have to work
work opportunities for some people. changed their job in the previous longer.
• Employees can work remotely. 12 months, according to the
latest ABS statistics.
Globalisation affects the workforce Growth in part-time work

More people will work overseas to develop
their careers in the future, according to Hays
1990–91 22% 2010–11 30%
recruiting company.
Some Australian businesses will be unable to
compete with other low-wage countries,
leading to business failure and unemployment.
Globalisation can, however, create new and
larger consumer markets, leading to greater
employment.
The proportion of employed people who were working
part-time rose from 22% in 1990–91 to 30% in 2010–11.
Source 1 There have been many changes in the workplace in recent years.

13.2 Enterprising skills in the
workplace
An enterprising individual is one who shows initiative, service that really benefits the organisation they work
is prepared to take on a new project, sometimes for. Enterprising skills can also be used to promote a
overcoming significant obstacles, and is also prepared to social cause and make a difference to the lives of others.
take risks in order to succeed. Enterprising individuals For example, Social Enterprise Champion Award winner
sometimes start their own business, while others use Luke Terry has led the development of a multimillion-
their enterprising skills to achieve success working for dollar commercial laundry that will employ long-term
a company or organisation. An employee might, for disadvantaged people.
example, have a new idea to improve a product or
casestudy
Could you be enterprising?
Morgan Hipworth, a 14-year-old student from
Melbourne, has taken the café world by storm with
his twist on the simple doughnut. Morgan started out
small, supplying his homemade doughnuts to a café
in Melbourne, and now supplies up to 500 doughnuts
a week. He fits 40 hours of baking a week into his
schedule and still has time for school, homework and
sport.
Morgan’s doughnuts are not your regular doughnuts,
though. He bakes the doughnuts at home and ‘injects’
his own flavours into them. Some even come with Source 1 Morgan Hipworth’s doughnut creations are a
a syringe of flavour for consumers to inject into the hit with café customers in Melbourne.
doughnut themselves! Morgan doesn’t skimp on quality
either, using the best ingredients, such as real butter. Enterprising skills and examples
At the age of seven, Morgan was inspired by Junior
Masterchef and has turned his passion into a growing Creativity and innovative skills
Creating a unique product that solves a problem
business. After completing a business degree, Morgan
plans to open his own restaurant and café. Analytical skills
Being enterprising encompasses a whole range of Identifying a problem and how it can be solved
skills. Someone, for example, may have a fantastic idea
Digital literacy skills
but lack the determination or project management skills
Using social media effectively
to see their idea materialise into a successful product
or service. Source 2 lists some of the associated skills Financial literacy skills
that enterprising individuals may possess. Enterprising Working within a budget
skills such as these are said to be a more powerful
predictor of long-term job success and performance Project management skills
Ensuring tasks are completed properly and on time
than technical knowledge.
Communication skills
Source 2 An enterprising individual usually has a range of Winning others over with a persuasive argument
different skills.

casestudy
Going with the flow? honey. The product called ‘Flow Hive’ is gentle on the
bees and it reduces the chance of the beekeeper being
Father and son team Stuart and Cedar Anderson have
stung, because the honey flows directly out of the hive.
created a product beekeepers can use to harvest
honey straight from the hive. Their unique product All business ideas need to be funded, though, so
solves the problem of dismantling a bee hive to remove the Andersons turned to crowdfunding. Crowdfunding
is a practice where money is raised by a large number
of people to finance a project or venture. A record
$17.8 million dollars was raised for the ‘Flow Hive’
via the Internet through a crowdfunding site called
Indiegogo. ‘Flow Hive’ is being manufactured in
Australia with orders from 148 countries around the
world wanting the new product. Success didn’t come
overnight, though. It took 10 years to perfect the
product. Cedar says, ‘We always dreamed it would be
successful one day. But you really don’t know.’
Source 3 The successful beekeeping invention ‘Flow Hive’
developed by Cedar Anderson (pictured) and his father Stuart
Anderson used crowdfunding to finance the idea.
‘Soft skills’ are important too

Machines are now performing many tasks once only coughing), communicating well, managing and leading
undertaken by humans. This is called automation and others and working well in a team. Strategic business
it has implications for the skills that are going to be analyst Jason Widjaja works for a large company and
in high demand in future. Many business experts are said that while his technical or ‘hard skills’ were
saying that individuals with ’soft skills’ (that machines good, he was ‘marked down in terms of adding value
do not have) will be the most sought after workers. to meetings, workshops, interviews and all those
Soft skills are personal skills such as understanding areas where you needed to express and articulate your
social graces (for example, covering your mouth while thoughts more clearly’.

Remember and understand c Raj tends to sit back at meetings and listen. He
1 How can a person be enterprising in the workplace? doesn’t want to offer his ideas because he is too
afraid they will be considered silly.
2 Why do experts believe ‘soft skills’ will continue to be
d Jan always attends meetings on time but she
in high demand by employers?
talks mostly about her own successes, and,
Apply and analyse when asked, it is clear she delegates to others
3 Explain why Morgan Hipworth’s business is the work she should be doing herself.
considered to be enterprising. e Lee is always so positive and is always
4 Tick which of the following individuals clearly display determined to solve problems using methods
‘soft skills’ in these instances. most would never think of.
a Jem always arrives late for work, talks too loudly Evaluate and create
on the phone and continually uses social media
5 Do you think people can learn some ‘soft skills’ such
while at work to keep in touch with her friends.
as working well with team members, communicating
b Michael started work at an accountancy firm and
well with others and complying with social rules?
seemed to ‘fit right in’. He is always courteous
and goes out of his way to help others in his
team succeed.

13A rich task
Source 2 As the population ages, many occupations in the
The job market field of healthcare will experience increased demand.
Occupation 5-year Employment
outlook for the employment

growth to
2016–17 (%)
levels at
2016–17
(’000s)
future Drillers, miners and shot

firers (shot fires position and
27.7 72.6
‘What do you want to be when you grow up?’ detonate explosives)
It’s a question we are all asked from an early Mining engineers 23.5 10.1
age and many of us change our mind several Internal medicine specialists 20.5 8.0
times before we even begin our first career. Other medical practitioners 20.5 13.2
Indeed, it is common now for people to have
Registered nurses 20.5 274.8
multiple careers in a lifetime instead of just one.
Aged and disabled carers 20.4 140.6
Other construction/mining 18.0 10.9

labourers
Generalist medical 17.7 61.5

practitioners
Surgeons 17.1 6.6
Electricians 17.1 162.9
Other building/engineering 16.6 25.2

technicians
Nursing support/personal 16.5 95.6

care workers
Graphic/web designers, and 16.0 52.8

illustrators
Physiotherapists 16.0 19.4
General managers 16.0 59.4
Anaesthetists 16.0 3.4
Social workers 16.0 25.7
Source 1 The ability to earn a good salary is a factor many Health and welfare services 16.0 21.4
consider when choosing a career. The highest paid workers managers
in Australia are surgeons, according to the Australian Taxation Child carers 16.0 133.4
Office report 2012–13.
Chief executives/managing 16.0 75.6
Interest in a chosen field, ability, educational directors
requirements, pay and working conditions are just Source: Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
some of the factors to be considered when choosing a Relations, 2015
career. Overall employment prospects for your chosen
occupation could also be considered. Source 2 shows
the occupations that have the brightest employment
prospects in the future. As you can see, most of the
growth areas are in the service sector. You can find
employment prospects for most occupations at the
Department of Employment website.

skilldrill
Searching for relevant and reliable Step 4 Assess the reliability of each site by asking
yourself:
information online – Who is the author or creator? If it is an individual,
Have you ever forgotten your keys or wallet? The best do they have their credentials listed (e.g. a degree
approach to finding your lost possession is to ‘refine’ your or title)? If it is an organisation, is it a reputable
search, perhaps by thinking where you were when you organisation such as a government or university
first lost your keys or wallet and checking there first. It’s department?
the same with searching for information on the Internet. – What is the purpose of the website? Is it trying to
In order to find what you are looking for, you need to inform, persuade or sell?
narrow down your search using keywords. You must
– Is the site objective? Is the author’s point of view
also evaluate the reliability and credibility of each website
biased?
you find.
– Is the information accurate? Can the information be
verified if you cross-check it with other sources of
information?
– Does the site contain many spelling mistakes or
grammatical errors? If so, this may be an indication
that the site is not particularly reliable.
– Is the information current? Can you find evidence of
recent updates?
Apply the skill

1 Pick an occupation you are interested in and
undertake an internet search about the following:
Use the following steps to find reliable information on the
a projected employment prospects
Internet:
b qualifications required
Step 1 Identify keywords related to your topic and type
c likely earning potential.
these into a search engine such as Google. (Use only
these keywords – do not type in whole sentences or 2 Compile a brief summary of details about the
questions.) profession you are interested in, based on your
Internet search.
Step 2 Add further relevant keywords to refine your
search if you cannot find what you want on your first Note: If you are interested in becoming a bricklayer,
attempts. for example, you may want to search more generally
first with your keywords rather than just entering the
Step 3 Look beyond the first page of results. The best
term ‘bricklayer’ into a search engine.
results do not always appear first.
Now that you have some basic understanding of the stating that you are interested in talking to a staff
earning potential and likely job prospects for your chosen member about their career.
occupation, you may wish to talk to someone in that field. 2 Write a list of questions that will guide you through
1 Use any contacts you have to arrange a five-minute your five-minute chat beforehand. After learning more
chat, either on the phone or in person. If you don’t about your chosen occupation, are you still interested
have any contacts, consider writing a letter or email in pursuing it?

13.3 Roles and responsibilities of
employers and employees
People work for many different reasons. For some, being Many workplaces, however, have what is known as
paid is the primary reason for working. For others, such an enterprise agreement, which is an agreement about
as people who volunteer, helping others in need might wages and working conditions made directly between
be the most important reason for working. Think about employers and employees. Such agreements must be
a job you would like to do in the future and rate what approved by the Fair Work Commission. If a workplace
you consider to be the most important (1) to the least has an enterprise agreement, the modern award does
important (10) factors. not apply. The process of negotiating an enterprise
agreement is sometimes called enterprise bargaining,
Rating Job satisfaction factors
because each party is arguing their position and what
1–10
pay and work conditions they want. The employer may
Interesting work gain improvements in work efficiency and the employee
Pay and benefits might gain better benefits and more flexibility.
Flexible work arrangements (for example, hours When approving the enterprise agreement, the Fair
spent working, ability to work from home) Work Commission applies what is known as the ‘better
off overall’ test. This means the commission must be
Opportunities for promotion
satisfied that each employee would be better off overall
People you work with under the enterprise agreement than if the relevant
Sense of achievement and recognition modern award applied. For example, the minimum pay
rate in the enterprise agreement cannot be less than the
Secure employment
modern award.
Helping others through the work you do Each enterprise agreement must also not exclude
The organisation or provide lesser entitlements than the 10 national
Autonomy (working with little supervision, being
employment standards introduced in 2010. For
able to make decisions) example, one of the standards is that an employee is
entitled to four weeks of annual leave per year. If the
Source 1 Different factors contribute to job satisfaction for enterprise agreement only stated the employee was
different people. to be given two weeks of annual leave, the enterprise
agreement would not be passed.
Whatever work you choose in future, it is important
you understand your rights and responsibilities, as well
as those of your employer. An employee, or worker,
is a person hired to complete specific tasks in return
for monetary payment. An employer is a person or
organisation that hires workers to complete specific
tasks and in return pays them.
Employer obligations
Employers have specific legal obligations to their
workers (see Source 3). In Australia, employers must
pay employees the minimum wage – a base rate of pay
for ordinary hours worked. Minimum pay and other
minimum employment conditions are set out in a legal
Source 2 Under enterprise agreements, employers must
agreement called a modern award. There are 122 of
not provide lesser entitlements than the national employment
these modern awards, each applicable to a particular standards. For example, all employees are entitled to four
industry or occupation. weeks of annual leave per year.

13B What are the roles and responsibilities of people in the workplace?
Employer responsibilities
As an employee, I expect my employer to:

• provide a safe work environment
• pay appropriate sick leave
• provide paid holiday leave
• pay superannuation so when I retire I have
some savings
• provide sufficient work breaks, such as
a lunch break
• ensure there is no unlawful workplace
discrimination.
Source 3 Employees expect their employers to fulfil their legal obligations such as paying the correct wage and providing a safe
work environment.
Employee responsibilities
As an employer, I expect my employee to:

• complete the required hours of work
• be honest and accurate with money
• keep certain business information confidential
• give the required notice before leaving
• obey workplace rules such as safety and
anti-discrimination rules.
Source 4 Employers also expect their employees to fulfil their legal obligations, such as fulfilling their job requirements and
completing work.

casestudy
Is it up to the employer to decide misapprehension that she was able to pay (the
employee) as little as she believed his time was worth,
your pay? rather than the legally required minimums’.
Maria Doherty, operator of a berry farm in Victoria, was
In total, the employee was underpaid $31 040. The
fined $11 500 in 2012 for underpaying a 20-year-old
Federal Magistrate ordered that the fine of $11 500 be
male shop assistant between December 2006 and
given to the employee as some compensation for lost
June 2009. The employee was paid $10.79 to $12.78 an
pay. Further legal proceedings were going to be taken
hour but was entitled to almost twice that rate.
but the berry farm has since gone into liquidation.
According to Fair Work inspectors, Doherty said that Unfortunately, the employee has little chance of
her employee ‘had the mental capacity of a 13-year-old recovering the rest of the money he is owed.
and was not worth $17 or $18 an hour’.
Federal Magistrate Riley, who heard the case,
Source 5 The employee of a berry farm was entitled
said that Doherty ‘seems to have been under the to a legally required minimum wage.
Source 6 Employees have a responsibility to keep certain

business information confidential.

casestudy
Did these employees behave Behaving inappropriately in the workplace can also
involve sexual harassment of colleagues, bullying,
inappropriately in the workplace? violence and discrimination.
Video footage of a Pizza Hut employee in West Virginia,
United States, urinating into a kitchen sink at work
made the news in many parts of the world. It’s the type
of incident that an employer never wants to hear about.
Not only is it against health and safety regulations, it
can damage the reputation of a business.
Employees have obligations to their employers
to behave appropriately in the workplace. Closer to
home in Australia, former Federal MP Craig Thomson’s
misuse of his former employer’s money gained much
media coverage. Thomson was found guilty of 65 fraud
charges, relating to the misuse of his work credit card,
when he worked at the Health Services Union. Among
other things, the work credit card was used to pay for
sex services.
A former manager of the Romeo Retail Group,
Sonya Bernadette Murphy, was also found guilty of Source 7 In the NSW case Goldsmith v Spotless Services
a crime in the workplace. Murphy was sacked when Limited [2004], an employee was dismissed after she
it was discovered she had used false invoices to pay was found to have been sleeping under her desk during a
nightshift. Evidence from co-workers indicates it wasn’t an
herself $885 515.29 over a four-year period. Murphy
isolated occasion. The employee was dismissed.
was jailed for 18 months.

Remember and understand 7 Give one reason it is important to understand your
1 What are two responsibilities an employer has to an rights as an employee.
employee? 8 Source 3 lists some of an employer’s legal
2 What is the difference between an enterprise obligations. Make a list of other things you would like
agreement and a modern award? an employer to provide if you were the employee.
3 Would an enterprise agreement that offered a lower Evaluate and create
minimum wage than the modern award be accepted 9 Go to the Fair Work Ombudsman website and list at
by the Fair Work Commission? least five of the National Employment Standards. For
Apply and analyse each, write a sentence stating why you think it might
be important to uphold the standard.
4 What would happen if we didn’t have laws governing
the minimum wage an employee must be paid? 10 Why is it important that we have laws that protect
the rights of workers? With a partner, brainstorm
5 Sam hires Lee as a bookkeeper. Who is the
some scenarios where a worker might need to rely
employee and who is the employer?
on the protection of the law.
6 What are the advantages of the employer and
employee directly negotiating pay and working
conditions?

13.4 Protecting workers from
discrimination in the workplace
Discrimination is the practice of treating a person (or
a group of people) differently from another person (or
Discrimination in the workplace
group of people) based on their personal characteristics. In Australia, the Australian Human Rights Commission
Discrimination can take place anywhere – at home, – along with number of other state and territory
at school, and even in the workplace. For example, a agencies – deals with complaints about discrimination
woman who is not given a promotion solely because in the workplace. The Fair Work Ombudsman can also
she is pregnant is being discriminated against. Similarly, investigate workplace discrimination and may initiate
a man who is unsuccessful for a job because the hiring legal proceedings. Under Australian law (according to
manager thinks he’s too old is also being discriminated the definition in the Fair Work Act 2009), two conditions
against. must be present for discrimination to occur:
1 The person must have been disadvantaged in
Types of Explanation the workplace due to one or more of the types of
discrimination
discrimination defined in Source 1.
Race Based on a person’s race (e.g. Asian,
Caucasian, Black, Indian)
casestudy
Colour Based on a person’s skin colour
(e.g. light-skinned, dark-skinned)
Can employment be terminated
Sex Based on a person’s gender (e.g. male,
female, intersex)
when you are ‘too old’?
A long-serving waiter at a Thai restaurant in
Sexual preference Based on a person’s sexual orientation Queensland was told by his employer that his
(e.g. heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual)
employment would be terminated on his 65th
Age Based on a person’s age (e.g. old, young) birthday. The former waiter received a letter from the
employer which stated that it was the company’s
Physical or mental Based on a person’s physical or mental
policy ‘that we do not employ any staff that attain the
disability disability
retirement age, which in your case is 65 years’.
Marital status Based on a person’s marital status The Fair Work Ombudsman ordered the restaurant
(e.g. married, divorced, unmarried,
operators to pay $29 150 for breaking the law with
de facto)
regard to age discrimination and not keeping proper
Family or carer’s Based on whether a person has family or employment records. A sum of $10 000 was also paid
responsibilities carer obligations to the former employee.
Pregnancy Based on whether a woman is pregnant
or not
Religion Based on a person’s religious beliefs

(e.g. Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist)
Political opinion Based on a person’s political beliefs

(e.g. left-wing, right-wing)
National extraction Based on a person’s nationality or social

or social origin class (e.g. their country of origin or class
status)
Source 1 Types of workplace discrimination Source 2 It is illegal to discriminate in the workplace on the
basis of age.

2 The discrimination must have resulted in an action

being taken that was ‘adverse’ (i.e. negative) to the Check your learning 13.4
person. Adverse actions include:
• dismissing (i.e. firing) an employee
• withholding legal entitlements such as pay or 1 What two conditions must be met to determine that
leave there has been discrimination in the workplace?
• making changes to the employee’s job that 2 What is the difference between sex discrimination
disadvantages them and sexual harassment?
• treating an employee differently to other
Apply and analyse
employees
3 What type of discrimination has taken place in the
• not hiring a job applicant
following situations? The first answer has been
• offering a potential employee the job but with
done for you.
different and unfair terms and conditions
compared to other employees.
a A job advertisement for a bar attendant states
that only females need apply. (Answer: sex
There are some exceptions to anti-discrimination
discrimination.)
laws. For example, a 16-year-old would not be able to be
employed serving alcohol in a bar until they were 18,
b Mia turned 17 and suddenly found many of her
because of the law.
shifts were given to younger workers because
her employer just couldn’t afford to pay Mia the
higher wage.
Sexual harassment in the c Alice reveals at a job interview that she is
workplace due to have a baby in six months’ time. The
employer states that it is a ‘waste of time’ even
Sexual harassment is sexual behaviour that is unwanted continuing with the interview.
or unwelcome. Such behaviour could be expected to
d Jeff is married and has two sons. He applies for
make the recipient feel offended, humiliated, ashamed
a position to work in Antarctica for a year. The
or embarrassed, or intimidated and frightened.
job advertisement says that those with family
Sexual harassment is unlawful and can take place in
should not apply due to the extreme conditions
the workplace. Examples include staring or leering,
and solitude.
making comments or jokes that are suggestive, sending
4 Explain why the following cases could constitute
text messages or emails that are of a sexual nature,
sexual harassment.
requesting sex or repeatedly asking for a date when
these requests are unwanted. Sexual harassment may a Tomo’s manager wolf whistles at her as she
also include unwanted physical advances such as enters the building each day. Tomo blushes
deliberately brushing up against someone. A complaint and averts her gaze.
about sexual harassment can be made to the Human b Liliana repeatedly asks her employee Sam if
Rights Commission. he would like to join her at her beach house,
despite Sam making it clear he is not interested.
Source 3 Laura Connors from
Tasmania was 15 when she Evaluate and create
started her first part-time job 5 Refer to the case study and evaluate the decision
at a local fast food restaurant.
to fine the restaurant operators $29 150 for
She resigned a few months
later because the restaurant discriminating against the waiter. You can conduct
owner repeatedly pinched and some extra research on the case by looking up
squeezed her bottom and had ‘Australia’s first age discrimination case’ for further
requested she take her top
information.
off. The Anti-Discrimination
Tribunal of Tasmania ordered 6 Why is it important to have anti-discrimination and
that $12 000 be paid to Laura sexual harassment laws? Write 2–3 paragraphs
Connors for compensation. outlining your views.

13.5 Protecting workers from
bullying and unfair dismissal
If a person believes they have been unfairly dismissed There is a difference between workplace bullying
from a job, or that they have been bullied in the and taking reasonable action to manage an employee.
workplace, they may be able have the matter referred to For example, reasonable management may entail
the Fair Work Commission. informing the worker about their unsatisfactory work
performance in an appropriate way or setting goals
Bullying in the workplace for the worker that will be monitored to ensure they
are met.
Workers who believe they have been bullied may apply
to the Fair Work Commission for an order to have the
bullying stopped. Health and safety organisations in
Unfair dismissal
each state and territory may also deal with complaints If you are ever dismissed, remember that Walt Disney
about workplace bullying. was once sacked for not being creative enough! Being
Under the Fair Work Act 2009, to determine that dismissed is a traumatic experience, especially if the
there has been workplace bullying: dismissal is unfair. If a person thinks this is the case,
1 a person or group of people must have behaved they may be able have the matter referred to the Fair
unreasonably to a worker or a group of workers Work Commission. For the dismissal to be considered
at work unfair it must be considered to be harsh, unjust or
2 the bullying must have occurred repeatedly unreasonable. In determining whether the dismissal
was harsh, unjust or unreasonable, the following
3 the bullying created a health and safety risk.
questions should be considered (see Source 2).
casestudy
Have you ever been bullied
at work?
Teenage waitress Brodie Panlock was bullied so much
at work it eventually led her to take her own life in 2006.
The four men responsible for bullying Brodie at Café
Vamp in Hawthorn, Victoria were convicted and fined
a total of $115 000. The company that runs the café
were also convicted and fined $220 000 for not taking
reasonable care for the health and safety of Brodie. The
bullying occurred between June 2005 and September
2006 and included Brodie being spat on, having fish oil
poured on her and being told she was ugly.
Brodie’s case was such a serious case of workplace Source 1 Brodie Panlock’s death highlighted the human
bullying it resulted in the Victorian Government passing cost of workplace bullying. Bullying also has an economic cost
legislation in 2011 to make serious bullying a crime with the Productivity Commission estimating workplace bullying
in Australia costs between $6 billion and $36 billion annually.
punishable by up to 10 years in jail.

Unfair dismissal checklist Yes No

1 Was there a valid reason for the dismissal? The dismissal might have been related to a person’s capacity to do
their job, or their conduct and its effect on safety and welfare of other employees.
2 Was the person notified of the reason for their dismissal?
3 Was the person given an opportunity to respond to any reason for the dismissal that related to their capacity or
conduct?
4 Did the employer unreasonably refuse to allow the employer to have a support person present to assist at any
discussions relating to dismissal?
5 If the dismissal was related to unsatisfactory performance, had the person been warned about that
unsatisfactory performance before the dismissal?
6 Did the size of the employer’s enterprise impact on the procedures followed when dismissing the person?
7 Did the absence of dedicated human resource management specialists or someone who had expertise in the
enterprise have an impact on the procedures followed in dismissing the person?
8 Are there any other matters that are relevant to this dismissal?
Source 2 The Fair Work Comission considers these questions to determine whether dismissal was unfair.
Sometimes employers must make what is known Fair Work Australia warned that employees should
as a summary dismissal. This means that the be extremely careful about making comments about
employer dismisses the employee without notice managers and colleagues on social media.
or warning because they believe on reasonable
grounds that the employee’s conduct is sufficiently
serious to justify immediate dismissal. Examples of
serious misconduct include theft, fraud, violence
and not following important health and safety
procedures.
A Linfox truck driver was dismissed for making Source 3 Employees
comments about his managers on Facebook. The truck should be extremely
driver had not intended for the comments to be seen careful abvout
by members of the public, and Fair Work Australia making comments
about managers and
(now the Fair Work Commission), ordered the dismissal colleagues on social
was unfair. In handing down the decision, however, media.

Remember and understand a Jan is late for work on one occasion and her
1 Name two strategies that are considered ‘reasonable employer tells her to pack her bags and go.
management’ by an employer. b A customer complains about coffee being too
cold. The employee throws the coffee at the
2 What three factors determine whether a dismissal is
customer and says, ‘Now you have something to
unreasonable or not?
complain about!’.
Apply and analyse
Evaluate and create
3 Why must an employer state the reason or reasons
6 Do you think it is fair that employers are responsible
for dismissing an employee?
for the behaviour of their employees at work?
4 A manager points out that an employee has made an
Discuss in groups of 2–3, justifying your opinions and
error and suggests that further training is required.
giving examples to illustrate your point.
Has workplace bullying taken place?
5 Are either of the following reasons for dismissing an
employee ‘harsh, unjust or unreasonable’?

13B rich task
Unfair dismissal
An employer should have a thorough
knowledge of unfair dismissal laws before
dismissing a worker. As discussed in
the previous section, for dismissal to be
considered unfair it must be considered to be
harsh, unjust or unreasonable.
When dealing with unfair dismissal cases, both the

employer and employee are encouraged to find a solution
to the matter themselves. Sometimes, however, the Fair
Source 1 An employee who took some Milo home in a
Work Commission must make a decision about whether container was dismissed.
an employee has been unfairly dismissed. The following
two cases highlight the complexity involved in many unfair In August 2013, a security officer found Milo in the
dismissal cases. worker’s bag but the worker claimed the Milo was his
(supposedly because he was in a state of shock). The
The Milo case employee was first suspended from Coles Warehouse
while further investigation took place. After the employee
In the case Homes v Coles Group Limited [2014] FWC was interviewed about the matter, 11 days later he was
1013, a Coles employee took some Milo and was dismissed for serious and wilful misconduct because he
dismissed. Coles provided Milo for their staff to drink on had taken the Milo and lied about it. The Commission
a tea break. One employee preferred to drink Milo mixed found that the employee was unfairly dismissed. The
with his own drinking chocolate, coffee and raw sugar. employee was reinstated and was also paid for the period
He would regularly take home some Milo from work in a between the dismissal and reinstatement.
container to mix it with other ingredients.
Identify business knowledge

The problem: Coles Warehouse
applicable to the case: for dismissal
dismissed its employee because
to be considered unfair it must be
he had taken some Milo from the
considered to be harsh, unjust or
break room.
unreasonable.
A Coles Warehouse employee was suspended, then dismissed from Coles Warehouse
for serious and wilful misconduct. He had taken Milo provided at work to his home,
mixed it with other ingredients, then brought it back to drink at work.
Apply business knowledge to

this case: was dismissing the
employee for taking a small amount of
Milo which he consumed at work
harsh, unjust or unreasonable?
Source 2 This diagram shows how knowledge of unfair dismissal can be applied to the facts in the Milo case.

The swearing case Salesman: Well I guess that means that you wasted
my ******* time.
In the case RM v SCT Pty Limited T/A Sydney City An independent witness stated the salesman’s
Toyota [2013] FWC 1077, a car sales executive working behaviour was ‘pretty aggressive’. A day after the
for Sydney City Toyota was summarily dismissed after incident, the car salesman was asked to attend a meeting
swearing at a customer. It was the salesman’s specific to discuss allegations about his conduct and its impact on
duty to assist government customers in relation to the the businesses reputation. He was asked if he would like
sale of Toyota cars. The salesman was annoyed that to bring another person along to the meeting for support
the customer had given the sale to another Toyota car and was assured that if he needed more time the meeting
dealership and a couple of months later spoke to the could be rescheduled. At the meeting, the car salesman
customer about it. Despite initially denying he had sworn was given the opportunity to respond to the allegations.
at the customer, the salesman later conceded in cross- Shortly after the meeting, the salesman was given a
examination that the following conversation had taken termination letter which said his conduct ‘caused an
place in the reception area: imminent risk to the reputation and profitability of Sydney
Salesman: I thought that we were going to get the City Toyota’.
order for that one.
Customer: I don’t know what happened. We got it at
Chatswood.
skilldrill
Applying business knowledge, For example, if someone has broken the law, look
specifically at what constitutes breaking the law and
skills and concepts to new not whether the law was broken.
situations Step 4 Turn the general business knowledge you have

gained on the issue/problem (in Step 3) into a series
Being able to apply knowledge to solve issues or
of general questions. Going back to our problem
problems is a skill many employers seek. Knowing the
of breaking the law, the question might be ‘What
steps involved in applying knowledge to solve issues or
constitutes breaking the law?’ You might need to write
problems allows the problem to be solved quickly, and
the answer down.
often makes the outcome fairer.
Step 5 Refer to the specific issue or problem and ask
Step 1 Explain the main problem or issue in one
yourself the same questions you posed in Step 4 but
sentence.
this time answer those questions in relation to the
Step 2 Identify the main facts surrounding the specific specific issue or problem.
issue or problem – this may involve stating clearly what
happened, who did what, who said what, and when it Apply the skill
happened. Read the swearing case, and then determine whether
Step 3 State clearly the business knowledge applicable the employee was unfairly dismissed by following the five
to the general issue or problem. Divorce yourself from steps outlined above.
the specific problem and think more broadly.

Now that you have applied your business knowledge to RM v SCT Pty Limited T/A Sydney City Toyota [2013]
the offensive swearing case, read the outcome of the FWC 1077. Compare your decision about the case with
case. Enter the name of the case into a search engine: the Fair Work Commission’s decision.

4
part

civics and
citizenship
Concepts and skills
Chapter 14 The civics and citizenship 440
toolkit

Chapter 15 Government, democracy
and the citizen 456
Chapter 16 Australia’s legal system 478

Concepts and skills
The civics and

citizenship toolkit
A citizen is a person who legally lives in a geographical
area such as a town or country. Being a citizen is
like having a membership where you belong to a
community and have certain rights and responsibilities.
In Australia, citizens have the right to vote for members
of parliament to represent their views. They have the
right to go to school and work and speak freely about
the issues concerning them. Australian citizens also
have responsibilities to abide by the laws of the nation.
Civics and citizenship is the study of these rights and
responsibilities and how the government works.
Understanding how the political system works gives
us an insight into how our vote can impact the future of
our country and the global community. Knowledge of
some democratic values, such as freedom of movement
and the right to a fair trial, provides reassurance that we
have a political and legal system that respects the rights
of citizens.
14A
What are civics and
14B
What are civics and
citizenship concepts? citizenship skills?

14 chapter
Source 1 Parliament House in Canberra is the meeting place of the elected Parliament of Australia.
14C
What career opportunities are
there within the field of civics
and citizenship?
chapter 14 the civics and citizenship toolkit 441

14.1 Civics and citizenship concepts
Civics and citizenship students can examine a wide The six key concepts of civics and citizenship are:
range of concepts to help them understand the • democracy
workings of Australia’s political and legal systems. These • democratic values
concepts may be examined together or as separate ideas. • the Westminster system
As you examine each of these key concepts you will
• justice
begin to develop knowledge which will enable you to
• participation
become a more active citizen.
• rights and responsibilities.
Democracy practised what is known as a direct democracy. A

direct democracy involves citizens meeting together
A democracy is a system of government in which the to make laws for their society.
people have the power to determine how they will
Today, most democratic societies such as Australia
be ruled or managed. In most democratic societies,
are representative democracies. This means we
citizens are involved electing parliamentarians
elect representatives to make laws on our behalf. In
to represent their views. Parliamentarians or
Australia, citizens over the age of 18 are required
representatives of the people then make laws on
to vote for candidates in elections for federal,
behalf of the people who have elected them.
state and local government. Our system of voting
The concept of democracy has been around for is compulsory, unlike other democracies such as
a long time, with many civilisations and societies the United Kingdom or the United States where
throughout history. The term democracy comes participating in elections is optional.
from the Greek words demos (meaning ‘citizen’) and
kratos (meaning ‘rule’). The people of ancient Greece
Source 1 The Australian House of Representatives is the upper house of federal parliament. It is made up of the
people who have been elected to represent us.

Democratic values The Westminster system
Democratic values are the beliefs and ideals that Australia’s system of government is based on the
are held by our society as a democracy. Such values Westminster system. The Westminster system is a
include respect, equality, fairness and freedom (see form of parliamentary government originating in
Source 2). It is important to understand democratic the United Kingdom. It is named after the area of
values when examining Australia’s political system. London where the British parliament is located (see
By understanding democratic values and their Source 3). The Westminster system has been adopted
purpose, we can assess if a government is operating by a number of countries including Canada and New
as a true democracy. Zealand. It includes the following features:
• a parliament, consisting of two chambers or
Democratic
Definition houses, that is elected by the people to make laws
value
Treating others with consideration and on their behalf. Citizens vote for members of the
Respect parliament in free and fair elections and all laws
valuing their views, beliefs and rights.
Rights and privileges for all, without must be passed by a majority (over half) of the
discrimination based on gender, race, representatives in both houses.
Equality religion, age, sexual orientation or level of • a sovereign (such as a king, queen or governor-
education. All citizens have the right to the
general) to act as the Head of State and hold
same opportunities.
various powers including being required to give
All people are treated fairly, or without
Fairness injustice, and are given equal opportunity. final approval to all laws made by the parliament.
Also known as a ‘fair go’ in Australia. The sovereign or Crown also has an important
Rights, privileges and responsibilities for all ceremonial role, including representing the
Freedom without interference, or control from other country at national and international events.
citizens or government. In Australia, both our federal and state governments
Source 2 Democratic values
are modelled on the Westminster system.
The concept of fairness is a particularly

valuable democratic value in many
democracies such as Australia. The right
to a fair trial is one example where we
strive to achieve the democratic value of
fairness. If a person is accused of a crime
in Australia, they have the right to be
given a fair trial in which a prosecutor
presents evidence to the court to prove
their guilt; an accused person does not
have to prove their innocence. Accused
persons also have the right to have a
legal representative or lawyer present a
case in their defence. Trials are overseen
by independent judges who ensure
that all parties before the court are
given a fair and unbiased hearing and
an equal opportunity to present their
case. Being given a fair trial also means
that an accused person should not be
discriminated against, that is, their gender,
race, religion, age or even past offences
Source 3 The Palace of Westminster in London is where the two
should not interfere with the way they are houses of the parliament of the United Kingdom sit. The English
treated or the outcome of the trial. parliamentary system is similar to our own.

Justice Participation
The concept of justice can have many different The concept of participation is an important
definitions. The idea of justice can mean different part of living in a democracy. It refers to the way
things to different people depending on their good citizens contribute or take part in society. In
nationality, culture and values. For some it might Australia, we participate in society through activities
mean seeking revenge or payback, while for others it such as voting in an election or referendum, serving
might mean fairness. However, the concept of justice on a jury or paying taxes. Citizens who participate in
in Australia ultimately means that people should this way reap the rewards of living in a society where
treat each other in a manner that is fair and balanced elected members of parliament seek to represent their
for all. views, those who break the law are treated fairly, and
Our legal system has strong ties with the concept the services that we can all use, such as schools and
of justice. In fact, it is sometimes referred to as the roads, are provided.
justice system. In Australia, when people break the One of the most important ways we can
law and are convicted by the courts it is said that participate in a democracy is by voting in an
they have been ‘brought to justice’. election. By voting for the issues that are important
As we will continue to learn through years 9 and to us, we have the power to influence the way our
10, the key features of the Western Australian legal country is run.
system and the Australian legal system are designed Government can also give citizens the
to deliver justice to all. Through its key principles opportunity to participate in important decisions
and procedures (such as the right to a fair trial, legal outside of elections and referendums.
representation, unbiased juries and the burden of As a part of democratic societies, participation is
proof), the legal system encourages the delivery important in giving citizens a sense of ownership or
of justice to all citizens, whether they be guilty or accountability in the running of society.
innocent. Our laws and rights are also written and
enforced so that we can enjoy a fair and just society.
The judicial or court system aims to publicly
deliver justice so that those who commit crimes
are publicly called to account for their actions and
punished for breaking the law. This acts as a deterrent
to others who might break the law and also serves
to keep the community safe from those who would
harm us.
Source 4 Australia’s legal system is designed to serve

justice to citizens.

Rights and responsibilities protects our rights. Rather, our constitution says we
have a number of rights (see Source 6) including
The concept of rights and responsibilities refers to the right to vote. In Australia, we have no official
our entitlements and duties as citizens. The rights protection for our right to freedom of speech;
and responsibilities we experience in Australia are however, the democratic values held by our society
an important part of living in a democracy. Our ensure that this privilege is rarely prevented.
rights ensure we are able to have a say in the way our
country is run and are treated fairly in the process. Rights Responsibilities
On the other hand, our civic responsibilities ensure The right to vote Voting in elections
we contribute to our society in order to keep it going
Protection against acquisition
as a strong democracy. A list of some of these rights Jury service
of property on unjust terms
and responsibilities is shown in Source 6. The right to trial by jury Paying taxes
In the United States, the rights of the citizens are The right to freedom of religion Obeying the law
protected by their Bill of Rights. This Bill, made up
Protection against
of the first 10 amendments to the Constitution of discrimination
the US, makes sure the freedoms of US citizens are
protected, including the freedom of speech and the Source 6 The rights and responsibilities of Australian citizens
freedom to assemble or gather in protest. In Australia,
we do not have a national Bill of Rights that officially

Source 5 We participate in the running of society by
voting in elections. Remember and understand
1 What is a democracy?
2 What kind of democracy is Australia?
3 Name and describe two democratic values.
4 What is justice?
5 What rights do we have in Australia that are
protected by our constitution?
Apply and analyse

6 Why is it important for citizens to participate in a
democracy?
7 What other values do you think are important to
our democratic society?
Evaluate and create

8 Research the government of another democratic
society (such as New Zealand, Canada or Japan).
How is its form of government similar to or different
from Australia’s form of government? Present your
findings as a poster or audiovisual presentation.
9 Consider this statement: ‘Australia should have its
own national Bill of Rights.’ Using the Internet to
conduct research, develop an argument both for
and against this statement.

14.2 Civics and citizenship skills
Civics and citizenship studies help us learn to question, Studying civics and citizenship requires you to
interpret information and argue our point of view. The analyse information and ask a range of questions to
classroom is a forum for you to share your opinions find out more about a topic. You learn to question and
and see things from a wider range of perspectives research information by asking what, why, when, who
when examining topics such as compulsory voting, the and how to uncover the truth about an issue. Through
right to a fair trial and Australia’s treatment of asylum investigating an issue you will be able to arrive at your
seekers. own viewpoint while understanding the reasons why
others may have different points of views.
• Identify current personal knowledge, gaps, misconceptions, currency of information, personal perspective and
possible perspectives of others
Questioning plan for, and inform, an investigation
and research • Use a range of methods to collect, select, record and organise relevant and reliable information and/or data from
multiple sources that reflects the type of analysis of information that is needed (e.g. questionnaires, surveys, emails,
tables, field sketches, annotated diagrams), with and without the use of digital and spatial technologies
• Use appropriate ethical protocols, including specific formats for acknowledging other people's information, and
• Use criteria to analyse the reliability, bias, usefulness and currency of primary sources and/or secondary sources
• Analyse information and/or data in different formats (e.g. to explain cause-and-effect relationships, comparisons,
Analysing
• Draw evidence-based conclusions by evaluating information and/or data, taking into account ambiguities and
Evaluating response to contemporary events, challenges, developments, issues, problems and/or phenomena
• Select a range of appropriate formats based on their effectiveness to suit audience and purpose, using relevant
digital technologies as appropriate
Communicating between the information and the hypothesis, using subject-specific conventions, terminology and concepts
and reflecting
• Reflect on why all findings are tentative (e.g. changing nature of knowledge, changes in circumstances or values)
Source 1 The four categories of skills used in civics and citizenship inquiries

14.3 Questioning and research
Developing questions
Active citizens ask lots of questions. Often
they don’t believe everything they read and
they seek to detect the motivation behind
why someone takes a certain point of view or
acts in a certain way. For example, when they
see politicians talking in the media they listen
to their arguments and seek out differing
points of view. They also check facts and look
at the arguments for and against a certain
issue before reaching their own conclusions.
When active and informed citizens state
their own viewpoint, they support this with
evidence such as statistics, cases from the
past, quotes from relevant sources and sound
reasoning. Source 1 Cartoonists present their viewpoints on current issues using
images and humour.
skilldrill
Developing civics and ‘Who is saying this?’ can be just as important as

‘What is being said?’ Identifying where the source
citizenship questions comes from can alert you to whether the truth of
Source 1 is a political cartoon about Australia’s their statements should be examined more carefully.
response to global warming. Protection of the Step 3 The ‘how’ question is also important. You might
environment and what our lawmakers and citizens are ask, ‘How is this happening?’ or ‘How does this
going to do in the future to conserve the environment source affect me?’ Are there any emotions such as
are important issues at home and abroad. You can fear, persuasion or humour that are being used to
learn to investigate a civics and citizenship issue such influence your judgement?
as this by starting your questions with the words ‘what’,
‘where’, ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘what impact’ or ‘what should’. Apply the skill
When examining a source, whether it is a cartoon, video 1 Where could you look to find answers to the
footage, a newspaper article or election slogan, the question ‘What are the impacts of global warming?’
following approach may be helpful: 2 Why is it important to know the author of the source
Step 1 Brainstorm a list of questions and then try to when discovering the truth about an issue?
answer them. Some questions, such as ‘What is 3 Why is examining how the source affects you
happening?’, might be easily answered, whereas sometimes more important than basic descriptive
other questions, such as ‘Why is it happening?’, questions such as ‘What is happening’?
might need further research.
4 What tactics have been used to convey the
Step 2 Look at the source itself to try to understand cartoonist’s message about the future of the planet
the context. The ‘who’ question is important here. due to global warming in Source 1?

Identifying sources and reference as information or material that is out of date. When
using search engines, be sure to define your search
appropriate using keywords.
Sources provide information for informed citizens. They • A reliable way of searching for sources is to use sites
can take many different forms, from written records linked to educational institutions, government
in books or online to live interactions that may be departments, reputable companies and universities.
captured by varying forms of media. Some examples A quick way of telling if a site is reputable is to look
of sources include case transcripts and judgments, at the domain name in the URL (Internet address).
newspaper articles, letters, tweets, blogs or Facebook • Avoid blogs posted by unknown individuals. If
posts, cartoons, diaries, interviews and live debates. you happen to find information relevant to your
In your research you may collect information from investigation on a blog or social media site, always
primary sources (sources from the time or event being verify it by using a more reliable source.
investigated) such as photographs, letters, film, diary • Never cut and paste information from the Internet
entries or official documents such as laws. Or you may straight into your own work. Taking someone else’s
gather information from secondary sources (sources work, ideas or words and using them as if they were
about the time or event being investigated) such as your own is called plagiarism and can result in very
newspaper articles, census data or websites. When using serious consequences.
these sources, it is important to be able to distinguish
between them and to know where, when and who the The ethics of research
source came from.
When gathering information, it is important to follow
Locating a range of relevant sources usually involves
ethical protocols to use this information appropriately.
a number of different search methods, such as:
This might include:
• using online search engines such as Google
• informed consent – getting permission from
• visiting government websites
someone to use information about them
• looking at newspaper and magazine articles online
• citation – giving credit to the right person if you
• contacting local members of parliament or asking a
quote them or use information they have collected
person with expertise in the subject
• integrity of data – making sure your data is accurate
• interviewing class members or family members to
and not made up
gain an insight into their views on a particular issue.
• confidentiality – protecting people’s personal
information if they do not wish you to use it.

1 Why is it important for citizens to ask questions?
2 What can citizens use as a reliable source of
information?
3 What is plagiarism?
Source 2 You need to ensure that sources of information Apply and analyse
gathered online are accurate and reliable. 4 Kim wants to know why housing is so expensive in
A lot of research today is conducted online. In order Australia. Where might she go to find the answer
to ensure that sources gathered online are accurate, to a question like this?
reliable and relevant, a number of guidelines should be 5 Katie has noticed that a local swimming pool
followed: has been closed for a long time. Despite a local
• Search engines such as Google are useful research politician promising to reopen the pool, nothing
tools, but much of the material on these sites is not has happened. Suggest three questions Katie
reliable and may contain inaccuracies, misleading might ask about this as an active citizen.

14.4 Analysing
The reliability of sources
All sources are affected by the author’s own attitudes
or beliefs. In some cases, the author may have been
paid or forced to write in a particular way or to ignore
important facts from an event or story. This is referred
to as a bias and is often aimed at persuading a reader
or viewer to agree with the person who created the
source. In politics, and therefore in the study of civics
and citizenship, people often write or speak about
issues from their own perspective. This is why we must
carefully evaluate and analyse sources when we are
drawing conclusions from them.
Source 1 Sources are influenced by the author's attitudes and

beliefs.
skilldrill
Identify and describe points of Step 1 Identify a controversial issue. You can choose
one of the issues listed or choose a more localised
view, attitudes and values in issue such as the use of mobile phones at school or
sources your school’s efforts to protect the environment.
Step 2 List those affected by the issue.
A person’s perspective is their point of view – the
position from which they see and understand events Step 3 Locate sources depicting each point of view.
going on in the world around them. The more Step 4 For each point of view, describe the point
controversial an issue is, the more likely that there will of view being expressed. Why is the view being
be strong, competing points of view. Controversial civics expressed? Who is expressing it? What are they
and citizenship issues include: saying?
• Australia becoming a republic Step 5 What affects this person's point of view?
• Australia’s treatment of asylum seekers Think about the person’s role, personal experience,
• the treatment of Indigenous Australians whether they stand to benefit financially and their
• retaining the jury system ability to tolerate difference in others.
• policy on climate change
Apply the skill
• foreign investment in Australia.
1 Use the steps above to look closely at another
controversial issue of your choice. You can choose
one of the issues listed or a more localised issue
such as the use of recycled goods at school or your
school’s efforts to provide healthy food and drink
options at the canteen.

A useful source is one that will add to your Analysing information
understanding of a civics and citizenship inquiry.
Part of studying civics and citizenship is developing
The source needs to be relevant to the topic or
the ability to analyse information or data in different
question asked and must also be reliable. The following
formats. Data can be presented in all sorts of ways, such
are good questions to ask in order to determine the
as tables, graphs, cartoons, newspaper articles or blogs.
usefulness of a source:
It is important to be able to examine these sources and
• Is it a reliable source?
compare them. This might involve examining their
• Is there enough information and sufficient detail to
similarities and differences to help you answer your
help me answer the inquiry question?
research question.
• Does the information support and reinforce evidence
It might also involve identifying cause-and-effect
from other sources?
relationships, when one circumstance results in
• Is it balanced or does it present one point of view (bias)? another circumstance. For example, Source 1 on page
• Is it based on fact or opinion? 427 shows a cartoon on global warming. Analysing this
• Is the information current? cartoon might help you to identify global warming as a
cause and rising sea levels as an effect.
Separating fact from opinion
The conclusions you draw about the sources you have
found will determine their usefulness. In many cases,
this means separating fact from opinion. A fact is
something that can be proved: when an event took
place, what happened and who was involved. An
opinion is based on what a person, or persons, may 1 What is bias?
believe to be true. A simple way to detect whether a 2 What is the difference between a fact and an
statement is fact or opinion is to look closely at the opinion?
language used. The use of words such as ‘might’, ‘could’, 3 Name five factors that might influence a person’s
‘believe’, ‘think’ and ‘suggests’ all indicate that an perspective?
opinion is being expressed. For example: 4 What is a cause-and-effect relationship?
• Fact: Australia has compulsory voting.
• Opinion: Australia is a democracy so citizens should Apply and analyse
have the right to choose if they want to vote in an 5 Jorge is researching the political issue of whether
election rather than be told they have to by law. or not Australia should accept more refugees.
Perspective and bias are not just limited to the He has found several sources of information.
people who create source material. Interpretations of Which of the following should Jorge think of as
sources can also vary widely from person to person. reliable? Provide a reason for your decision.
Age, gender, social position, beliefs and values can a a blog called ‘Get your own country’
affect perspective. b a report released by the Australian Bureau
of Statistics
c the United Nations official website
d an article from The Australian newspaper
6 Identify whether the below statement is fact
or opinion and explain why.
Asylum seekers and refugees might be happier
if the facilities they stayed in were in better
condition.
Source 2 Separating fact from fiction in civics and citizenship

is an important skill.

14.5 Evaluating
Evaluating information, perspectives you are going to propose action as a group, or collective,
you will need to follow a more democratic process.
and contentious issues A democratic process is one in which everyone has
Once you have collected and analysed the information an opportunity to have their say. This might include
you need, you can draw on your evidence to come up giving all members of a group the opportunity to
with an answer, or conclusion, to your question. In contribute to a discussion, ensuring that information
order to come to a fair conclusion, it is important to is conveyed to all group members, providing group
take into account any perspectives, uncertainties or members with adequate time and opportunity to
contentious issues that could disrupt your evaluation respond and vote on an issue.
There’s an old saying that before you criticise a
person you should walk a mile in their shoes. In civics
and citizenship it is important to understand not only
what opinion is being expressed but why it is being
expressed. It is useful to consider why a person may
have a certain point of view. For example, the family of
a victim of crime may say to the media that a sentence
given to a criminal was insufficient and unjust. This
may be true, but it’s important to consider how the
harm or loss of a family member due to crime may
influence opinion. Listening and being respectful of
opinions that may be different from our own is an
important skill to practise in civics and citizenship so
that we can discuss issues rationally with others. If we
are unable to listen or do not try to understand other Source 1 One way to reach a decision that reflects the majority
people’s perspectives, we can create conflict. When view is to take a vote.
issues have clear sides or perspectives, it can be better
to hold open discussions to address people’s ideas or to Check your learning 14.5
negotiate a middle ground, rather than just escalating
the issue by fighting. Remember and understand
1 Why is it important to recognise multiple
Proposing a plan of action perspectives on an issue?
Once you have come to a conclusion, you must decide 2 Describe a democratic process. Why is it a good
on a course of action. Imagine that your research way to make decisions?
question asked if there were enough places to sit outside
Apply and analyse
in your school yard. You surveyed people, compared
the landscape with other schools in your area, and 3 A PE teacher gives a class the chance to choose
have come to the conclusion that there are not enough. what sport they will all play during a double period.
What do you do now? The class disagrees about whether or not they
You could decide to do nothing if the problem isn’t should play basketball or soccer. How could this
that bad, or you can decide to propose action. This problem be solved?
action might include writing to your principal or school 4 Amy and Tui are arguing about whether or not
council. Or, with the permission of your teachers, you funding from the local council should go to the
might raise money yourselves to pay for more benches kindergarten or the cricket club. After only minutes
around the school. of discussion, their arguments begin to get
It is possible to take action as an individual or as a personal and offensive. Suggest how they could
group. Sometimes trying to get things done by yourself handle this situation better.
can be a lot of work, and help from a team is useful. If

14.6 Communicating and reflecting
Terminology for civics and citizenship • An explanation of your results – you might like to
present your results as graphs, tables or photographs
Just like in mathematics, a common language is used to make it easier for your audience to understand.
in civics and citizenship. Source 1 lists and defines
• A conclusion – what were your findings? Explain
some commonly used terms in civics and citizenship;
why you came to that conclusion by evaluating your
additional civics and citizenship terms can also be
results.
found in the glossary at the end of this book.
• A proposal for action – what needs to be done now?
How can your audience get involved? Predict the
Communicating your findings consequences of your proposal for action.
After you have come to your conclusion and decided
on a course of action, it is time to communicate your Reflecting on our role as citizens
findings. There are many ways you can let people
Many Australian citizens go beyond the legal
know about your evidence, conclusions and proposal
responsibilities they have as citizens because they care
for action, including audiovisual presentations (using
about the community they live in and believe they have
software such as PowerPoint or Prezi), posters, reports,
a social responsibility to make it a better place.
blogs or letters to someone who can help you take
action (such as your teacher or local council).
Local citizens
Whichever format you decide to use, it is good to
include the following: At the local level, a citizen may give their time or
resources to help others in need such as by giving to a
• An introduction – let people know what your
local charity or helping at the local school fete. Lucas
questions was, why you asked that question and why
Patchett and Nicholas Marchesi are Young Australian
it is important. This is also a good time to define any
volunteers and school friends who decided to set up a
key terms you are using.
mobile laundry service for the homeless in their local
• An explanation of what research you did – why did
community. Lucas and Nicholas are examples of local
you use those sources?
citizen A citizen is a person who legally lives in a geographical area such as a town or country.
citizenship A person’s status as a citizen. In a wider context, citizenship encompasses the rights and responsibilities that
citizens exercise.
civics The study of the rights and responsibilities of citizens and how government works.
diversity Having many different forms. When referring to people it means that people come from different racial, ethnic,
socio-economic, geographical, educational or professional backgrounds.
globalisation The process that involves all the countries of the world being linked together, resulting in an exchange of views,
ideas, products and culture.
government The elected members of parliament who make decisions for a nation or state. The government is made up of the
party or coalition that has won a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament. The lower house of federal
parliament is the House of Representatives. The lower house of the Western Australian state parliament is the
Legislative Assembly.
parliament The national or state law-making body that is made up of elected representatives in both the upper and lower
house with a head of state. In Australia the national parliament is referred to as the Commonwealth or federal
parliament.
parliamentary A system of government where people elect representatives to parliament in order to make laws that reflect the
democracy majority of voters’ views.
pluralist society A diverse society where there is tolerance of different beliefs.
Source 1 Some useful civics and citizenship terms

citizens. There are now nine services across Australia Global citizens
providing the ‘Orange Sky’ laundry experience where
the homeless can talk to someone while their washing A citizen may also act on a global level to make the
is being cleaned (Source 2). world a better place to live in. The late Fred Hollows is
an example of a global citizen who used his skills to
restore eyesight to thousands of people in Australia and
in many other countries around the world.
Source 2 Lucas Patchett and Nicholas Marchesi serve their

local community through their mobile laundry service for the
homeless.
Regional citizens
A regional citizen may often work at a national level to
provide a better future for all Australians. One of the
most common ways for regional citizens to achieve this
Source 4 Fred Hollows is known for working with people
is by supporting a charity or cause. Rosie Batty is an
around the world to restore the eyesight of those who could not
example of an Australian citizen who has campaigned access corrective surgery otherwise.
to stop domestic violence in Australia after her own son,
Luke, was murdered by his father.
1 Use your own words to define the following terms:
a civics
b citizenship.
2 Why might someone contribute to society, beyond
their usual responsibility as a citizen?
Apply and analyse

3 Suggest three ways you could present your
findings to the following people:
a your class
b your principal
c your local MP.
Source 3 In 2015, Rosie Batty was appointed Australian of

the Year for her work in educating people about the impact of
domestic violence and her involvement in establishing the Royal
Commission into Family Violence in Victoria.

14.7 Careers in civics and citizenship
There are a range of career paths that can lead from It is not just for our careers that studying civics and
studying civics and citizenship. People who are citizenship is important. By developing our knowledge
interested in politics, law and citizenship might be and understanding of the way our government works
interested in a number of rewarding jobs that involve we will be able to actively participate in the legal and
our legal and political systems. political systems. From voting in elections to serving on
While we will all be impacted by civics and juries, protesting political decisions and paying taxes,
citizenship throughout our lives, people can specialise the knowledge of what happens in government and
in particular aspects of the field. Some of the many why will serve us well in preparing us for the future.
career options are listed in Source 1.
Career Description
Solicitor A lawyer who prepares cases and advises clients on legal matters
Barrister A lawyer who can represent (or advocate for) a client in court or privately in negotiations or mediation
Judge A legal professional who presides over court hearings or trials
Diplomat A person who represents a country’s government overseas
Politician A person who is, or aspires to be, elected to government and represent the interests of citizens
Campaign manger A person who organises the activities of an election campaign on behalf of a political candidate
Political adviser A person, usually an expert in a particular subject, who can give advice to elected representatives on political
issues
Political reporter A journalist who reports on political or legal events and news; this usually requires a good understanding of the
political and legal systems
ASIO officer A person who works on behalf of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation to assist the Australian
government identify, investigate or control threats to Australia’s security
Paralegal A person who assists a lawyer to represent or advise clients
Mediator A person who acts as an independent third party to assist people or groups in dispute to negotiate and reach a
decision about their dispute
Police officer A person who prevents or detects crime, enforces the law and ensures society maintains order
Source 1 Careers in civics and citizenship

Career profile: Ryan Wu – criminal Ryan’s favourite thing about working as a criminal
defence lawyer is ‘the satisfaction of helping innocent
defence lawyer people’.
Ryan Wu works for a law firm in Perth that specialises Originally, Ryan wanted to specialise in human
in defending people from criminal charges. Ryan’s work rights law because he wanted to help people. However,
in criminal law means that he works with a team of while studying law at the University of Western
other barristers and paralegals to defend the innocence Australia he discovered he had a strong interest in
of a diverse range of clients who have been accused of criminal law, and could still help people in this
a crime. specialty. Ryan also studied for a semester in London as
In a recent case, Ryan was defending a man who had part of his degree, where he said he ‘learned that there
been accused of larceny (theft of personal property) at is so much more to law than just being in a courtroom’.
a pub in Northbridge. Ryan worked with his legal team Ryan’s career in the justice system has been a lot
to find and subpoena (get a legal order to obtain) the of hard work but a very rewarding experience. Ryan
footage from a security camera at the pub. The footage believes more students should go on to study civics
showed that their client had not stolen anything on and citizenship in Years 11 and 12 as it doesn’t just
the night in question and, as a result, Ryan was able to lead to a career in the legal system. ‘There are so many
convince the court that there was no evidence against opportunities that come from knowing about the legal
his client and so police withdrew their charges. system and how the government works.’
Source 2 Ryan Wu works as a criminal defence lawyer in Perth.

Government,
democracy
and the citizen
Bride-to-be Ruby Gamble takes her democratic right to
vote seriously, as she arrives at a polling booth before
her wedding ceremony. Ruby is one of approximately
16 million Australians who are enrolled to vote in a
federal election. During the last federal election there
were more than 7000 polling places set up around
the country from Cape York, the northern-most tip of
Australia, to South East Cape in Tasmania.
For many Australians, voting is more than just a legal
requirement they must fulfill. The right to vote is one
of our democratic rights as it provides the opportunity
to ‘have a say’ in who will best manage Australia
in the future and represent our view in the national
parliament.
15A
What factors influence
15B
What shapes our decisions at
Australia’s political system? election time?
1 Would you ever consider becoming a member of 1 What does it mean to be a citizen in Australia?
parliament? Why do you think people enter politics? 2 What factors might influence your vote at election
2 How do political parties attract voters? time?
3 Do you think there should be more members of 3 How could social media be used to raise
parliament who are younger? Why? awareness of an issue at election time?

15
chapter
Source 1 Ruby Gamble voting at her local polling place before her wedding on election day in 2016.
chapter 15 government, democracy and the citizen 457

15.1 Living in a democracy
Australians over 18 years of age have the right to vote important. Freedom of speech is one such value.
at elections for candidates that most closely represent Australians have a right to peacefully protest, whether it
their views about how their country, state, territory or is by joining a protest march, signing an online petition,
local area should be run. This is called representative talking to the media about an issue or contacting a
democracy. member of parliament. Other liberal democratic values
In a representative democracy, elections are held at or principles are illustrated in Source 4.
regular intervals. If we are not happy with our elected Australia is the envy of many other countries
members, we can vote for others to hopefully do a because of our liberal democratic values. The following
better job at the next election. case study highlights some of the problems that occur
Australia is also a liberal democracy. This means when liberal democratic values are not upheld.
there are certain values that are viewed as extremely
casestudy
Could this ever happen in Australia?
Malala Yousafzai ‘Punk Prayer – Mother of God, Chase Putin Away!’ on the
Internet. The group opposes Russian President Vladimir
Malala Yousafzai, a
Putin’s policies and believes he is a dictator. Three of the
Pakistani student, was only
band’s members were charged with hooliganism and
15 years of age when she
sent to jail. Many in the West opposed the jailing of the
was shot in the head by a
girls, believing they had a right to exercise free speech
gunman in October 2012
and protest against the government of the day.
on her way home from
school. The attempted
assassination occurred Source 1 Malala Yousafzai Aung San Suu Kyi
because Malala believed that girls had the right to be Aung San Suu Kyi is a
educated and had spoken out about this. The ruling Burmese human rights
group called the Taliban had at times banned school activist and politician.
education for girls living in the Swat district of the In 1988 she protested
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in Pakistan. Thankfully against the military regime
Malala survived her attack and remains a political that ruled Myanmar
activist today. (Burma) and in 1989 was
placed under house arrest
Pussy Riot – jailed at home – for her
political activities. She
A feminist punk rock
spent 15 of the next 21
group called Pussy Riot Source 3 Aung San Suu Kyi
years in custody. Aung
caught world attention
San Suu Kyi wants genuine democracy for her country
for their political protest
with free and fair elections and respect for human rights.
in 2012. They staged a
performance in a Moscow
cathedral and posted Source 2 Two members of
their music video entitled the band Pussy Riot

I can go out when I please.

(Freedom of movement) I know I won’t be thrown
in jail without a trial.
I can run as a candidate (Right to a fair trial)
in an election.
(Freedom of election)
When I’m 18 I can

vote in elections.
(Freedom of election)
I can follow my
religious beliefs.
(Freedom of religion) I know I won’t be
arrested for nothing.
(Freedom from
arbitrary arrest)
I can meet up with a

group of friends. I can openly criticise
(Freedom of assembly) the government.
(Freedom of speech)
Source 4 Liberal democratic values that we aim to uphold in Australia

Remember and understand b Kevin Rudd was the leader of the Labor Party
1 Name one important value of a liberal democracy. that won the Australian election in 2007. He was
Prime Minister for three years until 2010 when
2 Why is holding regular elections so important?
his deputy, Julia Gillard, challenged him for the
3 Give an example of one political activist who suffered position and won.
as a result of speaking out against the government of
c In 1974, the leader of the democratically elected
the day. Labor Party in Australia, Gough Whitlam, became
Apply and analyse Prime Minister, but was dismissed a year later by
the Governor-General.
4 For countries that don’t have free democratic
d Robert Mugabe, the 90-year-old President of
elections, how is it decided who will run the
Zimbabwe, has recently warned journalists that
country?
any reporting on his health would result in severe
5 In the following cases, have democratic values been punishment.
upheld? Provide a reason for your answer.
a In 2007, an Australian named David Hicks Evaluate and create
pleaded guilty to a United States military 6 Draw an image that illustrates what you think of our
commission in Guantanamo, Cuba, for providing liberal democratic values in Australia. You might use
material support for terrorism. He alleges that an image that shows freedom, such as an open
he only pleaded in this way because he wanted door, a dove or a key.
to be released and had been tortured while in a
prison in Guantanamo.

15.2 Australia’s political system
Australia has what is sometimes called a parliamentary What has just been described is a political system.
democracy. This is because those who are elected to A political system is a way of determining who has the
represent us meet at a place called parliament. It is in power and responsibility for making decisions about
parliament that laws are changed or new laws passed important matters that affect people’s daily lives. The
that affect all Australians. political system we have today is set out in a document
called the Australian Constitution, which commenced
Australia’s national parliament on 1 January 1901. The Constitution established a
federal parliamentary system where the responsibility
In Australia, there is a national parliament that makes to make or change laws in certain areas is shared by one
laws that concern the whole country such as defence, national parliament and six state parliaments.
immigration and trade for the whole nation. This
national parliament is sometimes called the Federal or The inner workings of the Commonwealth
Commonwealth Parliament and is situated in Canberra. Parliament
Each of the six states and two territories in Australia
Australian Parliament consists of two sections referred
also has a parliament that makes laws on matters of
to as the upper and lower houses of parliament. The
state importance such as education, transport and
lower house of our Commonwealth Parliament is
health. Each state parliament is democratically elected.
called the House of Representatives. Since we have
Local councils are not called parliaments, but they do
representative democracy, it follows that representatives
make laws on local matters such as rubbish collection,
are chosen from all over Australia to represent our
town planning and pet control. Local councils are
views. In order to achieve this representation, Australia
democratically elected and there are more than 560
is divided up into 150 geographical divisions known
local councils in Australia today.
as electorates, or seats. Each electorate has roughly
94 000 voters. At election time, one candidate is elected
Source 1 Our national parliament – Parliament House in Canberra

Speaker’s chair
Government side Opposition side
Prime Minister Opposition leader
Source 2 The House of Representatives in Parliament House, Canberra. The House of Representatives is also known as the
lower house.
from each electorate and becomes a member of the

House of Representatives. It is fitting that the House of
Representatives is sometimes referred to as ‘the people’s
house’.
Most of the members elected to parliament will
belong to a political party. Members of a political party
have similar ideas and policies on how to best govern
the country. A political party or group of parties,
known as a coalition, that wins a majority of seats in
the House of Representatives (at least 76 of 150 seats)
will have won the election, and forms government. It’s
a simple case of majority rule. The leader of the party
(or coalition) that has won the majority of seats in the
House of Representatives is the Prime Minister. The
leader of the party (or coalition) that has the largest
number of seats but has not gained a majority in the
House of Representatives is the opposition leader. If
neither party can get 76 seats for a majority, it is known
as a hung parliament. In such cases, it is possible for
a major party to form a minority government by
negotiating with minor parties or independents for
their support.
Source 3 The Australian Constitution established
a federal system of government.

Source 2 shows the layout of seating in the House of the state they belong to, but in reality they often belong
Representatives. The government of the day is the party to a political party and will be influenced by party
or coalition that has won the election, and therefore policy rather than state interests.
has what is called a mandate or permission to act on You might be wondering why we have two houses
behalf of the people of Australia. Each new government of parliament, especially when the real action seems to
brings with it fresh ideas and experience on how best to take place in the House of Representatives where the
manage the country. The opposition’s role is to hold the government is formed. An important purpose of having
government accountable for its actions. In the media, the Senate is that it is seen as a house of review – a
you will often hear an opposition member criticising house that checks what the government of the day is
what the government is doing. It is this close scrutiny doing and holds it accountable for its actions.
of how the country is being managed that is part of our It is important to understand the difference
democratic system. between the terms ‘parliament’ and ‘government’. As
previously mentioned, the government is the party
Why two houses of parliament? or coalition that has a majority of seats in the House
The upper house of our Commonwealth Parliament of Representatives. The Commonwealth Parliament
is called the Senate. It was originally set up to protect includes both houses of parliament as well as the
the interests of the states. When the Constitution was Governor-General, who is the Queen’s representative
written, it was decided that each state should be equally in Australia. The Governor-General is appointed by
represented regardless of its size, so that the smaller the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister. The
states would still have a say. Each state is represented by Governor-General performs many duties such as
12 senators today. The Australian Capital Territory and appointing ambassadors, ministers and judges and also
the Northern Territory are represented by two senators approves laws passed by both houses of parliament.
each. Senators are elected to represent the interests of
President’s chair
Government side Opposition side
Source 4 The Senate in Parliament House, Canberra. The Senate is also known as the upper house.

Source 5 The Governor-General is the Queen’s representative in Australia. Sir Peter Cosgrove became the Governor-General in 2014.

Remember and understand 6 List one possible advantage and one disadvantage
1 Give two examples of laws that might be made of having a federal system.
by: 7 Look at the following election results and decide
a the Commonwealth Parliament which party or coalition will form government.
b state and territory parliaments Australian Labor Party 55
c local councils Liberal/National Coalition 90
2 What is the Constitution?
The Greens 1
3 What is the purpose of the Senate?
Katter’s Australian Party 1
4 What is another name for:
a a seat Nick Xenophon Team 1
b the House of Representatives? Independent 2

5 Refer to Source 2 and explain why there would 8 Draw a diagram that illustrates the number of
usually be more people sitting on the government members in both houses of the Commonwealth
side than the opposition side. Parliament and how it is determined who the
government is.

15.3 Political parties and policy
developments
The Australian Parliament is made up of members There are many other smaller political parties
from a number of different political parties, along such as the Nationals and the Greens. The primary
with independent candidates (who do not belong to a purpose of the two major political parties is to win
political party). the election. Each political party puts forwards their
own candidates at election time; if a majority of those
Political parties candidates win their lower house seats, they are said to
be ‘in power’ and able to form government. The Liberal
Political parties are made up of groups of people who Party and the Nationals often join forces in a coalition
share similar ideas about how their country or state (partnership) in order to form government together. It is
should be run. In Australia, two political parties the government of the day that has the power to make
dominate: the Labor Party (often referred to as the ALP) important decisions.
and the Liberal Party.
Source 1 Former Labor prime minister Bob Hawke and former Liberal prime minister John Howard both won four Australian
elections. John Howard is Australia’s longest-serving prime minister after former prime minister Robert Menzies (1894–1978),
who won eight Australian elections.

casestudy
Why don’t Australians want to party? Group Membership over
Membership of sporting clubs, such as the AFL,
AFL club memberships 836 136
far surpasses membership to political parties in
Australia, but this wasn’t always the case. In the 1950s, NRL club memberships 200 000
membership of both major parties was around 350 000.
It seems that in our busy lives there’s little time for Liberal Party 61 456
politics. Many people feel that they have ‘a say’ at the

Labor Party 53 930
polling booth so why bother joining a party?
Both the major political parties are now heeding the Scouts 51 228
call to recruit new members and are making changes to LEGEND
Rotarian 32 243
encourage more people to join a political party. Senator = 50 000 members
Sam Dastyari believes political parties must change
Greens 10 000
some of their ways. He says there is too much emphasis
on having regular face-to-face meetings, when there are Source 2 Many political parties must review their
other ways to communicate in the 21st century. membership policies if they want to increase party
membership. The membership data above was
There are almost 60 different political parties accurate as at November 2015.
registered on the Australian Electoral Commission’s
website. Some parties have broad-ranging ideals, while
others have more specific causes to fight for.
KEY PRINCIPLES KEY PRINCIPLES KEY PRINCIPLES

• Australia's oldest political party • Believes in the power of the • Represents the interests of those
individual and business to make Australians that live outside the
• Believes that the government
their own choices and prosper cities in country Australia
should play a strong national role
• Strives for less government control • Believes in strong local
• Strives for a fairer Australia for all
communities, referring to
workers • The Liberals and the Nationals join
themselves as the 'local
forces at the federal level so they
• Tries to close the gap between champions'
have enough members to form
the rich and poor so that wealth
government
is more evenly distributed
Source 3 The Labor and Liberal Party are the two dominant political parties in Australia today. The Liberal Party often
forms a coalition with the Nationals in order to form government.
The role of independents in major party relies on their vote to pass important laws.
Andrew Wilkie is an independent who was elected
parliament by voters in the Tasmanian seat of Denison. Wilkie’s
primary campaign in the 2010 election was the removal
Not all members of parliament belong to a political
of poker machines.
party – these members are called independents. Some
independents may have belonged to a political party There are various influences that shape Australia’s
but were dissatisfied. Independents may have views political system, and that influence government policy.
that do not quite fit a party mould. Independents can Public opinion, the media and international pressures
play a powerful role in Parliament, particularly if the are just some of the factors that may come into play.

Shaping and developing The political party that wins the election and forms
government must put their policies into action. The
government policy government of the day is said to have been given the
mandate to implement the policies they promoted
A policy is a statement of principles that aims to guide
during their election campaign.
action that must be taken in the future. At a school
level, for example, there may be an environmental Source 4 shows factors that might influence
policy that includes plans to recycle, reduce waste and government policy. Winning an election, though, does
reuse resources. Political parties develop policies that we not mean that the government can simply set about
usually learn about at election time. This is also called implementing their policies without any interference.
a party platform, which sets out the party’s goals in In order to implement many policies, new laws must be
order to appeal to voters. For example, around the 2013 passed in parliament. If a government does not hold the
federal election time, the Liberal Party of Australia majority of seats in the Senate, it will need to negotiate
announced their policy to ‘stop the boats’, a policy with senators so that they support new legislation.
that was aimed to deter people seeking asylum in Opinion polls, media and interest groups will also
Australia by boat without a valid visa. During the 2016 play a role in affecting government policy. For example,
federal election campaign, the Labor Party focused on a discussion surrounding reform of our tax system and
health care, promising to protect bulk-billing rates and increasing taxes will normally result in business groups
increase hospital funding. and community welfare groups commenting about the
effects of the policy. International pressure or
relations with other countries may also influence
government policy.
The principles and

objectives of the political
party in office (their party
platform)
Voter opinion –
governments want
International to be re-elected
reaction
to the policy
Media
discussion
about the
policy Minor parties the
What shapes government may have
government to negotiate with
policy?
Interest groups
such as business Parliamentary
and welfare scrutiny
organisations
Views of the leaders

such as the Prime Economic
Minister/Premier necessity —
policy cost and
affordability
Source 4 Government policy is shaped by a number of factors.

Source 5 The media often put issues under the spotlight, resulting in policy change.

Remember and understand 9 Would you ever join a political party? If not, why not?
1 Who are the two major political parties in Australia 10 What are independents and why might they have
today? considerable power in parliament?
2 What is the main aim of the two major political 11 Look at the news stories of the day and give an
parties? example of an interest group that is seeking to affect
3 Refer to Source 3 and choose just one or two words government policy.
that describe what each party stands for. Evaluate and create
4 Name at least one previous Labor prime minister and 12 A list of political parties can be found on the
one previous Liberal prime minister. Australian Electoral Commission’s website. Choose
Apply and analyse one party and explain in no more than two sentences
what that party stands for.
5 Explain what a policy is and give an example of a
government policy you know of. 13 What might be a possible problem with having only
two dominant parties in parliament? Create a table
6 In your opinion, do you think the two major political
and enter your ideas under the column headings of
parties always uphold their beliefs? Why or why not?
Pros and Cons.
7 List at least two possible reasons why someone
14 Come up with five goals for your own party platform.
might want to join a political party.
Remember your platform must be appealing to
8 Why do you think membership of political parties
voters.
isn’t as strong as it used to be?

15A rich task
skilldrill
Political spin
Political parties want to make themselves
Analysing political cartoons
Political cartoons appear in newspapers, magazines
look good to voters while making their
and online. They are popular because they use humour
opponents look bad. In order to do this,
to pass comment on topical political and social issues.
they will often present information in a way They tend to present caricatures of important political
that they think will win public opinion. This figures, exaggerating their physical features for effect – for
is known as political spin. Politicians, example, making a politician’s big nose appear huge.
journalists and comedians can all spin Many cartoonists use stereotypes; generalisations about
information to make it work for them. It’s a group of people, for example, that all Australians say
sometimes difficult to decipher what’s true ‘G’day mate’. Metaphor is also commonly used, where a
around election time. parallel is drawn between two things that are different. For
example, saying a stubborn person is a mule.
When analysing political cartoons, follow these steps:
Step 1 Identify the date when the cartoon was first
published and the title of the cartoon or its caption if it
Political cartoonists provide some light relief to the has one.
barrage of information at election time because they Step 2 Simply look at the cartoon and identify what is
often use humour. Behind the humour, though, there happening without trying to understand or interpret it.
is usually a serious message.
Step 3 Identify the political event or issue being shown in
the cartoon. Look for visual clues to help you.
Step 4 Look for any symbols, metaphors and caricature
that give further clues to the cartoon’s meaning.
Step 5 Identify the method the cartoonist has used
to bring our attention to the issue. Have they used
humour? Is there a serious message the cartoonist is
trying to convey behind the humour, and if so what is
it? Do you agree with the message? An example of
how to use these steps has been done for you.
Apply the skill

1 Follow the steps outlined above to analyse Source 1.
Source 1 Cartoonists may criticise the way politicians ‘dangle

carrots’ and spin information in the lead-up to an election.

Step 4 The cartoonist has used the metaphor of the sinking ship. The
Step 2 Ships are ship signifies democracies in the Western world such as Australia. The
sinking. Passengers passengers are the voters. Captain Schettino in real life was the captain
are in command, not of Italian ship the Costa Concordia that sank in 2012. Captain Schettino Step 1 This
the captain of the ship. symbolises the leader of the Government. cartoon was
drawn in 2012.
Step 3 The cartoonist is saying that sometimes the Step 5 The cartoonist is using humour to make his or her
country is not ‘steered in the right direction’ point. I agree; sometimes the right decisions are not made
because leaders are too worried about what the because politicians are continually thinking about opinion
voters think. They are more interested in staying in polls. On the other hand, you could say elections make
power than making the right but tough decisions. politicians strive to do better, which is good for us.
Source 2 A political cartoon may be analysed by following the steps outlined above.
1 Create a political cartoon of your own about elections c Roughly sketch out the idea and check whether it
by following these steps. works. Is the message too easy, or too difficult to
a Make a list of points about elections. For example, interpret?
‘politicians break their promises’. d Adjust your image, and create a final copy.
b Think of images that might help you illustrate your
point. Think about how you will make people laugh.
Consider using symbols, metaphors and caricature.

15.4 Election time
The lead-up to an election is an important time for convince people to vote for the party whose policies
political parties and independents to persuade the address their concerns best.
voting public to vote for them on election day. • Important issues. The voter may be influenced by
short-term issues that affect them personally. For
Factors that influence voter example, a family with children will be interested in
childcare and parental leave policies, Longer-term
behaviour issues such as the economy also affect voter choice.
Factors that could influence who a voter decides to • Party loyalty. Some voters always vote for the same
vote for include: political party no matter what. Sometimes this is
influenced by how family members have voted.
• Public debate. Competing parties often engage in
formal debates that are televised for the nation to Political cartoonists provide some light relief to
see. Debates between opposing MPs are used as a way the barrage of biased information at election time
for parties to publicly argue that their party platform because they often use humour. While they can also
is best and to convince the people that they are the present their own bias, cartoonists can break through
best choice for the job of running the country. the political spin of an election campaign and bring
attention to serious issues.
• Media. What we read online, see on television and
hear on the radio affects our view of the candidates.
Campaign strategies
Not all information is reported impartially and
sometimes we can be convinced by the way news Political parties and independents use many different
outlets portray a party or independent. Sometimes campaign strategies to gain voter approval. Presentation
they can make a candidate look very appealing, but is important at election time and conveying the right
they can also make a candidate look unfit for the job. message to appeal to a wide variety of voters can
• Opinion polls. Experts measure public opinion of influence election results. The four main campaign
different parties and independents by taking polls. strategies are summarised in Source 1.
They are a good measure for politicians to monitor
their performance, but it can also influence voter Technology Media
opinion. Voters may question why a majority of Use Twitter, YouTube, Use television and radio
Australians approve or disapprove of a party or Facebook and Instagram interviews, the evening
politician. Opinion polls can also draw attention to to communicate with news and newspapers to
voters. communicate with voters.
the poor or strong performance of a party.
• Advertising. Parties can pay for advertising space
on billboards, newspapers, websites, radio and
television. This gives politicians the opportunity
to reach voters and convince them that they are
the best choice at election time. To do this, they
use all kinds of persuasive techniques. Negative
advertisements are often used to make their Advertise
opponents look bad, by highlighting their Capture attention with
Face to face
weaknesses or failures. catchy slogans, jingles and
Get out and talk to
• Interest groups. Sometimes called lobby groups, the voters! close up messages from
interest groups are groups of organised individuals the leader. Expose your
opponents’ weaknesses.
that will campaign on behalf of a certain issue. For
instance, an animal welfare interest group might
Source 1 An election campaign is a contest where political
campaign on behalf of the candidate who has the opponents battle it out to win our vote. Parties and individual
best policies against animal cruelty. They will try to candidates use various strategies to communicate with voters.

15A What shapes our decisions at election time?
casestudy
Will you enrol to vote? Political parties need to engage younger people
if they want to secure their vote in future. According
According to Ms Daly, a spokesperson from the
to a report by the Whitlam Institute in 2011, young
Australia Institute, half of all voters under 25 believe
voters under the age of 35 represent approximately
that no party represents their interests. Dissatisfaction
30 per cent of the electorate. Young people can make
and disillusionment with political parties and politics
an impact on an election result. They also tend to
may also stop young people from enrolling to vote.
change their vote depending on the issues rather than
First-time voters must enrol with the Australian Electoral
loyalty to a political party. They are sometimes called
Commission before they can vote. One-quarter of
swinging or floating voters.
young Australians failed to enrol to vote in the 2013
federal election. The Australian Electoral Commission
embarked on a Facebook campaign to encourage
younger voters to enrol.
Top five issues for young people
1 Jobs for young people
2 Rent and housing
3 University funding
4 Same-sex marriage
5 Climate change
Source: Australian Institute Poll 2013

Source 3 Some people are undecided about who they are
Source 2 The top five issues for young people going to vote for and leave their decision until quite late in the
election campaign. They are called swinging voters.

Remember and understand b Suada voted for the Labor party because of the
1 List three factors that can influence voter behaviour. same-sex marriage issue.
c Antoinette voted for the Liberal party because a
2 What is a swinging voter?
poll showed they were the country’s preferred
3 What must a first-time voter do before they can
leaders.
vote?
d John read a lot of political articles and was
Apply and analyse swayed by one journalist’s view of a political party.
4 List the four main campaign strategies used by Evaluate and create
political parties. Which one do you think is most
7 Look at all the factors that might influence a voter.
effective? Give reasons for your answer.
Which factors do you think will influence you the
5 Make your own list of top five issues that you think most when you vote in an election?
political candidates should stand for.
8 Imagine you are in charge of running an election
6 Read the following scenarios a – d and decide on the campaign for someone you admire who is running
main factor influencing the behaviour of each of the for office. Create a campaign strategy using
voters. Source 1 as a guide. Go further and create a political
a Jeanette’s parents are Liberal supporters and she advertisement either in print or video.
would never think of voting for anyone else.

15.5 Counting the votes
Have you ever voted? It might have been for a class outlined, the vote will be considered informal (incorrect
captain or you may have voted for your favourite and incomplete) and won’t be counted.
contestant on a talent show. Voting gives us all the The preferential system of voting is used to
freedom to have ‘a say’ in who we think is the best determine who will win a seat in the House of
person for the job. Representatives. In order to win, a candidate must
All eligible Australians aged 18 and over must vote in receive a majority of the votes, which is half of the
national and state parliamentary elections. Unlike most votes plus one. If a candidate receives the majority
major democratic countries, Australia has compulsory of the first preferences, they are elected straight
voting. Those who do not vote can be fined. Voting is away. If not, then the candidate with the fewest first
also by secret ballot; no one has the right to know who preferences is eliminated and the second preferences
someone voted for. on those ballot papers for that candidate are
distributed to the other candidates. If there is still
Voting in a federal election – the no clear winner, the next candidate with the least
number of votes is eliminated and their preferences are
House of Representatives distributed. Members of the House of Representatives
are elected for a term of three years.
On arrival at a polling booth the voter is given two
ballot papers to record their vote. The ballot paper to
elect one member from their electorate to the House of Voting in a federal election – the
Representatives can be seen in Source 1. The voter marks
their preferences by putting a number in each box.
Senate
Marking ‘1’ next to the candidate indicates the voter’s Senators are elected for six years. At election time,
first preference. The voter then marks their second choice only half the positions in the Senate become vacant.
by marking ‘2’ next to a candidate and so on, depending After the election, half the Senate will consist of newly
on how many candidates there are in that particular elected senators and the other half is made up of
electorate. If a voter does not follow the procedure senators who are halfway through their six-year term.
Source 1 A House of Source 2 Senate ballot paper

Representatives ballot paper

The aim of this rotating system is so that the Senate A quota is determined by adding one to the total
reflects the view of voters at different times. number of vacancies to be filled and then dividing
On election day, the voter is given a large white this number by the total number of formal votes and
ballot paper (see Source 2), and can vote for candidates adding one.
in one of two ways. Voters can mark their preferences The quota for electing six state senators is
numbered from at least 1 to 6 for a party or group in calculated like this:
the boxes above the line (although they can number all
Number of formal votes = 700 000
boxes above the line). Alternatively, they can number
Senate seat vacancies = 6
their preferences for candidates from at least 1 to 12
below the line (but they can number all boxes below
the line if they wish).
Quota =
( 700 000
6+1 ) +1
Proportional representation is the voting system = 100 000 + 1

used in the Senate. In Senate elections, voters are = 100 001
voting to fill more than one vacancy. In order to win a
place in the senate, the candidate must reach a quota. A candidate that reaches the quota becomes a senator.

Remember and understand 8 Calculate the quota for a senate election in the
1 What is the system of voting used in the following ACT where two senators are elected and there
houses of federal parliament? are 2400 formal votes.
a House of Representatives Evaluate and create
b Senate. 9 Go to the Australian Electoral Commission
2 What are the consequences of not voting in website and search for ‘Comic creations’.
a federal or state election in Australia? Use the interactive to create an online comic
3 A voter who votes above the line on a senate strip about the ways of voting.
ballot marks their first preference only. Who decides 10 Go to the Australian Electoral Commission website
the voter’s preferences? and find out:
Apply and analyse a when women were given the right to vote in
Commonwealth elections
4 Give one reason why we vote by secret ballot
b when Indigenous Australians were given the
in Australia.
right to vote in Commonwealth elections.
5 Provide one argument for and one argument
11 Create a PowerPoint presentation that
against compulsory voting in Australia.
communicates the main issues that led to each
6 Why are only half the senators elected at each election? of the groups in Question 10 being given the right
7 Use the election results shown in the table to to vote.
calculate who has won their seat in the House of
Representatives election. Assume for simplicity that
there are only 100 voters.
Candidate John Isabelle Tony Aditi

First preferences 40 31 15 14
Second preferences • Isabelle 15 • John 20 • John 5 • John 11

• Tony 15 • Tony 10 • Isabelle 5 • Isabelle 2
• Aditi 10 • Aditi 1 • Aditi 5 • Tony 1

15.6 The influence of social media
Think about a major issue such as climate change, allows information to flow quickly and to a large
asylum seekers or domestic violence. How much do you audience. Sometimes this information can go viral
know about this issue and how much of that is shaped without being properly researched or fact-checked,
by what you have read online? or without even being true. This misinformation can
In today’s technology-driven society, social media is be read by thousands of people, giving people the
a major source of news and information. Social media wrong impression and influencing their opinions on
can be defined as the websites and applications we important issues. It is therefore important to be critical
use to share content and connect with people online of what we read on social media, as misinformation on
around the world. Our understanding of what is going social media can spread quickly.
on in the world is shaped by what we read on social You might have read online that a celebrity has died,
media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat and only to read soon afterwards that it was just a hoax.
Instagram, especially for younger generations. Lady Gaga, Dwayne ‘The Rock’ Johnson, Jackie Chan
and Russell Crowe are just some of the celebrities who
have incorrectly been declared dead by social media.
This simple example demonstrates how important it is
to question what you read online.
Political strategy
With so many voters now consuming information and
news online, many politicians have started using social
media to spread their campaign messages and connect
with more people online. Social media accounts and
pages can be used to do this in the following ways:
• Politicians can communicate information quickly
and to many people.
• Parties can choose what information is presented to
their social media audience, giving them a platform
of election issues or helping them to discredit their
opposition.
• Politicians no longer need to rely on attention from
Source 1 There are many different social media platforms that traditional media outlets to get their message out.
can be used to create and share content online. • It is a cheaper alternative to television or billboard
advertising.
The reliability of social media • It is possible to harness ‘viral’ marketing techniques
to spread the message, with social media users
Social media is not always the best source of sharing information on the politician’s behalf.
information when we want to learn more about • Voters can interact with politicians to ask questions,
important issues. This is because anyone can post give support or voice concerns.
whatever they like, whenever they like. We can all
• Social media reaches younger audiences – the ‘youth
post, share, tweet and retweet stories in a way that
vote’ – in a more effective way than traditional
media.

During the 2016 election campaign, Prime Minister gain attention from the general public. For example,
Malcolm Turnbull had more than 290 000 likes on during the 2016 federal election campaign, television
Facebook and more than 620 000 followers on Twitter. host James Mathieson used Facebook as a platform
These social media platforms were used to share photos to announce he was running for a seat in parliament
and campaign updates in a way that reached younger against former prime minister Tony Abbott. Although
voters. he did not win a seat in parliament, Mathieson created
Social media also helps candidates who do not have enough interest on social media to win nearly 12 per
the financial or political support of larger parties to cent of the vote in a very tight election race.
Source 2 Malcolm Turnbull used different social media accounts to share information about his political campaign, and to appear
more relatable to voters.

1 What is social media? 5 Imagine you are in charge of planning the social
2 Why is it important to question what we read online? media strategy for a politician who is running in
3 Name three reasons why politicians might use social your local electorate for the first time. People do
media. not know him very well so he needs to increase his
public profile. Choose one social media platform
Apply and analyse and develop an audiovisual presentation to explain
4 Consider the social media campaigns of Malcolm why you chose that social media platform, how you
Turnbull and James Mathieson. How did they use will use the social media site to increase his profile,
social media to help their political campaigns? what kind of information you will post or share, and
how often you will post. (Hint: you might also like
to promote events or activities for the campaign as
part of your social media presence.)

15B rich task
The power of social

media campaigns
Throughout history there have been notable
leaders who have sought social and political
change. Famous social agitators include
Nelson Mandela, who fought to break the
system of apartheid in South Africa, and
Mahatma Gandhi, who fought for India’s
independence. A social agitator stirs the
emotions of others in order to seek desired
change. Mother Teresa is another person who
sought change, committing her life to helping
the poor people of Kolkata in India.
Source 1 Chris Raine set up his own blog about how he gave
up alcohol for the year.
Agitating for change is what many volunteer

organisations do, whether it be raising money for cancer
research or ensuring the poor have access to food,
shelter and clothing. Everyday people can seek change
through volunteering their services.
Chris Raine is a young Australian fighting for a social
cause that started with a desire to improve his own life
and change the drinking culture within Australia. In 2008,
he decided to give up alcohol for a year and wrote a
blog about his experiences. Now he has over 200 000
followers and a website called Hello Sunday Morning.
Chris decided to do something about his own
drinking habits, tired of waking up on a Sunday morning
with a hangover. He had read that alcohol is responsible
Source 2 Nelson Mandela fought to rid South Africa of apartheid. for the deaths of over 260 young Australians annually,
not to mention the health and social costs associated
with sustained use of alcohol. In 2012, Chris was
a national finalist in the Young Australian of the
Year awards for his work as an anti-binge-drinking
campaigner.
Source 3 Mother Teresa’s work on behalf of the poor in Kolkata

was so well-known that her life and work were commemorated
in many countries through artworks such as paintings, statues
and postage stamps.

skilldrill
Developing a plan for action Step 5 Break each task down into smaller tasks.
For example, installing a compost bin may mean
to respond to a civics and purchasing the bin first, deciding where it is best
citizenship issue placed and then installing it in the garden.

Step 6 Add time frames for each task. This might involve
Have you heard of the saying, ‘failing to plan is planning to
estimating how much time each task will take and
fail’? Most of us understand that things don’t just happen
identifying a date when you could complete them.
unless we have a plan. Planning takes some time at the
beginning of a project, but, once complete, it provides Step 7 Allocate tasks. If you are working in a group,
important signposts to enable us to reach our end goal. think about each member’s skills and allocate jobs
Follow the eight-step approach for developing a plan. If accordingly. Try to make sure the workload is spread
you need to, make a visual presentation of your plan by evenly.
using a flow chart, a Gantt chart (a bar chart displaying a Step 8 Monitor task completion. Regularly check the
project’s schedule) or a spreadsheet. time frames you set in Step 6 to ensure you are on
Step 1 Set a goal. What is the end result you would like schedule.
to achieve? Your goal, for example, may be to reduce
your impact on the environment, help a charity, or write
Apply the skill
a blog to raise awareness about the dangers of using a 1 Develop a plan that responds to a civics and
mobile phone while driving. citizenship issue. Brainstorm what a civics and
citizenship issue is. Think about whether there are
Step 2 Decide how you will measure success. You
any issues with regard to voting you would like to
can measure success in many ways. For example,
consider. For example, you might start a campaign to
reducing your environmental impact might be
raise awareness about the importance of enrolling to
measured by reduction in non-recyclable garbage. Or,
vote. Remember that citizenship can include taking
helping a charity might be measured in dollars raised
social responsibility, so think about something you
or time spent giving assistance.
feel passionate about, whether it is reducing your own
Step 3 Establish tasks. List what you need to do in order environmental impact on the Earth, or simply doing
to turn your goal into a plan of action. For example, something unexpectedly helpful for someone else in
tasks to reduce your impact on the environment may your community.
include installing a compost bin, growing your own
2 Use the eight-step approach for developing a plan
food, not buying packaged foods, and using recyclable
as outlined above and then, in consultation with your
shopping bags.
teacher, talk about putting that plan into action.
Step 4 Prioritise tasks. Look through your list of tasks
and rate them on a scale of 1–10 to identify the most
important tasks.

1 Undertake research about a person you admire who has agitated for social, political or environmental change.
You could choose from the following list or choose an entirely different person.
– Bill and Melinda Gates – Mother Teresa – Mary Harris ‘Mother’ – Florence Nightingale
– Sir Bob Geldof – Nelson Mandela Jones – Helen Keller
– Al Gore – Mahatma Gandhi – Martin Luther King – Aung San Suu Kyi
– Eddie Mabo

Australia’s
legal system
Laws regulate most of the situations we find ourselves
in every day. Laws are formal legal rules that are
designed to govern the way in which people behave and
act so we can all live in a peaceful and united society.
In Australia, our laws are made and enforced by a
range of different organisations – including the courts,
tribunals, parliaments, police and prisons – collectively
referred to as the legal system, or justice system. We
have a legal system to make sure that laws are obeyed
and the rights and responsibilities of all Australian
citizens are respected.
For people to have confidence in the legal system,
it is important that legal disputes are resolved in a fair
and unbiased manner and that all people are treated
equally before the law. Unfortunately, despite best
efforts, this is not always the case.
16A
What key principles support
16B
How does Australia’s court
Australia’s legal system? system work?
1 Look at each of the different situations represented 1 As a class, list the names of any Australian courts.
in Source 1. Do you think all of the people shown Suggest what types of cases might be heard by
are committing crimes? Why or why not? these courts.
2 Have you (or any of your friends or family) ever been 2 As a group, try to think of at least two famous
involved in similar situations where you may have Australian legal cases. When did each of these
broken the law? Did you do so knowingly and were cases take place, what were the basic facts of each
you caught? case and what were the outcomes?

16
chapter
Source 1 Australia’s legal system is designed to govern and regulate the ways in which all citizens behave. A range of formal ‘legal
rules’ known as laws helps to achieve this. There are laws relating to almost every situation we encounter on a daily basis.
chapter 16 australia’s legal system 479

16.1 Understanding laws
and why we need them
When you think about it, many aspects of our daily
lives are regulated by rules. In fact, almost every
group to which we belong – whether it is our family,
school, local sporting club, church or community
group – imposes rules. Often, if we want to stay part of
these groups, we have to obey their rules. Likewise, as
Australian citizens, we all have a responsibility to obey
a more formal set of rules (known as laws). So what is
the difference between a rule and a law?
The difference between non-

legal rules and legal rules (laws)
Non-legal rules and legal rules (laws) govern our daily Source 1 Sporting clubs have established non-legal rules.
lives. There are some key differences between these two
types of rules.
Non-legal rules
Non-legal rules are rules or regulations that are imposed
upon the members of a specific group so they can work
together in a peaceful manner. For example, schools,
families and sporting clubs all enforce a range of non-
legal rules to ensure the smooth operation of their
group. For example:
• schools can require students to wear a uniform and
not have obvious body piercings
• parents can require children to undertake specific
tasks or chores Source 2 A school imposing a code of dress (or uniform)
• sporting clubs can require regular attendance at that restricts tattoos or body piercing is an example of a
training sessions. non-legal rule.
Whatever the non-legal rules might be, they are Legal rules (laws)
generally imposed to help establish a code of behaviour
Legal rules, or laws, are similar to non-legal rules in that
that is acceptable to the majority of group members
they also exist to regulate our behaviour. However, legal
so they may work together in a cooperative manner.
rules are made by official law-making bodies – such as
Any member who breaks a rule may incur a penalty
parliaments, local councils and the courts – and apply
imposed by the group. For example, a sporting club
to all members of society. Laws are also enforced by the
might suspend those who miss a training session from
police and courts and any individual that breaks a law
participating in a scheduled game.
may receive a punishment (referred to in legal terms as
a sanction). These are imposed by the courts, and may
include paying a fine, or, for a serious breach, spending
a period of time in prison.

Reasons we have laws individuals from harm. For example, many different
laws exist in Australia to protect individuals and specific
There are many reasons why societies must be regulated groups from danger and maltreatment, including
by laws. Firstly, laws help establish boundaries of consumer, workplace, family, environmental and child
acceptable behaviour, so that all members of the protection laws.
community can be aware of the type of conduct that
will and will not be tolerated by the majority of people.
The goal is that individuals treat one another with
respect and do not undertake actions that disturb or
violate the rights of others or threaten a peaceful way of
life. For example, in Australia we have anti-bullying and 1 Why would an organisation such as a school or
anti-discrimination laws, which make it unlawful to sporting club impose specific non-legal rules
victimise, abuse or discriminate against another person or regulations?
on the basis of their race, religion or sex. 2 What, in legal terms, is a sanction?
Laws also help maintain a unified society by 3 Describe two sanctions that could be imposed by
preventing disputes from arising and protecting a court in Australia.
Apply and analyse

4 Identify a club or group that you, or someone you
know, belongs to. It could be a sporting club,
church group or volunteer society. Investigate and
list five non-legal rules that are imposed by the
group, and jot them down. Then:
a suggest reasons why each rule may have been
created
b state any consequences associated with
breaking each rule
c explain whether or not you agree with each
rule.
5 List five legal rules or laws that, as an Australian
Source 3 There are anti-bullying laws in place in Australia.
citizen, you must obey. For each law, suggest
why the law was most likely made and the likely
consequences of breaking the law.
6 Imagine you had the power to create or alter three
laws.
a What laws would you introduce or change?
Give reasons for your answer.
b Identify any groups who may oppose your
suggested law changes. Give reasons for your
response.
Evaluate and create

7 Divide into small groups or pairs and prepare
a short role-play that illustrates the difference
between non-legal rules and laws. Record or
perform your role-play before the class and have
your classmates identify the different non-legal
Source 4 Laws are made to protect specific groups within our rules and laws.
community, including consumers, children and those at risk of
being cyber-bullied.

16.2 How laws are made
In Australia, laws can be made by a number of different
bodies or organisations. For example, Commonwealth,
state and territory parliaments can make laws, as well as
other bodies such as local councils and court judges.
The role of parliament in

law-making
Most laws in Australia are made by parliaments.
A parliament is a group of people elected by the
majority of society to make laws on their behalf. Laws
made by parliament are referred to as legislation,
statutes, or Acts. In Australia, we have two levels of
parliament – Commonwealth and state/territory. The
Commonwealth Parliament, located in Canberra, makes
laws that apply to the whole of Australia, while each
state and territory also has its own elected parliament to
make laws for that specific state or territory.
Source 2 Local councils have the power to make laws in areas

such as waste disposal and recycling.
For example, the Commonwealth Parliament has

made the laws on marriage and divorce that apply to
and must be followed by all Australians, regardless
of the state in which they live. By contrast, the state
parliaments are responsible for making driving and
adoption laws, and so laws in these areas may vary
from state to state. For example, the minimum age to
apply for a probationary motor vehicle driver licence in
Western Australia is 17 years, whereas the minimum age
in Victoria is 18 years.
In addition to having the Commonwealth, state and
territory parliaments making law, laws can also be made
by other bodies (referred to as statutory authorities)
such as local or municipal councils, Australia Post,
and Country Fire Authorities. Statutory authorities
are created by the parliaments to make minor laws on
their behalf in a more timely and efficient manner. For
example, the Western Australia state parliament has
given municipal councils the power to make a range
of specialised laws that apply to local residents, such as
Source 1 State parliaments have the power to make laws laws relating to the use of parks and reserves; recyclable
related to driving. and garden waste; garage sales; and even barking dogs.

The role of courts in law-making

Judges in higher courts, such as the state Supreme
Courts and the High Court of Australia, can also
make laws on occasion. In simple terms, sometimes
when a judge makes a decision to resolve a dispute,
the reasoning behind their decision creates a legal
principle or law that must be followed by judges in
other courts when a similar case arises. Law made
by judges is known as common law, which will be
examined in more detail later.
In Australia, all people and organisations – including
those who make and enforce the laws, such as members
of the parliaments, judges, and the police forces – must
obey the law. Indeed, one of the key features of the
Australian legal system is that it is based on the rule
of law, meaning that our laws apply equally to all
individuals and organisations throughout Australia
and must be upheld by all. The rule of law also means
that the law can only be enforced and altered by those
with the legal authority to do so. In Australia, the
Commonwealth, state and territory parliaments, and
courts have the main power to make and enforce
the law.
Source 3 Judges in higher courts may, on occasion, make laws.

1 Identify the main law-making bodies in Australia.
2 What is a statutory authority? Give two reasons why these bodies are given the power to make laws on behalf of
the parliament.
Apply and analyse

3 Decide which level of parliament, Commonwealth or state, would most likely make laws with respect to the
following areas:
a currency e anti-terrorism i border security
b education f hospitals j electricity
c Australian citizenship g fire brigade k asylum seekers
d water supply h postal services l police force.
4 Suggest one benefit of parliaments making law.

5 Research the name of your local or municipal council and list at least five laws made and enforced by this body.
Evaluate and create

6 Create a poster or collage that illustrates the main law-making bodies in Australia and provides examples of the
types of laws made by each body.
7 Go to the Western Australian Parliament website and take a virtual tour of the Western Australian Parliament
House.

16.3 Australia’s legal system
Australia’s legal system is made up of a range of courts or mental capacity should be treated equally when
and tribunals, laws, procedures and legal personnel. dealing with the legal system. This includes being
This includes judges, magistrates, legal representatives treated equally by the police, court personnel and other
or lawyers, the police force and people working in the legal authorities. We should also all have an equal
prison system. opportunity to access or use the court system to resolve
our disputes.
The principles of our legal How is equality before the law achieved?
system Various processes and procedures exist within our
Our legal system is also built on a number of key legal system to help make sure that all people who
principles, or beliefs, that are designed to help protect have dealings with the police, courts and other legal
the rights of all Australian citizens. For example, two authorities, are treated equally regardless of their
main principles that underpin our legal system are personal circumstances or background. For example,
the belief that all people should be treated equally a range of laws aim to ensure people are treated equally
under the law and that our courts and judges must be and fairly when being questioned by the police,
independent and impartial. These two principles aim including an individual having the right to remain
to ensure that all people who come before the courts silent and not answer questions (other than giving
receive a fair and unbiased hearing or trial. Another their name and address); the right to be warned prior
key principle that strengthens our legal system is that to questioning that ‘anything they do or say may be
individuals have a reasonable right to appeal decisions used against them in a court of law’; the right to an
handed down by judges. interpreter if they do not understand English very
well; and, for people aged under 18, the right to have
a parent, guardian or independent adult present when
Key principles behind Australia’s
justice system being questioned.
All individuals are equal before the

law.
Individuals have the right to a fair

hearing.
The judiciary (i.e. the court system)

is independent and impartial.
Individuals have the right to a

reasonable appeal.
Source 1 Key principles of Australia’s legal system
Equality before the law

One main principle that underpins the Australian legal
system is that all people must be treated equally before
the law. This means that all individuals regardless Source 2 Lady Justice wears a blindfold to symbolise the legal
of their race, ethnic background, sex, income level system is objective and impartial.

Similarly, when being investigated by the police, all with mental health issues or intellectual disabilities,
people have rights that must be observed including, often experience difficulty when dealing with our
under certain circumstances, the right to refuse to legal system. Cultural differences and language or
give forensic samples (such as hair or saliva samples) communication barriers can make it difficult for people
or participate in identification parades. All people within these groups to understand how our legal system
charged with a serious crime (such as serious assault, operates and to interact or talk with legal authorities
selling illegal drugs and murder) also have the right such as the police and court personnel. People with
to a presumption of innocence, meaning they must low incomes also often cannot afford to have a legal
be treated as innocent until proven guilty, from the representative or lawyer to help them understand our
moment they are charged with a crime to their court legal system and prepare and present their case to the
hearing or trial. This includes having the right to be court.
free to return home and live within the community Given that there are groups within our community
(referred to as being granted bail) prior to their court that are at a disadvantage when dealing with our
appearance unless there is a genuine reason to deny legal system, it is important that support services are
this freedom. This refusal to grant bail could be that provided to assist these groups and cater for their
the court believes the accused person is a potential specific needs. One organisation that provides such
threat to the community and may harm other people if support is Legal Aid Western Australia – a government-
granted their freedom. funded but independent body that provides free or low-
cost legal advice and lawyers to the most disadvantaged
Who might be disadvantaged by our legal people throughout Western Australia. These people may
system? need assistance with a range of legal issues including
crime-related, family, social security, immigration
Unfortunately, some groups within Australian society,
and discrimination matters. Unfortunately, however,
including Indigenous Australians, people from
this assistance is severely limited due to inadequate
culturally and linguistically diverse communities – such
government funding.
as migrants, refugees and asylum seekers – and people
Source 3 Asylum seekers, refugees and migrants can be at a disadvantage when dealing with our legal system and often need
legal support and assistance.

casestudy
Do people with disabilities need
more of a ‘fair go’?
In 2014, a report by the Disability Discrimination
Commissioner found that the Australian legal system
does not provide adequate support services for people
with disabilities who come into contact with the criminal
legal system – for example, those who might be victims
of crime, witnesses or offenders. As such, these people
have a greater chance ending up in prison. Disturbingly,
people with disabilities are also more likely than the
general population to be victims of violence.
In order to improve this problem, the report
recommended a range of reforms, including increasing
the amount of assistance available for people with
disabilities and their carers – such as early intervention
Source 4 Ms Julia Haraksin won a legal action against a tour
services – and providing training for police and lawyers bus company that denied her service because it could not
so they are better able to assist these people. accommodate wheelchairs.
An independent and unbiased judiciary

The Australian legal system is based on the key principle
that our court system (known as the judiciary) is
independent and impartial. Being independent means
that the courts are separate from the elected parliament
and government, and the judges and magistrates are
therefore free to make decisions without these bodies
trying to influence them. Having an independent
judiciary is an important feature of our legal system, as
it means that no one, even the government, is above the
law. It also prevents the government from influencing
court decisions and enables the courts to check that the
Commonwealth, state and territory parliaments do not
misuse or make any laws beyond their power.
Source 5 Judges must remain independent and impartial in
Having an impartial judge sitting or presiding over order to ensure a fair hearing or trial.
a court case helps make sure that all trials that take
place throughout Australia are conducted in a fair The judge also makes sure that both parties have
and unbiased manner. For example, the judge can an equal opportunity to present their case by ensuring
ensure that both parties involved in a court case are each follows the strict rules of evidence and procedures
treated consistently and have an equal opportunity to when presenting their case to the court. For example,
present their case to the court. This includes having an parties can only present relevant and reliable evidence
equal opportunity to present evidence and question to the court, so the verdict is based on appropriate and
witnesses. Judges remain independent and unbiased accurate information. This means that parties cannot
throughout the entire court case and do not assist present hearsay or ‘secondhand’ evidence that may be
either party with the preparation and presentation of untrustworthy to the court. Similarly, the past criminal
their case. This is so that neither party has an unfair record of the accused is usually not to be raised as
advantage over the other. evidence because it could potentially bias a verdict.

The independence of our judiciary is also

maintained by having our courts open to the people.
Generally, all court cases are open to the public and
the media so the proceedings are transparent or can be
viewed by all.
The right to appeal

In an attempt for cases to be resolved in a fair and
unbiased manner, the Australian court system allows
people who are dissatisfied with the outcome of their
case to appeal or have their case reviewed by a higher
court – providing reasonable grounds for appeal exist.
For example, a person who has been found guilty of
a crime may be able to lodge an appeal against the
guilty verdict or the severity of the sentence if they
can provide reasonable grounds. Similarly, a party may
appeal if they can show that their trial may have been
unfair – for example, the judge did not ensure that the
strict rules of evidence or procedure were followed. Source 6 Courts are open to the public and media to make
sure proceedings can be viewed by all.

Remember and understand 9 Discuss whether a person who is on trial for a
1 Explain two procedures that help ensure court cases serious crime – such as rape or dangerous driving
are resolved in a fair and unbiased manner. causing death – should have any of their previous
crimes read out to the court prior to the verdict being
2 Suggest two rights of individuals that mean they are
given.
treated fairly by the police.
10 Examine Source 3. How has our legal system failed
3 Describe how the Australian legal system maintains
to support asylum seekers, refugees and migrants?
an independent judiciary or court system.
Identify two other groups in Australian society who
4 Name two aspects a judge should demonstrate to
might be disadvantaged by our legal system.
help ensure a fair and unbiased trial.
5 Explain how the use of legal representatives or Evaluate and create
lawyers can ensure a fair trial. 11 Visit the Australian Human Rights Commission
website via the link in your obook. Locate the
Apply and analyse
section of the website relating to ‘disability rights’.
6 Explain two features of the Australian legal system Research the ways in which people with disabilities
that aim to see that all people are treated equally are not being treated equally before the law. Suggest
before the law. two changes that could be made to improve this
7 Explain two ways in which the Australian legal situation.
system fails to treat all people equally. 12 Visit the Legal Aid Western Australia website via
8 Discuss whether or not a person who is charged the link in your obook and prepare a brochure that
with a serious crime – such as attempted murder or outlines some of the main services and assistance
serious assault – should be able to refuse to answer offered by this organisation.
police questions, other than providing their name
and address.

16.4 Undermining justice
While our legal processes and procedures are built on a
number of key principles, or beliefs, that are designed casestudy
to help protect the rights of all Australian citizens, our
system is not perfect and sometimes injustices occur. Victim’s mother fights for justice
Factors such as coercion of suspects and witnesses, trial by In October 2014, Gene Gibson, a 23-year-old
media, corruption and court delays can undermine justice. Aboriginal man from a remote community in Western
Australia, was sentenced by a Supreme Court
Coercion of suspects and judge to spend a minimum of five and a half years
in prison after pleading guilty to unintentionally
witnesses killing Josh Warneke by striking him with a pole in
The police must follow a range of legal processes and an unprovoked attack along a roadside in 2010.
procedures when investigating a crime to make sure Surprisingly, however, the victim’s mother, Ingrid
that suspects and witnesses are treated fairly. If these Bishop, does not believe that Mr Gibson is her son’s
procedures are not followed injustices may occur. For killer and is bravely fighting to have him released
example, all suspects have a right to silence (meaning from prison and his name cleared. Ms Bishop
they do not have to answer any questions from police believes the police investigation surrounding her
other than giving their name and address) and a right son’s death was not well conducted, that Mr Gibson
to an interpreter if they cannot understand English. did not understand the procedures and questioning
Injustice may occur if these rights are not observed and that took place when police arrested him, and that
a suspect or witness feels compelled or forced to answer he was coerced or pressured into confessing to
questions against their will. a crime he did not commit. Interestingly, after the
Even a suspect who is informed of their right to trial, the Western Australian Corruption and Crime
silence may still answer police questions when it is Commission examined the case and found faults in
against their best interests – particularly if they are not the way it was investigated by the police. Changes to
familiar with English or have trouble communicating. police procedures have been introduced to ensure all
For example, various groups of people like Aboriginal Indigenous people who are suspects and witnesses
people or Torres Strait Islanders, those from a non- in a crime are provided with interpreters.
English speaking background, and those who have
a mental disorder or other disability (for example, a
hearing impairment) may be disadvantaged when
dealing with the court system because they do not
have adequate communication skills, confidence or
knowledge to negotiate with the authorities. The
police and lawyers have the potential to easily confuse
or persuade these individuals to make untrue or
conflicting statements that may result in the wrong
person being found guilty of a crime. Source 1 Ingrid Bishop is fighting for justice – she believes
the wrong man is serving prison time for her son’s death.
Trial by media as innocent until proven guilty. For example, members
The media – both traditional and online media – can of a jury (who are responsible for determining the guilt
spread information quickly in a way that can create the of an accused in a criminal trial) may be biased and
impression of a person’s guilt before they have even think a suspect is guilty because of what they have seen
been to court. and heard in the media before the trial has occurred.
Trial by media can undermine the basic principle Potential jurors may also feel pressure to find a person
that all individuals who have been accused of a crime guilty or not guilty based on public opinion, and find it
have a presumption of innocence and must be treated difficult to remain impartial.

Over the years, intense and concentrated media must be given verbally in court and the use of a jury
coverage of high-profile court cases has jeopardised the in criminal cases), and the increasing number and
ability of jurors to remain unbiased and led to unfair complexity of cases being brought before the courts.
trials. Perhaps the most famous Australian case in Delays can cause many problems for those involved
which this occurred was in 1982 when a jury wrongly in a court case, including increasing the cost associated
found Lindy Chamberlain guilty of murdering her with taking the case to court, causing emotional stress
baby at Uluru in the Northern Territory. The baby was and hardship for the parties and reducing the ability
actually taken by a dingo. Many commentators believe of the witnesses to accurately recall their evidence. In
the extremely negative media campaign surrounding some instances, a civil case can take so long that people
Mrs Chamberlain contributed to the jury’s incorrect have to abandon their case because they cannot afford
finding. It took Mrs Chamberlain more than six years to to pay the money that the legal system requires.
have her guilty verdict quashed (cancelled).
1 State three groups of people who may be
particularly disadvantaged when dealing with the
police and court system. Give reasons for your
choice.
2 Explain three ways that court delays can lead to
injustices for parties involved in a criminal or civil
case.
Apply and analyse

Source 2 Lindy Chamberlain was a victim of trial by media.
3 Explain the concept of trial by media. Undertake
some Internet research to find an Australian
Corruption criminal case that has attracted a large amount of
Within any organisation, corruption can exist and media interest.
unfortunately our legal system is no exception. a Outline the facts of the case and reasons
Corruption is any form of dishonest or unethical why you think it received such intense media
behaviour that causes people to break rules for their commentary.
own gain. Corruption can include things such as b Explain how the media coverage could have
bribery, which in the court system might involve taking influenced the ability of the accused to receive
money from someone to alter the outcome of a court a fair trial.
case. It is therefore essential that we have independent
and unbiased anti-corruption agencies to investigate
Evaluate and create
and punish those involved in the legal system (such 4 Read the case study ‘Victim’s mother fights for
as police, lawyers, magistrates, judges and politicians) justice’ and undertake some Internet research into
who may misuse their power and authority for their the Josh Warneke case to answer the following
own benefit. We also rely on ‘whistle blowers’, or people questions.
who are willing to come forward and report corrupt a Outline the basic facts of the case, including
behaviour to the anti-corruption agencies in order to basic details of the incident, charges and
investigate those cases. sentence imposed upon Mr Gibson.
b Explain why Ms Bishop believes that Mr Gibson
Court delays did not kill her son, despite Mr Gibson being
sentenced by the court.
Taking a case to court takes time and unfortunately
c Explain some of the factors that may have
will often involve delays. Delays in criminal cases can
contributed to Mr Gibson not receiving a fair
be caused by a variety of factors, including a lack of
hearing or trial.
legal assistance for those who cannot afford a lawyer,
d Explain the outcome of any appeal case.
complex and time-consuming court processes and
procedures (such as the requirement that most evidence

16A rich task
skilldrill
Social media and
Preparing a written critical
the right to a fair trial evaluation of information and ideas
Being able to critically evaluate information and ideas is
In a criminal trial, a jury of 12 randomly
a key skill. Critically evaluating something involves the
selected citizens determines the verdict as
following steps:
to whether or not the accused is innocent
Step 1 Examine evidence from a wide range of sources
or guilty. One benefit of having a jury of 12
about an issue.
ordinary people determine the verdict, rather
Step 2 Review evidence that should come from sources
than a single judge, is that they will be able to
that both agree with and contradict an argument on
reflect a range of different views and values in the issue.
their discussions and deliberations. Similarly,
Step 3 Decide to what extent a statement or findings
it is argued that it is fairer for the accused within a piece of research are true, or to what extent
to be judged by their peers or a group of you agree with them.
independent ‘everyday people’, rather than a Step 4 Finally, reach a conclusion or verdict based on
legal authority. what you judge to be the most important factors, and
justify how you have made your choice.
Critical evaluation enables us to gain an understanding
People who oppose the use of a jury, however, argue of views and opinions that may be different from our own,
that jury trials can be unfair because individual jurors and develop empathy for people who hold and express
cannot be prevented from conducting their own online different beliefs and values. Having the ability to consider
research into the case they are hearing and finding different perspectives also enables us to expand our
information that may cause them to develop a bias against perceptions and make more informed judgements.
the accused. For example, in 2015, a Victorian judge had When preparing a written critical evaluation, you must
to abandon a trial that had been running for five weeks provide more than an explanation of the information or
after it was discovered that two of the jurors had used ideas – you must identify the key features of the material
the internet to research information about the accused. and issues, and assess their relative merits by explaining
Similarly, in 2015, former television star Robert Hughes, the associated strengths and weaknesses. You should
who had been found guilty of various sexual and indecent also provide a concluding statement, which can include
assault charges dating back to the 1980s, lodged an your own opinion.
appeal because he believed the massive media coverage The table in Source 2 outlines the steps involved in
surrounding his trial (including a huge amount of false and preparing a written analysis or critical evaluation of a
vicious social media commentary) would have caused the controversial issue.
jury to be unfairly biased against him. The problem with
jurors conducting their own research into a case is that
the internet and social media are often flooded with false
information or unproven opinions. A juror may be biased
by what they read, believing it to be true, although there is
no actual evidence provided.
Source 1 People who oppose the jury system in criminal trials

argue that social media platforms, such as Twitter, Facebook,
Snapchat and Instagram, are threatening the right to a fair trial
because information on court cases is now so freely available to
members of the jury.

What you need to do How to do it

Step 1 Gather a range of relevant information from The internet is a great place to commence researching a
Gather relevant a variety of sources that will enable you to controversial issue and gathering relevant information, although
information examine the arguments in support of and you always need to check the authenticity of the material you
against the proposition or issue. have gathered. Ask yourself ‘Where did this information come
from?’, ‘Is it a reliable source?’, and ‘Why was the information
created?’
Step 2 Examine your information and prepare a Your introduction should state and explain the issue and
Write an written introduction that outlines the issue provide any relevant background information, such as why the
introduction you are examining. issue has become controversial.
Step 3 The body of your response should include It is best to examine one strength at a time, providing a
Prepare the an examination of the key strengths and corresponding weakness (as appropriate), rather than
body of your weaknesses associated with the issue. presenting separate lists of strengths and weaknesses.
response Also provide any relevant information, such as case studies,
statistics or quotes, to support each viewpoint.
Step 4 After considering the different views and Your conclusion should summarise the key points and include
Write a perspectives surrounding the issue, provide your own view based on the supporting evidence you have
conclusion a conclusion. provided.
Source 2 Steps to write a critical evaluation
Apply the skill threatens the ability of jurors to remain impartial or

1 Prepare a written report (of around 500 words) that unbiased. As such, juries should be abolished in all
critically evaluates the following contention: ‘The criminal trials.’ Prepare your written response by
increasing use of the internet and social media following the steps in the table.
1 Conduct an Internet search using key terms and

phrases such as ‘Does social media influence the jury
(or a fair trial)?’ and ‘Strengths and weaknesses of the
jury system’. Gather information about varying opinions
on the issue, and come to your own conclusions by
making a critical evaluation. You could research a high-
profile criminal trial, such as Brett Cowen or Robert
Hughes, to justify your evaluation.
Source 3 High profile court cases, such as the trial of Brett

Cowen, who was found guilty of murdering Queensland
schoolboy Daniel Morcombe, attract great attention both in the
mainstream media and on social media.

16.5 Types of legal disputes
The Australian legal system includes a range of bodies It is important to understand the difference between
or institutions, known as courts, to resolve legal criminal and civil cases because different legal processes
disputes that may arise between individuals and the and procedures are used when resolving each type of case.
government. These courts are overseen or presided over
Criminal cases Examples
by independent magistrates and judges who are able
to listen to both sides of a dispute and make a fair and Summary offences (minor Minor theft and minor traffic
crimes heard by a magistrate) offences – e.g. exceeding
unbiased decision.
the speed limit, driving an
The main two types of legal disputes heard in unregistered car.
Australian courts are criminal and civil cases. Criminal
Indictable offences (serious Murder, arson, dangerous
cases are those that involve an individual who has
crimes that require trial by a driving causing death, serious
behaved in an unacceptable way being charged by the judge and jury) violent assault, rape, and
police and often receiving a sanction. Criminal cases drug-trafficking.
include murder, assault and sexual offences. Civil cases,
by contrast, involve private people or organisations Civil cases Examples
fighting over an alleged breach of individual rights, Matters involving disputes • Negligence
such as an individual seeking money to make up for between individuals over an • Defamation
injuries they have suffered due to another person’s alleged breach of rights
• Contract law
careless action.
Source 1 Examples of criminal and civil cases
Source 2 If you are found guilty of committing a crime, such as drink-driving, you may receive a punishment or penalty called
a sanction.

16B How does Australia's court system work?
Source 3 Theft is a summary offence, and would generally be Source 4 Indictable offences such as armed robbery are
heard in the Magistrates’ Court. crimes heard in higher courts.
Criminal cases court in New South Wales). Common types of summary

offences include theft, minor traffic offences, such as
Criminal cases are those in which an individual exceeding the speed limit, and minor unlawful assault.
(referred to as the accused), who has committed an Indictable offences are serious crimes that are
illegal act that inflicts harm on another individual and/ generally heard in higher courts, such as the District
or society, is taken to court (or prosecuted) by the state Court and the Supreme Court. Indictable offences
or government. If an accused is found or pleads guilty include armed robbery (stealing or attempting to steal
to committing a crime, they may receive a punishment property using force such as a gun), drug trafficking,
or penalty. Types of criminal sanctions include serious sexual offences, dangerous driving causing
monetary fines or imprisonment. death, and murder. Cases in which an accused pleads
not guilty to an indictable offence are generally heard
Types of criminal cases before a judge and jury of twelve persons. The jury
Criminal offences – known commonly as crimes – are determines the verdict as to whether or not the accused
generally classified as being summary (or simple) is guilty and the judge determines the sanction (or
offences or indictable offences. punishment).
Summary offences are minor crimes that are
generally heard in the Magistrates’ Court (called a local

Civil cases Types of civil cases
Civil cases involve disputes between individuals While there are many different types of civil cases,
(or groups) over an alleged breach of individual rights. perhaps the most common is a negligence action. This
In a civil case, the party who believes their rights is where an individual claims they have suffered injury
have been infringed (referred to as the plaintiff) due to another person’s failure to take reasonable care
takes the case to court in the hope of receiving a when there is a responsibility to do so. Other types of
remedy that will restore them, as far as possible, civil cases include disputes over a breach of contract,
to the position they were in prior to the wrongdoing. where one individual believes another has failed to
The most common type of civil remedy is a plaintiff carry out the terms of a legally binding contract, and
being awarded a sum of money to compensate for their defamation cases, where a person believes they have
loss (referred to as damages). suffered harm (for example, a loss of reputation) due to
another person making false statements publicly.
Source 5 It is often neccessary to engage a barrister to plead on your behalf if a civil case needs to proceed to the courts.
casestudy
Can using social media be a crime?
In 2013, Andrew Farley – a former school student
– was ordered by a NSW District Court judge to
pay $105 000 in damages to a music teacher after
making false and defamatory comments about
her on Twitter. Despite being warned against it, Mr
Farley posted the damaging statements on Twitter
because he incorrectly believed the teacher involved
was responsible for his father, also a music teacher
at the school, losing his job. The case was the first in
Australia involving defamation via Twitter, and made it
clear that it is unacceptable to use Twitter, Facebook
and other forms of social media to make false and
defamatory statements about others. Source 6 Private individuals in Australia are subject to
defamation law on social media, which includes defaming
someone on Twitter.

casestudy
Are sentences too lenient? and had shown no remorse for his actions. He then
sentenced McPherson to eight years’ imprisonment,
In August 2015, Jamie McPherson, aged 70
with a minimum of five years to be spent in prison
years, was charged with two counts of culpable
before being eligible to be released.
driving causing death. He started and continued a
dangerous car chase, which led to two brothers in In Western Australia, a person who is guilty of
another vehicle being killed when their car crashed culpable driving causing death (e.g. causing the death
into a tree. When imposing the sentence, the judge of a person by driving in a very careless or reckless
said that McPherson had started the dangerous manner or while under the influence of drugs or alcohol)
car chase to deliberately terrorise another person can be imprisoned.
Source 7 Culpable driving causing death is a serious indictable offence.

Remember and understand a Decide whether the case is criminal or civil, giving
1 In your own words, explain the difference between reasons for your choice.
criminal and civil cases. b Discuss whether or not you believe the sanction
handed down by the judge was appropriate.
2 Define the two main types of criminal cases.
3 Explain two types of civil cases. Evaluate and create
4 Explain the key difference between a sanction and 6 Create a poster or collage that illustrates at least five
a remedy. Provide one example of each to support different types of criminal offences and civil actions.
your response. You may wish to use software such as Picasa or
Photovisi to create your poster.
Apply and analyse
7 Collect three articles that relate to recent criminal
5 Read the two case studies and complete the
or civil court cases. Include at least one civil case.
following tasks for each:
Summarise the facts of each case and state the key
terms that indicate whether it is criminal or civil

16.6 Court jurisdictions
The Australian legal system provides a large range of The courts in each state and territory are arranged in
courts and informal tribunals to resolve all types of a court hierarchy to enable the Australian court system
legal disputes. Each state and territory within Australia to operate more effectively. For example, having courts
has its own system of courts and tribunals that can ranked from lowest to highest allows each court to
hear matters arising within that state or territory. specialise in hearing certain types of cases. This enables
We also have federal courts, including the Family the court personnel – including judges, magistrates
Court, High Court of Australia, Federal Court and and administrative officers – to develop their expertise
Federal Circuit Court of Australia, to resolve a range of in hearing certain types of cases. It also allows
disputes concerning laws made by the Commonwealth streamlining of court procedures.
Parliament. Having the courts arranged in a hierarchy also
allows for an appeals process to exist, where higher
The court hierarchy courts can review the decisions of lower courts. It also
helps make sure that court decisions are consistent and
The courts in each Australian state and territory are predictable because magistrates and judges in lower
arranged in a hierarchy, meaning they are ranked in courts can follow the decisions of judges in higher
order of importance from lowest to highest according courts.
to the seriousness of the cases they can hear. For
example, the lowest court in each state and territory
court hierarchy is the Magistrates’ Court (or Local State and territory courts
Court in NSW). These courts hear all minor criminal Each Australian state and territory has its own system
and civil cases. The highest court in each state and of courts and tribunals. These hear cases involving
territory court hierarchy is the Supreme Court, which a breach of state and territory laws, as well as some
hears the most serious cases, such as murder. The High specified federal matters. Each state in Australia has
Court of Australia is the highest federal court and can three levels of courts – superior, intermediate and
hear a range of important cases including appeals from lower – with the exception of Tasmania, the Northern
Supreme Courts in each state and territory. Territory and the Australia Capital Territory, which only
have a lower and superior level of court.
FEDERAL COURTS (all Australian states and territories)

High Court
Federal Court
Family Court (In Western Australia, this is replaced by the state-based Family Court of Western Australia)
Federal Circuit Court
STATE COURTS TERRITORY COURTS

WA NSW VIC QLD SA TAS ACT NT
Superior Supreme Supreme Supreme Supreme Supreme Supreme Supreme Supreme

courts Court Court Court Court Court Court Court Court
Intermediate District District County District District

courts Court Court Court Court Court
Lower Magistrates’ Local Magistrates’ Magistrates’ Magistrates’ Magistrates’ Magistrates’ Magistrates’

courts Court Court Court Court Court Court Court Court
Source 1 The Australian Court hierarchy

Superior courts Lower courts

Each state and territory in Australia has a Supreme The lowest court in each state and territory hierarchy
Court, which generally specialises in hearing the most is called the Magistrates’ Court (called the Local Court
serious criminal matters, such as murder. They also in New South Wales). These courts mainly hear minor
hear the most complex civil matters, or those involving criminal offences and civil cases involving amounts
very large amounts of money. Each Supreme Court also under $75 000. The Magistrates’ or Local Courts are
has an appeal division – a Supreme Court of Appeal the busiest courts in Australia, because most legal
– which hears appeals from the District or County cases involve minor criminal offences, such as minor
and Supreme Courts. Three judges generally hear cases theft and traffic offences. For example, the Western
in the Supreme Courts of Appeal. The High Court of Australian Magistrates’ Court, which operates in over
Australia has the power, or jurisdiction, to hear appeals 25 locations throughout the state, hears approximately
from the state and territory Supreme Courts of Appeal. 95 per cent all criminal matters in the state or around
100 000 criminal cases per year.
Intermediate courts
Intermediate courts, referred to as District (or County)
courts, generally hear all serious criminal cases except
murder and attempted murder, and serious civil cases
involving amounts over $100 000. They also have
the power to hear certain types of appeals from the
Magistrates’ (or Local Courts), such as appeals against
the severity or leniency of a sentence imposed. In
serious criminal trials where the accused pleads not
guilty, a jury of 12 will usually be used to determine the
verdict while the judge determines the sanction.
Source 2 The High Court of Australia in Canberra is Australia’s

highest federal court (see Source 3).
The High Court of

Australia
Federal courts State and territory courts
Family Court
(WA only) Superior courts
Family Court • Supreme Court
Federal Court
(except WA)
Intermediate courts
• District Court
• County Court (VIC only)
Federal Circuit Court
Lower courts
• Magistrates’ Court
• Local Court (NSW only)
Source 3 Australia’s federal and state/territory court hierarchy
16_SAL_OBl_HUMS_WA_9_07660_TXT_FLCX_SI.indd 497 5/05/2017 2:40 PM

Federal courts The Federal Circuit Court of Australia
In addition to the state and territory courts, Australia The Federal Circuit Court of Australia (formerly called
has four federal courts to hear and determine the Federal Magistrates’ Court) was created in 1999 to
matters involving laws made by the Commonwealth ease the workload of the Federal and Family Courts and
Parliament – the High Court of Australia, the Family provide a simple and more assessable alternative to the
Court of Australia, the Federal Court of Australia, and Federal Court. It hears a range of disputes including
the Federal Circuit Court of Australia. those involving family law and child support, human
rights, copyright and privacy matters.
The High Court of Australia
The High Court of Australia is probably the most well
known federal court, sitting on top of each of the
state and territory court hierarchies (see Source 3). The
High Court, which first sat in 1903, has the power to
hear many cases. This includes appeals from any state
or territory Supreme Court of Appeal and the High
Court itself. It can also hear cases involving disputes over
interpretations of the Australian Constitution, and any
case of significant legal importance.
The Family Court of Australia

The Family Court was created in 1975 to specialise in
hearing cases relating to marriage and divorce disputes.
For example, the court hears cases relating to disputes
over parenting and property settlement and cases
involving whether or not a marriage is valid under
Australian law. Western Australia has its own state-
based Family Court to hear these types of cases (see
page 502).
The Federal Court

The Federal Court was created in 1976 to hear most civil
disputes involving Commonwealth law. These include
matters involving industrial relations or the workplace,
native title claims (disputes over the granting of land
rights to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples),
copyright, trade practices and immigration issues. It
can also hear appeals from various courts and tribunals Source 4 The Family Court of Australia (Lionel Bowen Building),
throughout Australia. Sydney
casestudy
Coles fined for misleading consumers

In 2014, a Federal Court judge ruled that Coles being ‘freshly baked’ and ‘baked today, sold today’
Supermarkets had broken Australian consumer laws when the bread had actually been partly baked by the
that prevent businesses from misleading or deceiving supplier and ‘finished off’ in Coles stores on the day of
the public. This was done by promoting their bread as sale. Coles was ordered to pay a fine of $2.5 million.

casestudy
Norrie’s Case – does a person have
to declare their gender?
In 2010, ‘Norrie’ – a 52 year-old Sydney person who
does not identify as being either male or female –
became the first person to be formally registered with
the New South Wales Registry of Births, Deaths and
Marriages as ‘sex not specified’. A few months after the
registration, however, Norrie received notification that it
had been ‘issued in error’ and was not legally valid.
After unsuccessful attempts to have the registry’s
original acceptance of Norrie’s registration status
reinstated, Norrie lodged a successful appeal at
the NSW Supreme Court of Appeal. Three judges
unanimously agreed that people should be able to have
a ‘gender neutral status’, meaning they not be required
to identify themselves as either male or female.
The NSW Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages,
however, refused to accept this decision and lodged
a final appeal to the High Court of Australia. In 2014,
the High Court dismissed the appeal, and upheld the Source 5 Norrie won a High Court case and became the
first person not required to specify a gender with the NSW
decision of the NSW Supreme Court of Appeal, ruling Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages.
that the sex of an individual is generally irrelevant to
most legal relations, with the exception of the current
marriage laws that prohibit same-sex marriage.

1 Define the term ‘court hierarchy’. 5 Using the Internet, conduct research into your state
2 Explain two reasons that courts in Australia are or territory’s courts system.
ranked in a hierarchy. a Create a flow chart that illustrates the court
3 Briefly outline the role of the Family Court of hierarchy.
Australia. b State the name of three courts that exist in your
state or territory and briefly explain the role and
Apply and analyse types of cases that can be heard in each court.
4 Read the case study ‘Norrie’s Case’ and complete 6 Collect one article that refers to a case or matter
the following tasks. being heard in each of the courts in your hierarchy
a Decide whether the case is criminal or civil. Give and summarise the facts of each case. Where
reasons for your choice. possible, comment on whether or not you think the
b Identify the name of the courts involved and outcome of the case was fair.
explain what type of cases they generally hear.
c Explain why Norrie took this case to court and
comment on the final decision.

16.7 The Western Australian court
hierarchy
The Western Australian court hierarchy is made
up of a number of courts, each of which has the High Court
Federal court
power to hear certain types of cases. For example, of Australia
the Magistrates’ Court, which is the lowest
ranked court in the hierarchy, mainly hears and
resolves minor disputes such as minor theft and
traffic offences. By contrast, the Supreme Court Supreme
Court of
of Western Australia, divided into the General Appeal
Division and the Court of Appeal, is the most Western Australian
superior Western Australian state court, and state courts
Supreme Court
hears and resolves the most serious cases, such as (General Division)
murder and attempted murder cases.
Western Australia is also the only state in
Australia to have its own state-based family
District Court
court, which hears matters such as divorce, child
custody and adoption.
The Magistrates’ Court Magistrates’ Court

While the Magistrates’ Court is the lowest court Family Court
in the state court hierarchy, it is also the busiest,
due to the large range of cases it can hear and
the fact that the majority of legal disputes are Source 1 The Western Australian court hierarchy
relatively minor. For example, the Magistrates’
Court deals with approximately 95 per cent of
the state’s criminal cases, or around 100 000
criminal cases per year.
The Magistrates’ Court has the power, or
jurisdiction, to hear and determine a wide
range of cases including:
• all minor criminal matters, referred to
as ‘simple offences’, (for example minor
theft, property damage and assault; traffic
offences like driving a vehicle whilst being
disqualified and driving over the speed limit)
• civil disputes where the amount of money
involved does not exceed $75 000.
All cases in the Magistrates’ Court are held
before, or presided over by, a single magistrate
(there is no jury). Also, being the lowest court
in the Western Australian court hierarchy, the
Magistrates’ Court cannot hear appeals – that
is, it cannot review decisions from any lower Source 2 The Perth Magistrates’ Court
courts.

Source 3 The Perth District Court
The District Court The District Court also has the power to hear civil
The District Court of Western Australia is the appeals from the Magistrates’ Court.
intermediate tier in the Western Australian court
hierarchy and hears approximately 7500 criminal and The Supreme Court
civil cases each year. The District Court has the power
to hear: The Supreme Court of Western Australia is the highest
• all indictable or serious criminal offences except court in the Western Australian court hierarchy, and
those where the maximum term of imprisonment consists of two divisions: the General Division and the
that can be imposed is life (such as murder and Court of Appeal.
murder-related offences). This means the District
Court can hear a wide range of criminal cases,
Supreme Court (General Division)
including serious theft, armed robbery (theft using The Supreme Court (General Division) has the power to
a weapon), illicit drug offences (for example, hear:
trafficking or selling illegal drugs), sexual assault, • all indictable or serious criminal offences, but
fraud, and culpable driving causing death (where generally hears the most serious cases such as
a person has caused the death of another due to murder, armed robbery, and serious drug offences
driving in a very careless of reckless manner, or while (for example, major illicit drug-trafficking cases)
under the influence of drugs or alcohol). • civil disputes involving an unlimited amount of
• a range of civil disputes. For example, the District money (for example, the court generally hears cases
Court can hear civil disputes for an unlimited over involving amounts over $750 000 or serious and
amount of money in cases where the claim relates complex legal issues).
to personal injuries and injury sustained in motor
vehicle accidents. This may include negligence cases Supreme Court of Appeal
where an individual has suffered injuries as a result
The Supreme Court of Appeal has the power to hear all
of another’s careless behaviour, and claims made
appeals (review decisions) from decisions made by single
for workplace injuries. The court can also hear civil
judges in the Supreme Court (General Division) and
matters involving commercial or business dealings
lower courts – although an appeal can only be lodged if
and debt recovery, but only for amounts up
a party has a good reason or reasonable grounds.
to $750 000.

If a party wishes to appeal a decision made by the The Family Court
Supreme Court of Appeal, they can apply to have the
case heard and reviewed by the High Court of Australia, Western Australia is the only Australian state to have its
which has the power to hear all appeals from each own Family Court to deal specifically with family law-
state’s and territory’s Supreme Courts of Appeal. The related matters – in all other states, family law disputes
High Court, however, does not hear many appeals are generally heard by the Family Court of Australia (a
and so a party must provide very strong grounds or federal court set up by the Commonwealth parliament
exceptional reasons for lodging the appeal. in 1975).
One benefit of having a state-based Family Court is
Who makes the decisions in the District that it can deal with a broader range of family matters.
and Supreme courts? For example, the Family Court of Western Australia
can hear:
In general, all criminal cases heard in the District Court
and Supreme Court (General Division) – referred to as • all matters usually heard by the Family Court of
trials – where the accused pleads not guilty, are heard Australia, such as those relating to marriage and
before a judge and jury. The jury is composed of 12 divorce – including property disputes arising from a
randomly selected citizens, and determines the verdict divorce and parenting disputes arising from a
(the guilt or innocence of the accused), while the judge divorce or separation of de facto (unmarried) couples
determines the sanction (or punishment) to be imposed • other family matters not heard by the Family Court
upon the accused if they are found guilty. of Australia, for example, disputes between separated
On occasion, a criminal matter may be heard in the and de facto (unmarried) couples over property
District or Supreme Court (General Division) without a and matters involving adoption and surrogacy
jury. Such cases are referred to as ‘judge alone’ trials and arrangements.
only occur in rare cases, for example, where the accused This means that all family matters can be heard
might have a very good reason to believe a jury may be by the one state court and all parties can have access
biased against them or in cases where the court believes to the same counselling and support services (such as
the complexity or length of a trial may place too much interpreters and child minding) provided by the court.
pressure and stress on a potential jury.
In cases where the accused
pleads guilty, there is no need
for a jury and the judge simply
listens to the facts of the case
and determines the sanction to
be imposed – for example, the
amount of the fine or length of
the term of imprisonment.
All civil trials heard in the
District Court and the Supreme
Court (General Division) are
heard and determined by a
single judge.
A single judge hears and
determines all appeals in
the Supreme Court (General
Division) and usually three
judges hear and determine all
appeals in the Supreme Court of
Appeal, although some matters
can be heard by a single judge
or two judges.
Source 4 The Supreme Court of Western Australia


Remember and understand f Petra is suing a hospital, claiming a surgeon
1 Prepare a table (similar to the one provided below) carelessly performed a knee operation that left
her unable to play professional tennis.
that describes the jurisdiction (i.e. types of cases
heard) by the following Western Australian state g Ross has pleaded guilty to culpable driving
courts: the Magistrates’ Court, District Court, causing death, after colliding with and killing
a pedestrian while driving a vehicle under the
Supreme Court (General Division) and the Supreme
influence of alcohol. Shortly after the crash he
Court of Appeal.
registered a blood alcohol concentration (BAC
2 Outline who determines the verdict and who
reading) of 0.13.
determines the sanction in a criminal trial heard in the
h Veda is suing her local café for $80 000 to make
District or Supreme (General Division) courts.
up for the severe stomach injuries she suffered as
3 a State three examples of crimes that can be heard a result of swallowing a broken toothpick left in a
in the Magistrates’ Court. sandwich.
b Suggest one reason why a person may wish
to lodge an appeal against a decision of a Evaluate and create
magistrate. 6 Research one court in the Western Australian
4 What role does the Family Court have in Western state court hierarchy and prepare a PowerPoint
Australia? presentation that outlines some of the main features
or roles of that court. For example, you may wish to
Apply and analyse outline what types of cases the court can hear, who
5 Decide whether each of the following is a criminal determines the outcome in each case, some of the
or civil case and identify which court would hear the key personnel who work at the court, and where the
case. court is located. Remember to use some visuals for
a Jack is charged with using offensive language in interest in your presentation.
a public place and intends to plead guilty. 7 Use either print or online media to find one article
b Gemma has pleaded guilty to receiving stolen about a case being heard in two of the courts in
goods valued at $60 000. the Western Australian court hierarchy. Prepare
c Grant has pleaded not guilty to murder, claiming a summary of the facts of each case and, where
he stabbed an armed intruder in self-defence. possible, comment upon whether or not you think
d Joshua has pleaded guilty to selling a large the outcome of the case was fair. In the event the
amount of illegal drugs. case has not concluded yet, suggest what the likely
e Ashley has pleaded guilty to a speeding offence outcome may be.
after driving at 80 km per hour in a 40 km per
hour school zone.
Jurisdiction (or types Magistrates’ Court District Court Supreme Court Supreme Court of
of cases heard) (General Division) Appeal
Criminal
Civil
Appeals

16.8 The role of the courts
In Australia, most laws are made by parliament. In fact,
the main role of the state and federal parliaments is to
make laws (called legislation or statutes) on behalf of
society. By contrast, the main role of the courts is to
apply and interpret the meaning of any existing law to
resolve disputes that are bought before them. Courts
can, however, also make law in certain situations.
Courts making law by setting

precedent
Courts or judges can make law when they are called upon
to resolve a dispute in which there is no existing law
– that is, no existing parliamentary legislation or court-
made law – that can be applied to resolve the dispute at
hand. In such cases, the judge must come to their own
decision regarding the outcome and their decision may
then become judge-made law or a precedent.
In simple terms, a precedent is a decision or legal
principle made by a judge. It must be followed by all Source 1 Could your sleepwear be involved in a
lower courts, within the same court hierarchy, in cases negligence case?
where the underlying facts are similar. For example,
judges and magistrates in the lower courts in each state Courts making law through
or territory must follow decisions or legal principles
made by judges in the higher courts (such as the Supreme statutory interpretation
Court and High Court). This ensures that the laws made Judges also are able to make law through the process
by courts are consistent and predictable. of statutory interpretation. Statutory interpretation
Allowing the courts to make law by setting precedent is when a judge is called to resolve a dispute in which
also allows the law to develop over time. For example, there is existing legislation (or parliamentary law) but
the law of negligence has largely developed through the wording of the legislation is unclear, and needs to
judges making decisions in cases where there was no be interpreted or given meaning by the judge before it
existing legislation that could be applied to resolve a can be applied to resolve the case at hand. For example,
dispute at hand. In fact, Australian negligence law was in the ‘Kevin and Jennifer’ case (2003), three Family
first established in the mid 1930s, in the famous case of Court judges were required to interpret the meaning
Grant v Australian Knitting Mills [1936]. In the absence of the word ‘man’ when a dispute arose over whether a
of any parliamentary legislation, a judge ruled that the marriage between a woman who had undergone a sex
manufacturers (in this case, the Australian Knitting change (to become a man) and another woman was
Mills) owed consumers a reasonable duty of care not to valid under Australian law (which states that a legally
produce faulty and harmful products. This ruling was valid marriage can only take place between a man and
made after a consumer (Grant) developed a severe skin a woman). The court interpreted that a post-operative
rash from wearing some faulty and carelessly produced female-to-male transsexual was a ‘man’ and declared
underwear, similar to a ‘onesie’. Since this case, many the marriage valid. The court’s interpretation clarified
more cases involving negligence claims have been the meaning of a ‘man’ for the purposes of Australia’s
taken to Australian courts and the law of negligence has marriage laws and enabled the legislation to be applied
continued to develop. to resolve the case and also set a precedent.

casestudy
Can a slippery chip earn you
$500 000?
In 2012, the High Court of Australia set a precedent
when it resolved an eight-year dispute between
Kathryn Strong and Woolworths supermarket chain
over injuries Ms Strong incurred when she slipped
on a greasy patch on the floor outside a Woolworth’s
supermarket. The court had to determine whether or
not Woolworths had most likely been careless and
breached their duty of reasonable care by failing to
adequately inspect the floor and remove a greasy spot
left from a hot chip dropped in a sales area directly
outside their supermarket entrance. Ms Strong, who
was walking on crutches at the time, slipped on the
greasy spot and severely injured her spine.
The High Court judges agreed with the judge in
the original District Court by ruling that Woolworths
was responsible for Ms Strong’s injury and awarded
her over $580 000 in damages to compensate for
her losses. In making the decision, the High Court
set a broad precedent that it was reasonable for
supermarkets and other stores to inspect and clean
Source 2 Kathryn Strong was awarded over $580 000 after
floors located near food courts and in high traffic slipping on a greasy hot chip patch at the entrance of her
areas every 20 minutes. local supermarket.

Remember and understand a Explain whether the case is a criminal or civil
1 Distinguish between the main role of parliament and case.
the main role of the courts. b Outline the basic facts of the case and comment
on whether or not you agree with the precedent
2 Explain two situations in which courts or judges can
set by the High Court.
make law.
3 What is a precedent? Explain how judges make law Evaluate and create
by setting precedents. 6 Research one of the following Australian court cases
4 Suggest two reasons why legislation or laws made and prepare a summary that outlines the facts of the
by parliament may need interpreting by the court case and the decision or law made by the court.
before they can be applied to resolve a case. – Davies v Waldron [1989] VR 449
Apply and analyse – Deing v Tarola [1993] 2 VR 163
– Rosenberg v Percival [2001] 205 CLR 434
5 Read the case study, Strong v Woolworths Limited
– Cole v South Tweed Heads Rugby League
[2012] HCA 5, and complete the following tasks:
Football Club Ltd [2004] HCA 29

16B rich task
Uruguay, New Zealand, France and Britain. Similarly,
various national surveys have indicated that 65–70 per
Marriage equality cent of Australians support same-sex marriage, with

approximately 75–80 per cent believing that legal change
and the law is inevitable.

One of the main reasons why many individuals and
In October 2013, the Australian Capital groups support the legalisation of same-sex marriage in
Territory parliament passed legislation, the Australia is that it is consistent with the basic principle
Marriage Equality (Same Sex) Act 2013, that underpins our legal system, that ‘all people should be
treated equally before the law’. This would give same-
to legalise same-sex marriage in the ACT.
sex couples the same legal rights that derive from being
However, only a few days after it came into married, including having the same access to adoption,
effect, the law was declared invalid by the as heterosexual married couples receive. Many people
High Court on the grounds that it conflicted also believe that allowing same-sex marriage might
with existing Commonwealth marriage laws help to reduce the unacceptable negative stigma often
that require marriages in Australia to be associated with being gay and to promote tolerance and
between a man and a woman. understanding within the community.
Conversely, those who oppose same-sex marriage
on a range of social, religious, political and legal grounds,
often argue they act to support the rights of children. They
argue a child has a right to have a mother and a father,
believing that marriage should remain a cultural institution
based upon the basic biological principle that a man and a
woman are the ‘natural’ creators of life and reproduction.
Similarly, some argue that legalising same-sex marriage
may make it more difficult to deny other groups, such
as polygamists – who support being legally able to be
married to more than one person at a time – the right
to marry.
Source 1 Same-sex couples were able to legally marry in the

ACT for five days in 2013 before the High Court of Australia
declared the newly implemented law invalid.
The passing of the ACT legislation demonstrated the

growing support within Australia to follow other countries
and legalise same-sex marriage. In 2015, the United
States of America became one of 20 other nations to
legalise same-sex marriage, joining countries such as
the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Source 2 Various protests have taken place in support for and
Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, against legalising same-sex marriage.

skilldrill
Analysing different points of view Step 5 Question the context in which the article was
written. Consider when it was written and the
Being able to gather, analyse, and interpret information
predominant values and morals that existed at the
is a key skill that enables us to gain an understanding of
time. Ask yourself, has any of the information provided
views and opinions that may be different from our own.
changed over time? Also consider the background
It helps us to develop empathy for people who hold and
of the author and whether or not their views might
express different beliefs and values. Having the ability to
have been biased by their culture, heritage or religious
consider different perspectives also enables us to expand
beliefs.
our perceptions and make more informed judgements.
Step 6 Decide whether each author has sufficiently
When you are required to analyse a controversial
justified their opinion, and form your own opinion
issue, you need to consider a range of different viewpoints
based on your readings.
related to the issue. You also need to attempt to
understand the values, morals, motivations and contexts
Apply the skill
that underpin these different opinions and perspectives.
1 Using the internet and other forms of media, collect
To analyse different viewpoints in relation to a
information from two different sources that support
controversial issue – such as whether or not the Australian
the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Australia.
marriage laws should be altered to legally recognise
You might use newspaper or journal articles, media
same-sex marriage – follow these steps.
broadcasts and transcripts, the websites of political
Step 1 Identify the issue you are going to examine. parties or other religious and social organisations. Also
Step 2 Gather sources from a range of difference places. collect information from two different sources that
For example, articles from different websites or a range oppose the introduction of same-sex marriage.
of newspapers. Make sure they are not all written by For each source of information provide:
the same person.
a a summary of the author’s viewpoint on the issue
Step 3 Identify each author’s viewpoint. For example, do b a short statement (100 words) that discusses
they support or are they against the legal recognition of any values, morals, motivations and context that
same-sex marriages? underpin each source of information.
Step 4 Identify each author’s motivation for their 2 After you have examined your four sources of
viewpoint. Ask yourself what their motivation might be information, prepare a summary of the main reasons
for taking this position. For example, are they writing for and against the legalisation of same-sex marriage.
on behalf of a specific group or political party that have Provide a concluding statement that outlines your
a particular stance on the issue? Do they belong to a personal view on the topic.
group affected by the issue?
1 Identify another controversial issue in the media, such the pair present the ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of the issue to
as lowering the speed limit, or raising the legal drinking the class, explaining the justification for why different
age to 21. In pairs, research your topic and make an people have a range of opinions about it.
analysis of different sources. Have each member of

Glossary: Geography
A C CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organisation,
Agricultural Revolution, the calorie a unit used to measure the Australia’s national science agency
a period of gradual change to the energy in food
cultural (adjective) relating to the
agricultural system that began in cartogram a map that is distorted shared characteristics of a group of
Britain in the 18th century, and to show a representation of a value people
included the introduction of new rather than land area
techniques and machinery in
change a key concept in geography:
farming
the dynamic nature of all processes D
annotate to add notes which explain, on Earth, whether slow or fast, small deforestation the cutting down of
comment or clarify or large trees and other plant life in a forest
aquifer an underground water supply desert a dry region of the Earth with
choropleth map a map that shows
consisting of a layer of rock or other little vegetation or rainfall, but
particular data or characteristics,
permeable materials that contains experiencing extreme temperatures
such as population density, by
water
shading regions in variations of one desertification the transformation of
arable a word used to describe land colour (e.g. light green through to fertile land into relatively dry desert
that is suitable for growing crops dark green) areas
armed conflict war between different climate change long-term significant developed country an industrialised
countries, or civil war between change in the Earth’s weather, country with a well-developed
groups within a single country including variations in rainfall and economy capable of supporting its
wind patterns, regional changes, own people
B and particularly the increased
average atmospheric temperature
developing country a non-
industrialised country with a lower
climate graph a combination bar and living standard, and lower Human
bar graph a graph that shows
line graph that shows the rainfall Development Index ranking than
information as a series of horizontal
and temperature of a given place; other countries
bars
also known as a climograph direction a way of orienting a map,
biodiversity the variety of life in a
complex map a type of map that usually shown by the use of compass
particular area or biome
contains more than one set of points, such as north
biofuel a fuel that is produced directly information digital divide the unequal levels
from a living or recently living
compound column graph a column of access that people in different
organism such as plant or animal
graph that has subdivided columns countries have to communication
waste
for further comparison technologies like the Internet and
biome a large area of the Earth that mobile network coverage
coniferous forest a type of forest
is home to similar plant and animal
comprised of conifer trees, digital terrain model a topographic
communities that are adapted to
sometimes called a boreal forest illustration that uses digital data to
that particular environment (e.g.
conservation agriculture a type create a side view of the elevation of
desert or forest)
of agriculture that uses farming an area
BOLTSS a mnemonic (memory
methods that seek to cause
device) for remembering the
essentials of a map: border,
minimum disturbance to the
natural environment, conserve
E
orientation, legend, title, scale and economic (adjective) relating to
resources and complement natural
source employment, income and trade
processes
boreal forest the coniferous forest ecosystem abbreviation for
contour lines lines drawn on a map
biome, dominated by fir, spruce and ‘ecological system’, a complex
that connect points at the same
pine trees community made up of living
height to show the height and
steepness of land organisms that interact with each
other and with their environment
crop yield the amount of crop (in
kilograms) that is grown per hectare

ecosystem services the important food insecurity a state where not global warming the gradual rise in
benefits that healthy ecosystems everyone has consistent access to the overall atmospheric temperature
provide to humans; includes the enough safe nutritious food to of the Earth, believed to be caused
service of providing (e.g. food and sustain a healthy life; the opposite of by increased levels of certain
water) and regulating (e.g. purifying the state of food security greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
air and water) food loss the reduction in the globalisation the increasing
ecotourism a form of tourism amount of food from where it is interconnection between countries,
that involves visiting a natural produced to where it reaches the including economic, political and
environment with the aim of consumer cultural exchange between countries
observing, experiencing and food security a state where all people all over the world
learning about it while conserving at all times have access to enough grasslands a biome of wide open
and supporting the environment safe nutritious food to sustain a spaces, where the vegetation is
and its inhabitants healthy life dominated by grasses; sometimes
environment a key concept in food waste food that is thrown out called a prairie, steppe or savannah
geography: a specific place on Earth by a retailer or consumer Green Revolution, the a period
and all the things, both animate and of research, development and
fossil fuel fuel that is made from the
inanimate, that are there alteration of agricultural techniques
organic remains of organisms that
erosion the wearing away of the have been dead for a long time that took place between the 1940s
Earth’s surface by wind, water or ice and 1960s, most markedly in the
developing world, which saw global
extensive farming a type of farming
that requires large areas of land, for
G increased agricultural production
example dairy farming, which needs genetic modification a process by Gross Domestic Product (GDP) the
to provide grazing land for cattle which scientists can change the total monetary value of all the goods
genes of plants and animals to give and services produced by a country
extraction the process of taking raw
them certain desirable traits over a specific time period (usually
materials from the Earth; includes
geographic diagram a simplified a year)
activities such as mining
drawing of the real world ground level photograph a
geographic information system photograph that is taken when the
F (GIS) a map plus database system camera lens is level with the ground
false colour image an image that uses for navigation and information
colours that are different or more
exaggerated than those which occur
collection
H
geographic photograph a
naturally, in order to make it easier historical (adjective) relating to past
photograph that is taken to depict
to interpret experiences and events
a place or particular feature of
famine widespread shortage of food the landscape for the purpose of horizons layers that are formed in
demonstrating an aspect that is soil over time due to the gradual
fertility rate the average number of
being studied breaking down of rock into finer
children women in a particular area
particles
or country will have throughout the geographic sketch a sketch focusing
course of their lives on those parts of the environment hot spot a point not on a plate
relevant to the geographic study; boundary where there is tectonic
fieldwork geographical study on
often completed in the field but activity
location of the site of inquiry
sometimes from a photograph
flow diagram a diagram that shows
the movement sequence or stages in Global Positioning System (GPS)
a process a device that uses satellites to
accurately pinpoint the location of a
I
flow map a map that shows Industrial Revolution, the
car or phone, and then utilises data
movement (such as people or goods) a period of major socioeconomic
in the form of a digital map to help
from one place to another change during the late 1700s and
us find our way around
food accessibility having physical early 1800s, where agricultural and
global trade the buying and selling of
and economic access to enough food other manufacturing processes
goods, services, produce and capital
that can be reached by those who were revolutionised by the use of
between countries or territories
need it machinery
across international borders
food availability the state of people infrastructure the components
having enough food of appropriate necessary for any business or city,
quality consistently available such as buildings, electricity, roads,
airports and water supply
glossary: geography 509

intensive farming a kind of farming
that can supply large volumes of
N prairie a biome of wide open spaces,
where the vegetation is dominated
produce in a relatively small area natural regeneration a form of by grasses; sometimes referred to as
(e.g. poultry or vegetable farms) permaculture that allows continuous grasslands, steppe or savanna
growth of trees on farmland,
interconnection a key concept in precision farming system of farming
whereby the natural process of
geography: the relationship between that adapts modern technology to
replacement or re-establishment of
all things, both animate and analyse aspects of the environment
inanimate, and all processes, both plants is encouraged to bring out better economic and
natural and human environmental outcomes
invasive alien species a plant, animal O primary data data collected for a
or other organism that is not native oblique aerial photograph geographical inquiry by a person
to an area, and whose introduction a photograph taken from an conducting an inquiry, such as
has negative effects on its new survey data, hand-drawn maps or
aeroplane (or similar aircraft) where
environment photographs
the camera is at an angle to the
irrigation the artificial supply of water Earth’s surface
to dry land to help in the growing organisation how and why things Q
of crops are arranged and managed on the qualitative data any information that
Earth’s surface by people can be recorded in words (e.g. Uluru
L overfarming the process of growing is very large)
leaching the draining away or the same crop or harvesting the quantitative data any information
removal of soluble substances same product (such as fish) in the that can be recorded as numbers
same location year after year until (e.g. Uluru is 3.6 kilometres long)
levee a floodbank or embankment
the soil or water is depleted to such
that has been built to divert the flow
an extent that it can no longer
of water or stop it overflowing
provide the resource R
life expectancy the average number radial pattern a pattern with its
of years someone can expect to live features spreading out like spokes on
based on statistics P a wheel
line graph a graph that displays data permaculture the growing of a garden rainfed agriculture that relies on
as a line or maintenance of an ecosystem rainfall for water
lineal pattern a pattern with its that uses the natural systems and
rainforest dense forest areas found
features appearing in a rough line resources of plants and animals to
in tropical areas with warm
sustain itself, without harming the temperatures and heavy rainfall
location where things are located on
the Earth’s surface environment
raw material the basic organic
place a key concept in geography: a resources from which things are
part of the Earth’s surface that is
M identified and given meaning by
made; often refers to the Earth’s
natural materials such as oil, wood,
map a simplified plan of an area people and water
shown from directly above the area
refugee a person who moves to
mental map a map that we keep in another country because of a natural
polar land very cold region that
our heads, usually of our local area disaster or to avoid persecution
surrounds either the North or South
or places we are very familiar with,
Pole reliability the confirmation that
that allows us to navigate without a
political map a map that shows the information is from a reputable,
phone, GPS or hard-copy map
locations and names of built features trustworthy source that can be
mountain vegetation vegetation verified as legitimate and accurate
that grows on the colder slopes of of the Earth, such as cities, roads,
mountainsides dams and railways
mulch decaying organic material such population density the population S
as leaves or compost that is spread of a human habitat in terms of salinity the amount of salt content in
over soil to insulate it and keep it individuals per unit area (e.g. 1500 the soil
warm and moist people per square kilometre)
satellite image image of a place taken
multinational company (MNC) population pyramid a graph that from satellites orbiting above the
a company that operates in more displays the population of males and Earth’s surface
than one country females in a region by age group

savanna a biome of wide open spaces,
where the vegetation is dominated
sustainability a key concept in
geography: the ongoing capacity of
V
by grasses; sometimes called a Earth to maintain all life vertical aerial photograph photo
prairie, steppe or grasslands taken from an aircraft in which
the camera is pointed directly at
scale a key concept in geography:
the level at which a geographical T (perpendicular to) the ground
inquiry takes place – personal, local, tariff a tax or payment that a
regional, national or global government places on imports W
or exports of a particular type of
scale (mapping) a line that water scarcity the lack of sufficient
product or produce; used to restrict
indicates the distances on a map as water to supply the needs of an area
or control trade between countries
represented in the real world water table the surface underground
tectonic plate one of the immense,
scatter plot a graph that shows two below which the ground is
slowly moving pieces that make up
sets of data by plotted points along completely saturated with water
the Earth’s surface and carry the
two axes, the pattern of which shows weathering wearing away by
continents and oceans
their correlation; sometimes called a exposure to the Earth’s elements
scatter graph or scattergram temperate forest a large forest biome
that experiences a range of seasonal
secondary data data collected for
climate conditions; lies between the
a geographical inquiry from other
tropics and the polar regions
sources, such as textbooks, atlases
and government websites terracing the process of cutting
‘steps’ into sloping land to make flat
sediment solid particles that sink and
sections
settle at the bottom of water
topographic map a map that shows
silt fine sand rock, sand or clay
the shape of the land, its relief and
particles that are carried by water
landforms
and then deposited in another
location tropical forest a biome that lies
between the Tropic of Capricorn
soil degradation the deterioration
and the Tropic of Cancer, which has
of soil condition caused by human
high regular rainfall, high average
activity, which results in a lowering
temperatures and a high level of
of its levels of nutrients, quality and
biodiversity
productivity
tundra a biome that is characterised by
space a key concept in geography:
having a vast, treeless environment
the way things are arranged on the
across the Arctic region of Asia,
Earth’s surface
Europe and North America
spatial distribution the shapes
and patterns in which things are
arranged on the Earth’s surface U
spiritual (adjective) relating to a undernourished the state of not
person’s beliefs having enough food to develop or
function adequately
steppe a biome of wide open spaces,
where the vegetation is dominated upland rice growing the practice
by grasses; sometimes called a of growing rice on hillsides or
prairie, savanna or grasslands mountainsides
subsistence farming type of farming urban a term used to describe a city or

whereby the yield of crops grown or town
raised by a farmer are just enough to urban sprawl the growth of a city
cover their household needs onto productive farming land on the
suburb an area beyond a city centre, city fringes
with medium-density housing
supply chain the stages through which
a product journeys, from its source to
the consumer and finally its place of
disposal
glossary: geography 511

Glossary: History
A B communism an economic system
in which the means of production
Agricultural Revolution, the a period bias a prejudicial view or attitude (e.g. factories, farms and machinery)
of agricultural development and towards someone or something that are publicly owned (by the state)
advances in farming methods that is not altered by the presentation of and goods are distributed equally
took place in Britain from the mid- facts and evidence to the contrary according to need; as opposed to
1600s until the late 1800s and paved privately owned and controlled
the way for the Industrial Revolution
C systems such as capitalism
alliance system, the a series of conscientious objector in wartime,
capitalism an economic system under
agreements (alliances) formed a person who is opposed to the war
which the means of production (e.g.
between various European powers and refuses to perform military
factories, farms and machinery) are
to work together to achieve shared service because it goes against their
privately owned by individuals or
goals; one of the factors contributing beliefs, religion or conscience
corporations and run to generate
to the outbreak of World War I
profits, as opposed to state-owned conscription the compulsory
(see also Triple Alliance and Triple
and controlled systems such enlistment of people to serve in the
Entente)
as socialism and communism; armed forces
American War of Independence, supporters are called capitalists
the a revolutionary war fought Constitution the political principles
between Britain and the 13 cause and effect a key concept in on which a country or society is
British colonies in North America history: the link between what based and that guide its government;
(1775–83); leading ultimately to causes an action and the outcome of also, a written document that
independence and the formation of that action; an appreciation of the outlines these principles
the United States of America fact that events that take place (both contestability a key concept in
short term and long term) are linked history: an appreciation of the fact
anarchism a social and political
and can have impacts on people and that some historians may challenge
theory that all government and
places for many years to come or dispute particular interpretations
laws should be abolished and people
should live in free communities census a ‘head count’ or audit of of historical sources, historical
where individuals govern their own the number of people living in a events or issues put forward by other
behaviour particular place at a particular time; historians
information collected during a continuity and change a key concept
archaeology study of human history
census can include age, occupation, in history: an appreciation of the
through the excavation of sites and
income, religious beliefs etc. fact that while some aspects of a
the examination of physical remains
Chartism a British working-class society stay the same over time
aristocracy a group of people who
movement for political reform that (continuity), others will develop and
(through wealth or birth) belong
took place in the 1830s; a People’s transform (change)
to the upper class of a society or
Charter was drawn up in 1838 convict a person found guilty of a
civilisation
calling for a range of reforms to crime and sentenced by a court to
armistice an agreement made by make the political system more
warring parties (e.g. countries) to serve some kind of punishment
democratic (including the right to
stop fighting in order to negotiate corps a large grouping of troops
vote for all men over the age of 21);
peace within an armed force that performs
supporters were called Chartists
artefact any object that is made or a certain function (e.g. the Royal
chronology a record of events in the Australian Infantry Corps)
changed by humans (e.g. a primitive order they took place
tool, the remains of a building)
assassination the murder of a
circa a Latin word meaning ‘around’ D
or ‘approximately’ (abbreviated as democracy a political system based
prominent political or religious ‘c.’) around the idea that the citizens of a
figure in a surprise attack
colonisation the process of setting society should have control over the
assembly line machinery that up settlements in other lands by a way in which they are governed
is arranged in sequence so that country, kingdom or empire, often digger a miner, especially someone
something can be assembled quickly for reasons of trade or defence who digs for gold; also an informal
and efficiently
colony an outpost set up by a country, term used to describe soldiers from
kingdom or empire, often for social, Australia and New Zealand; first
financial or strategic (military) used during World War I
reasons

dispossession depriving a person evidence a key concept in history: the Industrial Revolution, the the
or people of the possession or information or clues gathered from name given to the period of rapid
occupancy of land and property; a historical source; evidence can be development in manufacturing
when the British colonised Australia, used to support a hypothesis (theory) and industry from 1750 to 1900
large numbers of Indigenous or prove it wrong particularly in Britain
Australians were dispossessed of industrialisation a process in which a
extraterritoriality a principle where
their ancestral lands, hunting people abroad are subject to the laws society transforms from an economy
grounds and water resources; they of their own country rather than based primarily on agriculture
were also cut off from their spiritual local laws and farming into one based on
and cultural heritage as a result of manufacturing and industry
dispossession F industrialist a person who owns or
dogfight a close-range aerial combat factory system, the a system of manages an industry
between fighter planes manufacturing goods on a large inflation a general increase in
dominion a self-governing nation or scale using many workers and the prices of goods and services
state under British sovereignty in specialised machinery located on a accompanied by a fall in the value
the later part of the 19th century single site; first adopted in Britain of money or currency
and part of the British Empire; during the Industrial Revolution
intern to imprison or keep confined in
British dominions included former federation the process by which a particular place
colonies such as Australia, Canada, separate colonies or states form
India and New Zealand a unified nation with a central internment camp a prison camp
government; the Commonwealth set up to confine enemy aliens,
dynasty a period of rule by members
of Australia was established in 1901 prisoners of war or political
of the same family who come to
after the six colonies were joined prisoners
power one after the other; power is
often passed from father to son French Revolution, the a revolution
in France started in 1789 that saw
L
E the overthrow of the monarchy and
Luddite a member of a group of
workers led by Ned Ludd who
emigration to leave one country or the establishment of a democratic
rioted and broke machinery from
region in order to settle in another system of government
1811 to 1818 in protest against loss
empathy a key concept in history:
the ability to understand another H of work due to the use of labour-
saving machinery
person’s point of view, way of life, hierarchy an organisation that
or decisions by considering their ranks people one above the other
depending on the power they hold
M
special circumstances and values
historical inquiry the process of migration the movement of people
empire a group of countries and/or from one place to another
examining historical evidence,
areas, often with different languages conducting research and asking militarism a focus within a country
and having different cultures, ruled questions about it to find out about on boosting the strength of the
by a central power or leader (known the past military by growing the armed
as an emperor)
hypothesis a considered opinion, forces and spending on military
enclosures the act of seizing land theory or statement, based on equipment
(especially common farming land) research and evidence, about
by putting a hedge or other barrier something that has not been proven N
around it; during the Agricultural
nationalism a sense of pride in, and
Revolution over 4000 Enclosure Acts I love of, one’s country; also the
(laws) were passed by the British immigrant a person who enters a idea that one nation’s culture and
Parliament granting ownership of country to which they are not native interests are superior to those of
common farming land to private in order to settle there permanently another nation
owners
immigration the act of entering and neutral nation a country that decides
enemy alien an immigrant from an settling permanently in a country not to take part in a war or to favour
enemy nation (during times of war) or region to which a person is not one side or the other
who had settled in Australia before native
the conflict broke out (e.g. people New World a term used by Europeans
of German heritage already living imperialism the process of gaining from the late 1400s to describe the
in Australia during World War II and maintaining control over other new lands being discovered around
became known as enemy aliens) countries or territories for economic the world (particularly the Americas
or strategic (military) reasons and later Australia)
entrepreneur a person who sets up a
business hoping to make a profit no man’s land an area of land
between two opposing armies that is
unoccupied or unclaimed
glossary: history 513

O separation of powers a principle
that guides the way Australia is
trade union an organised group
formed by workers to protect their
overseer a person who supervises governed; the power to govern is rights and ensure that their interests
workers, common in factories during
divided between the parliament, are taken into account by company
the Industrial Revolution
the executive and the judiciary owners and governments
P to avoid one group having total
control; each branch of government
Treaty of Versailles, the the treaty
(binding agreement) that ended
pacifist a person opposed to violence works within defined areas of World War I and forced Germany to
and war responsibility and keeps checks on accept responsibility for starting the
pastoralist a farmer of sheep or cattle, the actions of the other branches war and to pay reparations
usually on a large-scale farm significance a key concept in trench the extensive system of ditches
penal colony a colony set up history: the importance given to a used in World War I to move troops
primarily to receive and contain particular historical event, person, and shelter them from enemy
prisoners from the home country development or issue gunfire, as well as a place from
perspectives a key concept in history: slave a person who is the legal which to fire on the enemy
a point of view about an event or property of another person and Triple Alliance the alliance formed
issue; a person’s perspective is often who is forced to work for that between Germany, Austria–Hungary
influenced by their knowledge, person without pay and Italy from 1882 to 1915
culture or beliefs slavery the practice or system of Triple Entente the alliance formed
plebiscite a direct vote by all electors owning slaves between Great Britain, France and
in a country, city or state on an social Darwinism the theory that Russia that formed the basis of the
specific and important issue persons, groups and races in Allied Powers during World War I
primary source a source that existed society are subject to the same
or was made at the time being laws of natural selection as plants U
studied and animals in nature; based on a urban planning carefully planned
theory proposed by Charles Darwin development of cities, in comparison
propaganda information or material
in the mid-1800s (see Darwinism) to haphazard expansion
that attempts to influence the
behaviour or opinions of people socialism an economic and political urbanisation a term used to describe
within a society; it can take many system under which the means of the increase in the numbers of
forms (e.g. posters, flyers, films) and production (e.g. factories, farms and people living in urban areas (i.e.
is designed to promote a particular machinery) are publicly owned and cities) versus rural areas (i.e. farms)
cause or course of action and/or resources are allocated to the people
damage the cause of an enemy according to need; as opposed to W
privately owned and controlled
welfare state a system whereby a
R systems such as capitalism
nation attempts to ensure that all
referendum (in Australian history) society a community of people citizens, including the poorest,
a national vote of the people living in a particular area who have have their basic needs met through
on actions proposed by the shared culture, customs and laws health care, education, housing and
government; any proposed changes source any item (e.g. artefact, pensions
to the Australian Constitution must building, document) that has been White Australia Policy, the a series
be put to a vote in a referendum left behind from the past; historical of government policies introduced
reparations money paid by one sources can be divided into two after Federation in 1901 that
country to another as compensation categories depending on when they prevented ‘non-white’ immigrants
for damage, injuries and deaths it were created (see primary source from settling in Australia, favouring
has caused during war and secondary source) instead those from certain European
representative democracy a system suffragette a woman seeking the nations (especially Britain);
of democratic government in which right to vote through organised these policies were progressively
certain people are elected by the campaigns and protests overturned between 1949 and 1973
public to represent their interests in workhouses public institutions for
parliament T the very poor, who received food
tariff a tax (usually applied to goods and lodging in return for work
S being imported or exported)
secondary source a source created timeline a visual representation Z
after the time being studied showing a sequence of related zeppelin an airship with a rigid frame
historical events in chronological filled with gas; commonly used
order across Germany to transport goods
and people in the early 20th century

Glossary: Economics and business
A competitive advantage when a
business is able to outperform
economist an individual who studies
the relationship between the
allocation a key concept in economics similar businesses in a market. The resources that a geographic area (a
and business: the way scarce ability to outperform may be due to country for example) has and what
resources are distributed among factors such as skilled personnel, the it is able to produce
producers, and how scarce goods ability to reduce costs and ability to economy a system that involves the
and services are divided among improve quality. production, distribution, trade
consumers
compound interest interest that is and consumption of goods and
ATM automatic teller machine used to earned from a deposit or loan is services by individuals, businesses,
make banking transactions added to the original deposit or organisations or governments
Australian Competition and loan. This added interest also earns EFTPOS fees Electronic Funds
Consumer Commission (ACCC) interest in the future. Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS)
a body that promotes competition consumer an individual who involves the transfer of funds
and fair trade in markets to benefit purchases goods or services for electronically from debit or credit
consumers, businesses, and the personal use cards to pay for goods and services
community in order to complete a sale. Fees
cost–benefit analysis estimating
Australian Securities Exchange or charges may be associated with
what will need to be paid (costs) and
(ASX) these electronic transfers.
possible profits (benefits) derived
a public company that operates
from a business proposal employee an individual who is hired
Australia’s primary securities
crowdfunding when a large number to perform specific tasks in return
exchange. Shares are one form
of security that can be traded via of people, usually via the internet, for monetary payment
the ASX. fund a project or venture by employer business or organisation
automation when work once providing small sums of money hiring worker/s to perform specific
completed manually is replaced tasks in return for payment
with automatic equipment in
manufacturing or other production D enterprise agreement
1 an agreement made directly at the
process debt sum or money that is still owed
enterprise level between employers
deficit budget when government and employees about wages and
B revenue is less than government
expenditure
working conditions
borrowing to take money from a bank 2 improving a company’s ability
deposit sum of money paid into an to make decisions about their
or financial institution with the
account workforce in relation to employee
intention of paying it back over a
period of time with interest dismissal an employer terminating wages and conditions
an employee’s employment against enterprising demonstrating initiative
business processes a series of tasks
their will and willingness to undertake new
or actions that are undertaken by a
business to produce its product projects
E equities shares in a company – the

shareholder holds equity or a stake
C earn money obtained in return for in the company
capital resources inputs from man- labour or services
exception fees charges on an account
made goods, such as machines or economic performance a key for what a financial institution
computers, that are used to produce concept in economics and business: considers to be unusual transactions
further goods and services how well an economy is performing, such as exceeding a credit card limit
capitalism a set of economic and measured by whether it is achieving
expenditure the amount of money
political ideas stating that private its economic objectives
spent by a person or government
individuals should own productive economics the study of how people
resources such as land and capital produce, consume and share wealth
from which they can earn profit economies of scale producing larger
F
quantities of a good or service that Fair Work Australia Fair Work
results in reduced unit costs of Australia was renamed the Fair Work
production Commission in 2012, see Fair Work
Commission
glossary: economics and business 515

Fair Work Commission Australia’s
national workplace relations
inflation when the general level of
prices paid for goods and services
M
tribunal. It carries out a range of over a certain period of time making choices a key concept in
functions concerning working increases economics and business: considering
conditions and resolution of alternatives to make the best
innovation a new idea or more
workplace disputes. decision, weighing up costs and
effective product or process that
financial planner a professional who benefits of each potential course of
makes the product better than ever
assists customers with planning action
before
their finances insurance a guarantee that there will market a key concept in economics
fixed interest an interest rate on a be compensation for loss, damage, and business: the organised
loan or mortgage that remains the illness or death should it occur in exchange of goods, services or
same for the term of the loan or part the future in return for a specified resources between buyers and sellers
of its term payment
market capitalist economy
interdependence a key concept in an economic and political system
G economics and business: the way in where private individuals are the
which participants in the economy, producers who exchange goods and
globalisation the process that
such as producers and consumers, services with consumers and in
involves all the countries of the
world being linked together, rely on each other to produce and return keep the profit
resulting in an exchange of views, consume goods and services
market socialist economy
ideas, products and culture interest (on a loan) money paid at an economic and political system
goods and services products made a particular rate for the use of where the exchange of goods and
for consumers. Goods are tangible money lent services takes place via a market
products that can be touched, such interest rates the amount a borrower where consumers and producers
as bread. Services are intangible must pay to a lender for the use exchange goods and services. The
products that cannot be touched but of assets such as money – usually government/state predominantly
benefit the consumer in some way, expressed as a percentage of the owns the productive resources used
such as tutoring. total amount borrowed to make goods and services.
Goods and Services Tax (GST) a tax Internet banking fees fees that may marketing activities that convey
added to the value of some goods be associated with banking online the value of a good or service to a
and services. Currently in Australia
investing putting money into shares, customer in order to increase sales
the tax is 10% of the value of goods
property or other financial schemes material living standards standards
and services sales.
in the hope of making a profit that can be easily measured in
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) the
investment risk the likelihood of terms of income per person, or
total market value of all goods and
losing money on a financial scheme consumption or purchase of goods
services produced within Australia
in a given time frame and services
L modern award a legal agreement that

sets out minimum pay and other
H labour resources inputs from human employment conditions
hard skills skills that are teachable and effort (physical and/or mental) used
in the production of goods and
can be measured such as writing,
reading and using a computer services N
liquidation when a company or natural resources inputs from nature
part of a company is put out of such as water, forests and fertile land
I business and assets and property of used in the production of goods and
import quotas a physical limit placed the company are redistributed to services
on the quantity of an imported good shareholders non-material living standards
that can enter the country living standards a key concept in standards that are not easily
industrialised a country or region economics and business: the level of measured as they are intangible, and
that has developed industries on a wealth, material goods, comfort and refer to the qualitative aspects of our
wide scale, see industry life necessities available to people lives, such as enjoyment of nature
industry the productive activity of living in a geographical area and feeling safe in the community
manufacturers or businesses that are
involved in the process of making
goods and services

O R soft skills the personal qualities that
allow a person to effectively interact
opportunity cost the cost of the next registration fees an annual charge with other people in a harmonious
best alternative use of resources for having a vehicle, pets, etc. manner
registered
specialisation a key concept in
P revenue income a business receives
from its business activities such as
economics and business: focusing
on the production of a particular
per annum per year the sale of goods and services to good or service in order to produce
Personal Identification Number (PIN) customers it more efficiently
a numerical password used to make risk the likelihood of loss
sure a user is the owner of their spend paying out money to buy goods
financial account or services
planned capitalist economy S stamp duty tax on the cost of
an economic and political system savings account a bank account property
where individuals own the resources specifically for the purposes of subsistence economy an economic
used to produce goods and services depositing money and earning system where people produce
but the government or state dictates interest enough for their own needs through
what will be produced, how it will scam a scheme that is deliberately methods such as hunting, gathering
be produced and who it will be dishonest and farming. Money is not used.
distributed to superannuation saving for retirement
scarcity a key concept in economics
planned socialist economy and business: having limited – contributions are made by the
an economic and political system resources to achieve unlimited needs employer and employee
where the government or state and wants
predominantly owns the resources
and also decides what to produce, segmentation dividing into parts T
how to produce and who it will be service sector companies, business tariff a tax on imported goods and
distributed to and government enterprises that services
portfolio a collection of assets such as provide intangible goods that trade a key concept in economics
shares, property or interest-earning benefit the consumer such as and business: buying, selling or
deposits held by a private individual tutoring, accountancy, hairdressing exchanging goods or services
or institution and legal advice between people, countries, etc.
positioning a marketing strategy sharemarket a market in which
transaction account a deposit
that creates a unique position for shares in publicly listed companies
account held at a bank or other
a product compared with similar are bought and sold
financial institution. Money can be
products on the market shares a unit of ownership in a withdrawn on demand.
primary product a product that exists publicly listed company
in its natural state and has not
been used to make other goods and
simple interest multiplying the
interest rate by the principal (money
W
services originally deposited or loaned) and warranty a written guarantee to
then multiplying by the number of the purchaser to repair or replace
principal money that was originally
periods the purchase if necessary within a
invested or loaned
specified time
product an item (either a good or skimming capturing a victim’s
service) that is offered for sale personal information, such as credit
card details, using an electronic
profit the difference between what
method
was earned and what was spent in
order to buy, operate or produce small business according to the
something Australian Bureau of Statistics a
small business is one that employs
property real estate that has been
fewer than 20 people
purchased with the intention of
earning a return on the investment socialist economy an economic
system where the state or
government predominantly owns
the productive resources used to
make goods and services
glossary: economics and business 517

Glossary: Civics and citizenship
A criminal case a legal dispute in
which an individual (referred to as
F
accused a person who has been federal system a system of
the accused) who has committed
charged with or arrested for government where, for the purposes
an illegal act that inflicts harm on
allegedly committing a crime of governing and law-making, the
another individual and/or society,
Acts laws made by parliament. Also nation has one central parliament
is taken to court (or prosecuted)
referred to as legislation or statutes. (with the power to make laws for the
by the state or government.
entire nation) and numerous state
asylum protection by a nation to a
parliaments (each of which with the
person who has left their native
country as a political refugee
D power to make laws for the residents
damages a civil remedy where the of their state)
asylum seeker a person who seeks court orders the defendant to pay
protection as a refugee and is still
waiting to have his/her application
an amount of money to the plaintiff
(that is, the person whose rights
G
for refugee status assessed global citizen a person who
have been breached)
identifies as being part of the world
defamation a type of civil action community and acts according to
B where one party makes false and seeks to build world community
bilateral where a treaty exists between statements that causes another party values and practices
Australia and one other country to lose their reputation
government the elected members of
democratic values a key concept in parliament who make decisions for
C civics and citizenship: the beliefs a nation or state. The government
candidate a person standing for and ideals that are held by our is made up of the party or coalition
election society as a democracy that has won a majority of seats in
citizen a person who is a member of the lower house of parliament. The
democracy a key concept in civics lower house of federal parliament
a certain country or city, who is
and citizenship: a system of is the House of Representatives.
granted certain rights and privileges
government in which the people The lower house of the Victorian
because of this and is expected to
have the power to determine how state parliament is the Legislative
act responsibly
they will be ruled or managed and Assembly.
citizenship the legal status of being so elect a parliament to make and
a citizen, granted by birth or Governor-General the Queen’s
implement laws on their behalf
naturalisation, giving the citizen representative in Australia
certain rights and responsibilities discrimination treating, or proposing guilty a verdict in a criminal case
to treat, a person or a group of where the accused is found to have
civics the study of government and
people unfavourably because of committed an offence. Also referred
the rights and duties of citizens
personal characteristics such as age, to as a conviction.
civil case a legal dispute where an race, disability, physical features or
individual alleges another has
breached their rights
political beliefs
diversity having many different forms.
H
coalition elected individuals or House of Representatives The
When referring to people, it means
parties who have united to achieve a lower house of the Commonwealth
that people come from different
specific purpose parliament
racial, ethnic, socioeconomic,
common law laws made by judges or geographic, educational or house of review term often used
the courts professional backgrounds to refer to the Senate in its role as
reviewing legislation that has come
constitution a set of laws by which a
from the House of Representatives.
country or state is governed
court hierarchy a ranking of courts
E human rights rights that all human
electorate a designated geographical beings possess whatever their
from lowest to highest in order of
area that is represented by an elected nationality, place of residence, sex,
the seriousness of the type of case
member in parliament national or ethnic origin, colour,
they can determine
religion, language, or any other
status

I liberal democracy a system of
government that aims to protect
indictable offence a serious offence participation a key concept in civics
individual rights and freedoms and citizenship: the way in which
heard before a judge and jury
and place limits on the level of citizens contribute to the running
government control or interference
J of society, such as by voting in an
election
judge the person who presides over
the Western Australian District and
M plaintiff the party that initiates or
Magistrates’ Court the lowest ranked commences a civil action against
Supreme Courts (General Division)
court in Victoria that generally hears another party
judiciary the courts minor legal disputes plea a statement given by an accused
jurisdiction the power or authority of majority rule the party or coalition person indicating their desire to be
a court to hear a particular type of that has won the majority of seats treated as being either guilty or not
legal dispute rules, usually determined by 50 per guilty at a court hearing or trial
jury the group of randomly selected cent plus one pluralist society a diverse society
citizens who are called to determine where there is tolerance of different
the verdict in a criminal (and
sometimes civil) trial
N beliefs
negligence a type of civil action policy a statement of principles and
justice a key concept in civics and where one party causes harm aims that will shape future decision-
citizenship: the idea that people through failure to uphold a making
should treat each other with fairness reasonable duty of care to a political system a structure that
and respect ‘neighbour’ determines who has power to make
justice system a range of non-legal rules regulations made by decisions for members of a state or
organisations or bodies that make private individuals or groups that country
and enforce the law including the only apply to the members of that preamble a short introduction
courts, parliaments, police and particular group commonly provided at the
prisons. Also referred to as the legal not guilty the verdict in a criminal beginning of an Act of Parliament
system. trial where the accused is found to (or a Constitution) that explains its
have not committed the crime. Also broad aims and objectives
L referred to as an acquittal. precedent a legal principle that must
laws formal ‘legal rules’ that are be followed by magistrates and
designed to govern the way in which O judges in lower courts, in the same
people behave and act so we can all opposition the second largest political hierarchy, in cases where the facts
live together in one peaceful and party, or coalition of parties, after are similar
united society the government party in the lower preferential system a voting system
legal dispute an argument or house of parliament, that works to in which the voter numbers their
disagreement between two or more scrutinise and oppose government preferences for candidates. If no
parties to be resolved by the legal policies candidate receives more than half
system of first preference votes the next
legal principle the legal reasoning P preferences of votes for the least
successful candidates are distributed
behind a judge’s decision that must parliament the national or state
be followed by magistrates and law-making body that is made up until candidate or candidates are
judges in lower courts, in the same of elected representatives in both elected.
hierarchy, in cases where the facts the upper and lower house with presumption of innocence a legal
are similar a head of state. In Australia the principle that requires an accused
legal system a range of organisations national parliament is referred to person to be treated as if they were
or bodies that make and enforce as the Commonwealth or federal innocent until they have been
the law including the courts, parliament. It is also a body or group proven guilty
parliaments, police and prisons. Also of people elected by other citizens to prosecuted an accused person
referred to as the justice system make laws on their behalf. being taken to court by the state or
legislation a law made by parliament. parliamentary democracy a system government on behalf of society
Also referred to as an Act of of government where people elect
Parliament or statute. representatives to parliament in
order to make laws which reflect the
majority of voter’s views
glossary: civics and citizenship 519

prosecution the party (i.e the state
or government) that initiates a
republic a system of government
where the people vote to determine
T
trial a hearing to resolve and
criminal action or takes an accused the government (or Head of State)
determine the outcome in a criminal
person to court on behalf of the rather than being governed by
or civil dispute heard in the County
victim and society a hereditary monarch or Crown
or Supreme Courts
proportional representation (e.g. a King or Queen)
responsibility a key concept in civics
proportional representation is a
voting system used in the senate. and citizenship: our duty as citizens U
Each candidate must achieve a to contribute to society United Nations an international
quota determined by adding one to organisation formed in 1945 with
the total number of vacancies to be right a key concept in civics and the aim of increasing political
filled and then dividing this number citizenship: freedom and fair and economic cooperation among
by the total number of formal votes treatment granted to us as citizens member countries
and adding one. rule of law the principle that the laws upper house the second chamber
apply equally to all individuals and of a two-chamber parliament.
The Senate is the upper house in
Q organisations throughout a nation
and must be upheld by all. The rule the federal parliament and the
quota the number of votes a Legislative Council is the upper
of law also means that the law can
candidate must receive before they house of the Victorian state
only be enforced and altered by
are elected parliament.
those with the legal authority to
do so.
R V
reasonable grounds the requirement verdict the decision made by a
that a dissatisfied party can have S magistrate, judge or jury in a court
the decision of a court reviewed if sanction a penalty imposed on hearing or trial
rational and justifiable reasons exist. a person who has breached
a criminal law (e.g. a fine or
For example, the dissatisfied party
can make a rational argument that imprisonment) W
the sentence imposed was too severe Senate the upper house of the Westminster system
compared to previous similar cases. federal parliament of Australia a key concept in civics and
referendum the process for changing has 76 senators, 12 from each of citizenship: the parliamentary
the wording of the Australian the six states and two each from system of Great Britain where
Constituation. This requires a the Northern Territory and the parliament consists of two
proposal for change to be passed Australian Capital Territory houses and the Crown. It is the
by both houses of Commonwealth senators individuals elected to parliamentary system used in
parliament and a large proportion the upper house of the federal Australia
(i.e a double majority) of Australia parliament (i.e. the Senate)
voters. statutes laws made by parliament.
refugees someone who has been Also referred to as Acts of Parliament
assessed as having been forced or legislation.
to flee their country due to war, statutory authorities a body that
persecution, or natural disaster parliament gives the power to make
remedy an outcome of a civil dispute laws on their behalf (e.g. local
aimed at restoring the plaintiff, councils and VicRoads)
as far as possible, to the position summary offence a minor offence
they were in prior to the breach heard and determined in the
of rights Magistrates’ Court
representative democracy a system Supreme Court of Appeal the court
of government in which the people that hears appeals or reviews cases
vote to elect the parliaments from the County and Supreme
and governments that make and Courts
implement the law

Index
A Apple – a global giant 156
applying business knowledge, skills and
—creation of national character and
identity 240, 338
access concepts to new situations 437 —economic impacts 324–5
—to news and information 145 appropriate use of food 89 —entry into 237, 301–3
—to services in other places 145 aquatic biomes 42, 43 —impact on the home front 238
‘accessible’ tourism 195 aquifers 58, 63, 79 —impact on international relationships
accused 490, 493, 497, 502 Arab Spring 146 332–3
Achuar people, Kapawi project, Ecuador Arctic sea ice 140 —industry development 35
192–3 aristocracy 209, 246, 272 —other commemorations 340–1
Acts 482 Arkwright’s water frame 252 —propaganda campaigns 239, 328, 331
Adriano Zumbo Patissier 368 armed conflict, and food security 90, 92, —relationship with Asia 333
adventure tourism 195 95, 107–9 —relationship with Britain 301, 302,
advertising 387 Armistice, WWI 321, 340 324, 332–3
—use by political parties 470 artillery guns 306, 311 —relationship with the USA 333
—and voter behaviour 470 Asia —seat at Paris Peace Conference 332, 333
age discrimination 432 —Australia’s relationship with 333 —significance 241
ageing population, and the workforce 422 —child labour 176, 178, 179 —social impacts 324–5, 329
agricultural regions 59 —climate change effects 98–9 —War Precautions Act 324, 330
Agricultural Revolution 114, 232–3, 250–1 Asia–Pacific region —see also Australians (World War I)
agricultural society, pre-1750 Britain 246 —benefits of global trade 174–5 Australian Comforts Fund 327
agricultural suitability 57, 58, 59, 64 —drawbacks of global trade 178–9 Australian Competition and Consumer
air pollution 283 Asian Economic Tigers 174 Commission (ACCC) 412
aircraft asking questions to guide historical Australian Constitution 460, 461, 498
—as global products 378–9 inquiry 213 —and rights 445
—WWI 306, 307, 314 Aspro 325 Australian Consumer Law 416, 417
airships 307 assembly lines 257, 263 Australian economy 360, 362–3
alliance system, Europe 292, 294–5 assimilation 222 —international trade 374–7
allocation of resources 350 asylum seekers 485 —participants in 368–9
ALP see Labor Party Ataturk, Kemal 338 Australian Electoral Commission 465, 471
American War of Independence 248 athletes, links to sportswear companies Australian farmers, and reduced trade
analysing 162 barriers 160
—civics and citizenship sources/ ATM fees 415 Australian Human Rights Commission
information 449, 450 audiovisual presentations, creating 225, 432, 433
—economic and business data 355 270–1 Australian Imperial Force (AIF), first 236,
—geographical information 18–25 Aung San Suu Kyi 458 301, 316
—historical perspectives and Australia Australian Light Horse 309, 319
interpretations 218–19 —benefits of global trade 172–3 Australian minerals
anarchism 293 —biomes 52–3 —demand for from China and India 154
Angkor Wat, Cambodia, tourism impacts —deserts 52 —exports 154, 155, 169
188 —exports 154, 155, 160, 161, 169, 172, —in laptop computers 159
annotated field sketches 71 374, 375–6, 384 —value of exports 155
annual leave 428 —food production 62–3 Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
Antarctica tourism 190–1 —imports 152, 160, 169, 172, 374, 375, see Anzacs
anti-bullying laws 434, 481 377, 383, 384 Australian Red Cross 327
anti-conscription campaign 329, 334 —Industrial Revolution in 265 Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) 410
anti-discrimination laws 432–3, 481 —international trade 152–3, 374–7 Australian War Memorial, Canberra 340,
anti-German sentiment (WWI) 330–1 —land usage 62 341
The Anti’s Creed 334 —mineral wealth 154 Australian Women’s Service Corps 326
Anzac Day 133, 196, 197–9, 203, 236, 241, —place in Asia and the global economy Australians (World War I)
336 374–7 —deaths and casualties 324, 332
—commemoration 337 —rainforests 48, 49 —‘diggers’ 319
—interest in today 342 —rice growing 72, 73 —dissatisfaction with the war 324, 325
Anzac legend 241, 337 —soils 61 —enlistment and the spirit of adventure
—meaning of the legend today 342 —trading partners 169, 375, 384 34, 301–2, 304, 327, 328
—origin 338–9 Australia (World War I) —Gallipoli campaign see Gallipoli
Anzacs —anti-German sentiment 330–1 campaign, Turkey
—at Gallipoli 317, 318, 319, 336–7, 338 —Anzac Day commemorations 133, 196, —major battles 309
—formation 316 197–9, 203, 236, 241, 336, 337 —in the Middle East 213, 309, 319, 332
—on Western Front 312–13, 319, 320 —conscription debate 220–1, 239, 288, —nurses role 313
apartheid 476 328–9, 331, 334 —opposition to the war 302–3, 327
index 521

—respect for the Turks 338 —alteration to 74–7 business culture, innovation 391–2
—significant campaigns 237 —Australia 52–3 business decisions 349
—on the Western Front 312–13, 319, 332 —features of different 42 —consequences of 373
—women’s role 313, 326–7, 329 —forest biomes 44–5 —reflecting on 357
Australia’s booming businesses 368 —grasslands biome 40, 46–7 business processes, innovation 393
Australia’s legal system 478–9, 484–7 —tropical forest biome 42, 48–9 business terminology 357
Australia’s national parliament see —types of 42 business(es) 346, 357
Commonwealth Parliament —world 43 benefits of global trade 170, 172–3
Australia’s political system 460–3 bison 47 drawbacks of global trade 177
Austria–Hungary Empire 240, 294, 295, black market 366 —and economy’s success 369
298, 299, 309 blended marketing 387 —gaining a competitive advantage
automation 425 blogs 214, 354, 448, 476 386–9
automotive industry 257, 263 boat people 132 —globalisation effects 422
—decline in Australia 372 Boer War 301, 302, 319 —innovation 390–6
—global events impacting on 383 Bollywood 171 —marketing to teenagers 362, 390
bombers 307 —relationship with sport and media 162
B boreal forest biome 44
bad debt 403

borrowing money 404
Bosnia–Herzegovina 295, 298 C
bail 485 Boyle, Mark 365 Campbell, Alec 339
Bakewell, Robert 251 brand image 388 canals 259
‘balance of power’ politics 292 Brazil, biofuel industry 104 Cancun, Mexico, tourism impacts 186–7
Balkan states (1914) 298 breach of contract 494 candidates (elections) 458
ball stitching, India 179 Brest–Litovsk peace treaty 320 cane toad 100
ballot papers 472 bribery 142 canola 116, 117
Bangladesh bridges 258, 260, 261 capital resources 249, 348, 363
—clothing factories 176, 178–9 Britain capitalism 222, 278, 329
—garment industry 370 —Agricultural Revolution 232–3, 250–1 capitalist economies 364, 366, 367
bank accounts —Australia’s relationship with 301, 302, car imports 377
—preventing ‘skimming’ funds from 414 324, 332–3, 375 car manufacturing 257, 263, 383
—savings accounts 414 —before 1750 246 —decline in Australia 372
—transaction accounts 414 —conscription 297 car purchase 418
banking 249 —declares war on Germany 299, 300 —additional costs and charges 418
—keeping your personal information —developments in cotton, wool and iron —choosing the right car 418
safe 414 production 252–5 careers
—minimising fees 414–15 —developments in transport 256–9 —in civics and citizenship 454–5
—using your account wisely 414–15 —factory expansion and mass —in economics and business 358–9
banking fees 415 production 262–3 —future market outlook 426
banks 402, 406 —farming 232–3, 250–1 —in geography 38–9
bar graphs 20 —Industrial Revolution 234, 246–63, —in history 226–7
bargains 400 270–81 Carman’s Fine Foods 368
batteries 266 —inventions during the Industrial cartograms 16
Battle of Amiens 320–1 Revolution 252–9 case study 30–1
Battle of Beersheba 319 —living conditions, Industrial cassava 101
Battle of Le Hamel 320 Revolution 234, 235, 272–3 cattle farming 63
Battle of Lone Pine 318 —major battles, WWI 309 cause and effect (historical concept) 206
Battle of the Nek 318 —naval power 249, 297 cause-and-effect relationship 355, 450
Battle of the Somme 312, 328 —population growth 234, 246, 276, 282, census 216
Batty, Rosie 453 286, 287 Central Powers 310, 317, 321, 332
Bean, Charles 341 —social classes 234, 246, 247 Chamberlain, Lindy 489
Belgium —in Triple Entente 294 change 10, 47, 140
—German invasion of 299 —working conditions, Industrial —in the world of work 422–3
—Industrial Revolution 264 Revolution 233–4, 253, 262, 270–1, 274 Channel Tunnel 142
Bell, Alexander Graham, inventions British colonies and dominions 248, 296 charity scams 412
210–11 —and the Triple Entente 295 Chartism 279
Benz, Karl 257 British Empire 204, 230, 301 Chartist petition 279
bias, in data/sources 18, 449 —in 1900 248 cheap labour, demand for 166, 168, 176,
bibliography 214 —expansion and power 248 177, 178
Bill of Rights (US) 444–5 ‘broad gauge’ rail size 260, 261 chemical weathering 60
biodiversity 48 brokerage 410 chemistry 266
biofuels 104–6 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 260–1 child labour
—Brazil 104–5 Buffett, Warren 408 —developing countries 176, 178, 179,
—sources of 104 building societies 402 282
—as threat to food security 95, 104, 106 built environment 8 —Industrial Revolution 233, 262, 270–1,
biomes 40, 42–3 bullying in the workplace 434 274, 280, 281

China —as sources of raw materials 230 corporate social responsibility (CSR) 387
—demand for Australian minerals 154 —as valuable markets 230 corruption 142, 489
—dietary changes 84 common law 473 cost–benefit analysis 357, 419
—farming and landscape changes 74–5 Commonwealth Parliament 452, 460 cost cutting 387
—living standards 384 —independents’ role 465 cotton and wool production, Industrial
—as trading partner 169, 375, 384 —inner workings 460–2 Revolution 232, 252–3, 259, 262, 274
China–Australia Free Trade Agreement 384 —law-making 482, 496 cotton growing 116, 117
chocolate bar supply chain 380 —political parties in 464–7 County Court (Victoria) 497
choropleth maps 68 —why two houses? 462 court hierarchy 496–8
chronology 222, 223 Commonwealth War Graves 313 —WA 496, 497, 500–1
Churchill, Winston 316 communicating court jurisdictions 496–8
circular flow of income 350 —with people in different places 144 courts
citizens 440, 452 —your findings 28–9, 111, 123–5, 151, —cases heard 492, 500, 501, 502
—global 453 224–5, 357, 452 —corruption 489
—local 452, 453 ‘communication’ trenches 314 —delays 489
—participation 444 communications —enforcement of the law 483
—reflecting on your role as 452–3 —Industrial Revolution 233, 247, 267 —as independent and impartial 486–7
—regional 453 —WWI 308, 314 —law-making 483
—rights and responsibilities 444–5 communism 278 —law-making, by setting precedent 504
citizenship 440, 452 competition for land, and food security —law-making, through statutory
—terminology 452 95, 102–6 interpretation 504
city development, Industrial Revolution competitive advantage 170, 386–9 —open to the public and the media 487
273, 276, 281 complex maps, analysing 104, 105 —right to appeal 487
civics 440, 452 compound column graphs 20, 85 —right to a fair trial 440, 443
—terminology 452 compound interest 402 —role of 504–5
civics and citizenship careers 454–5 compulsory voting 442, 472 —social media and the right to a fair
civics and citizenship concepts 442–5 computerised stock systems 393 trial 490
civics and citizenship questions, coniferous forests 42 —those potentially at a disadvantage
developing 447 connections 485–6, 488
civics and citizenship skills 446–53 —and the geography of you 164–5 credit card debt 400, 404
civil cases 489, 492, 494, 500, 501 —in the outback 149 credit unions 402
—types of 494 —in remote areas 148–9 crimes 272, 493
civil service 443 —through food 160–1 criminal cases 488, 489, 490, 492, 493, 502
clean water, access to 30–1 —through sport 162–3 —types of 492, 493
Clifton Suspension Bridge 260, 261 —to places 130–3 criminal defence lawyer, career profile 455
climate conscientious objectors 303 criminal offences 493
—and agricultural suitability 57, 58–9, 64 conscription (Britain) 297 Crompton’s mule 252–3
—and boreal forest biome 44 conscription plebiscite (Australia), WWI crop rotation 250
—and rainforest 48, 54 220–1, 239, 288, 328, 331, 334 crop yield 64
—and temperate forest biome 45 —divides the nation 329 —environmental factors affecting 64
—world 183 —pro- and anti-conscription campaigns —technological and economic factors
climate change 44, 75, 140, 168 329, 334 affecting 65
—and food security 94, 96, 98–9 conservation agriculture 118–20 crops and cropping 40, 46, 62, 63, 77, 112
—impact on food production 99 conservation-aware tourists 194 —rice 68–71
—impacts on Sub-Saharan Africa and consumer markets 422 crowdfunding 425
Asia 98–9 consumer rights 416, 417 crude petroleum imports 377, 383
climate graphs 20 consumers 360, 368, 369 Crumpler 172–3
climate zones 59 —being aware of scams 412 culpable driving causing death 495
closed questions 213 —being responsive to their needs 388 cultural connections to place 131–2
clothes, where they are made? 370–1, 382 —buying habits, factors influencing 391 cultural tourism 185
clothing factories, Bangladesh 176, 178–9 —buying perceived value 388 Curie, Marie 266
coal, burning of 283 —complaints 416 cyber-bullying 481
coal exports 154, 376 —making choices 349
coal supplies, in Britain 249, 259
coalition 452, 461, 462, 464
—making them aware of the product or
service 287 D
Coca-Cola 205 —offering them a better price 386–7 Daimler, Gottlieb 257
coercion of suspects and witnesses 488 —offering them better quality of dairy farms, automated 67
coffee trade, global 182–3 perceived quality 387 damages 494
coke 254 —reliance on producers 350 damming rivers, and natural water flows
Coles, fined for misleading customers 498 contestability (historical concept) 210–11, 78
collecting data 15, 164–5 300 Dardanelles 316
colonial empires 230–1 continuity and change (historical concept) ‘dark satanic mills’ 270
—in 1750 231 205, 263 data tables, reading and interpreting 385
—in 1900 231 Cook, Joseph 304 debt 400, 402–3
colonies corn 40, 46, 77, 101, 117 decision-making charts 217
index 523

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of economic and business questions entrepreneurship 348
the Citizen 209 —alternative answers 355 environment 8, 83
defamation 494 —developing 353 environmental factors
deforestation 76, 168, 169, 285 economic connection to place 131 —affecting crop yield 64
democracy 442, 456 economic decisions 369 —affecting water scarcity 96
—living in a 458–9 —reflecting on 357 environmental impacts, Industrial
—and participation 444 economic factors Revolution 283–5
—rights and responsibilities 444–5 —affecting crop yield 65 equality (democratic value) 443
democratic values 443, 458 —affecting water scarcity 96 equality before the law 484–5
desert locusts 94, 100, 101 economic impact of WWI on Australia equities 407
desertification 82 324–5 ethics
—strategies to halt 83 economic performance, key indicators 351 —in geography 15
deserts economic systems 346, 360, 364 —of research 354, 448
—Australia 52 —tale of two cows, example 367 Europe
—greening, Saudi Arabia 79 —types of 364–6 —in 1914 296, 298
—regreening, Niger 120, 121 economics 346, 357, 360, 362 —alliance system 292, 294–5
—spreading 82 —terminology 357 —Industrial Revolution in 264–5
developed countries economics and business careers 358–9 —in the lead-up to WWI 292–7
—manufacturing 176 economics and business concepts 348–59 —militarism 296–7
—origin of food 56 economics and business skills 352–7 —nationalism 295
—population growth 112 economies of scale 350, 387 —royal families, relatedness 292
developing economists 353 European colonies 204
—civics and citizenship questions 447 economy 346, 360, 362 European empires
—economic and business questions 353 —resources in the 362–3 —by 1914 296
—geographical questions 13, 14, 93 —see also Australian economy —changes following WWI 240
—historical questions 213 ecosystem services, from rainforests 49 —expansion 230–1
developing countries ecotourism 185 evaluating
—child labour 176, 178, 179, 282 —impacts 192–3 —information, perspectives and
—digital access 146 —trends 194 contentious issues 356, 451
—exploitation for cheap labour 166, 168, Edison, Thomas 267 —to draw conclusions, predict outcomes
176, 177, 178 education, Industrial Revolution 233, 270, and plan for action 26–7
—population growth 112 271, 280, 281 Evans, Cadel 136
dietary changes, impact of 84, 85 EFTPOS fees 415 evidence 207
different perspectives 26 elections 456, 458, 460–1, 470–1 —historical sources as 207, 213, 216–17,
digital access —counting the votes 472–3 220–1, 225
—in developing nations 146 —factors that influence voter behaviour exception fees (bank accounts) 415
—levels of 146, 147 470 exceptions (PQE method) 19
digital divide 146 —top five issues for young people 471 exchange rate 369
digital maps 17 —see also federal elections executive (government) 443
digital marketing 362, 390 electorates 460, 461 explorers, changing the way they
digital terrain models 17 electric power stations 266–7 interconnect 148
discrimination in the workplace 429, electricity 266–7 export subsidies/incentives 141
432–3 email 144 exports 152, 168, 172, 349, 369, 374,
—types of 432 emigration 222 375–6, 384
District Court 493, 497, 501 empathy 208, 251 —grain 160
—cases heard 501 empire 222 —live animals 160, 161
—decision making in 502 employee ownership 392 —minerals 154–5, 169
diversity 452 employees 353, 386, 407, 424 —wool 169
dividends 407 —obligations and responsibilities 429, extensive farming 62
dogfights 307 430, 431
dogs 308
domain names 214
employers 353, 407
—obligations and responsibilities 428–9, F
drawing conclusions 26 430, 431 face to face talk, by political parties 470
‘Dreadnoughts’ (battleships) 297 employment decisions 349 Facebook 144, 146, 163, 173, 474, 475
drones 66 enclosures 232–3, 250 fact, separating from opinion 450
droughts 61, 69, 82, 90, 92, 93, 98 —effects of 251 factories (Industrial Revolution) 246, 252
‘enemy aliens’ —electrically-powered 267
E —internment 331
—reaction to 331
—expansion and mass production 257,
262–3
e-commerce 145 Engels, Friedrich 278 —working conditions 233–4, 253, 262,
earning more 400 enlistment, WWI 301–2, 304, 327, 328 270–1
earthquakes 383 enterprise agreements 428 factors of production 348
East India Company 249 enterprising individuals 424, 425 Factory Acts 280
Eastern Front 309 enterprising skills 424–5 factory workers, living conditions 234,
ecological footprint, food types 85 entertainment, Industrial Revolution 277 235, 272–3

Fair Work Australia 435 account wisely 414–15 Fromelle, France 312, 313
Fair Work Commission 381, 428, 434, 435 fixed-interest investments 407 ‘front-line’ trenches 314
Fair Work Ombudsman 432 Flickr 146 fuel efficiency (cars) 418
fairness (democratic value) 443 floating voters 471
false colour images 25, 139
Family Court of Australia 496, 498, 502
flood-prone rice 69
floods 61, 69, 90, 98 G
Family Court of Western Australia 402, flow diagrams 50 Gallipoli campaign, Turkey 203–4, 316–19
496, 498 ‘Flow Hive’ (beekeeping product) 425 —amnesties with Turkish soldiers 318
—cases heard 502 flow maps 161 —Anzac soldiers respect for the Turks
famine 92, 112 flying shuttle 252 338
Faraday, Michael 266 food —Anzacs role 316, 317, 318, 319, 336–7,
farm machinery 251 —connecting through 160–1 338
farmer-managed natural regeneration 119 —from grasslands 40, 46 —as Australia’s ‘coming of age’ 240, 338
farming —origin of 56–7 —British commanders 317
—Agricultural Revolution 232–3, 250–1 food accessibility 88 —conditions at Gallipoli 318–19
—alteration to biomes 74–7 food aid 107, 108 —different points of view 197–9
—and armed conflict 108 food availability 88 —Gallipoli landing 316–17
—in Australia 62–3 food insecurity 88, 89, 90, 91, 94–5, 112, —nations involved and death toll 309,
—in Britain 232–3, 250–1 113 317, 318, 319
—change from subsistence practices 113 —in the Horn of Africa 92–3 —personal account of experiences 220–1
—and climate 57, 58 —Somalia 107, 108 —primary and secondary sources 207,
—crop rotation 250 food loss 122, 124 218
—and enclosure of land 232–3, 250, 251 food production —spirit of ‘mateship’ among Australian
—fertiliser use 61, 66 —in Australia 62–3 soldiers 339
—high-tech 66–7 —challenges to 94–109 —withdrawal 319
—irrigation use 63, 66, 78, 79 —climate change effects 99 Gallipoli, Turkey
—and landscape changes 74–5 —and dietary change 84, 85 —and Anzac Day 336, 342
—minimum impact farming 118–20 —Industrial Revolution 288 —people’s special connection with 132,
—sustainable 118–20 —in northern Australia 63 133, 337
—unsustainable practices 72, 79 food security 82, 86, 88–90 —tourism 196, 197
—and vegetation changes 76–7 —achieving 112–13 Galvani, Luigi 266
—and water availability 96 —and armed conflict 90, 92, 95, 107–9 garment trade 176, 178–9, 370–1, 382
—water quality impacts 78 —and climate change 94, 96, 98–9 gas masks 307
fashion business, challenges 370–1 —and competition for land 95, 102–6 gas mining 131
Federal Circuit Court of Australia 496, 498 —forces impacting on 90 gas warfare 307, 311
Federal Court 496, 498 —global patterns 90–1 genetically modified (GM) foods 112,
Federal courts 496, 498 —and GM foods 112, 116–17 116–17
federal elections 472 —into the future 112–13 —in Australia 117
—House of Representatives 472 —looking for answers 114–15 —main benefits of 116
—Senate 472–3 —Niger 120, 121 —opposition to 117
Federal Parliament see Commonwealth —and threats from non-native plants, Geneva Protocol 307
Parliament animals and insects 94, 100–1 geographic information systems (GIS) 23,
federal system of government 461 —and use of land for fuel instead of food 66
Federation 222, 265 95, 104, 106 geographic photographs, analysing 24, 25
Ferdinand, Archduke Franz, assassination —and water scarcity 94, 96–7 geographical concepts 6–11
295, 298–9 food types, ecological footprint 85 geographical diagrams 22
fertiliser 61, 66, 70, 77, 78, 113 food waste 122, 125 geographical features, how they influence
field sketches, annotated 71 Ford, Henry 257, 263 interconnections 138, 139
fieldwork Fordism 263 geographical inquiry, planning 13–15
—conducting successful 33 foreign direct investment 369 geographical questions, developing 13,
—example, inner city renewal 34–6 forest biomes 42, 44–5 14, 93
—importance of 32 —clearance for farming 76 geographical sketches 23
—location and inquiry questions 32–3 fossil fuels, burning of 98, 283 geographical skills 12–31
—skills associated with 32 four-field system 250 geography careers 38–9
financial choices 349 France George V, King 292, 293
financial decisions – buying a car 418 —imperialism 296 German-Australians, hostility towards
financial institutions, role in the economy —Industrial Revolution 264, 281 324, 330, 331
369 —in Triple Entente 294, 299 German colonies 296, 309, 332
financial planners 407 Franco-Prussian War 292, 301 German Empire 240, 290, 296
financial risks 398 free enterprise 368 German-sounding town names, changes
—in investing 406–7 freedom (democratic value) 443 331
—minimising, by avoiding scams 412–13 freedom of speech 444, 445, 458 Germany
—minimising, by knowing your French colonies 296 —Armistice 321
consumer rights 416–17 French Revolution 209 —declarations of war 299
—minimising, by using your bank Friendly Societies 280 —imperialism 296
index 525

—Industrial Revolution 264, 293 government stability, Britain 249 —layout of seating 461, 462
—invasion of Belgium 299 Governor-General 443, 462, 463 house of review 462
—major battles, WWI 309, 311–13, 320–1 grain imports and exports 160 housing
—nationalism 295 graphic organisers 217 —developments, Industrial Revolution
—naval power 297 graphic representations 22–3 276
—peace treaty with Russia 320 graphs 20–2 —land for 102
—reparations following WWI 240, 332 —to communicate historical information Hughes, William Morris (Billy) 328, 332,
—Schlieffen Plan 299, 300 286–7 333, 334
—and Treaty of Versailles 240, 321, 332 grasslands 40, 46, 47, 77 human environment 8
—in Triple Alliance 294 grasslands biome 40, 46–7 human resources 348
—Western Front 309, 311–13, 320–1 —clearance to plant crops 77 human rights 458, 498
gibber plains 52 grazing animals 46, 47 humanities collection online coordinator,
Gibraltar 126–7 Great Britain, SS 256, 257, 261 career profile 226–7
Gibson, Gene 488 Great Depression 332 hung parliament 461
glaciers 96–7, 98 Great Eastern, SS 261 hunger
global citizens 136, 164, 453 Great Wall of China, tourism impacts 189 —distribution 91
global connections the Great War see World War I —levels, 2016 110
—inside your laptop 158–9 Green Revolution 112, 113, 114, 115 —as a weapon during conflict 107
—through food 160–1 Green Wall of China 83 hypothesis 207
global economy the Greens (political party) 464 —developing a 353
—Australia’s links to 369 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 351, 357
—Australia’s place in Asia and the 374–7
global financial crisis 177
—South Korea 174, 175
—world 157 I
global inequality, as a result of the ground level photographs 24 ICT
Industrial Revolution 282 groundwater 63 —access to in developing countries 146
global marketplace 168 guilty 485, 488 —and access to news and information
—Australia’s place in 169 Gumtree College students, inner city 145
global positioning systems (GPS) 66, 134 renewal (fieldwork) 34–5 —to identify and locate relevant sources
global products 378–9 guns, WWI 306, 311 214–15, 323, 427
global scale 11 immigration 222
global supply chain 380–3
global trade 152–3, 169 H imperialism 204, 222, 230
—and WWI 295–6
—benefits for businesses 170, 172–3 Hamilton, General Sir Ian 317, 336, 337 import tariffs 141
—benefits for individuals 170, 172 ‘hard skills’ 425 imported foods, safety concerns 381
—benefits for nations 170–1, 173 Hargreaves’ spinning jenny 252 imports 152, 160, 169, 172, 349, 374, 375,
—benefits for people in the Asia–Pacific Harris, Jessica, market researcher (career 377, 383, 384
region 174–5 profile) 359 income, circular flow of 350
—benefits for people in Australia 172–3 head of government 443 income tax 324
—coffee 182–3 head of state 443 independents, role in parliament 465
—drawbacks for businesses 177 High Court of Australia 483, 496, 497, 498, India
—drawbacks for individuals 168, 176 502 —ball stitching 179
—drawbacks for nations 177 ‘Highland Clearances’ 251 —demand for Australian minerals 154
—drawbacks for people in Asia 178–9 Hindenburg Line 321 —dietary changes 84
global warming 98 Hipworth, Morgan 424 Indian film industry 171
globalisation 137, 140, 422, 452 historical concepts 204–11 Indian Myna bird 100
—benefits for people 168, 170–5 historical connection to place 132–3 indictable offences 492, 493, 501
—drawbacks for people 168–9, 176–9 historical continuity 205 Indigenous Australians
—effect on Indigenous peoples 180–1 historical inquiry and skills 212–24 —enlist, WWI 302
—of sport 162, 163 historical interpretations, analysing —ethical research issues 15
gold exports 376 218–19, 343 —and potentially disadvantaged by the
gold rushes, impacts, Australia 206 historical perspectives 204, 218–19 legal system 485, 488
‘golden triangle’ 162 historical questions, asking 213 —spiritual connection to the land 130–1
Goldstein, Vida 303, 327 historical significance 209, 270–1, 284 Indigenous peoples
golf courses 103 historical sources as evidence 207, 213, —globalisation effects 180–1
good debt 402–3 216–17, 220–1, 225, 304–5 —impact on Europeans on 204
goods 348 historical terms and concepts 222 —world 180
goods and services 346, 360 historical tourism 184 individuals
—and consumer rights 416 —impacts 188–9 —benefits of global trade 170, 172
Goods and Services Tax (GST) 418 historical writing 224–5 —drawbacks of global trade 176
Google searches 144, 427 history careers 226–7 Indonesia, rice production and
government 440, 452, 464 Horn of Africa, food insecurity 92–3 consumption 70
—majority rule 461, 462 horses 47 Industrial Revolution 114, 205, 210, 228,
—mandate 462, 466 House of Representatives 452, 460, 461, 230, 232, 233–5, 242–87, 292
—role in the economy 369 462 —in Britain 234, 246–63, 270–81
government policy, factors shaping 466–7 —elections 472 —cotton and wool production 232,

252–3, 262, 274, 278 interdependence 350 —as independent and unbiased 486–7
—emergence of modern lifestyles 281 interest 400, 401, 402, 404 jury 488, 489, 490, 493, 502
—emergence of socialism and trade interest-earning investments 407 just-in-time inventory systems 393
unions 278–81 interest groups justice 444
—environmental impacts 283–5 —influence over government policy 466 —undermining 488–9
—factory system 246, 252, 262–3 —and voter behaviour 470 justice system 444, 478
—iron production 254 interest rates 357
—key inventions and innovations 232,
233, 252–9, 268
intermediate courts (state and territory)
497 K
—later developments in technology and internal combustion engine 257 K-Pop bands 175
science 266–7 international aid 107, 108 Kapawi Ecolodge, Ecuador, tourism
—living conditions 234, 235, 272–3 international approach to sustainability 9 impacts 192–3
—long-term impacts 234, 282–5 International Association of Antarctic Karen pepole 181
—population growth 234, 246, 276, 282, Tour Operators (IAATO) 191 Khapra beetle 94
286, 287 international markets 369 Khyber Pass, Pakistan 138, 139
—short-term impacts 276–7 international scale 11 Kokoda Trail, PNG 54, 55
—spread of 264–5 international trade 152–3, 374–7 Korean Wave 175
—steam engines 228, 232, 233, 246, 247, Internet 144, 145, 146, 147
249, 253, 255
—timeline 244–5
—how it connects you to the world 150
—and tourist destinations 195 L
—transport developments 233, 247, internet banking fees 415 Labor Party 464, 465, 466
256–9 internment camps, for ‘enemy aliens’ 331 —key principles 465
—violent reaction to 278 introduced plant, animal and insect —split over conscription 328
—working conditions 233–4, 253, 262, species 94, 100–1, 324 labour costs
270–1, 274–5, 280 invasive alien species (IAS) 94, 100–1 —Bangladesh 166
industrial waste 284 inventions —international comparison 156
industrialisation 222, 228, 246 —contestability 210–11 labour resources 348, 363
infectious diseases, spread of 177 —Industrial Revolution 232–3, 252–9, —international market for 369
inflation 325, 351 268 land 348
infographics 123–5 investing 357, 400, 406–9 —competition for, and food security 95,
infrastructure 187, 324 —assessing your risk profile 406–7 102–6
inner city renewal (fieldwork example) —making money from 408 land clearance
34–6 —setting personal investment goals 406 —and desertification 82
innovation investment options 407 —for farming 76–7
—in business 390–6 investment risk 406 —Industrial Revolution 285
—in business culture 391–2 investment scams 412 —and soil degradation 80
—in business processes 393 iPhone market share 156, 157 land mines 108, 109
—importance of in business 394–5 iron bridges 258, 259 land use
—Industrial Revolution 232, 233, 252–9, iron ore 154, 254, 376 —Australia 62
268 iron production 254 —changes, 1700–2000 74
—in marketing 390–1 irrigated rice 69 —for fuel instead of food 95, 104–5
—and sustainable agriculture 118–20 irrigation 58, 66, 78, 79, 115 —for housing 102
insect pests 94 Italy, WWI 294, 300, 309 —for tourism and recreation 103
insects, as food 89 landowners 250, 251
insurance 418, 422
integrated food–energy systems (IFES) 104 J landscape changes caused by farming 74–5
laptop computers
intellectual freedom 249 Japan —Australian minerals in 159
intensive farming 62, 63 —earthquake and tsunami 383 —source countries of materials used in
interconnected world 168–9 —Industrial Revolution in 265 158–9
interconnections 8–9, 14, 93, 126, 135, 137 —joins Triple Entente, WWI 309 larger grain borer 101
—Australia’s mining connections 154–5 —relationship with Australia 333 Lavoisier, Antoine 266
—between people 136 —as trading partner 169 law-making
—between places 128 Java, rice growing 70–1 —court’s role 483, 504
—connecting with remote areas 148–9 job market —parliament’s role in 482
—connecting through food 160–1 —outlook for the future 426 Lawrence of Arabia 310
—connecting through sport 162–3 —see also careers laws 440, 478, 480
—geography of you 164–5 job satisfaction factors 428 —differences from non-legal rules 480
—global connections inside your laptop John Lewis (department store, UK) —how they are made 482–3
158–9 —innovation 391 —reasons we have 481
—global trade 152–3, 172–3 —working for 392 leaching 63
—how geographical features influence Johnson, Lucy, urban planner (career lead mining, health risks 159
138, 139 profile) 38 League of Nations 321, 333
—how people influence 141–3 ‘judge alone’ trials 502 Legal Aid Western Australia 485
—how technology influences 144–5 judges 483, 484, 486, 493, 495, 502 legal decisions 349
—multinational companies 156–7 judiciary 443 legal disputes 478
index 527

—types of 492–3 majority rule (government) 461, 462 Monash, General Sir John 312, 320
legal principles 483 making choices 349 money
legal representation 485 mammals 47 —living without 365
legal rules see laws management resources 348 —saving 400–1
legal system 444 Mandela, Nelson 476 —what do you spend it on? 362
—in Australia 478–9, 484–7 Mannix, Archbishop Daniel 329, 334 Mother Teresa 476
—equality before the law 484–5 manufactured resources 348 Mt Isa, Qld, lead mining and smelting 159
—principles 484–7 manufacturing industry 232, 233, 422 Mt Kilimanjaro, Kenya 8, 13, 14, 17, 22,
—and right to a fair trial 440, 443, 490 manufacturing labour costs 156 24, 25, 30–1
—those who might be disadvantaged by maps 15–17, 68 multiculturalism 173
485–6, 488 —analysing 104, 105 multinational companies (MNCs) 156–7,
—undermining the 488–9 —comparing patterns on 58–9, 182–3 168
legislation 466, 482 —estimating size of features 72 Mungalawurru community, NT,
—interpretation of 504 market 350 technology use 149
‘leisure time’, Industrial Revolution 277, market capitalist economy 360, 366, 367, Museum Victoria, collections 226, 227
281 368
liberal democracy 458, 459
Liberal Party 328, 464, 465, 466
market researcher, career profile 359
market segmentation 391 N
—key principles 465 market socialist economy 366, 367 national approach to sustainability 9
life expectancy marketing national change 10
—Industrial Revolution 234, 272 —innovation in 390–1 National Party 464
—South Korea 174 —to young people 362, 390 —key principles 465
life savings, where to keep? 401–2 marriage equality and the law 506 national scale 11
line graphs 20 marriage law 504, 506 nationalism, and WWI 295
liquidation 430 Marx, Karl 278, 365 Nationalist Party 328
live animal exports 160, 161 Masai people 181 nations
livestock breeding 251 mass production of goods 257, 262–3 —benefits of global trade 170–1, 173
livestock farming 62, 63 material living standards 351 —drawbacks of global trade 177
living conditions (Industrial Revolution) media natural corridors 138
—factory workers 234 —influence over government policy 466 natural disasters, impact on the supply
—for the middle class 273 —influence over voter behaviour 470 chain 383
—for the poor 234, 235, 272–3 —political parties use of 470 natural environment 8
—for the rich 272, 273 —relationship with sport and business natural pest controls 115
living standards (Industrial Revolution) 162 natural processes 8, 9
246, 270 —trial by media 488–9 natural regeneration, farmer-managed 119
—improvements 277, 281 medical tourism 195 natural resources 348, 363, 374, 381
living standards (modern times) 351, 384 Meiji Restoration 265 natural water flows, changing 78
living without money 365 Mekong Basin, water scarcity 97 nature-based tourism, trends 194
loans 402, 403, 418 Melbourne naval power
lobby groups 470 —nicknamed ‘Smellbourne’ 284 —Britain 249, 297
local approach to sustainability 9 —sewerage scheme 284 —Germany 297
local change 10 members of parliament (MPs) 443 naval vessels 297, 308
local citizens 452, 453 mental maps 134–5 needs 348, 404
local councils 460 Mentawi people 181 negligence law 494, 504
—law-making 482 Menzies, Robert 333 neutral nations 308
Local Court (NSW) 493, 496, 497 ‘middle class’, Britain 234, 247, 272, 273 New Guinea 309, 332
local scale 11 Middle East, Australian troops in 213, 309, New World 230
location 7 319, 332 New Zealand, WWI 309, 316
locusts 94, 100, 101 migration 369 New Zealand Expeditionary Force, First
logging 76 Milan Direct 368 316
lower courts (state and territory) 497 militarism, and WWI 296–7 ‘niche’ tourism 195
lower house of parliament 443, 452, 460 Millennium Development Goals 110 Nicholas II, Tsar 292, 293
lower prices, offering 386–7 Milo case (unfair dismissal) 436 Niger
Luddites 278 mineral exports 154–5, 169, 376 —food security 120
Lusitania 310 minimum impact farming 118–20 —revegetation strategy 120, 121
luxury brands 388 minimum wage 428, 430 no man’s land 311, 312, 315
mining boom, Australia 154 non-legal rules 80
M minor government 461

minor offences 492, 493, 500
non-material living standards 351
non-native plants, animals and insects,
machine guns 306, 311, 312 mobile phone use 146, 147 and food security 94, 100–1
Madagascar, deforestation and poverty modern award 428 non-tariff barriers 141–2
levels 76 modern world (1750 to 1918) ‘Norrie’ case 499
Magistrates’ Court 493, 496, 497, 500, 501 —defining the 230 North American prairie 47
—cases heard 500 —key features 230–1 northern Australia, food production 63
maize 101 —making of the 228 Northwest Passage 140

not guilty 488, 493 permaculture 119 —and deforestation 76
nurses, on the Western Front 313 Personal Identification Number (PIN) 414 —and food insecurity 90
nutrients 50, 61 personal investment goals, setting 406, power grids 267
407 power stations 267
O personal issues, and voter behaviour 470

personal scams 412
PowerPoint presentations 28–9
PQE method 19
obligations personal travel services 377 prairies 47
—of employees 429, 430, 431 perspectives (historical concept) 204 precedent 504, 505
—of employers 428–9, 430, 431 —analysing 218–19 precision farming 66
oblique aerial photographs 24 —see also points of view predators 47
observation 13 Perth, Vietnamese community 132 predicting outcomes 27
offshore call centres 145 pest control 115 preferential system of voting 472
oil imports 377, 383 pest species 94, 100–1 presenting your findings 28–9, 111, 123–5,
online dating scams 413 pesticides 77, 78, 113, 115 151, 224–5, 452
online information 214–15, 323, 427, 448 phone banking fees 415 prices, lower 386–7
online scams 412 photographs, geographic 24, 25 primary data 15, 18
online shopping 145, 370 physical weathering 60 —collecting, recording and representing
—and consumer rights 416 places 6, 14, 93, 135 164–5
open questions 21 —comparing different perceptions of 129 primary salinity 80
opinion polls —connections to 130–3 primary sources 207, 343, 354
—and government policy 466 —interconnections between 128 —identifying origin, purpose and
—and voter behaviour 470 —tangible and intangible characteristics context of 216, 335
opportunity cost 357, 363 128 Prime Minister 443, 461, 475
opposition (parliament) 462 —understanding 128 principal 402
opposition leader 461 plaintiff 494 pro-conscription campaign 329
oral presentations 111 plan of action 27, 356, 451, 477 —and The Anti’s Creed 334
organisation (space element) 7 plan view 15, 25, 120 producers 368, 369
Ottoman (Turkish) Empire 240, 298, 309 planned capitalist economy 366, 367 —profit motive 364
outback, connections in the 149 planned socialist economy 366, 367 —reliance on consumers 350
outliers 22 planning a geographical inquiry 13–15 products 422
outsourcing 177, 179, 381, 387 plebiscites 328, 329 profit 364, 368
overfarming 80 pluralist society 452 profit share policy 392
overfishing 186 points of view 9, 26, 197–9, 204, 207, 218, propaganda 222
overgrazing 82 449, 451 propaganda posters 239, 329, 331
overseers 271, 274 —analysing 507 property, investing in 406, 407
Owen, Robert 280, 281 —political cartoons 220, 447 proportional representation 473
poison gas 307, 311 prosecuted 493
P polar lands biome 42

political activism 458
psychic and clairvoyant scams 412
public debate, and voter behaviour 470
pacificists 303 political cartoons 447, 468, 470 punishment (courts) 480, 493, 502
Palestine 309 —analysing 220–1, 468–9 Pussy Riot (punk rock group) 458
palm oil plantations 169 political parties 461, 464–7 Pyramids of Giza, Egypt, tourism impacts
Panlock, Brodie 434 —campaign strategies 470 188
paper consumption 44 —membership 465
Paris Peace Conference 240, 332, 333
parliament 440, 452
—shaping and developing government
policy 466 Q
—role in law-making 482 political spin 468 qualitative data, interpreting 197–9
—see also Commonwealth Parliament; political systems 440, 460 quality, better or perceived 387
state parliaments politicians, use of social media 474–5 quantify (PQE method) 19
parliamentary democracy 452, 460 pollution, from tourist activities 186, 187, the Queen 443, 462, 463
Parsons, Charles 267 188
participation 444
party loyalty, and voter behaviour 470
poor (Industrial Revolution) 234, 235,
272–3, 279 R
party platform 466 Poor Laws 279, 280 radio 308
pattern (PQE method) 19 Poppy Lissiman 370 radium 266
patterns population growth Rafah, tunnels of 143
—in data 19, 26 —developing and developed countries railways, Industrial Revolution 258–9, 260,
—on maps, comparing 58–9, 182–3 112 276, 277
people with disabilities —Industrial Revolution 234, 246, 276, Raine, Chris 476
—legal support for 486 284, 286, 287 rainfed rice 69
—tourism for 195 population pyramids 21 rainforest ecosystems 49, 50
People’s Charter 279 portfolio (of shares) 410 rainforests 48, 50
‘people’s house’ 461 positioning (market) 391 —Australia 48, 49
perceived value 388 poverty 177 —and climate 48, 54
perceptions of place 129 —and child labour 176 —ecosystem services 49
index 529

—Papua New Guinea 54 —in Java 70–1 secondary salinity 80
raw materials —systems 69 secondary sources 207, 343, 354
—from colonies 230, 248 right to a fair trial 440, 443, 490 —identifying origin, purpose and
—used in laptop construction by country right to a presumption of innocence 485 context of 216, 335
of origin 158–9 right to refuse to give forensic samples 485 segmentation (market) 391
reasonable duty of care 504, 505 right to remain silent 484, 488 selective breeding 116, 251
reasonable grounds for appeal 487 rights and responsibilities, of citizens self-evaluation checklist (reflecting on
recording 444–5 findings) 30
—geographical data 15–17, 164–5 Rinaudo, Tony 120 self-scan checkouts 386
—relevant sources 222 rising sea levels 98, 99 Senate 462
recreation, Industrial Revolution 277, 281 roads 258 —elections 472–3
recreational tourism 184 robotic milking 67 —as house of review 462
—impacts of 186–7 rock weathering 60 —layout of seating 462
recruitment/recruitment posters, WWI romance scams 412, 413 senators 462, 473
301, 302, 304, 327, 328 Rubik’s Cube 394 sentences, leniency of 495
red poppies 340 Russia separating fact from opinion 450
references 215 —Brest–Litovsk peace treaty with separation of powers 209
reflecting Germany 320 sequencing events 222, 223
—on economic and business decisions —major battles 309 Serbia 295, 298, 299
357 —promises support for Serbia against serious crimes 492, 493, 501
—on your findings 30 Austria–Hungary 299 service and repairs (cars) 418
—on your role as citizens 452–3 —in Triple Entente 294, 299 service sector 422
refugees 132, 485 —withdraws from the war 320 services 348
refunds 416 Russian Empire 240, 298 setting
regional change 10 —personal investment goals 406, 407
regional citizens 453
regional scale 11 S —savings goals 402
sewage 284
registration fees 418 Saami people 181 sewerage scheme, Melbourne 284
relationships (data sets) 26 salinity (soil) 80 sexual harassment, in the workplace 431,
reliability —management 81 433
—of social media 474 Salt, Titus 281 Sharapova, Maria 163
—and usefulness of sources 18, 220, same-sex marriage 506 sharemarket 406, 410
304–5, 449–50 Samoa 309 —playing the (game) 410–11
—of websites 18 sanctions 480, 493, 495, 502 shares 407, 410
remedy 494 SARS epidemic 177 SHEEPT method 26
Remembrance Day 340 satellite images shell-shocked troops 314
remote areas —analysing 24, 120–1 Shoes of Prey 368, 394
—connecting with 148–9 —false colour 139 significance (historical concept) 209,
—why people travel to 148 satellite phones 148 270–1, 284, 339
reparations 222, 240 Saudi Arabia, greening the desert 79 Silas, Ellis 218–19
Repatriation General Hospital 340 savannas 46, 120 simple interest 402
representative democracy 442, 458, 460 saving money 400–1 ‘skimming’ 414
representing primary data 164–5 savings slave ships 208
research ethics 354, 448 —increasing 400, 404 slaves 208
‘reserve’ trenches 314 —setting savings goals 402 slums 234, 235, 272, 273, 276, 281
resources —where to keep? 401–2 ‘Smellbourne’ 284
—allocation of 350 savings accounts 414 snipers 218
—in the economy 362–3 scale (geographical inquiry) 11 social agitators 476
—scarcity of 348, 349, 363 scams 412 social classes
respect (democratic value) 443 —avoid being scammed 412, 417 —Australia 324, 329
responding —investment and online account 412 —Britain 234, 246, 247, 272–3
—to consumer needs 388 —romance 412, 413 social Darwinism 208
—to what you have found 30 —that target your emotions 412 social impact of WWI on Australia 324–5,
responsibilities SCAMwatch 412 329
—of employees 429, 430 scarcity of resources 348, 349 social media 144, 145, 146, 470
—of employers 429, 430 —dealing with 363 —influence of 474–5
Returned and Services League (RSL) 340 scatter plots 22 —politicians use of 474–5
revenue 369 Schlieffen Plan 299, 300 —reliability of 474
rice 40, 46, 77 schools, non-legal rules 480 —and the right to a fair trial 490
—sustainability 72, 73 scientific advancements, late Industrial —use as a crime 494
—world production 68 Revolution 266–7 social media campaigns, power of 476
rice growing Scullin, James 332 social networking 362
—in Australia 72, 73 search engines 214, 354, 448 social revolution 278
—climate change impacts 98–9 secondary data 15, 18 socialism 222, 278, 293
—in competition with golf courses 103 —analysing 84 socialist economies 365, 366, 367

‘soft skills’ 425 collection online coordinator (career terrestrial biomes 42, 43
soil degradation 80–1, 114 profile) 226–7 territory courts 496–7
soil erosion 77, 80, 118 stockbrokers 410 territory parliaments 482
soil fertility 63, 64, 66, 75, 77 stored crop pests 101 textile mills, Industrial Revolution 232,
soil horizons 60, 61 street lighting 273, 276 233, 246, 252–3, 259, 262, 274, 278
soil management 114 strikes 280, 325 Thames Tunnel 260, 261
soil properties affecting crop yield 64 Sub-Saharan Africa, climate change effects timelines
soil salinity 80, 81 98 —creating 223
soil(s) 60 submarine telecommunication cables 137 —Industrial Revolution 244–5
—in Australia 61 submarines 308, 310 —World War I 290–1
—northern Australia 63 subsistence economy 365, 367 Titanic, RMS 242–3
Somalia subsistence farms 113 topographic maps 16, 55
—armed conflict 107, 108–9 subtropical rainforests 48 —estimating gradient and aspect from
—conflict impact on local farmers 108 suffragettes 273, 303 54, 55
—international food aid 107, 108 summary dismissal 435 tourism
sources of information summary offences 492, 493 —adventure 195
—analysing 450 superannuation 407, 429 —Angkor Wat, Cambodia 188
—evaluating reliability and usefulness of superior courts (state and territory) 497 —Antarctica 190–1
220, 304–5, 449–50 supermarkets, gaining a competitive —Cancun, Mexico 186–7
—gathering relevant and reliable advantage 389 —ecotourism, impacts 192–3
information 354 supply chain —Gallipoli, Turkey 196, 197
—graphic organisers to process 217 —dependence on other countries in 381 —Great Wall, China 189
—identifying and locating 214–15, 323, —impact of global events on 383 —historical, impacts 188–9
448 —transnational corporations in 381–2 —impacts on buildings and structures
—primary and secondary sources 216–17, —what is it? 380 188, 189
335 ‘support’ trenches 314 —Kapawi Ecolodge, Ecuador 192–3
—searching for relevant and reliable Supreme Court 474, 493, 496, 497, 501 —Pyramids of Giza, Egypt 188
information online 427 Supreme Court of Appeal 497, 498, 499, —and recreation, land for 103
—using information from a range of 501–2 —recreational, impacts 186–7
sources 217 Supreme Court (General Division) 500, —sustainable 192, 193
South Korea 501 —trends 194–5
—global trade 174, 175 —decision making in 502 —types of 184–5
—social and economic change 174–5 surveys, conducting 150–1, 404 —what is it? 184–5
—spread of Korean culture 175 sustainability 9, 119 —wilderness, impacts 190–1
soya beans 117 sustainable agriculture and innovation tourist numbers, trend 194
space 7, 14, 57, 93, 135 118–20 towns and cities, Industrial Revolution
spatial distribution 7 Sustainable Development Goals 110 246, 247
specialisation 349–50 sustainable tourism 192, 193 Townshend, Charles (‘Turnip’) 250
spending, reasons for 404 Swan, Joseph 267 trade 349, 360, 369
spending less 400, 404 swearing case (unfair dismissal) 437 —Britain 249
spending money 362 sweatshops 176, 370 —China 169, 375, 384
spinning and weaving machines 232, 233 swinging voters 471 —global 152–3, 169, 172–5
spinning jenny 232, 252 —see also exports; imports
spiritual connections to place 130–1
sport T trade barriers 141–2, 160
trade unions 234, 280, 329
—connecting through 162–3 tables 23, 151, 385 trading partners 169, 375, 384
—Industrial Revolution 277, 281 tanks 307 traditional economy 365, 367
—relationship with business and the tariffs 141, 325, 384 transaction accounts 414
media 162 technological factors affecting crop yield transatlantic cables 267
sporting clubs, non-legal rules 480 65 transnational corporations, in the supply
sportswear companies, linked to athletes technology chain 381–2
162, 163 —developed during WWI 306–8 transport development, Industrial
stamp duty 418 —and the global economy 369 Revolution 233, 247, 256–9
state courts 496–7 —influence on communications in transportation 152
state parliaments 452, 460 remote areas 148, 149 —environmental problems caused by
—law-making 482 —influence on interconnections 144–5 168
statutes 482 —late Industrial Revolution 266–7 travel 377
statutory authorities 482 —use by political parties 470 Treaty of Versailles 240, 321, 332, 333
statutory interpretation 504 telegraph 249, 267, 277 ‘trench fever’ 322
steam engines 228, 232, 233, 246, 247, telephone 210, 277, 308 trench foot 315, 322
249, 253, 255, 269 temperate forest biome 45 trench warfare 311–12, 314–15
steam locomotives 256, 269 temperate rainforests 49 —life in the trenches 315, 322
steamships 249, 256–7, 261 tenant farmers 250, 251 —types of trenches 314
Stephenson’s Rocket 256 terracing 80 trial by media 488–9
Stevenson, Michelle, humanities terrain models 17 Triple Alliance 294, 299, 300
index 531

Triple Entente 294, 299, 300, 309, 310 war working class 272
tropical deserts 52 —at sea 308 working conditions (Industrial Revolution)
tropical forest biome 42, 48–9 —commemoration of sacrifices made 340 233–4, 253, 262, 270–1, 280
tropical rainforests 48, 49 War Precautions Act 324, 330 —for children 176, 178, 179, 233, 262,
—cross-section 51 War Service Homes 340 270–1, 274, 280
tsunamis 383 warfare, nature of 237, 306–8 —and development of trade unions 280
tundra biome 42 warranties 418 —and the Factory Acts 280
Turkey water-borne diseases 284 workplace
—Allies attempt to force them out of the water frame 252 —employee obligations and
war 316–17 water management 114–15 responsibilities 429, 430, 431
—battles in the Middle East 319 water pollution —employer obligations and
—enters war on the side of the Triple —from farming 78 responsibilities 428–9, 430, 431
Alliance 300 —Industrial Revolution 284 —enterprising skills in 424–5
—Gallipoli campaign see Gallipoli water scarcity —protecting workers from bullying 432
campaign, Turkey —economic factors 96 —protecting workers from
Turnbull, Malcolm 475 —environmental factors 96 discrimination 432–3
Twitter 144, 145, 146, 163, 173, 474, 475, —and food security 94, 96–7 —protecting workers from unfair
494 —Mekong Basin 97 dismissal 434–6
water table 80, 81 —sexual harassment in 431, 433
U water usage
—impact Angkor Wat, Cambodia 188
World War I 236–9, 288–343
—Armistice 321, 340
U-boats 308, 310 —rice growing 72, 73 —Australia see Australia (World War I)
undermining justice 488–9 Watt, James 255, 268 —background 292–3
undernourished people 90, 91 weathering 60, 61 —British Commonwealth casualties 324
undersea cables 267 weavers 253 —causes 237, 294–7
underwater mines 308, 316 websites, reliability 18 —changes to European empires
unemployment rate 351, 357 weeds 100 following 240
unfair dismissal 434, 435 welfare state 278 —end of the war 320–1
—checklist 435 Western Australia —Gallipoli campaign see Gallipoli
—Milo case 436 —court hierarchy 496, 497, 500–1 campaign, Turkey
—swearing case 437 —Legislative Assembly 452 —‘July Crisis’ and declarations of war
United Nations Western Front 309, 311–13, 320–1 299
—Millennium Development Goals 110 —American troop involvement 320 —major battles and alliances 309–13
—Sustainable Development Goals 110 —Australian engagements 312–13, 319, —nature of warfare 237, 306–8
unsustainable farming practices 72, 79 320, 332 —outbreak of 298–300
upland rice 69 —Battle of the Somme 312, 328 —and Paris Peace Conference 240, 332,
upper house of parliament 452, 460, 462 —breaking the stalemate 311–12, 316 333
urban planner, career profile 38 —nurses on 313 —significance 240–1
urban planning 276 —trench warfare 311, 312, 314–15 —timeline 290–1
urban sprawl 102 —weapons use 311 —and Treaty of Versailles 240, 321, 332,
urbanisation 222, 272, 278 Westminster system 443 333
USA wheat 40, 46, 64, 77, 115 —USA’s involvement 310, 320
—Australia’s relationship with 333 ‘whistle-blowers’ 489 —Western Front see Western Front
—enters the war 310, 320 wilderness tourism 184, 190 —see also Britain; Germany; Russia;
—Industrial Revolution in 265 —Antarctica 190–1 Turkey
—potential impacts 190 Wright, Wilbur and Orville 257
V Wilhelm II, Kaiser 292, 293, 296

Williams, Serena 163
writing critical evaluations 490–1
writing descriptions 224
Vedda people 181 Wilson, Woodrow 320, 333 writing explanations 224
vegetation changes, and farming 76–7 women (during the Industrial Revolution), Wu, Ryan, criminal defence lawyer (career
verdict 478, 493 working conditions 262, 270, 280 profile) 455
vertical aerial photographs 25 women (in Australia during WWI) 313,
Victoria, Queen 292, 293
Vietnamese community, in Perth 132
326–7
—encourage men to enlist 326 Y
Volta, Alessandro 266 —in the paid workforce, WWI 326–7 Yolngu people 181
voter behaviour, factors that influence 470 —voluntary work 327 young people
voting 279, 442, 444, 456, 458 Women’s Peace Army 303, 327 —marketing to 362, 390
—compulsory 442, 472 woodland deserts 52 —top five election issues 471
—enrolling to vote 471 wool and cotton production, Industrial Yousafzai, Malala 458
—federal elections 472–3 Revolution 232, 252–3 YouTube 144
wool exports 169
W work, change in the world of 422–3

workforce, ageing population impact on Z
wages 30, 381, 382, 428 the 422 zeppelins 307
wants 404 workhouses 279

Acknowledgements
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction of their material.
Cover: Alamy/Horizon International Images
Part 1 Geography
Chapter 1: Alamy/Iain Dainty, 1.1: 4/Ulrich Doerng, 1.6: 3/Alexey Zarubin, 1.5: 2; Corbis, 1.1: 9/Stefano Amantini, 1.1: 2/Rob Nikel, 1.8: 3/Kazuyoshi
Nomachi, 1.4: 14/Greg Smith, 1.8: 4/Barbara Walton, 1.1: 5; Douglas Hardy, UMass Geosciences, 1.7: 1; Getty Images/Dev Alexandre, 1.5: 1/Michael
Betts, 1.4: 13/DigitalGlobe, 1.1: 6, 1.1: 7/Johnathan Ampersand Esper, 1.3: 3/Michael Mellinger, 1.1: 1/National Geographic, 1.7: 7/Planet Observer, 1.4:
16/Science Photo Library, 1.4: 15; NASA/Image Courtesy SRTM Team NASA/JPL/NIMA, 1.3: 7; Shutterstock, chapter opener, part 1 opener, 1.1: 3,
1.3. 1, 1.4: 12, 1.7: 3; Bill Thomas, 1.6: 1; Worldmapper, www.worldmapper.org, 1.3: 5; Chapter 2: Alamy/Bill Bachman, 2.6: 2, 2.10: 6/Bon Appetit,
2.7: 1 (fruit salad) /David Lawrence, 2.11: 1/Paul Pickford, 2.6: 1 (temperate forest); Corbis, 2A: 1, 2.2: 1, 2.17: 1/Andrew McConnell/Robert Harding
World Imagery, 2.8: 1/Matt Mawson, 2.11: 2/Momatiuk – Eastcott, 2.9: 1/Charles O’Rear, 2.13: 2/George Steinmetz, 2.19: 2/Jim Zuckerman, 2.4: 3;
DeLaval International AB/Bjorn Qvarfordt, 2.12: 3; Getty Images/Richard I’Anson, 2.2: 3/Jim Richardson, 2.18: 1; iStockPhoto/carlosalvarez, 2.7: 1
(cornflakes); Murrumbidgee Irrigation Ltd, 2B: 2; NASA/Earth observatory, 2.17: 2, 2.17: 3; Nature Picture Library/Nick Garbutt, 2.16: 1; Newspix/
Zoe Phillips, 2.9: 3/Geoff Ward, 2.7: 1 (mint slices); Shutterstock, chapter opener, 2C: 1, 2.1: 2, 2.1: 3 (all), 2.3: 1, 2.3: 2, 2.3: 3, 2.4: 1, 2.4: 4, 2.6: 1
(Daintree), 2.6: 1 (Kimberley), 2.6: 1 (Kosciuszko), 2.6: 1 (Ningaloo), 2.6: 1 (Simpson Desert), 2.6: 3, 2.7: 1 (apple sauce), 2.7: 1 (frozen beans), 2.7: 1
(dried sultanas), 2.7: 1 (instant noodles), 2.7: 1 peach halves), 2.7: 1 (pickled onions), 2.7: 1 (pineapple slices), 2.7: 1 (baked beans), 2.7: 1 (jam), 2.7: 1
(crumbed fish), 2.7: 1 (chocolate hazelnut spread), 2.10: 4, 2.10: 5, 2.12: 2, 2.13: 3, 2.14: 3, 2.16: 3, 2.18: 2; Chapter 3: AAP Image/AP Photo/Jerome
Delay, 3.9: 1; Alamy/Eye Ubiquitous, 3.3: 1 (swarm)/redbrickstock.com, 3.13: 3; Aurora Photos/Peter Essick, 3.5: 2; Austral Press/Topfoto/Topham
Picturepoint, 3.10: 1; Corbis, chapter opener, 3.6: 1, 3.12: 2 (nutrition) /Adrian Arbib, 3C: 2/Shawn Baldwin, 3.7: 1/EPA/Eldson Chagara, 3.6: 3/EPA/
Aaron Ufumeli, 3.2: 1/Jon Hicks, 3.1: 3/JAI/John Warburton-Lee, 3.11: 1/Redlink/Zhang Jian Tao, 3.4: 1/John Stanmeyer/VII, 3.10: 3/Penny Tweedie,
3.1: 1; FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 3C: 4; Getty Images/AFP, 3.9: 2, 3.9: 3, 3.9: 4, 3.9: 5, 3.9: 6, 3.9: 7/Dimas Ardian,
3.7: 3/Roland Neveau, 3.3: 1 (construction); Craig Mackintosh, 3.13: 4; Masterfile/Koolstock, 3.13: 1; QAAFI/Daniel Rodriguez, 3.13: 2; Reuters/
Paulo Whitaker, 3.3: 1 (refinery); Shutterstock, 3B: 3, 3C: 1, 3C: 3 (middle), 3C: 3 (right), 3.3: 1 (drought), 3.3: 1 (polar bear), 3.3: 1 (tank), 3.1: 2, 3.2: 2,
3.12: 1, 3.12: 2 (cold), 3.12: 2(drought), 3.12: 2 (disease), 3.12: 2 (pest), 3.12: 4; Ron Tandberg, 3.8: 3; U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Center/Institut
Géographique National du Niger, 3.13: 6/Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre, 3.13:6; UN, 3B: 1; USAID, 3.11: 2; Chapter 4: AAP Image/AP, 4.8:
1/Shannon Morris, 4.14: 2 (Berlei); Age-Fotostock/Ron Nickel, 4.1: 2 (middle); Alamy/Sergio Azenha, 4.14: 2 (Nike) /Bill Bachman, 4.12: 4/Dunrobin
Studios, 4.14: 1 (man) /Philimages, 4.2: 2; Corbis, 4.14: 1 (sports) /Christophe Boisvieux, 4.4: 1/Imaginechina, 4.11: 3/Simon Marcus, 4C: 1 (middle) /
Wissam Nassar, 4.5: 4/Ryan Pyle, 4.12: 1/Paul Souders, 4.1: 1; European Space Agency, 4.8: 2; Fairfax Syndication/Glenn Campbell, 4.2: 1; Eric
Fischer, 4.7: 1; Getty Images/John W Banagan, 4.10: 4/Scott Barbour, 4.2: 5/William H. Bond, 4.5:2/Bongarts, 4.14: 1 (car) /Michael Dunning, 4.10:
3/IndiaPictures/UIG, 4.6: 2/Panoramic Images, chapter opener/Stringer, 4.14: 2 (OPI); NASA/GSFC, 4.4: 2/Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio,
4.4: 3; Newspix/Brad Fleet, 4.8: 3/Leon Mead, 4.13: 3; Panos/Fernando Moleres, 4C: 2; Shutterstock, 4A: 1, 4B: 1, 4C: 1 (top), 4C: 1(bottom), 4.1: 2
(left), 4.1: 2 (right), 4.2: 4, 4.2: 6, 4.3: 1, 4.5: 3, 4.9: 1, 4.14: 2, 4.14: 2 (Gatorade), 4.14: 2 (Wilson); Stockimages WA, 4.2: 3; Chapter 5: Alamy, 5.13:
1/AF archive, 5.2: 3/Matt Griggs, 5.13: 2/Man Hang Kwan, 5.9: 3/Andrew Linscott, 5.12: 3/sdpphoto Travel, 5.3: 3(bottom); Corbis, 5.7: 1 (Yolngnu),
5.8: 4/Abir Abdullah/epa, 5.6: 1/Dave G. Houser, 5.10: 2/Imaginechina, 5.2: 2/Park Jin-hee, 5.5: 2/Thierry Tronnel, 5.10: 1/Alison Wright, 5.12: 1;
FairfaxPhotos/Craig Abraham, 5.3: 1/Ben Doherty, 5.6: 2; Getty Images, 5B: 7/Scott Barbour, 5B: 1/Tortsen Blackwood, 5.11: 3/Demetrio Carrasco,
5B: 4/Jorn Georg Tomter, 5.7: 1 (Sami) /Majority World, 5.5: 1; iStockPhoto/Bartosz Hadyniak, 5.7: 1 (Vedda)/Davor Lovincic, 5.7: 1 (Mentai); Newspix/
Charles Brewer, 5.2: 1/Kym Smith, 5.3: 3(left); Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au, 5.1: 2; Panos/G.M.B. Akash,
5.3: 3 (top)/Brendan Corr, chapter opener/James Morgan 5.1: 3; Shutterstock, 5.1: 1, 5.3: 2, 5.4: 2, 5.4: 3, 5.7: 1 (Masai), 5.7: 1 (Karen), 5.8: 1, 5.8: 2,
5.8: 5, 5.9: 1, 5.10: 3, 5.11: 1; Utmost Adventure Trekking/Ganesh Thakuri (Subin), 5.8: 3.
Part 2 History
Chapter 6: Alamy/Moviestore Collection, 6.3: 1 a/PhotoAlto sas, 6.3: 4/Ronald Grant Archive, 6.1: 6; Australian War Memorial, chapter opener, 6.3:
1, 6.4: 2, 6.4: 3; Corbis, 6.1: 5/Bettmann, 6.1: 2/Heritage Images, 6.1: 9/PoodlesRock, 6.1: 10; Getty Images/French School, 6.1: 8/Hulton Archive,
6.1: 4/Lambert, part 2 opener; Mary Evans Picture Library, 6.1: 7; National Library of Australia, 6.3: 1 b, 6.5: 3, 6.5: 4; Shutterstock, 6.1: 3, 6.3: 3,
6.6: 2; Michelle Stevenson & Museum Victoria, 6.8: 2; Chapter 7: AAP Image/Tracey Nearmy, 7.4: 2; The Bridgeman Art Library, 7.2: 6; Corbis, 7.3:
3, 7.3: 4, 7.4: 1/Heritage Images, 7.2: 2/Hulton-Deutsch Collection, 7.3: 2; Getty Images/Fotosearch/Stringer, 7.2: 5; Shutterstock, chapter opener,
7.1: 1, 7.2: 4, 7.3: 1; Chapter 8: Alamy/Lordprice Collection, 8.6: 2/The Print Collector, 8.14: 4; The Bridgeman Art Library/Geffrye Museum, London,
8.12:1; Corbis, 8A: 1, 8.2: 3, 8.4: 1, 8.5: 1, 8.5: 2, 8.6: 3, 8.11: 4/Bettmann, 8.1: 1(Brooklyn bridge), 8.9: 1, 8.9: 3, 8.10: 3, 8.14: 1, 8.14: 5/Robert
Harding World Imagery/Robert Cousins, 8.7: 3/John Harper, 8.6: 1/Heritage Images, 8.1: 1 (spinning jenny), 8.5: 7, 8.6: 7, 8.10: 2/Ocean, 8.15: 3/Patrick
Ward, 8.6: 9; Getty Images/Dean Allison Photography, 8.15: 1/Thony Belizaire, 8.15: 6/George Bernard, 8.2: 1/British Library/Robana, 8.11: 3/DEA, 8.3:
2, 8.11: 1/Francis Frith Co, 8C: 3/Lambert, 8.8: 3/Print Collector, 8.4:2/Rischgitz, 8.14: 2/Paul Serusier, 8.5: 4/SSPL via Getty Images, 8.1: 1(stocking
frame), 8.5: 5, 8.5: 8/Ullstein Bild, chapter opener; iStockPhoto/Ian Hamilton, 8.15: 4; Library of Congress, 8.1: 1 (Thames tunnel); Shutterstock,
8A: 3, 8.6: 4, 8.6: 6, 8.8: 1, 8.9: 2, 8.15: 2; State Library of Victoria, 8.15: 5; Chapter 9: Australian War Memorial, 9C: 3, 9D: 3, 9.5: 1, 9.5: 2, 9.10:
6, 9.10: 7, 9.13: 1, 9.14: 3, 9.15: 2, 9.16: 2, 9.17: 7, 9.17: 8, 9.17: 9, 9.18: 4, 9.18: 5; Corbis, chapter opener, 9B: 1, 9.6: 1, 9.6: 3, 9.6: 5/Bettmann,
9.1: 1 (Franz Ferdinand), 9.1: 1 (Australian soldiers), 9.2: 2/Stefano Bianchetti, 9.1: 1 (signing Armistice) /Heritage Images, 9.1: 1 (Russian Revolution) /
Hulton-Deutsch Collection, 9.8: 1, 9.6: 2/Mikael Libert, 9.8: 4/National Geographic Society/Herbert E. Gregory, 9.12: 4/Underwood & Amp Underwood,
9.6: 4/Leonard de Selva, 9.4: 1/Sygma, 9.7: 2; Dreamstime, 9.17: 3; FairfaxPhotos/Mike Bowers, 9.17: 5; Getty Images/Popperfoto, 9.8: 3, 9.10: 1/
SuperStock, 9.2: 1/Roger Viollet, 9.8: 6; Imperial War Museum, London, 9.6: 6; National Library of Australia, 9.5: 3, 9.12: 1, 9.15: 1; Newspix, 9.17:
10/News Ltd Archive, 9.14: 2; Shutterstock, 9.11: 1, 9.17: 1, 9.18: 1 ; State Library of Victoria, 9.15: 3; State Library of Western Australia, 9.11: 3.
acknowledgements 533

Part 3 Economics and business
Chapter 10: Alamy/Bill Bachman, 10.1: 1/EPA, 10.1: 2; Cartoonstock/David Brown, 10.4: 1; Getty Images/Peter Dazeley, 10.3: 2/Sergio Dionisio, part
3 opener/JGI/Jamie Grill, 10.3: 1/Chris Schmidt, 10.4: 2; Shutterstock, chapter opener, 10.1: 4, 10.2: 1, 10.7: 2; Chapter 11: AAP Photo/Sang Tan,
11.7: 6; Alamy, 11.5: 5/Horizon, 11.4: 1/PA Images, 11.6: 1; FairfaxPhotos/Penny Stephens, 11.3: 3; Getty Images/CBS Photo Archive, 11.1: 2/Matt
Cardy, 11.2: 4/El Pics, 11.3: 2/Vicky Kasala, 11.2: 2/Rob Kim, 11.3: 4/Monty Rakusen, 11.2: 3 (baker), 11.2: 3 (factory workers) /Yoshikazu Tsuno, 11C:
2; Newspix/Norm Oorloff, 11.3: 1; Oxford University Press/Michelle Shipp, chapter opener; Reuters/ Andrew Winning, 11.7: 4; Shutterstock, 11A: 1,
11B: 2, 11C: 1, 11C: 3 (all), 11C: 4 (all), 11.1: 1 (apple packing plant), 11.1: 1 (apple), 11.1: 1 (girl), 11.2: 3 (tim tams), 11.2: 3 (wheat), 11.2: 5, 11.2: 6,
11.3: 5 (bank), 11.3: 5 (Parliament house), 11.3: 5 (smoke stacks), 11.3: 5 (woman), 11.3: 7, 11.4: 4 11.4: 6, 11.4: 7, 11.4: 8, 11.4: 10, 11.4: 11, 11.4:
12, 11.4: 13, 11.4: 15, 11.4: 16, 11.5: 1, 11.5: 2, 11.5: 3, 11.5: 4, 11.6: 2, 11.6: 3, 11.6: 4, 11.6: 6, 11.7: 3, 11.7: 5; Chapter 12: AAP Image/AP, 12.1:
4; Alamy/Martin Berry, 12B: 1 (Harvery Norman); Getty Images/Bill Pugliano, 12.2: 4; iStockPhoto, chapter opener; Shutterstock, 12A: 1, 12A: 2, 12B:
1 (Myer), 12C: 1, 12.1: 2, 12.1: 3, 12.1: 7, 12.2: 2 (right), 12.2: 3 (all), 12.2: 5 (left), 12.2: 5 (right), 12.3: 2, 12.4: 2, 12.5: 1, 12.5: 2; Chapter 13: Alamy/
AF archive, chapter opener; Courtesy State Government of Victoria, 13.5: 1; Newspix/Tim Carrafa, 13.2: 1/Nathan Edwards, 13.2: 3; Shutterstock
13A: 1, 13A: 2, 13B: 2, 13.3: 2, 13.3: 3, 13.3: 4, 13.3: 5, 13.3: 6, 13.3: 7, 13.4: 2, 13.4: 3, 13.5: 3.
Part 4 Civics and citizenship

Chapter 14: Cartoonstock/Lindsay Foyle, 14.3: 1; FairfaxPhotos/Steve Christo, 14.6: 4/Rohan Thomson, 14.6: 2; Getty Images/Graham Denholm,
part 4 opener/Hero Images, 14.3: 2/Paul Kane, 14.1: 4/Stefan Postles, 14.1: 1, 14.6: 3/Asanka Brendon Ratnayake, 14.1: 5; Shutterstock, chapter
opener, 14.1: 2, 14.4: 1, 14.4: 2, 14.5: 1, 14.7: 2; Chapter 15: Commonwealth of Australia 2014, 15.5: 2; Australian Labor Party, 15.3: 3 (left);
Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au, 15A: 2; Inkcinct Cartoons, 15A: 1; The Nationals, 15.3: 3 (right); Liberal
Party of Australia, 15.3: 3 (middle); Newspix/Noel Kessell, 15.3: 1/Russell Shakespeare, 15B: 1/Troy Snook, chapter opener/Ray Strange, 15.2: 5;
Parliamentary Education Office, 15.2: 2, 15.2: 3; Shutterstock, 15B: 2, 15B: 3, 15.1: 1, 15.1: 2, 15.1: 3, 15.1: 4, 15.2:1, 15.2: 4, 15.3: 5, 15.4: 1,
15.4: 3, 15.6: 1; Chapter 16: AAP Image/Lauren Farrow, 16.3: 4/Angie Raphael, 16.4: 1; Alamy, 16.5: 5/Arco Images GmbH, 16.5: 2/Martin Berry,
16.2: 2; Alice Cuddy & Mathew Kiely, 16.2: 1; FairfaxPhotos/Alex Ellinghausen, 16B: 1/Dallas Kilponen, 16.6: 5/Russell McPhedran, 16.4: 2/Harrison
Saragosi, 16A: 3; Getty Images/Richard l’Anson, 16.1: 4; iStockPhoto/MachineHeadz, chapter opener (shop lifting); Newspix/Simon Cocksedge,
16.6: 4/Andrew Henshaw, 16B: 2/Lindsay Moller, 16.3: 6/Jo-Anna Robinson, 16.3: 5/Darren Tindale, 16.2: 3; Shutterstock, chapter opener (graffiti,
megaphone, texting, beach), 16A: 1, 16.1: 1, 16.1: 2 16.1: 3 (bottom), 16.1: 3 (right), 16.1: 3 (top), 16.3: 2, 16.3: 3, 16.5: 3, 16.5: 4, 16.5: 6, 16.5: 7,
16.6: 2, 16.7: 4, 16.8: 1, 16.8: 2; Stockimage WA, 16.7: 2, 16.7: 3.
Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright material contained in this book. The publisher will be pleased to hear from copyright
holders to rectify any errors or omissions.

WORLD: POLITICAL
60°W 30°W A 0° B 30°E C 60°E D 90°E E 120°E F 150°E G 180° H 150°W I 120°W J 90°W K 60°W L 30°W M 0° N 30°E
Svalbard
(Norway)
A R C T I C O C E A N
Kalaallit Nunaat
6 Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland)
(Greenland) (Denmark) 6
(Denmark)
Jan Mayen
(Norway)
NORWAY Arctic Circle

Alaska
ICELAND (USA) ICELAND
Reykjavik FINLAND Reykjavik
Faroe Islands SWEDEN
(Denmark) Helsinki RUSSIA
60°N Oslo
Tallinn 60°N
Stockholm ESTONIA
UNITED Riga LATVIA
DENMARK
KINGDOM Copenhagen CANADA
LITHUANIA Moscow
Vilnius
Dublin 2 POLAND Minsk
IRELAND London Berlin BELARUS
Warsaw
3 GERMANY Kyiv Astana
1 10 UKRAINE
Paris 7 11
12 14 KAZAKHSTAN Ulan Bator
5
4 15 13 ROMANIA MONGOLIA St Pierre and Miquelon
FRANCE 16 Ottawa 5
8 17 19 BULGARIA Bucharest (France)
5 6 Rome 18 20 Sofia GEORGIA UZBEKISTAN Bishkek
PORTUGAL Madrid
9
22
21 Tbilisi
Ankara ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN
Tashkent KYRGYZSTAN
Beijing NORTH KOREA
AT L A N T I C
Lisbon SPAIN ITALY GREECE Yerevan Baku TURKMENISTAN Dushanbe Pyongyang UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Washington DC Azores
Algiers Tunis Athens TURKEY Ashkhabad TAJIKISTAN Seoul JAPAN (Portugal)
Gibraltar (UK) CYPRUS SOUTH
23 Tehran Tokyo
Madeira Islands
Rabat TUNISIA Nicosia SYRIA
Damascus Kabul CHINA KOREA
(Portugal) 24 Baghdad Islamabad
MOROCCO AFGHANISTAN
30°N
Canary Islands
(Spain)
Tripoli
Cairo
25 Amman IRAQ
JORDAN
IRAN Bermuda (UK)
OCEAN 30°N
ALGERIA 26 New Delhi NEPAL
SAUDI BHUTAN
Western
LIBYA
EGYPT ARABIA
Riyadh
27
28
PAKISTAN Kathmandu Thimphu
BANGLADESH Taipei
P A C I F I C BAHAMAS
Nassau
Sahara 29 Tropic of Cancer
Muscat INDIA Dhaka TAIWAN Havana
MYANMAR Hanoi Socorro Island MEXICO CUBA
OMAN Hawaii (Mexico) Mexico City HAITI DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
MAURITANIA Naypyidaw LAOS (USA) Santo Domingo CAPE
Nouakchott MALI NIGER Vientiane NORTHERN Port-au-Prince
45 VERDE
SUDAN Yangon THAILAND MARIANAS Clarion Island GUATEMALA 42 43 44
Asmara Sana’a PHILIPPINES
4 30 BURKINA CHAD Khartoum
VIETNAM Saipan (Mexico) Guatemala City HONDURAS
Tegucigalpa
46 Praia 4
Niamey ERITREA YEMEN Manila
31 Bamako FASO Bangkok CAMBODIA Guam (USA) San Salvador NICARAGUA 49 4748
32 GUINEA Ouagadougou N’Djamena Djibouti DJIBOUTI Phnom Penh EL SALVADOR Managua 50 TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
Conakry
33
36
37 NIGERIA
Abuja
CENTRAL
AFRICAN SOUTH ETHIOPIA Addis Ababa SRI LANKA FEDERATED STATES
MARSHALL
ISLANDS O C E A N Clipperton
(France)
COSTA RICA San Jose
Caracas
Panama City
Port of Spain
GUYANA
34 35 REPUBLIC SUDAN Colombo Melekeok OF MICRONESIA Majuro PANAMA VENEZUELA Georgetown
Monrovia BRUNEI PALAU Palikir Paramaribo
LIBERIA CAMEROON Bangui Juba Bandar Seri Begawan Bogota
SOMALIA MALDIVES Male French Guiana (France)
Yaounde Kuala Lumpur MALAYSIA COLOMBIA SURINAME
38 UGANDA Mogadishu
Libreville CONGO Kampala SINGAPORE Singapore South Tarawa Quito Equator
0° 39 GABON DEMOCRATIC KENYA 0°
Yaren Galapagos Islands ECUADOR
40 Nairobi NAURU
K
REPUBLIC I (Ecuador)
Brazzaville OF CONGO 41 Victoria INDONESIA PAPUA R I
Kinshasa B A T I
Dodoma SEYCHELLES Jakarta NEW GUINEA SOLOMON
Ascension (UK) TANZANIA Chagos Archipelago (UK) ISLANDS Funafuti
Luanda Dili
TIMOR-LESTE Port Moresby Honiara TUVALU
AT L A N T I C ANGOLA MALAWI
COMOROS
Moroni
Cocos Islands
Christmas Island
(Australia)
(EAST TIMOR)
SAMOA Lima
PERU BRAZIL
ZAMBIA Lilongwe
3
St Helena (UK) Lusaka MOZAMBIQUE INDIAN (Australia)
VANUATU FIJI
Apia American Samoa
(USA)
French
Polynesia La Paz Brasilia
3
Harare MADAGASCAR Port Vila NIUE COOK (France) BOLIVIA

Suva Sucre
NAMIBIA ZIMBABWE Antananarivo MAURITIUS TONGA Alofi ISLANDS
Port Louis
OCEAN
New Caledonia Nukualofa Avarua
Windhoek BOTSWANA Reunion (France) (France) PARAGUAY Tropic of Capricorn
Gaborone Pretoria Pitcairn Island
Maputo
Mbabane SWAZILAND OCEAN AUSTRALIA (UK) Rapa Nui San Felix CHILE
Asuncion
International Date Line

Norfolk Island (Easter Island) (Chile)
Bloemfontein Maseru (Australia) (Chile)
30°S 30°S
SOUTH LESOTHO Lord Howe
AFRICA Island Juan Fernandez Islands Santiago URUGUAY
Cape Town
Canberra (Australia) (Chile) Buenos Aires Montevideo
Tristan da Cunha (UK)
Amsterdam (France) ARGENTINA
St Paul (France)
1
2
Luxembourg – Luxembourg
Netherlands – Amsterdam
18
19
Montenegro – Podgorica
Serbia – Belgrade
34
35
Ivory Coast – Yamoussoukro
Ghana – Accra
Wellington
NEW ZEALAND
LEGEND
3 Belgium – Brussels 20 Kosovo – Pristina 36 Togo – Lome Chatham Islands Country border
2 4 Switzerland – Bern 21 Macedonia* – Skopje 37 Benin – Porto-Novo (New Zealand)
5 Andorra – Andorra-la-Vella 22 Albania – Tirane 38 Equatorial Guinea – Malabo Disputed country border 2
6 Monaco – Monaco 23 Malta – Valletta 39 Sao Tome and Principe – Sao Tome
Auckland Islands
Country capital city
7 Liechtenstein – Vaduz 24 Lebanon – Beirut 40 Rwanda – Kigali
(New Zealand) Azores Falkland Islands (UK)
8 San Marino – San Marino 25 Israel – Jerusalem 41 Burundi – Bujumbura Dependency
Heard Island (Portugal)
9 Vatican City 26 Kuwait – Kuwait 42 Belize – Belmopan
(Australia) Macquarie Island South Georgia (UK)
10 Czech Republic – Prague 27 Bahrain – Manama 43 Jamaica – Kingston (Australia)
11 Slovakia – Bratislava 28 Qatar – Doha 44 St Kitts and Nevis – Basseterre
12 Austria – Vienna 29 United Arab 45 Antigua and Barbuda – St John’s
Emirates – Abu Dhabi 0 800 1600 2400 km
60°S 13 Hungary – Budapest
Moldova – Kishinev 30 Senegal – Dakar
46 Dominica – Roseau N 60°S
14 47 St Lucia – Castries SCALE 1:80 000 000 at 40°N and S
31 Gambia – Banjul
15
16
Slovenia – Ljubljana
Croatia – Zagreb 32 Guinea Bissau – Bissau
48
49
Barbados – Bridgetown
St Vincent S O U T H E R N O C E A N 1 centimetre on the map measures
800 kilometres on the ground.
1 17 Bosnia and 33 Sierra Leone – Freetown and the Grenadines – Kingstown 1
Herzegovina – Sarajevo 50 Grenada – St George’s Modified Times Projection Antarctic Circle
A N T A R C T I C A A N TA R C T I C A
30°W A 0° B 30°E C 60°E D 90°E E 120°E F 150°E G 180° H 150°W I 120°W J 90°W K 60°W L 30°W M 0°
* Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Source: Oxford University Press
OUP Insight Geography Stage 4 SB - World political for endpapers 18-5-16

EP0101_04966
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WORLD: POLITICAL
60°W 30°W A 0° B 30°E C 60°E D 90°E E 120°E F 150°E G 180° H 150°W I 120°W J 90°W K 60°W L 30°W M 0° N 30°E
Svalbard
(Norway)
A R C T I C O C E A N
Kalaallit Nunaat
6 Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland)
(Greenland) (Denmark) 6
(Denmark)
Jan Mayen
(Norway)
NORWAY Arctic Circle

Alaska
ICELAND (USA) ICELAND
Reykjavik FINLAND Reykjavik
Faroe Islands SWEDEN
(Denmark) Helsinki RUSSIA
60°N Oslo
Tallinn 60°N
Stockholm ESTONIA
UNITED Riga LATVIA
DENMARK
KINGDOM Copenhagen CANADA
LITHUANIA Moscow
Vilnius
Dublin 2 POLAND Minsk
IRELAND London Berlin BELARUS
Warsaw
3 GERMANY Kyiv Astana
1 10 UKRAINE
Paris 7 11
12 14 KAZAKHSTAN Ulan Bator
5
4 15 13 ROMANIA MONGOLIA St Pierre and Miquelon
FRANCE 16 Ottawa 5
8 17 19 BULGARIA Bucharest (France)
5 6 Rome 18 20 Sofia GEORGIA UZBEKISTAN Bishkek
PORTUGAL Madrid
9
22
21 Tbilisi
Ankara ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN
Tashkent KYRGYZSTAN
Beijing NORTH KOREA
AT L A N T I C
Lisbon SPAIN ITALY GREECE Yerevan Baku TURKMENISTAN Dushanbe Pyongyang UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Washington DC Azores
Algiers Tunis Athens TURKEY Ashkhabad TAJIKISTAN Seoul JAPAN (Portugal)
Gibraltar (UK) CYPRUS SOUTH
23 Tehran Tokyo
Madeira Islands
Rabat TUNISIA Nicosia SYRIA
Damascus Kabul CHINA KOREA
(Portugal) 24 Baghdad Islamabad
MOROCCO AFGHANISTAN
30°N
Canary Islands
(Spain)
Tripoli
Cairo
25 Amman IRAQ
JORDAN
IRAN Bermuda (UK)
OCEAN 30°N
ALGERIA 26 New Delhi NEPAL
SAUDI BHUTAN
Western
LIBYA
EGYPT ARABIA
Riyadh
27
28
PAKISTAN Kathmandu Thimphu
BANGLADESH Taipei
P A C I F I C BAHAMAS
Nassau
Sahara 29 Tropic of Cancer
Muscat INDIA Dhaka TAIWAN Havana
MYANMAR Hanoi Socorro Island MEXICO CUBA
OMAN Hawaii (Mexico) Mexico City HAITI DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
MAURITANIA Naypyidaw LAOS (USA) Santo Domingo CAPE
Nouakchott MALI NIGER Vientiane NORTHERN Port-au-Prince
45 VERDE
SUDAN Yangon THAILAND MARIANAS Clarion Island GUATEMALA 42 43 44
Asmara Sana’a PHILIPPINES
4 30 BURKINA CHAD Khartoum
VIETNAM Saipan (Mexico) Guatemala City HONDURAS
Tegucigalpa
46 Praia 4
Niamey ERITREA YEMEN Manila
31 Bamako FASO Bangkok CAMBODIA Guam (USA) San Salvador NICARAGUA 49 4748
32 GUINEA Ouagadougou N’Djamena Djibouti DJIBOUTI Phnom Penh EL SALVADOR Managua 50 TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
Conakry
33
36
37 NIGERIA
Abuja
CENTRAL
AFRICAN SOUTH ETHIOPIA Addis Ababa SRI LANKA FEDERATED STATES
MARSHALL
ISLANDS O C E A N Clipperton
(France)
COSTA RICA San Jose
Caracas
Panama City
Port of Spain
GUYANA
34 35 REPUBLIC SUDAN Colombo Melekeok OF MICRONESIA Majuro PANAMA VENEZUELA Georgetown
Monrovia BRUNEI PALAU Palikir Paramaribo
LIBERIA CAMEROON Bangui Juba Bandar Seri Begawan Bogota
SOMALIA MALDIVES Male French Guiana (France)
Yaounde Kuala Lumpur MALAYSIA COLOMBIA SURINAME
38 UGANDA Mogadishu
Libreville CONGO Kampala SINGAPORE Singapore South Tarawa Quito Equator
0° 39 GABON DEMOCRATIC KENYA 0°
Yaren Galapagos Islands ECUADOR
40 Nairobi NAURU
K
REPUBLIC I (Ecuador)
Brazzaville OF CONGO 41 Victoria INDONESIA PAPUA R I
Kinshasa B A T I
Dodoma SEYCHELLES Jakarta NEW GUINEA SOLOMON
Ascension (UK) TANZANIA Chagos Archipelago (UK) ISLANDS Funafuti
Luanda Dili
TIMOR-LESTE Port Moresby Honiara TUVALU
AT L A N T I C ANGOLA MALAWI
COMOROS
Moroni
Cocos Islands
Christmas Island
(Australia)
(EAST TIMOR)
SAMOA Lima
PERU BRAZIL
ZAMBIA Lilongwe
3
St Helena (UK) Lusaka MOZAMBIQUE INDIAN (Australia)
VANUATU FIJI
Apia American Samoa
(USA)
French
Polynesia La Paz Brasilia
3
Harare MADAGASCAR Port Vila NIUE COOK (France) BOLIVIA

Suva Sucre
NAMIBIA ZIMBABWE Antananarivo MAURITIUS TONGA Alofi ISLANDS
Port Louis
OCEAN
New Caledonia Nukualofa Avarua
Windhoek BOTSWANA Reunion (France) (France) PARAGUAY Tropic of Capricorn
Gaborone Pretoria Pitcairn Island
Maputo
Mbabane SWAZILAND OCEAN AUSTRALIA (UK) Rapa Nui San Felix CHILE
Asuncion
International Date Line

Norfolk Island (Easter Island) (Chile)
Bloemfontein Maseru (Australia) (Chile)
30°S 30°S
SOUTH LESOTHO Lord Howe
AFRICA Island Juan Fernandez Islands Santiago URUGUAY
Cape Town
Canberra (Australia) (Chile) Buenos Aires Montevideo
Tristan da Cunha (UK)
Amsterdam (France) ARGENTINA
St Paul (France)
1
2
Luxembourg – Luxembourg
Netherlands – Amsterdam
18
19
Montenegro – Podgorica
Serbia – Belgrade
34
35
Ivory Coast – Yamoussoukro
Ghana – Accra
Wellington
NEW ZEALAND
LEGEND
3 Belgium – Brussels 20 Kosovo – Pristina 36 Togo – Lome Chatham Islands Country border
2 4 Switzerland – Bern 21 Macedonia* – Skopje 37 Benin – Porto-Novo (New Zealand)
5 Andorra – Andorra-la-Vella 22 Albania – Tirane 38 Equatorial Guinea – Malabo Disputed country border 2
6 Monaco – Monaco 23 Malta – Valletta 39 Sao Tome and Principe – Sao Tome
Auckland Islands
Country capital city
7 Liechtenstein – Vaduz 24 Lebanon – Beirut 40 Rwanda – Kigali
(New Zealand) Azores Falkland Islands (UK)
8 San Marino – San Marino 25 Israel – Jerusalem 41 Burundi – Bujumbura Dependency
Heard Island (Portugal)
9 Vatican City 26 Kuwait – Kuwait 42 Belize – Belmopan
(Australia) Macquarie Island South Georgia (UK)
10 Czech Republic – Prague 27 Bahrain – Manama 43 Jamaica – Kingston (Australia)
11 Slovakia – Bratislava 28 Qatar – Doha 44 St Kitts and Nevis – Basseterre
12 Austria – Vienna 29 United Arab 45 Antigua and Barbuda – St John’s
Emirates – Abu Dhabi 0 800 1600 2400 km
60°S 13 Hungary – Budapest
Moldova – Kishinev 30 Senegal – Dakar
46 Dominica – Roseau N 60°S
14 47 St Lucia – Castries SCALE 1:80 000 000 at 40°N and S
31 Gambia – Banjul
15
16
Slovenia – Ljubljana
Croatia – Zagreb 32 Guinea Bissau – Bissau
48
49
Barbados – Bridgetown
St Vincent S O U T H E R N O C E A N 1 centimetre on the map measures
800 kilometres on the ground.
1 17 Bosnia and 33 Sierra Leone – Freetown and the Grenadines – Kingstown 1
Herzegovina – Sarajevo 50 Grenada – St George’s Modified Times Projection Antarctic Circle
A N T A R C T I C A A N TA R C T I C A
30°W A 0° B 30°E C 60°E D 90°E E 120°E F 150°E G 180° H 150°W I 120°W J 90°W K 60°W L 30°W M 0°
* Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Source: Oxford University Press
OUP Insight Geography Stage 4 SB - World political for endpapers 18-5-16

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10C What career opportunities are there in Chapter 13 1

11B How does Australia participate in the global economy?

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14C What career opportunities are there

Our democratic rights

15A What factors influence Australia’s political system?

15B What shapes our decisions at election time?

16A What key principles support Australia’s legal system?

16B How does Australia’s court system work?

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Geography skills History skills

Skill Chapter Page Skill Chapter Page

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Searching for relevant and reliable information Chapter 13 427

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set out under key Though once heavily

discussion and interest.

use their prior How do people conn

at the start of each

2.4 The tropical

and insect species the plant, animal ecosystem services

7.4 The significance of

Check your learning

activities accompany every

difficult concepts unit, allowing students to

and engage consolidate and extend

are graded according

catering for a range of

abilities and learning styles.

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apply the knowledge and

skills they have learned

in each chapter to a new

and interesting case study,

Extend your understanding

activities challenge students

to conduct further research,

or complete group work, to

Skill drill activities guide

deepen their understanding

and support students step

of an issue or skill being

by step as they learn and

apply key skills.

Student obook assess provides a fully interactive oxforddigital.com.au Teacher

electronic version of the print Student book in

Social Sciences 7 Wester