Oxford Science 8

OXFORD
TWELVE APOSTLES, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA. FIVE NEW LIMESTONE

SEA STACKS, THOUGHT TO BE UP TO 60,000 YEARS OLD, WERE
DISCOVERED VIA SONAR MAPPING IN 2016. KNOWN AS THE
SCI
EN
‘DROWNED APOSTLES’ THEY ARE 50 M BENEATH THE SURFACE.
CE
8 HELEN SILVESTER
Licensed to Chelsea Truong, from Wellington Secondary College until 2022-12-31.

OXFORD
SCI
EN
CE
8 VICTORIAN
CURRICULUM
HELEN SILVESTER

1
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© Helen Silvester 2016
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Reprinted 2017 (twice)
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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Silvester, Helen, author.

Oxford science 8: Victorian Curriculum / Helen Silvester.
ISBN: 9780190306915 (paperback)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
Science--Study and teaching (Secondary)
Science--Textbooks.
Dewey Number: 507.12
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00_SIL_OXSCI8_VIC_06915_PRE_SI.indd 2 24/01/2017 1:39 pm

SCI
Science toolkit
Scientists work collaboratively and individually, in
1 the laboratory and in the field, to plan and conduct
investigations safely and ethically. Scientists make
predictions, control variables and record their
results accurately. Scientists communicate their
results using scientific language.
EN
Rocks and minerals
Rocks have useful properties and can be classified
2 as sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic. Rocks
contain minerals and are formed by processes
within the Earth over different timescales.
CE
Energy
3 Energy appears in different forms and
can be transferred and transformed to
cause movement and change.
Sound and light

The electromagnetic spectrum is a way of describing
4 all the different forms of light, including the light we see.
Sound is caused by the vibration of particles moving
8
in a wavelike motion.
Physical and chemical change

Physical change is a change in the shape or
5 appearance of a substance. Chemical change
involves substances reacting to form new
substances.
Cells
6 All living things are made of cells. Cells have
specialised structures and functions.
Surviving
7
Humans, and other multi-cellular organisms,
survive using systems of organs that carry out
specialised functions.
Reproducing
Humans, and other multi-cellular organisms, reproduce
8 sexually or asexually using systems of organs that carry out
specialised functions.

Chapter 1 3.5 Energy cannot be created or
destroyed....................................... 52
5.4 Chemical change produces new
substances.................................... 96
Science toolkit 1 3.6 Energy efficiency can reduce 5.5 Chemical reactions can break and
energy consumption...................... 54 re-form new bonds........................ 98
1.1 Science laboratories contain
hazards............................................ 2 3.7 Engineers use their 5.6 Heat can speed up a reaction..... 100
understanding of energy to
1.2 Dissection is an important science solve problems.............................. 56 5.7 Many substances exist because
skill.................................................. 4 of the work of scientists.............. 102
3.8 Science as a human endeavour:
1.3 Scientists design their own Solar cells transform the Sun’s 5.8 Science as human endeavour:
experiments.................................... 8 light energy into electrical Physical and chemical changes
energy............................................ 58 are used to recycle household
1.4 Scientists keep a logbook and
write formal reports...................... 10 Chapter 3 review..................................... 60 waste........................................... 104
1.5 Tables and graphs are used to Chapter 3 key words............................... 62 Chapter 5 review................................... 106
present scientific data................... 12
Chapter 5 key words............................. 108
Chapter 1 review..................................... 14
Chapter 4
Chapter 1 key words............................... 16
Sound and light 63 Chapter 6
Chapter 2 4.1 Vibrating particles pass Cells 109
on sound........................................ 64
Rocks and minerals 17 4.2 Sound can travel at different
6.1 All living things are made up
speeds........................................... 66 of cells......................................... 110
2.1 Rocks have different properties.... 18
4.3 Our ears hear sound..................... 68 6.2 Microscopes are used to study
2.2 Rocks are made up of minerals.... 20 cells............................................. 112
4.4 Science as human endeavour:
2.3 Minerals are a valuable 6.3 Plant and animal cells have
Ears can be replaced..................... 70
resource........................................ 22
organelles.................................... 114
4.5 Visible light is a small part of the
2.4 Igneous rocks develop from
electromagnetic spectrum............ 72 6.4 All organisms have cells that
magma and lava............................ 24
4.6 Light reflects off a mirror............. 74 specialise..................................... 118
2.5 Sedimentary rocks are compacted
sediments...................................... 26 4.7 Light refracts when moving 6.5 Bacteria are single-celled
in and out of substances............... 76 organisms.................................... 120
2.6 Metamorphic rocks require heat
and pressure................................. 28 4.8 Different wavelengths of light 6.6 Fungal cells save lives................ 122
are different colours...................... 78
2.7 The rock cycle causes rocks Chapter 6 review................................... 124
to be re-formed............................. 30 4.9 The electromagnetic spectrum
has many uses............................... 80 Chapter 6 key words............................. 126
2.8 Weathering and erosion can
be prevented.................................. 32 4.10 Our eyes detect light..................... 82
2.9 Science as human endeavour: The 4.11 Things can go wrong Chapter 7
location and extraction of minerals
relies of scientists......................... 34
with our eyes................................. 84
Surviving 127
Chapter 4 review..................................... 86
Chapter 2 review..................................... 38 7.1 Systems are made up of cells,
Chapter 4 key words............................... 88
Chapter 2 key words............................... 40 tissues and organs...................... 128
7.2 The digestive system is made
Chapter 5 up of organs................................. 130
Chapter 3 Physical and chemical 7.3 The digestive system varies
Energy 41 change 89 between animals......................... 132
3.1 Energy can be transferred............ 42 7.4 Things sometimes go wrong
5.1 Atoms and elements make up
3.2 Potential energy is stored matter............................................ 90 in the digestive system................ 134
energy............................................ 46 7.5 The respiratory system
5.2 Atoms bond together to make
3.3 Moving objects have kinetic molecules and compunds............. 92 exchanges gases......................... 136
energy............................................ 48
5.3 Physical change is a change in 7.6 Things sometimes go wrong in
3.4 Energy can be transformed.......... 50 shape or appearance.................... 94 the respiratory system................ 138
iv OXFORD SCIENCE 8 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

CO
7.7 The circulatory system carries
substances around the body....... 140
7.8 Things sometimes go wrong in
the circulatory system................. 142
7.9 The excretory system removes
waste........................................... 144
NT
7.10 Plants have tissues and organs��146
Chapter 7 review................................... 148
Chapter 8
Reproducing 151
8.1 There are different ways of
reproducing................................. 152
E
8.2 The female reproductive system
produces eggs in the ovaries...... 154
8.3 The male reproductive system
produces sperm in the testes..... 156
8.4 Science as a human endeavour:
Things sometimes go wrong in
reproduction................................ 158
8.5 Plant sexual reproduction
produces seeds........................... 160
8.6 Reproduction techniques have
TS
an impact in agriculture.............. 162
Chapter 8 review................................... 164
Chapter 9
Experiments 167
Glossary...............................232
Index.....................................239
v
Using Oxford Science
Oxford Science is a series developed to meet the requirements of the Victorian Curriculum: Science
across Years 7 to 10. Taking a concept development approach, each double-page spread of Oxford
Science represents one concept and one lesson.
EXPERIME NT 1.4: MARSHMA

Go to PAGe 173.
lloW SlinGSHot S
1 February 2016 Aim and hypothesis of

What if?
keep a logbook
the experiment.
1.4 Scientists Student-directed inquiry is encouraged throughout this series using

Aim is pulled back
between the distance elastic The method used or
s
To determine the relationship
and write formal report

moves. the page number of the
and the distance a marshmallow method. Record any
changes to the method.
a simple questioning technique. As the series progresses, students

Method cm wide elastic was
Science 8. Please note: 1
Refer to page 159 of Oxford Record any
the work done in a
to record the details of
chairs from Experiment 1.4. measurements you made
tied around the base of the
A science logbook is used may otherwise to the maximum number
information that the scientist
science laborator y. It contains and results of an of digits provided by the
forget and provides evidence

experiment.
of the planning, changes Measurements
Distance marshmallow has
Distance elastic pulled back

Attempt 1
20 cm 3 mm
moved
Attempt 2
23.4 cm
Attempt 3
19.9 cm
Average
21.2 cm
equipment. (You can
round them off later. If
you don’t record them
then you cannot get them
discover that their own What if questions are actually testable ‘if and
then’ hypotheses. For example, 'What if the bubble is touched with a
1 cm back later.)
Creating a logbook Check your learning 1.4 2 cm

nd
There are some basic rules
to creating and Remember and understa 3 cm
of a Show all calculations
1 What is the purpose
4 cm
using a logbook. (even when adding
finger' becomes 'If the bubble is touched with a finger, then it will pop'.
or an electronic laboratory logbook?
1 Use a bound notebook logbook simple numbers).
regularly. Loose 2 Why should an electronic
device that is backed up 20.3
papers become lost, and electronic
devices be backed up regularly?
23.4
style of records you mistake and Include any ideas,
can fail. Ensure that the 3 A student made a
their
ripped the page out of explanations, diagrams,
+ 19.9
use is reliable. be the
your name, phone logbook. Why would this 63.6 graphs, sketches or
2 Label your logbook with mistakes that happened.
and teacher’s wrong thing to do? 63.6 ÷ 3 = 21.2 cm
number, email address, school
Concept development
Labelling to make sure Write everything
name. Logbooks can become lost. 4 Why is it important
is down even if it seems
details (and the writing in your logbook
the logbook with your contact ensures Observations unimportant. You may
teacher) legible? we had to do it up again.
those of your school and after the third attempt so not remember it weeks
to a The elastic came undone
that it will find its way back
to you. 5 How is a logbook different tightness as before. or even months later.
page of the logbook should formal science report? We tried to make it the same
3 The second why it is
contain a table of contents.
Each page 6 Suggest one reason
you find the to include the date of
important
should be numbered to help logbook. Conclusion Do not rewrite any
the experiment in the back, more elastic gained
more energy. This energy as
relevant experiments. on each When the elastic was pulled entries. Try to keep it
7 Why should you reflect when released. We should is
the so that it could move further neat as you can but it
UNIT/SUBJECT EXPERIMENT PAGE NUMBER experiment before starting went into the marshmallow
distances. not a formal report. It
pulled back more different
next experiment? have tested with the elastic is more important that
Students are given access to the chapter concepts at the start of

TITLE
should do the pulling back.
Next time the same person you record your data
and observation s. If you
make a mistake, put a
Do
single line through it.
4 Always date every entry. not white it out, as it may
Include a conclusion
or reflection for each
experiment to make sure
You may need to write
a formal report for your
experiment. If you have
up Glue or staple in any
photocopies to prevent
them falling out.
be useful again later.
every chapter. Each double-page spread of this series represents

one concept. Students explore concepts one-by-one encouraging
completed your logbook
you understood why you well, you will find all
got the results you did. the details of the report
easily available.
Science toolkit
11 incremental learning and, by the end of the chapter, complete
10 OXFORD SCIENCE 8
VICTORIAN CURRICUL
UM
understanding.
Every spread is linked to one
or more experiment, challenge
5.7 bec
EXPERIME NT 5.7: maKing
gO TO Page 214. casein glUe
The unit heading Many substances exist or skills task as a practical

introduces the ause of the work of application of the concept.
scientists
concept. It is easy to forget just
how much we rely on manufa
our life. Increasingly, many ctured products in
substances and materia
changed) or manufactured ls are processed (i.e.
before they are used. These
as medicines, electron substances, such
Diagrams and photos are

ic components, compos
polymers, only exist because ite materials in aircraft
Each unit begins

of the work of scientis and
their original state to one ts changing them from
that you can use.
with a short Pharmaceuticals

Pharmacies (sometimes also
used to illustrate the concept
and engage students.
called ‘chemist
shops’) are where medicines
summary of the
are prepared and
dispensed. A pharmacist
(sometime
a ‘chemist’) has studied chemistry s also called
specialised in the study of , but has
medicines and their Figure 5.35 a glue is
any
concept.
Figure 5.34 Older paints
effect on the body (called contained egg white
to help hold the paint substance that sticks
‘pharmacology’). together. things together.
Oil refinery
In World War I, aircraft
were made of insects. This red dye, cochineal
wood. The wood was glued
with casein glue , is available
Petroleum, or crude oil, is (casein is a protein in milk) today in supermarkets, but
an important and albumin (a it is now made
product in our society. Oil protein in egg white). synthetica lly.
is pumped from the
ground and is carried in Nowadays, many synthetic The first synthetic (or artificial)
pipelines
to refineries, where it is separated or tankers used. Once, shoes were
glues are was discovered accidenta dye
into its made of layers of lly by William
components. The low-value leather nailed and sewn Perkin in 1878. He named
Every double-page spread

parts of the crude together; now these his dye after its
oil mixture are converted layers are mostly glued. colour, mauve. Soon many
into high-value Figure 5.33 Pharmaci Glue is used to hold other coloured
products, such as petrol, sts are chemists with many things together, including dyes had been discovered
diesel and materials a specialisation. and were being
Body text elaborates

used to produce plastics. in chipboard and the layers the chips manufactured.
‘Plastic’ is the
ends with Check your

Figure 5.31 all these common name for a range in MDF board,
of polymers used when King Nebuchadnezzar plywood and in a lot of Computer printers use dyes
products come from in items such as freezer bags, used bitumen (also furniture. Even the when they
CD cases, shoes, called ‘asphalt’) to hold building brake linings in cars are print photographs. Modern
petroleum. furniture and clothing. stones together. glued (bonded). inks do not
on the concept in
Later, plant gums, egg white fade, so the photographs
and animal products last longer than
Dyes
learning questions, allowing

(such as gelatin) were used photographs printed many
Glues and adhesives wood. The paints used by
for gluing paper and
the old masters were Before the use of dyes, all
years ago.
Glue was used in ancient made using egg white, which clothes had the
helped to hold the same colour – the off-white
clear and accessible

Babylon 3500 years ago colour of natural
parts of the paint mixture
together. fibres, raw cotton, silk and Check your learning 5.7
students to consolidate their

wool.
The first dye was obtained Remember and understa
from murex nd
whelk shells, a type of sea
snail. It took 9000 1 What is the role of
language.
shells to make enough dye chemistry
for one Roman in purifying crude oil
in an oil
understanding. Questions are

emperor’s toga! Only the refinery? Figure 5.36 dyes
emperor had dyed
clothes, and these were always originally came from
purple. In fact, 2 describe how chemists
the whelk almost became have living organisms.
extinct as a result improved on natural glues Today they are
of being hunted for its dye. and
adhesives.
graded according to Bloom’s

mostly synthetic.
The soldiers in the British 3 What colour were
Army used the first natural
Figure 5.32 many everyday
to be known as ‘redcoats’. dye and the first synthetic
items are the result
Their uniform dye?
of carefully considere consisted of a red coat, which
d chemistry. was dyed 4 list five materials
that are made
Taxonomy – catering for a

102 using the liquid extracted
OXFORD SCIENCE 8 from scale by chemists.
VICTORIAN CURRICU
LUM
range of abilities and learning

Physical and chemica
l change 103
styles.
s All AROUND
EXPERIM ENT 6.5: MICROBe
GO TO PAGe 221.
d
c
b
d
Bacteria are single-celle
a
6.5 organisms
Accessibility and
Unicellular organisms,
time. The average adult
such as bacteria, are living
human has 1 kilogram
their large intestine alone.
Some bacteria and
and working correctly.
in and around us all the
of non-human life inside
microbes are essential
Others can be deadly.
for
Figure 6.24 (a) Trichophyt
with malarial parasites
on mentagrophtes, cause
Harmful microbes may be

bacteria,
of ringworm and tinea;
; (c) tuberculosis bacteria;
(d) Rubella virus.
For this reason, your fridge

(b) a red blood cell infected
should be below
to be served
engagement
keeping our body healthy 4°C and cooked food waiting
All these microbes
fungi, protists or viruses. should be stored above 60°C.
Oxford Science has been engineered

cause disease. You
se can invade the body and
Microbes causing disea will probably be familiar
with some diseases GROWTH OF BACTERIA
OVER TIME
Natural flora We have all been sick at some

stage in our caused by harmful microbes
. Fungi can cause
is also known
70
in our bodies times than infections such as tinea, which s. Protists can
The microbes that live happily lives and much sicker at some
to be accessible to all science students.

60
flora and it’s the are caused by as athlete’s foot, and ear
infection
are referred to as natural others. Some forms of sickness
NUMBER OF BACTERIA
flora and the microbes a microorganism . Bacteria cause

balance between natural pathogens. A pathogen is cause malaria and dysentery 50
is important to our a disease. With sis (also known as
in our environment that that can potential ly cause diseases such as tuberculo
of natural flora pathogen may be res’ disease and 40
TB), pneumonia, legionnai
We believe that science students are

health. The right amount infectious diseases, the diseases like the
will protect us against foreign
invaders,
passed from one organism
to another. Such cholera. Viruses can cause 30
natural flora can and herpes.
whereas too much of the
s. The host
diseases are said to be contagiou animal or common cold and flu, measles 20
in our intestines
actually make us ill. Bacteria is an organism, such as a
human,
Viruses
served best when they are free to focus
digest food and provide organism lives. You 10
help our bodies
The bacteria on plant, on which another
vitamins to keep us healthy. ting pathogen s in more detail d by most scientists
e coating, preventing
will be investiga
of a disease are Viruses are actually considere 0
40 60 80 100 120
our skin act as a protectiv in Year 9. The symptoms s. Viruses cannot 0 20
growing. an individua l as a to be non-living pathogen TIME (MINUTES)
disease causing bacteria from the changes that occur to survive and reproduce outside
a host cell. Instead
b
consequence of the disease. they need to invade a cell
and use the cells
organelles in order to reproduce
Viruses are responsible for
.
most of the
Figure 6.25 The number
of bacteria cells can
double every 20 minutes.
Figure 6.26 Human
ble
on learning the knowledge and skills of
science in simple accessible language,
e and cannot rhinovirus, responsi
Check your learning 6.5
a common colds that we experienc
s because they’re for the common cold.
be controlled by antibiotic and Viruses are much
hiding inside our cells. This
also makes it much Remember and underst smaller than cells.
cells to find and anism does
harder for our own immune 1 What type of microorg
crafted into short sentences. Students will

is to rest and to rely on? What
fight them, so our best defence our digestive system
eat a healthy diet to let the
cells in our body does this organism do?
rid of the viruses by 2 What is natural flora?
to concentrate on getting
ever be harmful
be engaged by the inclusion of stunning

themselves. 3 Can natural flora
to our bodies?
e Bacterial growth 4 What is a pathogen
? What are the
s?
d a process called four main groups of pathogen
c Bacteria reproduce using
photography throughout.
two; fission = split). considered to
binary fission (binary = 5 Why is a virus not
cell grows be living?
As the name suggests, a bacteria
in two. This is a
slightly larger and then splits Apply and analyse
s taking as little that food
very quick process, sometime 6 It is not recommended
represented on a for more
as 20 minutes. This can be be left out of the fridge
in Figure 6.25. fission to
graph such as the one than 3 hours. Use binary
vi
stopped at
Most bacterial growth is explain why.
OXFORD SCIENCE 8 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

and above 60°C.
temperatures below 4°C
in
(c) Haemophilus influenza
ccus aureus in the hair, 121
ccus epidermis, (b) Staphyloco intestines. Cells
Figure 6.23 (a) Staphyloco (e) Esherichia coli in the
trachamates in the eye,
the nose, (d) Chlamydia
VICTORI AN CURRICU
LUM
120 OXFORD SCIENCE 8
// S C I E N C E A S
A HUMAN ENDE AVO
4.4
U R // CHALLEN GE 4.4: iS
GO TO PagE 193.
SChool Bad FoR YouR
hEalth?
Ears can be replaced

Head piece
Implant
Your hearing relies on

very thin layers of skin
eardrum, small bones in the Electrode
in the middle ear, and fine
in the cochlea. These delicate hairs
mechanisms can become Cochlea
Science as a human
damaged by loud noises,
infections or age.
Sound level meter

The loudness of a sound
can seem different
to different people. It can
endeavour
seem different
depending on the frequency
or pitch of the
sound. To measure it scientifica
lly, we use a
sound level meter. Sound
level is measured
in decibels (dB). Decibels
were named after Figure 4.10 Professor
Alexander Graham Bell, graeme Clark, who
the inventor of the the development of the led
telephone. cochlea implant.
Hearing aid
Concepts are linked to real-world

A hearing aid is designed
to increase the
amplitude of sound waves
as they move into the Figure 4.11 a cochlea
middle ear. This makes sounds implant.
louder so that
the person is more likely to
hear them.
applications in the highly engaging

small case behind the ear,
Cochlea implant other hearing aids. It has
looking similar to
a powerful built-in
Researchers at Swinburne
Until the 1970s, everyone microphone. The sound of University of Technolog y
speech in
could be done to restore the
believed that nothing by the computer and converted is processed Victoria are now investigati
ng
Figure 4.9 a sound level hearing of people to electrical
Science as a human endeavour

with profound deafness due signals, which are sent by a similar approach to restoring
meter. to nerve damage. radio waves through
With the invention of the the skin into the internal sight. They are looking for
silicon chip and part of the cochlea
advances in electronics, several implant. The electrical signals a non-contact method of
scientists began activate the stimulating nerves and are
researching how to make hearing nerve inside the cochlea
Tinnitus a tiny electronic and send a
spreads. The Extend your

replacement for a damaged message to the brain to indicate exploring the use of laser
cochlea that could that sound light, perhaps as a tiny laser
Tinnitus is usually described do the job of healthy receptor has been detected, just as
as a constant cells. healthy receptor cells
would. device fitted in a pair of
4.5
ringing in the ears. It can Professor Graeme Clark and
be low or high pitched his team at the spectacles.
4.4
and can be caused by loud University of Melbourne
noises, infections or took 8 years to develop
understanding questions on this

drugs. It is occasiona lly the a prototype, and it was a
first sign of hearing further 7 years before a
4.3
loss as a result of age. Exposure commercial cochlea implant
– a ‘bionic ear’ – CHALLENGE
loud noise can damage the
to constant
small hairs in the
was available to people with
profound nerve
Extend your unders tanding 4.4
CHALLENGE
cochlea. This damage can deafness. 1 What causes tinnitus?
send confusing
spread are designed to be used flexibly Modelling light waves

messages through the aural A cochlea implant has two 2 Why do people have 3 seconds to smash a
Is school bad for your

EXPERIMENT nerves, which sections: the difficulty hearing glass. What else
Why do we need two ears?

the brain interprets as the internal and the external when they have a middle has a loudness of 130
constant noise that parts. The internal part ear infection? dB?
characterises tinnitus. of the implant consists of 3 how are hearing aids 6 With a partner, write
Aim 22 tiny wire electrodes different from down as many
health?
that are surgically inserted cochlea implants? jobs as you can that involve
in anneed
inside the cochlea. What you working
To investigate why
as either homework tasks or as an

The external part of the cochlea 4 What does the unit extremely loud environm
Results dB stand for? Who > Slinky ent.
we need two ears Method consists implant
is it named after?
Suggest
spring
at least three things that
a table.of a tiny computer (the speech
Present the results inprocessor) help prevent the floor could
1 Work in groups of three. Allocate
one person . The speech processor sits 5 in an YOURSELF
experime
EXPOSE > Clear space on hearing damage in these
in a CAUTION: NEVER nt, an opera singer sang jobs.
Materials to be tested, one person to be the tester and TO VERY LOUD at a
NOISE OR YELL INTO
particular frequency at
Discussion 130 dB for What to do
extended project.
ARE
> Chair 70 one OXFORD to be the recorder.
person SCIENCE system – SOMEONE’S EAR. WHEN YOU
9 VICTORIA N chair 1 According to your results, which MEASURING LOUD SOUNDS AT
YOUR one at each end. On
> Blindfold The person being tested sits on the
CURRICU LUM
way OF 1 Two people hold the spring,
2 two ears or one – is the more accurate SCHOOL, AND TESTING THE VOLUMEMETRE spring out slightly
(optional) and closes his or her eyes (or is blindfolded) YOUR CL ASSMATE’S YELL, STAND
1 the floor, slowly stretch the
to locate a sound? flicks their
during the whole test. AWAY FROM THE SOURCE OF SOUND. beyond its normal length. One person
two ears This will
his or her fingers 2 Were most people’s results for end of the spring firmly to one side. Sound
3 The tester clicks heard spring. The other
the ear of more correct when sounds were create a sideways ‘pulse’ in the
and light 71
approximately 1 metre away from the ear or when sounds came the spring firmly and still.
Experiments
in front of person needs to hold
the person seated. from behind the ear? Why do you
think this travel along the spring to the other
and What you need The pulse will
4 The tester makes the clicking sounds is so? end (Figure 9.18).
the seated person points to where
he or she sounds > 1 sound level meter per group
3 Was there any difficulty in detecting
thinks the sound came from. made directly above your head? If
so, why > Map of your school
this is
5 The recorder writes down whether do you think this happens? > Metre ruler
correct.
6 The tester tries a total of 10 different Conclusion What to do
directly above one? around your
positions, including one from
Why do we have two ears rather
than Conduct a survey of the noise levels
the seated person’s head. school.
Uniquely, experiments are organised

out of 10. school and measure
7 Record the seated person’s score 1 Visit your allocated part of the
outside. (Make
8 Swap roles so that everyone has
a turn at the sound levels inside rooms and
each role. sure someone checks the library.) creates a pulse.
any classes, Figure 9.18 Flicking the slinky
9 Repeat the experiment, with each
person 2 When outside and far away from
at the end of the book in an extended

individual voices
covering one ear with the palm of
their hand. check the loudness levels of the
as possible
in your group. First, speak as softly
1 metre. Then,
and measure the sound level at to create a continuous
distance. 2 Continue flicking the spring
measure a loud yell, again at 1 metre peaks and
transverse wave. Can you see the
experiments chapter, rather than being

in the group.
Collect these results for each person
troughs of the wave?
less energy by
Discussion 3 Make the wave have more or
end. Try to keep
level of your group for changing how hard you flick the
1 What was the average sound the speed of the wave the same.
confined to each double-page spread. a loud yell?

2 What would you recommend
someone’s ear?
about yelling in 4 Increase the number of waves
per second. You
have just modelled a wave of higher
5 Try to reduce the number of
frequency.
waves. This model
3 Find the average
There is a link on most double-page

represents a lower frequency wave.
noise level in waves you created,
classrooms. 6 Draw labelled diagrams of the
show that
Which rooms were carefully indicating how the waves
achieved.
the noisiest? different wavelengths have been
spreads to an experiment, challenge 4 List the loudest and

quietest places in
your school.
Discussion
1 What is the link between frequency
distance between the peaks of the
and the
wave?
or inquiry task to ensure that practical

as a transverse
2 What else in your world behaves
wave?
activites remain aligned to the content.

Figure 9.33 Experimental set-up. EXPERIMENT S 193
CURRICULUM
192 OXFORD SCIENCE 8 VICTORIAN
Integrated teaching
and learning support
obook assess provides an electronic version

of the student book in an easy-to-read
format. obook is compatible with laptops,
iPads, tablets and IWBs and can be used
online or offline. assess provides 24/7
online assessment designed to support
student progression and understanding.
Student dashboard
The student dashboard ensures that
students can easily and quickly find extra
resources linked to every page of the student
book. Student resources include videos, The Oxford Science teacher dashboard includes
multimedia links and worksheets. teacher notes, answers, tests, literacy support
worksheets, student worksheets, interactive
Teacher dashboard learning modules, flashcard glossaries,
multimedia links and videos. Experiments are
The innovative teacher dashboard is an further supported by risk assessments, lab tech
online lesson control centre, which allows notes and experiment worksheets.
teachers to instantly view or assign related obook assess allows teachers to manage their
resources and deliver incredibly engaging classes by assigning work, tracking progress and
digital learning experiences. planning assessment.
vii
Victorian Curriculum Levels 7
and 8 scope and sequence
LEVELS 7 AND 8 DESCRIPTION
In Levels 7 and 8, the curriculum focus is on explaining phenomena involving science and its applications. Students explain the
role of classification in ordering and organising information about living and non-living things. They classify the diversity of life
on Earth into major taxonomic groups and consider how the classification of renewable and non-renewable resources depends
on the timescale considered. Students classify different forms of energy, and describe the role of energy in causing change in
systems, including the role of heat and kinetic energy in the rock cycle. They use and develop models including food chains, food
webs and the water cycle to represent and analyse the flow of energy and matter through ecosystems and explore the impact of
changing components within these systems. Students investigate relationships in the Earth-Sun-Moon system and use models
to predict and explain astronomical phenomena. They explain changes in an object’s motion by considering the interaction
between multiple forces. Students link form and function at a cellular level and explore the organisation and interconnectedness
of body systems. Similarly, they explore changes in matter at a particle level, and distinguish between chemical and physical
change. Students make accurate measurements and control variables in experiments to analyse relationships between system
components and explore and explain these relationships using appropriate representations. They make predictions and propose
explanations, drawing on evidence to support their views.
LEVELS 7 AND 8 CONTENT DESCRIPTIONS

SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
Science as a human endeavour
Chapter 2, 6, 7 Scientific knowledge and understanding of the world changes as new evidence becomes
Year 7: Resources available; science knowledge can develop through collaboration and connecting ideas
Year 7: Interactions between across the disciplines and practice of science (VCSSU089)
organisms
Year 7: Earth, Sun and Moon
Chapter 3, 5, 7 Science and technology contribute to finding solutions to a range of contemporary issues;
Year 7: Mixtures these solutions may impact on other areas of society and involve ethical considerations
Year 7: Water (VCSSU090)
Year 7: Interactions between
organisms
Year 7: Forces
Biological sciences
Year 7 There are differences within and between groups of organisms; classification helps organise
this diversity (VCSSU091)
Chapter 6 Cells are the basic units of living things and have specialised structures and functions
(VCSSU092)
Year 7 Interactions between organisms can be described in terms of food chains and food webs
and can be affected by human activity (VCSSU093)
Chapter 7, 8 Multicellular organisms contain systems of organs that carry out specialised functions that
enable them to survive and reproduce (VCSSU094)
Chemical sciences
Year 7 Mixtures, including solutions, contain a combination of pure substances that can be
separated using a range of techniques (VCSSU095)
Year 7 The properties of the different states of matter can be explained in terms of the motion and
arrangement of particles (VCSSU096)
viii OXFORD SCIENCE 8 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

16x16 32x32
Chapter 5 Differences between elements, compounds and mixtures can be described by using a
particle model (VCSSU097)
Chapter 5 Chemical change involves substances reacting to form new substances (VCSSU098)
Earth and space sciences
16x16 32x32
Year 7 Predictable phenomena on Earth, including seasons and eclipses, are caused by the relative
positions of the Sun, Earth and the Moon (VCSSU099)
Year 7 Some of Earth’s resources are renewable, but others are non-renewable (VCSSU100)
Year 7 Water is an important resource that cycles through the environment (VCSSU101)
Chapter 2 Sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks contain minerals and are formed by
processes that occur within Earth over a variety of timescales (VCSSU102)
Physical sciences
Year 7 Change to an object’s motion is caused by unbalanced forces acting on the object; Earth’s
gravity pulls objects towards the centre of Earth (VCSSU103)
Chapter 3 Energy appears in different forms including movement (kinetic energy), heat, light,
chemical energy and potential energy; devices can change energy from one form to another
(VCSSU104)
Chapter 4 Light can form images using the reflective feature of curved mirrors and the refractive
feature of lenses, and can disperse to produce a spectrum which is part of a larger
spectrum of radiation (VCSSU105)
Chapter 4 The properties of sound can be explained by a wave model (VCSSU106)
SCIENCE INQUIRY SKILLS
Questioning and predicting
Chapter 1, 9 Identify questions, problems and claims that can be investigated scientifically and make
Year 7 predictions based on scientific knowledge (VCSIS107)
Planning and conducting
Chapter 1 Collaboratively and individually plan and conduct a range of investigation types, including
Year 7 fieldwork and experiments, ensuring safety and ethical guidelines are followed (VCSIS108)
Chapter 1, 9 In fair tests, measure and control variables, and select equipment to collect data with
Year 7 accuracy appropriate to the task (VCSIS109)
Recording and processing
Chapter 1, 9 Construct and use a range of representations including graphs, keys and models to record
Year 7 and summarise data from students’ own investigations and secondary sources, and to
represent and analyse patterns and relationships (VCSIS110)
Analysing and evaluating
Chapter 1, 9 Use scientific knowledge and findings from investigations to identify relationships, evaluate
Year 7 claims and draw conclusions (VCSIS111)
Chapter 1, 9 Reflect on the method used to investigate a question or solve a problem, including
Year 7 evaluating the quality of the data collected, and identify improvements to the method
(VCSIS112)
Communicating
All chapters Communicate ideas, findings and solutions to problems including identifying impacts and
limitations of conclusions and using appropriate scientific language and representations
(VCSIS113)
ix
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the following educators’ contributions to Matt Meadows, 5.17; Shutterstock, chapter opener (helmet, squashed
Oxford University Press science content over many years: Kristin Alford, cans, metal pan, burnt toast, gas bottles), p. 91 (bottom), p. 96, p. 97
Erin Bruns, Francesca Calati, Debbie Calder, Sally Cash, Amanda (cake), p. 100, p. 104 (plastic bottle), p. 106,5.20, 5.23, 5.24b, 5.24c,
Clarke, Craig Cleeland, Leanne Compton, Gillian Coyle, Emma 5.31 (coffee cup, plastic cup, helmet), 5.32 (medicine, watch, scarf,
Craven, Ellaine Downie, Karen Drought, Teresa Eva, Anita Giddings, tennis ball), 5.33, 5.34, 5.35, 5.5; Chapter 6: Alamy/age footstock,
Christina Hart, Rosemary Koina, Greg Laidler, Karen Marangio, 6.29/Roger Eritja, 6.6b/David J Green, 6.6a/World History Archive,
Daniela Nardelli, Rebecca Paton, Geoff Quinton, Peter Razos, Pam 6.31; Corbis/ Bettmann, 6.1/Carolina Biological/Visuals Unlimited,
Robertson, Duncan Sadler, Maggy Saldais, Lynda Schulz, Nola Shoring, 6.9/Heritage Images, 6.2/Jean-Yves Sgro/Visuals Unlimited, chapter
Jonathan Smith, Angela Stubbs, Craig Tilley, Mary Vail, Richard opener (virus), 6.26; Getty Images/BioPhoto Associates, 6.32b/Hulton
Walding, David Wilson Archive, 6.27/Dr Karl Lounatmaa/SPL, 6.15b/Omrikon, 6.14b/David
M Phillips, 6.10a/PL Creative, 6.24a/Science Photo Library, 6.10b,
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright 6.3a, 6.32d, 6.4, 6.5/SPL, chapter opener (cell), 6.17a/SPL Creative,
holders for reproduction of their material. chapter opener (petri dish), 6.23b, 6.23c, 6.23d, 6.24b, 6.24c, 6.24d,
6.28, 6.32a/Visuals Unlimited, 6.13a/M Walker, 6.3b/Dr Keith
Wheeler, 6.7b; iStockPhoto, chapter opener (microscope), 6.7a, 6.16b,
Cover: Getty Images/ Manfred Gottschalk
6.16e; Science Photo Library/Eye of Science, 6.23a, 6.23d, 6.23e/
Contents: Shutterstock (all); Chapter 1: Alamy/Agencja Fotograficzna Steve Geschmeissner, 6.10c, 6.16c, 6.16e/Russell Kitely, 6.18/Martin
Caro, 1.2; Shutterstock, chapter opener, (balloons, notebook, scalpel, Oeggeri, 6.16a/Overseas/Collection Corner, 6.10d; Shutterstock,
goggles, twig), p. 5 (bottom), p. 6. p. 8, p. 10 (left), p. 10 (right), p. 12 chapter opener (yucca plant), p. 114, 6.16d; Chapter 7: Alamy/David
(twig), p. 13, 1.12, 1.13, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17; Bill Thomas, p. 14, 1.14; Herraez, 7.7/D Hurst, chapter opener (protein), 7.37/Jason Lindsey,
Chapter 2: © BGR, 2.49; Alamy/Neil Cooper, 2.36d/Gary Corbett, 7.12b/The Natural History Museum, 7.12a, 7.9/Phanie, 7.16; Corbis/
4.40a/dpa picture alliance archive, 2.36b/Robert Harding Picture Bettmann, chapter opener (da Vinci), 7.4/Ralph Hutchings/Visuals
Library, 2.36a/Ryan McGinnis, chapter opener (statue), 2.32/The Unlimited, 4.24a, 7.24b; Getty Images/Tony Ashby, 7.14/BSIP, 7.15/
Natural History Museum, 2.20/Kevin Nicholson, 2.48/Pintail Pictures, Khaled Desuki, 7.1/Wim van Egmond, 7.35/Science Photo Library,
2.36c/Slim Sepp, 2.27b; Aurora Photos/Christopher Herwig, 2.24; 7.30b, 7.31a; iStockPhoto, chapter opener (skull), 7.12c, 7.34; Science
Corbis/Ric Ergenbright, 2.19c; Getty Images/Biophoto Associates, Photo Library/CNRI, 7.13/Power & Syred, 7.39; Shutterstock, chapter
2.3a/Geography Photos, 2.33/Claude Nuridsany & Marie Perennou, opener (athlete, man, blood samples, inhalers, blue orchard, sandwich),
2.7/Scott Olson, 2.37/Schafer & Hill, chapter opener (fossil)/SSPL, p. 130, p. 139 (inhalers), p. 143 (athlete), 7.17, 7.21, 7.31a, 7.41,
2.13/Milton Wordley, 2.34/Konrad Wothe, 2.31c/US Navy/Science 7.42; Chapter 8: Alamy/Keith Burdett, 8.29/John Cancalosi, 8.14/
Photo Library, 2.46; iStockPhoto, 2.6 (shale), 2.9, 2.28.2.42; Science Cubloimages, 8.4/Karin Duthie, 8.21a/ Paul Froggett, 8.8/ Dave Watts,
Photo Library/Mikkel Juul Jensen, 2.45; Shutterstock, chapter opener 8.32; ANT Photo Library/ Michael Tyler, 8.2; Corbis/Yann Arthus-
(Taj Mahal, wooden posts, bottle, pebbled rock, diamond), p. 22, 2.1, Bertrand, 8.31/ Anthony Bannister, 8.21b/Kevin Schafer, 8.37/Viktor
2.8a, 2.8b, 2.10, 2.11, 2.14, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19a, 2.19b, 2.2, 2.22, 2.23, Sykora/Visuals Unlimited, 8.30/ Jerome Wexler, 8.3; Getty Images/SPL
2.25, 2.26, 2.27a, 2.29, 2.3b. 2.31a, 2.31b, 2.38, 2.39, 2.40b, 2.4, 2.41, Creative/Dave Fleetham, 8.16/Susan Freeman, 8.6/Minden Pictures,
2.48, 2.5, 2.6 (rhyolite, sandstone, conglomerate, granite, coal, pumice, 8.17/Photononstop, 8.27/Science Source, 8.1, 8.7/SPL Creative, 8.18;
obsidian, quartizite, scoria, gneiss, schist, basalt, limestone, marble, slate; iStockPhoto, 8.19; Newspix/ Grant Nowell, 8.20; Shutterstock,
Chapter 3: AAP/Justin Smith, 3.9; Alamy/Mark Boulton, p. 59 (left), chapter opener (tulip, bee, text tube, chick, cow), p. 155, 8.19. 8.20,
chapter opener (car)/Dennis MacDonald, 3.1/dpa picture alliance, p. 59 8.21, 8.26, 8.33, 8.34, 8.35, 8.36; Chapter 9: Alamy/57Stock, p.
(right) fstop Images GmbH, 3.28b/Paul Mayall Australia, 3.11/Andy 181 (top left)/John Boud, 9.61a/Sciencephotos, 9.61b; Fairfax/The
Myatt, 3.17; Corbis/Blink, 3.18/Hulton Deutsch, p. 59 (top)/Felipe Canberra Times, 9.29; Fundamental photographs NYC/ Richard
Truebal, p. 58; Getty Images/Chesnot, 3.8/Kathy Collin, 3.25/Culture, Megna, 9.42; Getty Images/ David Sacks, 9.30/SPL Creative, 9.53a;
3.37/Fuse, 3.22/Gusto Images, 3.12/Science Source, 3.21/Sports iStockPhoto, 9.41; Nick Hood, p. 199; Shutterstock, p. 173, p. 174,
Illustrated, 3.27/SPL, 3.13/Allen Steve, 3.10; iStockPhoto, 3.19, 3.23a, p. 175, p. 176, p. 177, p. 180, p. 181 (middle left), p. 183 (guitar, solar
3.28e; Shutterstock, chapter opener (rubber bands, car battery, guitar, panels), p. 185, p. 188, p. 189, p. 191, p. 193, p. 197, p. 198, p. 201, p.
toaster, beach tubes, headphones), p. 45 (cyclist), p. 49 (guitar), p. 50 206, p. 207, p. 208, p. 209 (left), p. 211, p. 213, p. 214, p. 219, p. 224,
(battery, wires, globe), p. 51 (wind turbines), p. 53, p. 54, p. 55, 61, p. 228 (left), p. 231; Glossary: Shutterstock (all);
3.15, 3.20, 3.23b, 3.24, 3.26, 3.28c, 3.29a, 3.29b, 3.29c, 3.29d, 3.30a,
3.30c, 3.30b, 3.30d, 3.31a, 3.31b, 3.31c, 3.31d, 3.33, 3.36; Chapter
4: Getty Images/Science Photo Library, 4.7; NASA, 4.5; Newspix/ The Victorian Curriculum F-10 content elements are © VCAA,
Richard Cisar-Wright, 4.10; Science Photo Library/Andrew Lambert, reproduced by permission. Victorian Curriculum F-10 elements
4.9; Shutterstock, chapter opener (keyboard), p. 71, p. 73, p. 75, p. 78 accurate at time of publication. The VCAA does not endorse or make
(rainbow), 4.16a, 4.16b, 4.17, 4.19, 4.21, 4.35, 4.58, 4.6; Chapter 5: any warranties regarding this resource. The Victorian Curriculum F-10
Alamy/Afripics.com, chapter opener (ice), 5.12/AlphaandOmega, 5.26/ and related content can be accessed directly at the VCAA website
Ted Foxx, 5.22/The National Trust Photolibrary, 5.36; Getty Images/
Photolibrary, 5.18/Science Source, 5.1, 5.15, 5.21, 5.27/Naza Zahri, Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright
5.16; iStockPhoto, chapter opener (apples, pills, super glue, tyre), p. material contained in this book. The publisher will be pleased to hear
101 (apples), 5.19, 5.2, 5.24a, 5.31, 5.35, 5.6; Science Photo Library/ from copyright holders to rectify any errors or omissions.
x OXFORD SCIENCE 8 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

1
SCIENCE
1.1
Science laboratories
contain hazards TOOLKIT
Dissection is an important
1.2 science skill
1.3 Scientists design their own experiments
1.4
Scientists keep a logbook What if?
and write formal reports
Observations
What you need:
A4 paper, notebook and pen
What to do:
1 Look at one of the pictures on
this page for 30 seconds.
2 Cover the picture with the A4
paper.
3 Write down all the things you
observed in the picture.
Tables and graphs are used
1.5 to present scientific data
4 Check your answers. How many
things did you observe?
What if?
» What if you had more time to
observe the picture?
» What if you knew that you had to
write an observation list before
you viewed the picture?
» What if you repeated the test?

1.1 Science laboratories
contain hazards
Science is a practical subject that includes hands-on laboratory
investigations. You will be using many pieces of equipment, chemicals and
other materials that are hazardous. A hazard is something that has the
potential to put your health and safety at risk. You must learn to recognise
the risks involved with working in a science laboratory and the appropriate
safety procedures in case something goes wrong.
Chemical safety Hazard symbols

A chemical may be listed as hazardous if In Australia, and many other countries,
it is considered dangerous for a person to hazard symbols (see Figures 1.3 to 1.11) are
touch, or inhale. Most of the chemicals you used to indicate the level of risk or danger of a
will use in your school science laboratory are substance. Hazard symbols are required by law
safe to use provided appropriate precautions in many situations and you may see some in
are taken. When working with chemicals, you your science laboratory.
Figure 1.1 Lab coats, should always wear a buttoned-up lab coat to
safety glasses and protect your skin and clothes. Safety glasses Safe disposal of chemicals
gloves protect your
body and clothing.
should cover your eyes, long hair should be tied
back and closed-toed shoes should always be
and other materials
worn. Occasionally you will need to wear gloves. Safely disposing of chemicals is just as
Never taste, smell or mix chemicals unless important as safely using them. Not everything
specifically directed by your teacher as this may can be poured down the sink. Some schools
cause a harmful reaction. have acid neutralising traps in the drains that
When observing chemical reactions allow dilute acids to be disposed of in this way.
ensure that you do not lean over any open Other chemicals can react with the acid traps
containers and never breathe in any gases or are toxic for the environment. As a result,
that may be produced. If your teacher these chemicals must be collected at the end of
instructs you to smell anything in the the class and disposed of appropriately by your
laboratory, use your hand to gently waft teacher. These chemicals include corrosive
the gas towards your nose. If you have any liquids, grease and oils, biohazardous wastes
concerns tell your teacher immediately. and toxic solids. Table 1.1 lists the safe disposal
techniques for various materials.
Table 1.1 Safe disposal of materials.
MATERIAL EXAMPLES WHAT TO DO WITH IT

Figure 1.2 Never
smell anything Biohazardous waste Animal cells and tissue Solids should be collected by your teacher.
in the laboratory Deactivate liquid with bleach (1 part bleach to 9 parts
unless instructed to. water) for 30 minutes before pouring down the drain.
What piece of safety Grease and oils Vegetable oils Collect in a bottle and place in regular rubbish.
equipment should these Machinery oil Dispose of as hazardous chemical waste.
students be wearing?
Corrosive liquids Weak acids Pour down the drain.
Strong acids or alkalis Neutralise the acid or alkali and pour down the drain.
Solids Play dough Place in regular rubbish.
Hydrogen peroxide > 8% Dilute before pouring down the drain.
2 OXFORD SCIENCE 8 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

Figure 1.3 Health hazard Figure 1.4 Flammable Figure 1.5 Exclamation mark
Substance can cause serious Substances that catch fire Substance that can cause
health effects if touched, easily. irritation (redness or rash).
inhaled or swallowed.
Figure 1.12 Pouring

substances down the
drain can be a hazard.
Figure 1.6 Gas cylinder Figure 1.7 Corrosive Figure 1.8 Exploding bomb
Contains gas under Substances that are corrosive Substances that may explode
pressure. Released gas may (destructive) to living tissues, if exposed to fire, heat,
be very cold. Gas container such as skin and eyes. Also movement or friction.
may explode if heated. used for substances that are
corrosive to metals.
Figure 1.9 Flame over circle – Figure 1.10 Environmental Figure 1.11 Skull and cross
oxidising Provides oxygen to hazard Substance is toxic to bones – toxic Can cause
make other substances burn marine organisms and may death if touched, inhaled or
more fiercely. cause long-lasting effects in swallowed.
the environment.

Remember and understand 4 What is an acid neutralising trap
1 What is the purpose of: used for?
a a lab coat? Apply and analyse
b safety glasses? 5 Some acids are considered corrosive.
c gloves? Research the word ‘corrosive’ and
write its definition. What precautions
d close-toed shoes?
should you take when handling acids?
2 Why would you be unlikely to find
6 Why should you never randomly
a substance with the skull and
mix chemicals together in a science
crossbones hazard symbol in a school
laboratory?
science laboratory?
7 Some people are allergic to the latex
3 What precautions might you take when
found in gloves. How could you tell if
using a substance labelled with the
someone is allergic to a substance and
exclamation mark hazard symbol?
what alternative safety precautions
might be taken?
Science toolkit 3
1.2 Dissection is an important
science skill
Dissection (Latin: to cut to pieces) is the process of cutting apart and
observing something to study it. Dissection requires the use of specialised
equipment and techniques.
Dissections techniques to make sure that the tissues aren’t

destroyed so that their structures (anatomy)
Scientists throughout history have used can be analysed accurately. Dissection also
dissections. Although it sounds gory, dissection relies on care being taken with very sharp
is an essential learning tool for scientists. instruments, such as scalpels.
Dissecting organs and organisms isn’t just
‘chopping them up’. It requires careful
Figure 1.13 Scissors Used for cutting Figure 1.14 Probe Used to look at and
skin and other tissue. Dissection scissors explore a specimen, and to probe openings.
often have rounded tips, which are less
destructive to the tissue being cut.
Figure 1.15 Scalpel Small and extremely Figure 1.16 Forceps or tweezers Hinged
sharp steel blade used for precision cutting. instrument used for grasping and holding
tissues.

Figure 1.17 Early surgical equipment.
Surgical instruments of Check your learning 1.2

the past Remember and understand
Early anatomists (scientists who do dissections) 1 How is dissection different to just
didn’t always have access to sterile (clean) and cutting something up?
sharp cutting instruments, such as scalpels and 2 Why is dissection a useful tool for
precision saws for dissections. Dissections were scientists?
performed with the same tools that surgeons
3 List three important safety rules
used in early operations.
that you must follow during a
dissection.
Hands-on dissection 4 Why might gloves not be essential
Some science skills are best learnt by doing! for all dissections?
Follow the steps in Skills Lab 1.2 to learn how 5 Name three tools that are used
to dissect a chicken wing. as part of a dissection. Include a
sketch of each tool.
Safety first 6 Why is it important to leave lab
coats and gloves on until after the
Dissection instruments and workspaces should
clean-up?
be cleaned while you are still wearing your
safety gear. Your lab coat and gloves should Apply and analyse
be on before you start your dissection and 7 Without dissection, do you think
they shouldn’t come off until the dissection is our knowledge of human anatomy
completely finished – this includes disposal and would be more or less advanced?
cleaning! The last things you should do are: Explain.
remove your gloves and throw them in the bin; 8 Draw your own surgical tool of the
wash your hands thoroughly; and take off your past. Write a description of this
lab coat and hang it up. tool and give it a name.
Science toolkit 5
1.2
SKILLS L AB
Materials
> Chicken wing
Dissecting a chicken wing
> Newspaper Here you will dissect a chicken wing, and step by step, you will practise the correct skills
> Dissection board and techniques of dissection to ensure you stay safe and sterile.
> Forceps After dissecting your specimen, draw a labelled diagram.
> Probe
> Scalpel
> Dissection
scissors
> Plastic bag for
disposal
Step 1 Make sure you are wearing Step 2 Set up your workspace, covering
appropriate safety gear: gloves, lab coat surfaces with newspaper that can be
and safety glasses. disposed of easily and collecting any
dissection tools you may need.
Step 3 Collect your specimen for Step 4 You may want to pin the specimen to
dissection. Identify all external structures. the dissection board to keep it from moving.

Step 5 Use probes to look inside any folds. Step 6 Use forceps to hold and pull tissue.
Step 7 Use scalpels to cut carefully away Step 8 Use scissors to cut when you can
from your hands. Run the scalpel gently see what’s under the structure you’re
over the tissue several times to cut through. cutting. Scissors with rounded ends are less
Do not dig the scalpel into the specimen or likely to cause unnecessary damage than
expect to cut through in one movement. those with pointed ends.
Step 9 Fingers are always the least Step 10 When finished, your specimen
damaging way to ‘look around’ your should be wrapped in newspaper for
specimen. disposal. Your instruments should be
rinsed, cleaned and disinfected, and your
hands should be washed thoroughly.
Science toolkit 7
1.3 Scientists design their own
experiments
As a scientist you will need to design your own experiments that can be
repeated by other scientists. This requires you to control all the variables in
the experiment. This is called fair testing.
Balloon rockets Each of these questions asked what would

happen if the independent variable were
Before continuing, complete Experiment increased or decreased. In a fair test only one
1.3A on the opposite page. variable should be changed at one time.
The impact of this change is measured at
Asking ‘What if?’ the end of the experiment. This is called the
A variable is something that can affect the dependent variable. In this experiment, the
results of an experiment. You can find out dependent variable is the distance the balloon
how a variable affects the results by asking rocket travels. All the other variables must
a ‘what if’ question. be kept the same. They are called controlled
> W hat if the balloon was blown up more? variables.
> What if the string had less friction? Now try changing the independent variable
> What if the string had more friction? in Experiment 1.3B.
> What if the straw was shorter?
What if the straw were shorter?

IF the straw were shorter THEN the balloon rocket would travel further.
Independent variable: the Dependent variable: the variable

variable that is deliberately that is tested at the end.
changed.
Figure 1.18 A hypothesis describes the expected relationship between the independent variable
and the dependent variable. A ‘what if’ question can be changed into a hypothesis by removing the
‘what’ at the start, and adding a ‘then’ at the end of the question.

Remember and understand 4 Were there any variables that you
1 What are the three types of variables could not control in your balloon
in an experiment? rocket experiment?
2 Why is it important for an experiment Apply and analyse
to be reproducible? 5 Most experimental methods are
3 How do you change a ‘what if’ question checked by other scientists. Can you
into a hypothesis? Use one of the ‘what suggest a reason for this?
if’ questions above that you did not
test, as an example.

1.3A
EXPERIMENT
Materials Making a balloon rocket

> 1 balloon
> A long piece of Method 6 Release the end of the balloon so that the
string straw slides along the string.
1 Tie one end of the string to a chair.
> Sticky tape 7 Measure how far the balloon rocket moved
2 Place the other end of the string through
> 1 plastic straw along the string.
the straw.
> 1 tape measure 8 Repeat this experiment twice more with
3 Tie the loose end of the string to a second
the same balloon blown up the same
support so that the string is pulled tight.
amount. You now have a reproducible test
4 Blow the balloon up and stick it to the for your balloon rocket.
straw. (Do not tie the end of the balloon.)
5 Measure the circumference of the balloon
with the measuring tape.
Figure 1.19 When the balloon rocket is released, the straw will slide along the string.
1.3B Changing the independent variable

EXPERIMENT Method Results
1 Choose one of the following questions to Record your results in a table. Include the
Aim investigate. units for all measurements.
To determine > What if the balloon was blown up more?
factors that affect > What if the string had less friction? Discussion
the distance a > What if the string had more friction? 1 Was your hypothesis supported? Use
balloon rocket will > What if the straw was shorter? evidence from your results to support
travel. your answer.
2 Now, follow these steps.
> Write a hypothesis for your enquiry. 2 Write a summary of your results.
> What independent variable will you
change from the first method?
> What dependent variable will you
measure and observe?
> What variables will you need to control
to ensure a fair test?
> How will you control them?
> Test your hypothesis. Repeat your test
at least three times to make sure your
results are reliable.
Science toolkit 9
1.4 Scientists keep a logbook
and write formal reports
A science logbook is used to record the details of the work done in a
science laboratory. It contains information that the scientist may otherwise
forget and provides evidence of the planning, changes and results of an
experiment.
Creating a logbook
There are some basic rules to creating and
using a logbook. Remember and understand
1 Use a bound notebook or an electronic 1 What is the purpose of a
laboratory logbook?
device that is backed up regularly. Loose
papers become lost, and electronic devices 2 Why should an electronic logbook
can fail. Ensure that the style of records you be backed up regularly?
use is reliable. 3 A student made a mistake and
2 Label your logbook with your name, phone ripped the page out of their
logbook. Why would this be the
number, email address, school and teacher’s
wrong thing to do?
name. Logbooks can become lost. Labelling
the logbook with your contact details (and 4 Why is it important to make sure
the writing in your logbook is
those of your school and teacher) ensures
legible?
that it will find its way back to you.
5 How is a logbook different to a
3 The second page of the logbook should
formal science report?
contain a table of contents. Each page
should be numbered to help you find the 6 Suggest one reason why it is
important to include the date of
relevant experiments.
the experiment in the logbook.
UNIT/SUBJECT EXPERIMENT PAGE NUMBER 7 Why should you reflect on each
TITLE experiment before starting the
next experiment?
4 Always date every entry.

EXPERIMENT 1.4: MARSHMALLOW SLINGSHOTS
GO TO PAGE 171.
1 February 2016
Aim and hypothesis of
Aim the experiment.
To determine the relationship between the distance elastic is pulled back
and the distance a marshmallow moves. The method used or
the page number of the
method. Record any
Method
changes to the method.
Refer to page 159 of Oxford Science 8. Please note: 1 cm wide elastic was
tied around the base of the chairs from Experiment 1.4.
Record any
measurements you made
Measurements to the maximum number
Distance marshmallow has moved of digits provided by the
equipment. (You can
Distance elastic pulled back Attempt 1 Attempt 2 Attempt 3 Average round them off later. If
1 cm 20 cm 3 mm 23.4 cm 19.9 cm 21.2 cm you don’t record them
then you cannot get them
2 cm
back later.)
3 cm
4 cm
Show all calculations
20.3 (even when adding
simple numbers).
23.4
+ 19.9
63.6 Include any ideas,
explanations, diagrams,
63.6 ÷ 3 = 21.2 cm
graphs, sketches or
mistakes that happened.
Observations Write everything
down even if it seems
The elastic came undone after the third attempt so we had to do it up again.
unimportant. You may
We tried to make it the same tightness as before. not remember it weeks
or even months later.
Conclusion
When the elastic was pulled back, more elastic gained more energy. This energy
Do not rewrite any
went into the marshmallow so that it could move further when released. We should entries. Try to keep it as
have tested with the elastic pulled back more different distances. neat as you can but it is
Next time the same person should do the pulling back. not a formal report. It
is more important that
you record your data
and observations. If you
make a mistake, put a
single line through it. Do
not white it out, as it may
Include a conclusion You may need to write up Glue or staple in any be useful again later.
or reflection for each a formal report for your photocopies to prevent
experiment to make sure experiment. If you have them falling out.
you understood why you completed your logbook
got the results you did. well, you will find all
the details of the report
easily available.
Science toolkit 11
1.5 Tables and graphs are used
to present scientific data
Graphs make the information (data) you gather in an experiment easier to
analyse. Graphs show what happened. Patterns in the data can be seen
and this enables you to predict what might happen if you continued the
experiment.
Common features in graphs When the line slopes upwards, this

means the dependent variable increases as the
There are four features all graphs have in independent variable increases. This is called a
common. directly proportional relationship.
1 A descriptive title of what the graph shows.
2 A grid that is used to plot the points
or data.
3 The independent variable on the
horizontal axis.
4 The dependent variable on the vertical axis.
Interpreting graphs
Line graphs are the most common graphs that
are drawn in scientific reports. These graphs
are used to show the relationship between
the independent variable and the dependent
variable. The shape of the graph gives a hint of
how the two variables are related. When the line is horizontal, it means
the dependent variable is not affected by the
Title
independent variable.
TEMPERATURE (°C) AND GERMINATION If the line is sloped down, then the
OF WATTLE SEEDS (DAYS) dependent variable decreases as the
Vertical axis
Grid independent variable increases. This is called
an inversely proportional relationship.
GERMINATION TIME (DAYS)
11
10
Figure 1.20 The 6
independent variable 5
(temperature) should
be on the horizontal 4
0 10 20 30 40 50
axis and the dependent
variable (germination TEMPERATURE (°C)
Scales Horizontal
time) should be on the axis
vertical axis. Variable and unit

A graph can also be used to extrapolate
results. This means you can continue the shape
of the graph to determine what would happen
if you continued the experiment.
150
DISTANCE MARSHMALLOW TRAVELS (CM)

140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
Occasionally a graph is curved. These 40
30 2.5cm
graphs can be considered in sections. In section 20
A (between 1 and 4), the dependent variable 10
0
increase as the independent variable increases. 1 2 3 4 5 6
In section B (between 4 and 7) the dependent DISTANCE ELASTIC IS STRETCHED (CM)
variable decreases as the independent variable
increases.
Remember and understand
1 What features should all graphs have in common?
2 What does ‘extrapolate results’ mean?
A
B 3 Describe the relationship between the independent variable
and dependent variable in the following graph.
PLANT GROWTH
10
9
HEIGHT OF PLANT (MM)
8
7
Dirt plant
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6
Jellies plant
5
Sometimes you may have recorded 4
the results for a set of whole numbers. An 3
example of this is pulling back the elastic and 2
marshmallow in the previous experiment 1 cm, 1
2 cm, 3 cm and 4 cm. If you draw an accurate 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
line graph of your data, then you may be able
DAY MEASURED
to use the graph to see what would happen if
you pulled back the marshmallow 2.5 cm. 4 Extrapolate the following graph to determine what would
happen if the water were heated for 8 minutes.
DISTANCE MARSHMALLOW TRAVELS (CM)
100
CHANGE IN WATER TEMPERATURE AS IT IS HEATED
90 100
80 90
70 80
TEMPERATURE (°C)
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
2.5cm
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4
TIME (MIN)
DISTANCE ELASTIC IS STRETCHED (CM)
Apply and analyse
5 Explain why graphs are often used in scientific reports.
Science toolkit 13
1
REVIEW
Remember and understand 8 How should you safely dispose of:

a newspaper used for dissections?
1 When are the following symbols or
objects used? b vegetable oil?
a c weak acid?
d strong acid?
Apply and analyse

9 What dissection tools do you have in the
science laboratory?
b 10 How can you make sure an experiment is a
fair test?
11 Why should you wash science equipment
thoroughly before putting it back?
12 What might happen if you put play dough
down the sink?
13 What is the difference between a logbook
c and a formal written report? When should
a formal written report be used?
Evaluate and create

14 Draw a graph from the data below that
show how much Enza has grown in her
first 8 years.
d
AGE (YEARS) HEIGHT (CM)
1 75
2 86
3 91
4 99
5 105
2 How should you dispose of hazardous
6 110
waste from dissections?
3 Define the following words: 7 117
a dissection 8 121
b anatomy
Extrapolate the results to predict how tall
c dependent variable Enza will be when she is 10 years old.
d hypothesis. 15 Answer the following questions about the
4 Describe the information that should be graph on the next page.
included in an experimental logbook. a What label should be on the x-axis?
5 Why is it important to include any b What label should be on the y-axis?
changes you make to an experimental
c Which year had the greatest number of
method in your logbook?
road deaths?
6 What are the four common features that
d How many road deaths were there
should be present on all graphs?
in 1965?
7 What is the difference between the
e Describe the trend in:
independent variable and the dependent
variable? i 1945–1965
ii 1975–1985
iii 1990–2010.

NUMBER OF ROAD DEATHS 1925 TO 2010
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
f What could have caused the trend from >> Testing sticky tape
1985 to the current day? Design an experiment to test
16 One of the first scientists to record their the strength of different types
dissections was Leonardo da Vinci. Create of sticky tape. What is your
a picture scrapbook of copies of some of independent variable? How will
Leonardo da Vinci’s best work on the study you measure your dependent
of the human body. variable? List all the variables
17 Scientists present formally written reports that could affect the results.
in scientific journals. Many of these reports How will you control these?
must be examined by other scientists What materials will you need?
before they will be accepted for publishing. Write out a method in a step-by-
Suggest a reason for this. step manner.
Ethical understanding >> Early anatomists

18 Dissections and research involving Research how early anatomists
animals have contributed significantly to such as the Egyptians or the
our understanding of the human body. In Greeks made their discoveries.
fact, it would probably be fair to say that What was the relationship
we couldn’t have come this far without between barbers (male
them. Critically evaluate the positives hairdressers) and surgeons?
and negatives involved in using animals Who were they allowed to
for medical research purposes. Discuss dissect legally according to
your points with a partner and share your King Henry VIII? How do current
thoughts with the class. Do you think surgeons learn anatomy?
animals should continue to be used for
medical research?
>> Laboratory chemicals
Research Many chemicals are banned
from use in school laboratories.
19 Choose one of the following topics for a Research one of these
research project. A few guiding questions chemicals. When was it banned?
have been provided for you, but you should Why is it considered dangerous
add more questions that you want to for use by students? Is it still
investigate. Present your research in a used in other workplaces? What
format of your own choosing, giving careful precautions need to be taken
consideration to the information you are by people who work with this
presenting. chemical?
Science toolkit 15
1
KEY WORDS
anatomy hazard
structure of an organism and its component something that has the potential to put your
parts; usually refers to human anatomy health and safety at risk
controlled variables hypothesis
variables that will remain unchanged a statement that describes the expected
through the experiment relationship between the independent
corrosive variable and the dependent variable
a substance that is destructive to living independent variable
tissues such as skin and eyes, or to some a variable (factor) that is changed in an
types of metals experiment
dependent variable inhale
variable that may change as a result of the to breathe in
experiment inversely proportional relationship
directly proportional relationship the dependent variable increases as the
the dependent variable increases as the independent variable decreases
independent variable increases variable
dissection something that can affect the results of an
the process of disassembling and studying experiment
the internal structures of plants, animals
and humans
fair testing
experiment where only the independent
variable is changed and all other variables
are kept constant

2
Rocks have different ROCKS AND
MINERALS
2.1 properties
2.2 Rocks are made up of minerals
2.3 Minerals are a valuable resource
Igneous rocks develop from

2.4 magma and lava
Sedimentary rocks
2.5 are compacted sediments
lor res
2.6 Metamorphic rocks What if?

require heat and pressure
Rocks
What you need:
selection of different rocks for
each group
What to do:
1 Divide into groups of four.
The rock cycle causes rocks 2 Examine each rock carefully.

2.7 to be re-formed
Identify the properties that the
rocks have in common and the
different features of each rock.
3 Group the rocks according to
their similarities. Give each
group a name that helps to
identify the rocks.
2.8 Weathering and erosion can 4 Record the names and the
be prevented properties of the rocks on a
piece of paper.
What if?
What if another group were
The location and extraction of
2.9
given your rocks? Could they use
minerals relies on scientists the properties you identified to
separate the rocks into the same
groups?

2.1 Rocks have different
properties
Rocks don’t all look and feel the same. Each rock has characteristics
that give clues to its identity, such as its colour or hardness. These
characteristics are referred to as properties. By making careful
observations of a rock’s properties, geologists (scientists who study rocks)
can tell where a rock came from and what has happened to it.
Identifying and selecting

rocks
We select rocks for particular purposes because of
their properties. For example, granite is selected
for kitchen benchtops because it is the hardest
building stone, it is not porous (it does not let
liquid through), it is not affected by temperature
and it is resistant to damage from chemicals.
You can identify rocks first by how they
look. Coal is black or dark brown. Pumice and
scoria are covered with holes. Conglomerates Figure 2.2 Layers in rocks can look very
are made up of individual stones cemented different. Some rocks have different-coloured
together. Granite is made up of large crystals of layers that line up like ribbons. Gneiss usually
the minerals quartz, mica and feldspar. has alternating layers of colours, often black
and white. Sandstone has layers of different-
Geologists also use a range of other
sized grains of sand. Wind or water distributes
properties to help identify rocks, such as the sand so that the rock ends up being different
colour, layering, weight and the presence of shades of the same colour.
crystals or grains (see Figures 2.1 to 2.5).
Table 2.1 lists some different types of rocks
and how they can be identified.
Figure 2.1 Weight

and density are less
if rocks contain large
gas holes that were Figure 2.3 Colour is a property that depends
produced when the rock on the chemicals in the rocks. For example,
was formed. In pumice, some red rocks contain a lot of iron, which has
the holes can be the size reacted with oxygen in the air (‘rusted’) to form
of a match tip or smaller. red iron oxide. Other red rocks don’t contain
In scoria, the holes are iron, so a rock cannot be identified solely by its
often the size of a pea. colour.

SKILLS LAB 2.1: IDENTIFYING ROCKS
GO TO PAGE 172.
BASALT COAL
Fine or mixed Fine grain, soft,
grain, dark colour dark colour
Figure 2.5 Grains are small pieces of CONGLOMERATE GNEISS

material. The size of the grain can be used to Mixed grain, Coarse grain,
Figure 2.4 Crystals are small pieces of
identify the type of rock. Large grains (larger hard or soft, crystals
organised particles that have smooth sides and
than a grain of rice) are said to be coarse. colour varies in layers
sharp edges. They are usually just one colour
Smaller grains that can still be seen with the
and often reflect light off their flat surfaces.
eye are medium grained. Fine grains cannot be
Crystals in a rock can be different sizes.
seen without a microscope.
GRANITE LIMESTONE
Table 2.1 Rock identification.
Coarse grain, Fine grain, soft,
ROCK GRAIN SIZE HARDNESS USUAL COLOUR DENSITY hard, light colour light colour
Basalt Fine or mixed – Dark 2.8–3

Coal Fine Soft Dark 1.3
Conglomerate Mixed Hard or soft – –
Gneiss Coarse Hard Alternating light and dark bands 2.6–2.3 MARBLE OBSIDIAN
Coarse grain, Fine grain, soft,
Granite Coarse Hard Light 2.6–2.7
soft, light colour dark colour
Limestone Fine Soft Light 2.3–2.7
Marble Coarse Soft Light 2.4–2.7
Obsidian Fine Soft Dark 2.6
Pumice Fine Soft Light 0.6 PUMICE QUARTZITE
Quartzite Coarse Hard Light 2.6–2.8 Fine grain, Coarse grain,
soft, light hard,
Rhyolite Fine Hard Light 2.4–2.6
colour light colour
Sandstone Coarse Hard Light 2.2–2.8
Schist Medium to coarse Medium Medium 2.5–2.9
Scoria Fine – Dark 0.9
Shale Fine Soft – 2.4–2.8 RHYOLITE SANDSTONE
Fine grain, often Coarse grain,
Slate Fine Soft Dark 2.7–2.8
larger crystals, hard,
light colour light colour

Remember and understand 3 Name two different uses for different
1 Use Table 2.1 and Figure 2.6 to name types of rocks. SCHIST SCORIA
these rocks. 4 Why must properties other than colour Medium to coarse Fine grain,
a I am light in colour with a fine be used to identify a rock? grain, layers, dark colour
splits easily
grain. I am considered soft. 5 What branch of science is the study of
b I am light in colour with holes in rocks?
the surface. Apply and analyse
c I am soft, shiny and dark in colour. I 6 Pumice has a density of 0.6. Water has SHALE SLATE
am often used for flooring. a density of 1. Would you expect the Fine grain, Fine grain, soft,
d I have mixed grains and my colour pumice stone to float or sink? Explain soft dark colour
can vary. your reasoning.
Figure 2.6 Some of the many
2 What properties are used to identify different types
different types of rocks? of rocks.
ROCKS AND MINERALS 19

2.2 Rocks are made up of
minerals
Rocks are made up of one or more minerals. A mineral is a naturally
occurring solid substance with its own chemical composition, structure
and properties. There are more than 4000 minerals known, but only
approximately 150 of these are common.
Properties of minerals Identifying minerals

Minerals are found as crystals. To identify minerals correctly, geologists
The structure of a crystal greatly carefully examine the properties of rocks.
influences a mineral’s properties. The colour of a mineral is a guide to
For example, diamond and identifying it, but it cannot be relied on for
graphite have the same correct identification. Colour is not a reliable
chemical composition – they property because many minerals are impure.
are both pure carbon. Graphite For example, pure quartz is colourless, but if
(which is the ‘lead’ in a pencil) it contains impurities it can be many colours,
is very soft, whereas diamond such as purple (amethyst), pink (rose quartz) or
is the hardest of all minerals. yellow (citrine). Even in one sample, the colour
This difference arises because may vary.
the carbon particles in a graphite Lustre is the shininess of the surface of the
crystal are arranged into sheets that mineral. Some types of lustre are:
can slide past each other, whereas the >> metallic – looks like a shiny new coin
carbon particles in a diamond crystal >> brilliant – very shiny, like a mirror
Figure 2.7 The individual form a strong, interlocking unit.
>> pearly – a bit shiny, like a pearl or fingernail
mineral crystals of the
rock olivine basalt can be
>> dull – not shiny at all
seen under a microscope. >> earthy – looks like a lump of dirt.
a
Figure 2.8 (a) The carbon atoms in the mineral Figure 2.9 The lustre of a mineral describes
graphite are arranged in sheets. (b) In a diamond, its shininess.
the carbon atoms are interlocked.

SKILLS LAB 2.2: TESTING THE HARDNESS OF COMMON SUBSTANCES
GO TO PAGE 172.
Streak is the colour of the powdered or along three cleavage planes: left and right, front
crushed mineral. This colour can be seen by and back, and top and bottom.
drawing with the mineral on a footpath. The Several minerals have unusual properties.
colour of the line that the mineral leaves behind Some minerals fluoresce in ultraviolet (UV)
is its streak. Often the colour of the streak is light: these minerals absorb UV light, which
different from the main colour of the mineral. we cannot see, and emit it as visible light,
Hardness is how easily a mineral can be which we can see. Calcite is a transparent
scratched. Some minerals are so soft that they mineral. When you look through it, you see a
can be scratched with a fingernail. Other double image.
minerals are so hard that they can scratch
glass. A hard mineral can scratch a soft mineral
and not get scratched itself. Austrian geologist
Friedrich Mohs (1773–1839) invented a scale to
describe the hardness of a mineral. Mohs gave
a hardness number to ten common minerals
(see Table 2.2): the softest mineral, talc, has a
hardness of 1; the hardest mineral, diamond,
has a hardness of 10. These minerals can be
used to find the hardness of any other mineral.
A mineral will scratch another mineral with Figure 2.10 Mica has
a lower hardness number but not one with a one cleavage plane – it
higher hardness number. A mineral will be breaks into thin sheets
scratched by another mineral with a higher of rock.
hardness number but not one with a lower
hardness number. So, copper (hardness 3.5)
will be scratched by fluorite (hardness 4), but
not by calcite (hardness 3). Copper will scratch
calcite. Fingernails have a hardness of 2.5; Figure 2.11 Calcite is a
iron nails and a glass microscope slides have a transparent mineral.
hardness of 6.5.
Table 2.2 The Mohs scale of mineral hardness.
Every mineral will scratch the minerals above it.
HARDNESS MINERAL
1 Define:
1 Talc
a hardness
2 Gypsum
b lustre
3 Calcite
c streak
4 Fluorite
d cleavage.
5 Apatite
2 What does it mean if a mineral has
6 Feldspar
a hardness of 1 on the Mohs scale?
7 Quartz
3 Name a mineral that has a Mohs
8 Topaz hardness of 10.
9 Corundum 4 How would you describe the lustre
10 Diamond of gold?
Apply and analyse
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral
to break into a number of smooth planes. 5 Obsidian has a hardness of 6 on
the Mohs scale and was prized by
Minerals that demonstrate cleavage look like
ancient peoples for its sharp edge.
thin slabs stuck together.
Describe what type of minerals
Mica breaks in one direction into flat layers, would damage the sharp edge of
like the pages in a pile of papers. Calcite breaks an obsidian blade.

2.3 Minerals are a valuable
resource
Minerals are an important source of metals and other materials. An ore is a
mineral with a large amount of a useful metal in it. Some minerals, such as
iron ore, have to be treated before they can be used. Some important ores
and the metals they contain are listed in Table 2.3.
Mineral resources hundreds of thousands of people migrated

to Australia to take part in the Gold Rush
Australia is rich in mineral resources. It is the in Victoria and New South Wales. During
world’s leading producer of lead, bauxite and this time, Australia’s economy boomed. Gold
alumina, diamonds (by volume), ilmenite, is chemically stable, so it is almost always
rutile and zircon (and synthetic rutile) and found as pure gold. This means that it can
tantalum. It is the second largest producer of be collected without having to be smelted or
uranium, zinc and nickel; the third largest refined. Gold is used in jewellery, in fine wires
producer of iron ore, lignite, silver, manganese in electronics, as fillings for teeth and, because
and gold; the fourth largest producer of black of its reflective properties, to protect satellites
coal and copper; and the fifth largest producer and spacecraft from solar radiation.
of aluminium. Worldwide demand for mineral
resources is high, particularly due to increased
demand from China as it becomes more and
Mineral sands
more industrialised. Australia is an old continent that is rich in
mineral sands. Mineral sands are old beach
Table 2.3 Important ores and the metals sands with significant concentrations of heavy
they contain.
minerals, such as rutile, zircon and ilmenite.
ORE METAL Rutile is a rich source of titanium dioxide,
Bauxite Aluminium which is used as a pigment in paints, plastics
Cassiterite Tin and paper. You may have seen glass jars of
mineral sands that are often sold as souvenirs.
Chalcopyrite Copper
Cinnabar Mercury
Copper
Galena Lead
Copper was the first metal to be used by
Haematite, limonite Iron
humans. In Australia, copper is found as the
Malachite, azurite Copper
mineral chalcopyrite in rocks that are over 250
Molybdenite Molybdenum million years old. Copper is a good conductor
Pentlandite Nickel of electricity and is used in electrical generators
Pitchblende Uranium and motors, for electrical wiring and in
Rutile Titanium electronic goods, such as televisions. Copper
is also used for water pipes because it does not
Sphalerite Zinc
corrode easily.
Gold Recycling minerals

Figure 2.12 Coloured Australia’s mineral resources have always been Earth’s mineral resources are finite – they are
sands indicate the in big demand. During the 1850s, after gold not renewed. However, they can be recycled.
concentrations and types
was discovered in Bathurst, New South Wales, For example, aluminium can be recycled
of minerals they contain.

EXPERIMENT 2.3: TESTING THE MINERALS IN TOOTHPASTE
GO TO PAGE 173.
over and over again. A lot of energy is used to

produce aluminium from bauxite, but once MINERALS IN
the metal has been refined it can be recycled TOOTHPASTE
indefinitely. Recycling aluminium uses only
Toothpaste contains a variety of
5 per cent of the energy needed to produce the
minerals that perform different roles
same quantity of aluminium from bauxite. So when cleaning your teeth. Fluorite
recycling aluminium saves us from having to (calcium fluoride), found in granite and
use coal to produce energy in power stations, limestone, makes teeth more resistant
which reduces the emission of greenhouse gases to decay. Mica reflects light and is used
into our atmosphere. in toothpaste, paints, roofing and rubber
products to make them sparkle. Silica,
Mobile phones and minerals mined from sand, makes the toothpaste
thicker and sodium carbonate is used as
Many electronic devices such as mobile phones a whitening agent.
use the minerals niobium and tantalum.
These minerals are found in the ore coltan,
which is mined in the Congo River Basin in
Africa. Unfortunately, this forest region is
also home to endangered gorillas and mining
is threatening their habitat. Recycling the
minerals in old mobile phones helps to reduce Figure 2.14 Toothpaste contains minerals
that help to clean your teeth.
the impact of mining on the ecosystem in
this region.
60 000
GLOBAL MINED COPPER DEMAND (KILOTONNES)
54 000
48 000
Global demand
42 000
36 000
30 000
24 000
18 000
12 000
6000
0
2012 2017 2022 2027 2032 2037 2042 2047 2052 2057 2062 2067 2072 2077
YEAR
Figure 2.13 The minerals in mobile phones can Figure 2.15 Global demand for mined copper is
be recycled. projected to continue to increase.

Remember and understand Apply and analyse
1 What is a mineral? 5 Use the graph in Figure 2.15 to
2 What is an ore? describe how the global mined
copper demand is expected to
3 Name two uses of copper.
change after 2042. Suggest a
4 What are five of Australia’s most reason for this change in demand.
important minerals?

2.4 Igneous rocks develop
from magma and lava
Rocks are broadly classified according to how they are formed. The three
main types of rocks – igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic – form in
different ways. Deep under the Earth's surface the rocks are heated to
more than 1200°C to form magma. Igneous rocks form when the magma
and lava from volcanic eruptions cool and solidify.
Magma and lava

The term ‘igneous’ comes from the Latin
word ignis, which means ‘fire’. The hot, molten
rock inside the Earth is called magma and its
temperature can be more than 1200°C. The
magma chamber under a volcano is the source
of molten rock for the volcano (Figure 2.16).
In a volcanic eruption, the red-hot magma
rushes out onto the surface of the Earth as
lava. The cooler conditions at the Earth’s
surface help to solidify the lava quickly.
Igneous rocks also form from magma under
the ground. These igneous rocks look quite
different from those formed on the Earth’s
surface because they cool much more slowly.
Extrusive igneous rock
Slow uplift to surface Figure 2.17 Granite is an intrusive igneous rock.
Intrusive igneous rocks

Intrusive igneous rocks form slowly beneath
the surface of the Earth when magma becomes
trapped in small pockets. These pockets of
Intrusive magma cool slowly underground (sometimes
igneous rock for millions of years) to form igneous rocks.
The longer it takes for lava to cool, the bigger
Melting the rock crystals that grow. Intrusive igneous
Metamorphic rock rocks have large crystals locked together.
Granite is an intrusive igneous rock in which
the crystals can be seen with the naked eye.
Although formed underground, intrusive
Magma
igneous rocks reach the Earth’s surface when
they are either pushed up by forces in the
Figure 2.16 Igneous rocks are formed from volcanic magma. Earth’s crust or uncovered by erosion.

EXPERIMENT 2.4: WHAT AFFECTS CRYSTAL SIZE?
GO TO PAGE 174.
Extrusive igneous rocks a

Lava cools much more quickly on the surface
of the Earth. This causes it to form extrusive
igneous rock. Because the lava is cooling
more quickly than the magma underground,
the crystals are smaller. Sometimes, the lava
cools so quickly that no crystals are formed.
For example, pumice has no crystal structure.
Pumice forms when hot, gas-filled lava cools b
very quickly. The many tiny holes in pumice
are formed by volcanic gases escaping from the
cooling lava (see Figure 2.18). It has so many
holes that it is extremely light and can float on
water. Pumice stones are used to scour hard
skin from feet, and powdered pumice is found
in some abrasive cleaning products.
c
Figure 2.19 Basalt comes in different forms: (a)

bluestone, (b) scoria and (c) obsidian.
Obsidian is a smooth, black rock that looks

Figure 2.18 Pumice contains many holes, which
make it light enough to float on water.
like glass. It is formed when lava cools almost
instantly and forms no crystals. Obsidian is
used to make blades for surgery scalpels; the
The different forms of basalt
resulting blades are much sharper than those
made from steel.
Magma can solidify into many different
igneous rocks, which can vary in appearance.
This is because of how igneous rocks form and Check your learning 2.4
what they are made of.
Basalt is the most common type of rock in
1 What does the term ‘igneous’
the Earth’s crust. Most of the crystals in basalt mean?
are microscopic or non-existent because the
2 How do igneous rocks form?
lava cools so quickly that large crystals do
not form. 3 What type of rock is produced by
magma that cools deep below the
We commonly think of basalt as the
Earth’s crust?
building product bluestone. However, basalt
can look different depending on the type of 4 Name an igneous rock that would
float on water.
volcanic eruption that produced it and how
quickly it cooled. Scoria is a type of basalt that Apply and analyse
is full of bubble holes. The lava was filled with 5 The ancient civilisations that
gases when it began to cool and the holes in discovered obsidian had a
the scoria are where the gas bubbles once were. competitive advantage over those
Scoria is a light rock that is often used for who didn’t. Explain why.
garden paths and as fill in drainage trenches.

2.5 Sedimentary rocks are
compacted sediments
Sedimentary rocks are formed when loose particles are pressed together
(compacted) by the weight of the overlying sediments. Sediments are rock
particles such as mud, sand or pebbles, which are usually washed into
rivers and eventually deposited on the riverbed or in the sea. Sediments can
also come from the remains of living things, such as plants and animals.
Sediment The names of some sedimentary rocks

are clues to the sediments that formed
Over thousands or even millions of years,
them – sandstone, mudstone, siltstone and
sediments form thick layers on the riverbed or
conglomerate are all types of sedimentary
sea floor. Pressure from the overlying sediments
rock. Sandstone is made up of sand deposited
and water forces out air and any gaps in the
in environments such as deserts and beaches.
bottom layer. Over time, the compacted
Conglomerate is a mixture of all sizes of rocks
sediments become sedimentary rocks.
that have become cemented together.
Sediments are deposited in layers called beds.
The grains of sediment in lower layers begin

being forced together. Figure 2.22 Sandstone is a popular building
material. This ancient temple of Abu Simbel in
Egypt was carved directly into the sandstone rock.
Chemicals that are dissolved in the water

can soak into the sediments.
Figure 2.20 Shale (or
mudstone) is the most
common sedimentary
rock. Shale is a fine-
grained sedimentary
rock made up of clay
minerals or mud. This The chemicals help cement the grains
specimen clearly shows together once the water has evaporated. Figure 2.23 Conglomerate rocks have grains of
the layers of sediments different sizes. The sediments for these rocks were
that were compacted to Figure 2.21 Sedimentary rocks form over long deposited in fast-flowing rivers during flooding or
form this rock. periods of time. by glaciers.

EXPERIMENT 2.5: MAKING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
GO TO PAGE 175.
Biological rocks
Sedimentary rocks are not always formed
from the sediments of minerals or other rocks.
The remains of living things also break down
and are deposited as sediments. Shells and
hard parts of sea organisms break down and
are deposited in layers on the ocean floor.
Eventually, they become cemented together
under pressure to form limestone.
The compaction of dead plant material
can also help to form sedimentary rocks. For
example, coal is formed from dead plants
that were buried before they had completely
decayed. Compression forces from the layers
above can change the plant material into coal
or oil.
Figure 2.24 Coal is formed from dead plant material.
Chemical rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks form when water
evaporates, leaving behind a solid substance.
When seabeds or salt lakes, such as Lake
Eyre in South Australia, dry up, they leave a
solid layer of salt behind. If the layer of salt
is compressed under the pressure of other
sediments, it may eventually form rock salt.
Limestone caves
When groundwater passes over limestone,
it can dissolve calcium carbonate from the
limestone. When the water evaporates, it leaves
behind the calcium carbonate. Various rock
formations in caves are formed by this method.
The amazing long strands of rock found
on cave floors and ceilings are composed of
calcium carbonate from the limestone ceiling Figure 2.25 Stalagmites and stalactites form in limestone caves.
of the cave. A stalagmite grows from the floor
towards the ceiling (they ‘might’ reach the
ceiling one day) and a stalactite grows down Check your learning 2.5
from the ceiling (they hold on ‘tight’). If these
formations meet in the middle, then they form Remember and understand
a column. 1 How do sedimentary rocks form?
Stalagmites and stalactites form when 2 How do stalactites and
limestone rocks are dissolved by acids in stalagmites form?
water. The acid and dissolved limestone form 3 How do chemical sedimentary
a solution that drips through the ceiling of the rocks form?
cave and is deposited on the stalagmites and Apply and analyse
stalactites, gradually increasing their width 4 A student claims that sandstone is
and length. It is important that visitors to made up of sand. Do you agree or
limestone caves do not touch the stalactites disagree? Explain.
and stalagmites because they are generally 5 What do plants have to do with
still forming. Oil from skin can interfere with coal?
stalagmite and stalactite formation.

2.6 Metamorphic rocks
require heat and pressure
Metamorphic rocks are formed when other types of rocks are changed by
incredible heat and pressure inside the Earth. When igneous, sedimentary
or even metamorphic rocks are heated to extreme temperatures by magma,
or when they are placed under extreme pressure from the layers of rocks
above them, they can change into different types of rock.
Change in appearance Recrystallisation occurs when the crystals are

squeezed together so tightly that they partially
The combination of high melt and form fewer, but larger, crystals. For
temperatures and pressures causes example, when granite is squeezed under high
differences in the appearances pressure, the crystals change and the rock
of the metamorphic rock. gneiss is formed (see Figure 2.27).
(Metamorphism means ‘change
Metamorphic rocks are stronger than the
in form’.) As you go deep
original material because the particles have
underground, the temperature
been fused together under great pressure
gradually increases. Miners
or heat.
in the West Wits minefield in
South Africa, who work up to
a
3.9 kilometres below ground,
report temperatures as high as 60°C.
Temperatures can get much higher
anywhere magma intrudes.
Figure 2.26 Foliation The pressure of the earth above the rock
occurs when rock is also contributes to the different appearance of
subjected to uneven
metamorphic rocks. Bands can occasionally be
pressure.
seen in metamorphic rocks formed under high
pressure. Sometimes the pressure is uneven,
causing the rock crystals to twist. This is called
foliation. b
Change in the minerals

Metamorphic rocks also change chemically.
Some metamorphic minerals (sillimanite,
kyanite and garnet) only form at high
temperatures and pressures. They are called
index minerals because they can tell us the
history of what happened to the minerals – the
temperature and pressure they were exposed
to. Other minerals, such as quartz, can Figure 2.27 When granite (a) an igneous rock,
is subjected to high heat or pressure, it can change
withstand the high temperatures and pressures into the metamorphic rock known as gneiss (b).
and can sometimes be found in metamorphic The bands on gneiss show that the crystals have
rocks. The heat and temperature can cause been squeezed together under immense pressure.
some crystals to change their size and shape.

EXPERIMENT 2.6: MAKING A METAMORPHIC ROCK
GO TO PAGE 176.
Figure 2.28 Slate cleaves

easily into flat sheets
because of its flat,
parallel crystal structure.
This makes it a useful
material for floor and roof
tiles and as the base for
billiard tables.
Figure 2.29 The Taj

Mahal in India is
made of marble, the
metamorphosed form of
limestone. With its dense
composition and beautiful
patterns, marble is also
a popular material for
sculptures and kitchen
benchtops.

Remember and understand 4 Describe a foliated rock.
1 How do metamorphic rocks form? Apply and analyse
2 Where do metamorphic rocks form? 5 Which type of rock is stronger:
3 A student claimed that a rock had sandstone or marble? Explain your
to be igneous because it had quartz reasoning.
crystals. Are they correct? Explain.

2.7 The rock cycle causes
rocks to be re-formed
The rock cycle is an ongoing process that describes the formation and
destruction of the different rock types. Weathering is the breaking down
of rocks and minerals through the movement of water and animals, and
the extremes of temperature. Erosion is the movement of the sediment to
another area.
Physical weathering a
Mechanical, or physical, weathering occurs when
a physical force is applied to a rock. It includes
the breakdown of rocks by non-living things.
In desert areas, the days are very hot and
the nights are freezing cold. This daily heating
and cooling affects only the outside of the rock.
This is because rocks do not conduct heat very
well. Sometimes the outside of the rock can
peel off, just like an onion skin. This process is
called onion-skin weathering and the round
rocks produced in this way are called tors. b
When water freezes at night, it expands
and takes up more space. When water freezes
in the crack of a rock, it expands and pushes
hard against the rock around it. This can make
the crack larger. When the ice melts during the
warmer day, water fills the crack again. The next
night, ice forms again and makes the
crack even larger. This process
is repeated many times
Weathering until part of the rock is
Uplift
Igneous rock split off. This process
c
is called frost
shattering.
Magma Sedimentation
Metamorphic rock
Sedimentary rock Figure 2.31 Physical weathering can include (a)

onion-skin weathering, (b) wearing away by water
Figure 2.30 The rock cycle. (abrasion) and (c) frost shattering.

SKILLS LAB 2.7: MODELLING THE ROCK CYCLE
GO TO PAGE 177.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering changes the minerals in
rocks. Carbon dioxide in the air mixes with
the water to form a weak acid rain (a much
weaker acid than vinegar). When the acid rain
falls on rocks such as limestone, a chemical
reaction changes the minerals in the rock and the
minerals are washed way (eroded). You can see
evidence of this type of weathering in old statues.
Figure 2.32 Chemical weathering can be

caused by acid rain.
Biological weathering
Biological weathering can start with a seed
falling into a crack in the rock. Soil and water
in the rock encourages the seed to grow. As the
roots grow, they push on the cracks in the rock,
eventually causing the rock to break.
Over time, the large rocks are broken down
into smaller rocks, which are broken down Figure 2.33 Biological weathering can be caused by plant roots.
into sediment. The sediment is carried by wind
and water to an area where it accumulates.
Gradually, the sediment becomes buried under
many layers, re-forming as sedimentary rock. Check your learning 2.7
Heat and pressure 1 Describe the different stages in
As more layers form on top of the sedimentary the rock cycle. Use the rock cycle
diagram in Figure 2.30 to assist you.
rock, it is put under pressure. Over time the
layers sink deeper to where the temperatures start Apply and analyse
increasing. Increased temperature and pressure 2 Write a creative story of the ‘life
causes physical and chemical changes in the of a rock’. Rocks change with
rock, transforming it into metamorphic rock. If time, as do humans. However,
the temperature continues to rise, the rock will unlike humans, rocks are never
melt, turning it into its liquid form, magma. truly ‘born’, nor do they ‘die’ –
Magma is also put under great pressure, they can move through the rock
cycle, covering the same stage
causing it to seek any available space.
many times in many different
Gradually it makes its way to the surface
ways. What life does your rock
where it can cool as igneous rock. Over time experience?
it is exposed to wind and water. The cycle
continues.

2.8 Weathering and erosion
can be prevented
Humans are very good at changing their environment to suit their needs.
However, this has changed the rate of rock weathering and erosion.
This has resulted in flooding and poor food production. Soil erosion
engineers are helping to solve this problem.
Preventing erosion
The population of Australia has been steadily
increasing for many years and as a result we
have needed to build more houses and grow
more food. Building houses means building
roads and footpaths around the houses.
Instead of trees and grasses lining a riverbank,
footpaths and roads can be built right up to the
edge of the water flow.
The roots of plants interlace the soil, helping
it resist the movement of wind and rain. If
plants are removed, then the topsoil will erode.
Figure 2.34 Footpaths, Rain falling on concrete paths and roads is
roads and roofs affect not absorbed into the soil. Instead, it flows off
how water moves around the road and carries away further soil layers.
the land. This can slowly remove the support beneath
the built structures, causing them to collapse.
The loose soil and rocks can trigger damaging
mudslides. Engineers are responsible for
developing ways to solve this problem.
Figure 2.35 Australia’s
population has increased
dramatically since the
beginning of the 20th
century.
25
20
MILLIONS OF PEOPLE
15
10
Figure 2.36 Soil erosion can lead to

0 many problems.
1901
1906
1911
1916
1921
1926
1931
1936
1941
1946
1951
1956
1961
1966
1971
1976
1981
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
2011
2014
YEAR

CHALLENGE 2.8: PREVENTING SOIL EROSION
GO TO PAGE 178.
Engineering solutions
Figure 2.37 Engineers try to Figure 2.38 Groynes are built on Figure 2.39 Terraces may be built to
minimise erosion by controlling the beaches to remove some of the energy allow water to follow a set path that is
flow of water with dams and levees. of the waves. They protrude from the protected from erosion by man-made
beach and trap the sand, preventing structures such as drains, or by plants.
its erosion. This reduces the force of the water,
making it less likely to cause damage.
Figure 2.41 Temperature erosion Figure 2.42 Regular cleaning

causes materials such as concrete to prevents the build-up of moss and
crack. Footpaths have grooves in them pollution that might contribute to
to allow for their expansion during biological or chemical erosion.
hot weather.

1 What is the difference between 4 How could an engineer prevent
Figure 2.40 New products have weathering and erosion? erosion of soil by water?
been developed that allow water to 2 Name two ways erosion can 5 Find an area near your
move through instead of contributing affect food production. school that has been affected
to run-off. This allows the water to by erosion. Suggest a way
be absorbed into the soil and join the 3 What does a soil engineer do?
that you could prevent
groundwater.
further erosion.

A H U M A N E N D E A V O U R //
2.9 The location and

extraction of minerals
relies on scientists
Geologists are scientists that study the rocks and particles Geological mapping
that make up the Earth and the rocks that were formed. Geological maps show all the rocks and
As part of this study they produce and use geological minerals in an area. These maps are a
representation of the types of rock found under
maps using geophysical methods such as seismic testing,
the surface of the earth. Different colours or
magnetometer testing, electromagnetic testing and symbols are used to indicate the types of rocks
gravimetric testing. Geochemistry involves the use of found at each location.
chemistry principles to identify the location and type of These maps can be used to locate ground water,
identify possible contamination risks, predict
minerals in the earth. earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, identify
energy and mineral resources and the costs of
mining them.
They can be constructed in different
U D ways. Most are a result of geophysical and
Water-bearing
sandstone geochemical testing.
Geophysical testing
Shale
Geophysical testing involves the testing of
the physical properties of the earth and the
atmosphere. This may include oceanography
Granite (the study of the ocean), seismology (the study
of earthquakes), volcanology (the study of
volcanoes) and geomagnetism (the study of the
Sand and Earth’s magnetic field).
gravel
Petroleum- Seismic geophysical testing involves
bearing sending vibrations into the earth. The
sandstone vibrations move differently in different types
U D Limestone
of rock. The vibrations often bounce off the
different layers of rock and travel back to the
surface. Special microphones called geophones
are spread across the surface of the earth. These
geophones record the returning vibrations and
Earth’s surface a computer uses the data to construct a 3D
map.
Figure 2.43 Geological maps allow geologists to

determine the location of mineral resources that
could be extracted.
below Earth’s surface
or U Earthquake faults Landslides

D
Land subsidence Radon

CHALLENGE 2.9: COPPER TREASURE HUNT
GO TO PAGE 179.
Oceanography boats will often carryout

geophysical surveys to locate
geological structures on the ocean
floor.
The presence of some metals
beneath the Earth’s surface can
cause small changes in the Earth’s
magnetic field. These small
changes can be picked up by
magnetometers.
Electromagnetic pulses can
be sent into the soil to detect
different types of minerals. Some
rocks contain minerals that do not
conduct electricity, whereas others
are affected by the electromagnetic
signal. This change is detected by
specialised meters carried by the
geophysicist. Figure 2.44 Seismic
refraction method
Figure 2.45 Oceanography boat

Mag
Amplifier and Readout

batteries Digital recorder
netic
line
Sensors
s of
forc
e
Metal deposit
Figure 2.46 Person walking across the Earth’s

surface with a magnetometer

(a)
The gravity of the Earth is not constant.
g gravity profile across a sedimentary basin Small changes are caused by the density of the
B
rock under you. The gravity above a dense rock
base at sea level will be slightly higher than a
sedimentary rocks less dense rock base at sea level. You would not
be able to pick up these variations in gravity,
basement
however they can be detected by a gravimeter.
For large scale surveys, helicopters carrying
(b) gravimeters fly in grid patterns across the
g gravity profile across a granite batholith
B surface of the earth.
Geochemical testing
basic igneous granite basic igneous Geochemical analysis is used to determine
country rock country rock what chemicals/minerals are in the rocks. It
can be used to detect the presence of petroleum
(c) products, metals and commercially valuable
g gravity profile across a metalliferous ore body minerals. It can be a bit like a treasure hunt.
B
Small samples of sediment or rocks are
collected at a number of different sites and
are taken back to a laboratory for chemical
country rock ore body country rock tests. Some samples might show a higher than
normal level of a mineral such as copper. The
Figure 2.47 Granite and sedimentary rocks have lower gravitational fields than geochemist will then go back to the site where
metal ores. those samples were located, and do further
tests to locate the source of the copper.
Figure 2.48 Helicopter with a front-end gravimeter.

Extracting the minerals sub-surface mining – where tunnels or shafts
are used to reach the mineral deposits – may be
Extracting the minerals can be very expensive. used. Geologists will often prepare reports on
If the mineral is close to the surface, open the costs of mining the mineral. This will then
mining may be used. This involves removing be compared to the amount of money expected
the surface of the soil, so that the mineral can to be made from selling the mineral. If the cost
be easily extracted and taken for processing. If of mining is less than the expected value of the
the mineral is deep under the Earth’s surface, mineral, the extraction will begin.
Extend your understanding 2.9

1 What is the difference between geophysical and 3 How would geologists perform these tests over
geochemical testing? large areas?
2 Describe how the following geophysical tests detect 4 Examine the map of mineral resources currently
types of rocks or minerals being mined in Victoria. What mineral is being
a seismic mined in your area? What is the mineral used for?
b electromagnetic
c gravimetric
d magnetometric
KEY
Antimony Gypsum
Barite Heavy mineral sand
• Mildura Coal Iron
Copper, Lead, Zinc, Silver Manganese
Diatomite Molybdenum, Tungsten, Bismuth
Feldspar Phosphate
Fluorite Platinum group metals
Gold Tin
•
Swan Hill
Wodonga
•
Wangaratta
Shepparton • •
• Benalla
Bendigo
• Horsham •
Ballarat • MELBOURNE
• Hamilton • • Bairnsdale
Geelong • • Traralgon
• • Warnambool N
Portland
0 50 100 150 200 km

2
REVIEW
Remember and understand Evaluate and create

1 Copy and complete the following 14 If you were a palaeontologist searching
sentences. for fossils, which types of rocks would you
a An is a mineral with a large look for? Explain.
amount of useful metal in it. 15 A kitchen scourer can be used to clean
b rocks are formed when stainless steel cutlery, but this type of
loose particles are pressed together scourer should not be used to clean
by the weight of overlying sediments. silver-plated cutlery. Explain why.
c rocks are formed when 16 Explain a way to remember which way
other types of rocks are changed by stalactites and stalagmites grow.
heat and pressure inside the Earth. 17 Why should we recycle minerals? What
d rocks form when magma minerals can be recycled? What forms
and lava from volcanic eruptions cool can they be used in once they have
and solidify. been recycled?
2 Define: 18 Some famous works of art are made of
marble. What properties of marble make
a lustre
it ideal for sculpture? What are some
b streak properties of marble that may not make it
c hardness. appropriate for all works
3 What is the difference between magma of art?
and lava?
4 How do geologists identify minerals? Critical and creative thinking
5 Why is colour not a reliable guide for 19 Some people say that Australia is a
identifying minerals? huge quarry. This is because Australia
6 What properties of gold made it valuable mines so many minerals and sells them.
to early civilisations, such as the Incas of Working on your own, list the advantages
South America? and disadvantages of mining and selling
7 How would you tell the difference between minerals. Join with a classmate and
intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks? combine your lists. Then join with another
group and prepare another list containing
8 Cave systems in limestone rock follow
the three best reasons for mining and the
the course of underground rivers. Why is
three best reasons against mining.
water necessary to form caves?
20 Look at Figure 2.49, which shows the
9 Explain why only simple fossils are found
Twelve Apostles. Use this image to
in the oldest types of rocks, whereas
describe how these rocks were formed.
younger rocks have fossils of mammals.
Prepare a poster to show how the rocks
10 Design a flow chart of how fossils were formed and would have changed
are formed. over time. How will they look in 1000
years’ time?
Apply and analyse 21 Imagine you are a geologist who is going
to discover minerals in a remote part of
11 Why do sedimentary rocks form at the
Australia. You will need to take a test kit
Earth’s surface?
to help you identify the minerals you find.
12 Why does pumice have no crystal What items should go into your kit to allow
structure even though it is a rock? you to test for streak, hardness and so on?
13 Explain the difference between
weathering and erosion.

Figure 2.49 The Twelve Apostles, located off the coast of Victoria.
Research
22 Choose one of the following topics for a research project. Some questions have
been included to help you begin your research. Present your report in a format of
your own choosing.
>> Formation of oil

Oil is formed from the compression of dead marine-plant material in mud over
millions of years. Oil is made up of hydrocarbons, which are lighter than rock and
water, so it often migrates up through porous rock towards the Earth’s surface.
• What is an oil reservoir? • How is an oil field formed?
• What conditions are needed for • In what other forms is oil found?
an oil reservoir to form?
>> Gemstones
• Which gemstones are found in Australia?
• Which gemstones are dug up by recreational fossickers?
• What do the gemstones look like?
>> Extraction of metals

Metals are extracted from ore using a variety of methods. Some are heated,
some are purified using electrical energy, and some are extracted using chemical
processes. Why are different metals extracted using different chemical or
electrical processes? Find out how some metals are extracted, such as copper
and aluminium, and design a poster that shows the process of extraction.

2
KEY WORDS
cleavage lustre
number of smooth planes a mineral shininess
breaks along magma
colour hot, molten rock inside the Earth
property of rocks and minerals used to magnetometer
identify them a device the detects the difference in
crystal magnetic field between one location and
small, organised particle in rocks, which the next
has smooth sides and sharp edges metamorphic rock
electromagnetic rock formed from other rock that has
the physical interaction between moving experienced intense heat and pressure
charged particles and the magnetic field mineral
that is created as a result naturally occurring solid substance with its
erosion own chemical composition, structure and
movement of sediment to another area properties
extrusive igneous rock onion-skin weathering
rock formed at the Earth’s surface by weathering of rock where the outside of the
quickly cooling lava rock peels off
foliation ore
occurs when rock is subjected to uneven mineral containing a large amount of
pressure useful metal
frost shattering palaeontologist
process of weathering in which repeated scientist who studies fossils
freezing and melting of water expands property
cracks in rocks so that eventually part of characteristic
the rock splits off
rock cycle
geologist process of formation and destruction of
scientist who studies rocks different rock types
grain sedimentary rock
small rock particle; grain size can be used rock formed from compacted mud, sand or
to identify rock type pebbles, or the remains of living things
gravimeter seismic geophysical testing
a device that measured the difference in collection of geophysical data such as
gravity between one location and the next differences in magnetic fields and gravity
hardness fields between different geological
how easily a mineral can be scratched; locations
measured on the Mohs hardness scale streak
igneous rock colour of powdered or crushed mineral
rock formed by cooling magma and lava tor
index mineral round rocks produced by onion-skin
a mineral that only forms under a weathering
particular temperature and pressure; used weathering
to determine the history of the mineral breakdown of rocks and minerals by
intrusive igneous rock movement of water and animals, and
rock formed underground by slowly cooling extremes of temperature
magma weight
layer property of rocks used to identify them
property of rocks used to identify them
lava
hot, molten rock that comes to the surface
of the Earth in a volcanic eruption

3
3.1 Energy can be transferred
ENERGY
3.2 Potential energy is stored energy
3.3 Moving objects have kinetic energy
3.4 Energy can be transformed
3.5 Energy cannot be created or destroyed

What if?
Rolling cars
Energy efficiency can What you need:

3.6 reduce energy consumption ramp, permanent marker, large toy
car, tape measure, weights, Blu Tack
What to do:
1 Set the ramp up on the floor so it
is at an angle.
Engineers use their understanding 2 Draw a starting line at the top of
3.7 of energy to solve problems the ramp.
3 Place the large toy car on the
starting line. Release the car.
4 Measure how far the car rolls
from the bottom of the ramp.
What if?
Solar cells transform the Sun’s » What if weight were added to the
3.8 light energy into electrical energy car? Would it roll further?
» What if the ramp were placed at
a different angle?
» What if the ramp were longer?

3.1 Energy can be transferred
All objects have energy. Energy is the ability to do work. It is how things
change and move. It cannot be created or destroyed. Moving objects,
stretched objects and objects high off the ground all have energy.
When energy is passed from one object to another, it is said to
be transferred.
Where does energy (see Figure 3.2) where an arrow shows the
direction of energy flow.
come from? The plant uses the energy to grow.
We have all felt the energy of the Eventually animals (including us) eat the
Sun on a hot day. It can warm plants and the energy is transferred again
our skin and even cause sunburn. (see Figure 3.3).
Plants are very efficient at absorbing We use the energy for moving, including
the energy of the Sun. The energy is walking. This also produces heat that then
transferred from the Sun to the plant. warms up the air around us (see Figure 3.4).
This can be shown using a flow diagram
Figure 3.1 We use

energy to walk and
carry things.
Sun Plant Sun Plant Us

Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3
Sun Plant Us Air
Figure 3.4
Battery Wires Motor Wheels
Figure 3.5

SKILLS LAB 3.1: DRAWING FLOW DIAGRAMS OF ENERGY TRANSFER
GO TO PAGE 180.
Wires Motor Wheels
Figure 3.6
Diesel Motor Wheels

Figure 3.7
Where does energy go?

Electric cars are being designed to use the
energy stored in batteries, rather than petrol,
to power an electric motor that makes the
wheels turn. This can be shown using a flow
diagram (see Figure 3.5).
Public transport uses energy too. Trams
and metropolitan trains transfer the electrical
energy from the overhead wires into the motor
that makes the wheels move (see Figure 3.6).
Trains that travel to country areas or
interstate usually run on diesel fuel and don’t
need overhead electrical wires. The engines in
these trains burn diesel fuel, transferring the
energy into wheel movement via the motors
(see Figure 3.7). Ships and planes use a similar Figure 3.9 Powerlines
provide electrical
process in their engines.
energy for public
transport.
Figure 3.10 Aircraft use

higher quality fuels
than road transport
vehicles to minimise
Figure 3.8 Hybrid cars use both a petrol engine and an electric motor to send power to the wheels. weight and waste.
Energy 43
Figure 3.11 Powerlines aren’t practical in rural areas, so diesel fuel is used.
Energy transfers for do televisions, CD systems, radios and many

other devices. They all transfer energy from
entertainment the battery to the wires, then to the speaker to
Both CD and DVD players need to transfer make sound.
Figure 3.12 Earphones energy from the batteries to wires. The energy A television remote control transfers
transfer energy in is then transferred to a laser light, enabling it energy from the device through the air as light,
batteries to our ears to read the information stored on the CD or and into the television set (see Figure 3.14). In
as sound. DVD. Tiny microscopic pits on the disc make fact, most remote controls use infrared light,
up the digital code – a bit like a miniature which is the invisible type of light usually
version of Braille used by the visually impaired. associated with heat. The remote control
The laser, which is a very pure type of light, sends a pulse of infrared light that represents
reads the code, transferring its energy to the a particular command, such as to change the
speakers and the screen. channel or increase the volume. An infrared
A mobile phone also uses a speaker to light detector on the television receives the
produce the sound of a person’s voice or the light signal and transfers it back into electrical
various ring tones and beeps that the phone energy, which then carries out the command.
makes. Home phones use a speaker too, as
Figure 3.13 The internal

components of a mobile
device.
Battery Wires Light Television
Figure 3.14

Figure 3.15 A television remote control uses an infrared light-emitting diode (LED) to operate the
television.

Remember and understand 4 Why is the direction the arrows point
1 What is energy? in a flow diagram important?
2 What type of devices could the 5 Copy Figure 3.16 and label each stage
following flow diagrams represent? in the flow diagram.
a wires → motor → air Apply and analyse
b battery → wires → light globe 6 Why do country trains mostly use
c Sun → muscles → bicycle diesel instead of electrical wires?
3 Make a summary of the entertainment 7 How important is energy for
devices mentioned in this section and transport?
draw flow diagrams for the energy 8 What is the ultimate source of all
transformations they perform. energy?
Figure 3.16
Energy 45
3.2 Potential energy is stored
energy
Potential energy is energy that is stored in objects and is waiting to be
used. This stored energy can be the result of a change of shape (stretching
or squashing) or an object’s height above the ground. This energy can be
stored in many forms. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored
in an object that is high above the ground. Elastic potential energy is the
energy stored in an object that has changed in shape. Chemical potential
energy is the energy that is stored in any chemical. Nuclear potential energy
is the energy stored in the centre of an atom.
Elastic potential energy Gravitational potential

A trampoline has the ability to ‘store’ energy
energy, or hold it, for later use or if If we lift an object up to a height, it gains
things change. The springs and the mat gravitational potential energy (abbreviated to
of the trampoline stretch under our just ‘GPE’).
weight and hold this stored energy. The
The larger the mass and the larger the
more they stretch, the more energy they
height, the more GPE the object gains. Have
hold. The energy is returned to our bodies
you ever noticed that falling a greater distance
when the springs and mat return to normal
produces a greater ‘thud’ and can hurt more?
and throw us into the air. Energy that is stored
This is because of the amount of GPE. As an
Figure 3.17 Power riser through stretching or squashing is called
object falls down, the object’s GPE can be
jumping stilts rely on elastic potential energy.
elastic potential energy.
Figure 3.18 Pogo sticks release the elastic Figure 3.19 This television has GPE when raised
energy of springs to provide motion. above the ground.

EXPERIMENT 3.2: WHAT IF THE AMOUNT OF EL ASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY WERE
INCREASED?
GO TO PAGE 182.
transformed into other forms of energy. This

happens when a person plays on a slide at the
playground. The higher they climb, the more
GPE they get. When they slide down, the GPE
decreases. The person gains movement energy.
They may also feel the friction of the slide as
heat or even as a zap of static electrical energy.
Chemical potential energy

After we have done a lot of exercise, we often
crave foods that we believe will restore our Figure 3.22 Plastic
energy levels. These foods, usually sweet slides are great at
things, release stored chemical energy really zapping us with static
quickly to satisfy our cravings. All foods have electricity, although it
depends on the weather
some energy stored in them, but the difference
and the clothes we
is how quickly the energy can be released. wear.
Figure 3.21 The energy released from a nuclear

explosion is much, much greater than that from
other types of explosions.

Figure 3.20 Energy drinks contain chemical
1 List four examples of devices or
potential energy.
situations that involve potential
energy.
Fuels, such as natural gas and petrol, provide
us with energy too. A Bunsen burner uses 2 What type of energy is stored in a
the burning of natural gas to provide heat for battery?
laboratory experiments. Petrol has chemical 3 We get our energy from the
energy stored in it, as do explosives and batteries. chemicals in food. What type of
energy is this?
These devices all contain chemical potential
energy that can be released when we need it. 4 Biofuel is an alternative source of
Some batteries can be recharged – the chemical energy that comes from burning
the energy stored in plants. What
potential energy (CPE) can be replaced.
type of potential energy is biofuel?
Nuclear energy 5 Describe four devices, other than

those mentioned already, that
Although nuclear energy is used throughout possess elastic energy.
the world, it is not used in Australia. Nuclear Figure 3.23 The CPE
Apply and analyse in batteries can be
energy involves the reaction at the centre of
6 Describe how a person might use transformed into
atoms. When atoms react in chemical reactions,
a bow to shoot an arrow. What type electrical energy to
they usually release only small amounts of power almost anything.
of potential energy is used in this
energy. However, if the centres or nuclei of process?
those atoms can be made to react, the amount
7 Name three countries that use
of energy released is much, much larger. In fact,
nuclear power to generate
the amount of energy released is so huge that it electrical energy.
can cause massive amounts of destruction.
Energy 47
3.3 Moving objects have
kinetic energy
The energy of movement is more scientifically called kinetic energy (KE).
Whenever objects or people move, they are using kinetic energy. It takes
energy to force an object such as a car to start moving. Once it is moving,
the energy has passed to the car. It is this energy that is called kinetic
energy. The faster the object is moving, or the more mass the object has,
the greater the kinetic energy. Even objects too small to be seen can have
kinetic energy.
Light energy blue and violet) in the visible spectrum, but

the light we see is part of a larger group that
Light energy is essential to our lives and is called electromagnetic radiation. This large
people have invented lots of devices to group includes ultraviolet light, microwaves
help us see in the dark. The humble and x-rays. The study of light energy is known
electric light bulb revolutionised the as optics.
world. Oil and gas lamps were popular
The main reason life exists on Earth and
in the old days and a torch helps us see
not on other planets is because our atmosphere
at night when we go camping. But the
allows the right amounts of the different forms
best source of light is, of course, our Sun.
of light energy coming from the Sun to reach
Light energy is one type of energy that the surface. Plants rely on the light and heat
our eyes can usually detect. It moves in small from the Sun to make their own food and, of
packets of energy called photons. We see a course, to provide food for animals.
Figure 3.24 Kerosene range of colours (red, orange, yellow, green,
lamps were used for
many years before the
invention of electricity.
Figure 3.25 Sunlight is essential for all life on Earth. Without it, it is doubtful whether life would exist.

CHALLENGE 3.3: EXPLORING SOUND ENERGY
GO TO PAGE 183.
Electrical energy
All substances are made up of positive and
negative electric charges that, when separated,
have electrical energy. This means that they
are in a state of excitement and are trying to
get back together again. If the positive and
negative charges are locked together in one
area, such as a wire, the separated charges
can easily move back together. As they try
to connect, the electrical energy they had
when separated gets changed into light, heat
or movement that we see in electrical lights,
heaters or motors.
Sound energy
Have you been at a very loud concert and
stood near the huge speakers? If so, you will
Figure 3.26 Solar-powered speed signs are remember that you not only heard the deep
becoming common all across our country and bass sound, but also felt it in your body. You
help save to energy. can feel the same vibrations in the car if you
We are now trying to capture the light put your hand on the dashboard when the
energy as efficiently as plants do. The relatively sound system is on full blast. Sound is made
recent invention of solar cells to turn light when things vibrate. Every time you make
from the Sun directly into electricity is a sound – whether it be playing a musical
now used to power many devices, such as instrument or speaking or singing or even
calculators, street lights and even cars. whispering – you are making vibrations.
Vibrations are simply tiny movements back and
Heat energy forth. Vibrations can occur in gases, liquids
and solid things such as speakers – even the
Heat energy is more scientifically known desk in front of you. Energy is needed to make
as thermal energy. Thermal energy can be sound. For example, unless a drummer uses
generated by friction, such as by rubbing your energy to hit the drums, the drum skin will
hands together or by the rubbing of the tyres not start to vibrate and will not make a sound.
on the road. It is also commonly generated by So, do you think sound energy is a type of
burning chemicals or by electrical devices. We kinetic energy?
experience heat energy being transferred from a
high temperature place to a lower temperature
place as we heat up or cool down. For example,
an ice block feels cool because it takes the
thermal energy away from our hands. Remember and understand
1 What is the scientific term for
‘movement energy’?
2 What is moving in electrical
energy?
3 What is moving when a guitar
produces sound energy?
4 What is another name for heat
energy?
5 What are solar cells used for?
6 What features of a car would
absorb the driver’s kinetic energy
Figure 3.27 The heat of a ‘burn-out’ creates in a collision?
great clouds of smoke.
Energy 49
3.4 Energy can be
transformed
When energy is changed from one type of energy to another, we say it has
been transformed. For example, when the energy in a battery is transferred
to the wires in a circuit, the energy is transformed from chemical potential
energy into electrical energy. Water at the top of a waterfall has gravitational
potential energy. This is transformed into kinetic energy as the water
moves down to the bottom of the waterfall. Before investigating energy
transformations, there are a few things you need to know.
Flow diagrams In some devices there are several energy

transformations that make up an energy story,
How do we represent an energy transformation resulting in an energy chain. For example,
scientifically? Flow diagrams that use an arrow the energy story in a mobile device would be
to represent the transformation process help described in the following way:
with this idea.
The chemical energy stored in the battery
1 The arrow points in the direction of the is transformed into electrical energy. The
transformation. electrical energy flows through the wires to
2 The energy input is written at the back of the headphones, where it is transformed into
the arrow. kinetic energy as the tiny speakers in the
3 The useful energy output is written at the headphones vibrate. This is then transformed
tip of the arrow. into sound energy, which our ears pick up.
For example, the battery in a mobile phone As a flow diagram, this energy is:
transforms chemical energy into electrical
energy. As a flow diagram, this energy
transformation is: Electrical energy
Kinetic energy
Chemical energy Electrical energy
Sometimes there is more than one energy

output, so we try to concentrate on the main Chemical energy Sound energy
one. Minor energy outputs are known as
by-products. Think how you would write the
energy transformation in a light bulb. What Figure 3.28 Chemical energy in the mobile
is the energy input? What is the main energy device battery is transformed into the sound
output? Is there a by-product (wasted energy)? energy that we hear.

CHALLENGE 3.4: ENERGY CONVERTERS
GO TO PAGE 183.
Kinetic energy of air Kinetic energy of wind generator Kinetic energy of turbines Electrical energy of wires
Figure 3.29
Gravitational potential energy of water Kinetic energy of water Kinetic energy of turbines Electrical energy of wires
Figure 3.30
Chemical potential energy of coal Kinetic energy of steam Kinetic energy of turbine Electrical energy of wires
Figure 3.31
Generating electricity Check your learning 3.4

There are many ways to generate electricity.
Wind generators use the wind to turn a turbine. Remember and understand
The kinetic energy of the wind is transferred to 1 For each of the electricity
the kinetic energy of the turbines. The turbines generators above, draw a
then transform this energy into electrical energy flow diagram of the energy
transformations.
(see Figure 3.29).
2 Where does the energy stored in
Hydroelectricity plants have large dams that
coal come from?
store water. The large amount of water is usually
part of the way up a hill. Therefore the water has 3 What is the difference between
energy transformation and
gravitational potential energy. Pipes control
energy transfers?
the flow of water down through the turbine,
transforming the gravitational potential energy 4 Suggest one way energy can
be transferred without being
into kinetic energy of the turbine (see Figure 3.30).
transformed.
Coal-based electricity generators burn coal
to heat water. The resulting steam rises, forcing Apply and analyse
the turbines to turn and transform the kinetic 5 Draw a flow diagram for the
energy into electrical energy (see Figure 3.31). main energy transformations in a
You use the electrical energy that comes moving car.
from these generating plants for many different 6 Draw an energy chain for how
things: charging your mobile phone, cooking we get our energy from eating an
dinner, turning on a light. Energy may take apple. (Hint: Start with the Sun!)
many shapes or forms before you can use it.
Energy 51
3.5 Energy cannot be created
or destroyed
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. This is called the law of
conservation of energy and can be seen in any energy transformation.
Sound and heat energy are often generated as a result of energy
transformations. As these forms of energy are difficult to reuse, they are
called waste energy. Efficient transformations produce less waste energy.
Law of conservation of object is dropped, the energy is not destroyed.

The gravitational energy is once again
energy transformed into kinetic energy as it falls.
If all the input energy could be added up and
compared with all the output energy, it would Energy efficiency
always be the same. The total energy remains
If a device like a trampoline transforms
constant, but the type of energy will change –
most of its input energy into the most useful
what goes in must come out!
output energy, then it is considered to be a
This is considered the law of conservation very energy-efficient device. The less ‘wasted’
of energy. No energy can be created or energy, the more energy-efficient the device.
destroyed. The energy at the end must be Energy efficiency is a calculation of the
equal to the energy present at the beginning. percentage of useful energy transformed.
When you lift an object up in the air, you add
gravitational potential energy. This energy did
not just appear. The kinetic energy of your Useful energy output
Efficiency = ´ 100
hand was conserved and transformed into the Energy input
gravitational energy of the object. When the
Take the trampoline example in
Figure 3.32. The input energy was 500 units
and the useful output energy was 400 units.
This means that the trampoline is 400 ÷ 500
400 units
gravitational × 100 = 80% efficient, which is not too bad.
potential energy Most energy transformations for everyday
500 units appliances aren't as efficient. Scientists are
elastic energy
constantly trying to design the best appliances
possible with the highest efficiency ratings.
This would make them better for the
environment and cost less to power. Do you
and your family always buy the most efficient
appliances? Are you familiar with the star
ratings on appliances? More stars mean that
the appliance is more energy efficient. Not
only is it good to know that less energy is
being wasted, but it also means that, on your
Figure 3.32 Five hundred units of energy are stored in the springs of the electricity and gas bills, you are paying for
trampoline. At the highest point, the jumper has 400 units of gravitational energy that is being used rather than for energy
potential energy. Where have the 100 ‘missing’ units gone? that is being wasted.

EXPERIMENT 3.5: WHAT IF YOU BOUNCED A BALL?
GO TO PAGE 184.
Heat and sound waste kinetic energy when you drop it. When the
ball hits the ground it makes a noise. The
energy larger the noise, the more sound energy was
If no system is 100% efficient, but the energy generated. If you bounce a ball many times
cannot be destroyed, then where does the in a row, you might be able to feel the ball
energy go? In most cases, the energy is start to warm up. Heat energy is generated.
transformed into heat and sound energy. Both the heat and sound energy dissipate
Think what happens when you drop a ball on into the air. They are not lost or destroyed. We
the ground. The ball starts with gravitational cannot reuse them. They are by-products of
potential energy, which is transformed into the main energy transformation.

Remember and understand 4 For the rubber band in question 3,
1 What is the law of conservation what would its percentage efficiency
of energy? be if 7 units of kinetic energy were
produced? Where have the remaining
2 The Sun provides heat and light energy
3 units of energy gone?
to our planet every day. If this energy
is not destroyed, where does it go? 5 A student claimed energy was
lost when she bounced a ball.
Apply and analyse Was she correct?
3 If you release a rubber band that had 6 What are the by-product energy
10 units of elastic energy, 12 units of transformations for a car?
kinetic energy cannot be produced.
Why not?
Energy 53
3.6 Energy efficiency
can reduce energy
consumption
Knowledge and understanding of energy transformations is not just limited
to scientists. A variety of people use this knowledge in their everyday lives.
Using electricity
A hair dryer has two basic components: a fan
and a heating element. When plugged in and
switched on, the fan motor spins and the heating
element heats up. So, a hair dryer converts
electrical energy into thermal energy and kinetic
energy. The air blown by the fan is directed over
the heating element, passing the heat energy to
the air, which flows out of the hair dryer. Some
hair dryers have different speed and heat settings
that control the amount of electrical energy
flowing to each part of the device.
Other heating devices, such as toasters, Figure 3.33 Insulation prevents heat energy
also use heating elements to convert electrical being transferred between the inside and the
outside of the house.
energy into heat energy. Heating elements are
made of certain types of wires that heat up
without melting when electricity flows through conditioner. The thermal energy of the house
them. The thermal energy is then passed to the air is passed to the refrigerant inside the pipes
air, which then passes the heat to the bread, and then is carried outside the house. If the
toasting it. house is well designed, then the thermal energy
remains outside and the house stays cool.
Microwave ovens cleverly convert electrical
energy into microwaves, which heat our food. Architects design homes to help control the
Electric ovens are like oversized toasters and flow of thermal energy. They can add a variety
can have a fan in them, as does a hair dryer. of features that help to limit the amount of
Gas ovens and stoves use the chemical energy heating or cooling your house needs.
of the gas to produce heat by burning the gas.
The more efficient this transformation, the less Insulation
energy is wasted. Lining the inside of the walls, floors and roof
of your house can make sure that the heat is
Heating and cooling your not transferred between the outside air and the
house inside of the house. This means you will keep
the heat inside on a cold day, and outside on a
No doubt your house has some sort of heating hot day.
or cooling system, depending on where you
live. You probably use electricity or gas to do
this. In a hot environment, energy is needed
Window awnings
to remove the heat from inside your home, One of the main places heat is transferred is
allowing it to cool down. The warm air inside through a window. On a hot day, the light and
the house is moved over cool pipes in the air heat from the Sun easily penetrate a window.

CHALLENGE 3.6: DESIGN AN ENERGY-EFFICIENT HOUSE
GO TO PAGE 185.
This transfers the heat into the house. Veranda

An awning on a window can limit this.
A veranda works much like an awning, but it
Limiting the number of windows facing the
also prevents the heat and light from the Sun
Sun can also help to prevent the heat being
from shining on the walls. This prevents the
transferred into the house.
heat from being transferred to the walls, and
then to the air inside.

1 Draw flow diagrams for the energy transformation 5 The temperature inside and outside a house was
process that happens in your house for: measured over 24 hours and displayed in Figure
a heating during winter 3.34. From the graph, determine whether the
house was insulated. Give evidence to support your
b cooling during summer.
answer.
2 A refrigerator cools the food inside it.
6 Study Figure 3.35, which shows how much energy is
a How do you think it does this? used by different household appliances.
b Suggest possible energy transformations that a Which appliance uses the most energy?
may occur in a refrigerator.
b The clothes dryer uses more energy than the
3 How do architects use their knowledge of energy electric blanket. Use energy transformations to
efficiency? explain why.
4 How do window awnings and verandas keep a house c Many people switch their appliances off at
cool in summer? the wall rather than use the standby function
(where the television is still on but the screen is
dark). Use energy efficiency to explain possible
reasons for this.
2500
ENERGY CONSUMPTION (KWH/YEAR)
Indoor temperature (no internal heating) 2000

Outdoor temperature
20
TEMPERATURE (°C)
1500
10
0 1000
-10
-20 500
-30
0
Noon
6 pm
Midnight
6 am
Noon
6 pm
Midnight
6 am
Noon
6 pm
Midnight
6 am
Noon
6 pm
Midnight
6 am
Noon
e t
De lev n
m on
ua e l pu r
m mp p
Di rar r
El w m
r
er Fr ve
W lot he r
hi es er
Re ac r
e
p ol tor
he p
)
er
av e
Aq m l ie
r te
tr he
C d ze
m rye
fr hin
riu co m
d m
Te ove
w nk
sh iu
as h at
o
hu isi
Ho We idif
at
/te u
um Po era
be e
an pu
st
ec as
ng d
ro bla
e
ic
ig
M tric
ec
ic
Figure 3.34
at
El
(p
Figure 3.35
a
Sp
Energy 55
3.7 Engineers use their
understanding of energy
to solve problems
The word ‘engineer’ comes from the Latin words ingeniator or ingenium,
which literally mean ‘ingenious one’. Engineers provide solutions,
shape future developments and generate ideas that make life easier.
All engineers are problem solvers, but some know how to solve specific
problems better than others. People who study to become engineers often
choose an area of interest and concentrate their skills in that field.
Chemical engineers Civil engineers

Chemical engineers combine existing materials Civil engineers research, plan and design
and develop new materials. These materials can structures. They know about the physical
then help other engineers to build structures. properties of materials. They are interested in
Chemical engineers would also consider where how different materials perform under different
the materials come from, whether they were conditions. For example, tall buildings need to
being used sustainably, and how much energy remain secure in high winds.
is required to process and transport them.
Evaluating a proposal
Mechanical engineers When engineers design and evaluate different
Mechanical engineers deal with forces and options for a project there are three main
motion – designing and improving things that points to consider.
have moving parts or have physical forces 1 Will the option do the job it is expected
pushing or pulling them. This includes to do?
large structures such as water slides where 2 How well does the option do that job? Is
the gravitational potential energy at the there a better way?
top is used to provide kinetic energy 3 Is the option cost-effective?
(speed) at the slide’s base. Reducing
Other points also need to be considered,
the friction of the slide makes it more
such as how long each option will take to
efficient, and therefore more of the
build, cost, availability of materials and impact
potential energy will be transformed
on the environment.
into kinetic energy (speed) at the base.
Mechanical engineers have produced some The simplest way to compare different
of the most important and useful inventions options for a project is to use a cost–benefit
in history including the zipper and the yo-yo! analysis. In a cost–benefit analysis, an engineer
Figure 3.36 Water
makes a list of all the impacts of each option,
slides transform the
gravitational potential
energy of the water
Electrical engineers such as the benefits to the community, potential
profits to the owner and the environmental
into kinetic energy. Electrical engineers design and organise impacts. These are then compared to the cost
Reducing friction of the electrical equipment. This equipment may of each option. When all the options have been
slide makes it more be used for satellites, computers and medical analysed in this way, the engineer can more
efficient. equipment. They are also involved in easily compare the options and decide which
developing electricity supplies, including the one is best. The best option would have the most
development of alternative energy sources. benefits and the least costs.

EXPERIMENT 3.7: INVESTIGATING STRUCTURES CHALLENGE 3.7: LEAKY WATER COUNCIL
AND MATERIALS USING ICY POLE STICKS SWIMMING POOL AND WATERSLIDE
GO TO PAGE 188. GO TO PAGE 186.
Figure 3.37 Mechanical engineers work with

forces and motion.
Projects are designed and evaluated using • Geotechnical hazard assessment – Will
many different criteria. Appropriate criteria there be any problems with digging the soil?
include all the aspects you want to design for Most engineering companies use criteria
and measure. Engineers need to assess many assessments to work out the best way to
aspects of each project before, during and after proceed with a proposal.
its completion. The design and assessment
process aims to ensure that each project is the
best option that fulfils all the criteria needed. Check your learning 3.7
There are many examples of engineering
assessments.
1 Write a definition of ‘engineering’.
• Social impact assessment – Will the
project have a good or bad impact on 2 What is the difference between
civil engineers, electrical
people’s lives?
engineers, chemical engineers and
• Risk assessment – What might happen if mechanical engineers?
the project fails?
Apply and analyse
• Environmental impact – What impacts
3 What are some reasons to build
will it have on the environment?
a prototype of your design before
• Contamination assessment –Will any finalising the project?
chemicals used in the project contaminate
4 What type of criteria might be
living things? considered by an engineer before
• Strength and facility life assessment – starting a project?
What sort of loads will the structure 5 What would be the social impact of
need to withstand? How long will a a water slide?
structure survive?
Energy 57
3.8 Solar cells transform the

Sun’s light energy into
electrical energy
A solar cell is any device that transforms the Sun’s light
energy into electrical energy. The number of households
using light energy to heat water or power heating and cooling
devices is growing rapidly every year. Eventually we may even
use cars powered by solar energy to drive to school.
Using solar energy in

Australia
Australia is often known as the sunburnt
country. This is a reference to the large
number of hours each day that the Sun shines.
Australia is a big country and the number of
hours varies greatly depending on the location
and the time of year. Solar energy is often
measured in the number of peak sunlight
Converting light energy into
hours every day (see Figure 3.38). This is then chemical potential energy
averaged out over the whole year. For example, Using light energy to power a house has its
in the Hunter Valley in New South Wales, problems. The most common time people use
the number of peak hours can be as low as 4.0 electrical energy is not when light energy is
hours/day in winter and as high as 6.5 hours/ available. This means the light energy often
day in summer. Over a year this averages out to needs to be stored so that it can be used at
5.6 hours/day. In Tasmania the average number night. The light energy is transformed into
of peak hours is 3 hours/day. In Queensland, potential chemical energy in a battery so that
Northern Territory and Western Australia, the it can be used to heat water, provide light or
average number of peak hours each day is 6. supply energy for cooking.
Capturing the light energy

1250
IRRADIANCE (WATTS PER SQUARE METRE)
Peak Sun hours

1000 Solar panels are a collection of solar cells called
photovoltaic cells (PVCs). When light shines
on the surface of these PVCs, the light energy
750
is transformed into electrical energy. The most
efficient PVCs currently convert 30% of the
500 energy they receive from the Sun.
250 Solar cars

July Most current solar-powered vehicles only
0 carry one person. They are lightweight
Sunrise Sunset
(approximately 600 kg) so that they are more
t
gh
M pm
N m
1 ht
1 n
11 pm
11 am
2 m
3 m
4 m
5 m
6 m
7 m
8 m
9 m
10 m
am
3 m
4 m
5 m
6 m
7 m
8 m
9 m
10 m
energy efficient. Although using a solar car for

oo
ni
a
g
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
ni
id
2
id
your everyday travel is not currently practical,

M
TIME OF DAY
with more research it may be in the future.
Figure 3.38

CHALLENGE 3.8: DURING WHAT TIME OF THE DAY DOES THE SUN PRODUCE THE
MOST ENERGY?
GO TO PAGE 189.
1954
Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl
Chapin improved the efficiency to 6%. Silicon
strips were used to create the first solar panels.
1982
Larry Perkins and Hans Tholstrup
constructed and drove the ‘Quiet Achiever’,
a home-made vehicle, from the east coast
of Australia to the west coast. Their feat is
recognised in the World Solar Challenge, a
solar car race that allows solar car
designers to compete in a race across
1883 Australia every two years.
First solar cell invented
by Charles Fritts. Solar 1962
cell = selenium (semiconductor) International Rectifier
with a thin layer of gold. Company designed the
first solar car that could be
1941 driven.They converted a
Silicon solar cell vintage 1912 Baker electric 1987
invented by Russell Ohl car to run on approximately GM Sunraycer completed
has efficiency of 1%. 10 640 PVCs. a 3010 km trip in California with
an average speed of 67 km/h.
1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
1977 2014
Alabama University A solar-powered
professor Ed Passerini family car (with four
constructed his own seats) called ‘Stella’
solar powered car was driven 613 km
called ‘Bluebird’. from Los Angeles
1955 to San Francisco.
The first solar car invented
was a tiny 35 cm vehicle created
by William G. Cobb of General Motors.
1980
Englishman Alain Freeman
road-registered a 3-wheeler solar
car with a solar panel on the roof.
1980
Arye Braunstein and colleagues
at Tel Aviv University (Israel)
designed a solar car with a solar
panel on the roof and hood of the car.
The car was recorded reaching 65 km/h
Figure 3.39 History of with a top speed of 80 km/h.
solar cars.
Extend your understanding 3.8 Table 3.1 Solar energy production in Australian cities.
1 What advantages will solar cars have over CITY AVERAGE DAILY PRODUCTION
petrol cars? OF 2 KW SYSTEM (kWh)
2 What do we call a cell that captures the light energy Adelaide 8.4
from the Sun? Alice Springs 10.0
3 Why does light energy often need to be stored as Brisbane 8.4
chemical energy before it can be used?
Cairns 8.4
4 Use Table 3.1 to determine which city has the highest
Canberra 8.6
average amount of sunshine. How does this compare
to your nearest city? Darwin 8.8
5 Research when the next World Solar Challenge will Hobart 7.0
occur. How far is the race? Where does it start Melbourne 7.2
and finish? Perth 8.8
Sydney 7.8
Energy 59
3
REVIEW

1 Match these words and phrases with 6 Use numbers in an example of your own to
their correct meanings: explain the law of conservation of energy.
7 Use numbers in an example of your own to
WORD/ MEANING explain energy efficiency.
PHRASE 8 What is the percentage efficiency of a
Kinetic energy The energy stored in a device if it transforms:
compressed spring.
a 20 units of input energy into 12 units of
Nuclear Another name for stored useful output energy?
energy energy.
b 600 units of input energy into 500 units
Potential The energy of an object of useful output energy?
energy when lifted up.
c In (a) and (b) above, where did the other
Elastic energy Used widely throughout energy (i.e. 8 units in (a) and 100 units
the world to generate in (b)) go?
electricity from atoms.
9 The main job of a car travelling on the road
Gravitational Possessed by all moving
is to produce kinetic energy in its wheels.
energy objects.
What other parts of a car may demonstrate
kinetic energy?
2 Are the following true or false? For false
statements, rewrite them to make them 10 Think of your day today. How many
correct. different energy forms have you come
across, possessed, used or witnessed? List
a Springs only hold stored energy
them in order of use during the day. Which
when they are stretched.
one was the most common and why?
b When an object is thrown up in the
11 Visit a local playground and examine the
air, it gains gravitational potential
play equipment. Take a photo or draw a
energy.
picture of a piece of equipment and work
c Sound energy is a type of potential out what types of energy are demonstrated
energy. as a child plays on the equipment.
d Petrol contains nuclear energy. 12 List the places and structures in your
3 What is the main form of energy in each school that you think an engineer was
of the following situations? involved with. Justify your decisions.
a Water flowing slowly over a
waterfall. Evaluate and create
b A rollercoaster at the lowest point of 13 Energy comes in many different forms.
the ride. Create a poster that illustrates each type of
c The Sun coming in through a window energy using visual examples.
on a sunny day. 14 The massive earthquake and tsunami in
d A boy riding his skateboard. Japan in March 2011 caused extensive
e A stretched rubber band. damage to the Fukushima nuclear
4 Name a device that transforms: power plant, north of Tokyo, and created
an emergency situation. Research this
a electrical energy into light energy
disaster and present a 2 minute news
b elastic energy into kinetic energy report to the class that highlights the
c electrical energy into sound energy issues surrounding the use of nuclear
d gravitational energy into electrical energy.
energy 15 Energy types rarely exist alone. They are
e kinetic energy into electrical energy. always on the move, making things happen.
Think about some of the things energy can
5 Why might you employ a chemical
do. For at least two of these, identify the
engineer if you were designing a new
type or types of energy involved. If more
clothing range?
than one type of energy is involved, link the
different types with arrows. Try to include
as many different scenarios as you can.

Research
16 Choose one of the following topics for a >> New and specialised
research project. A few guiding questions engineering fields
have been provided for you, but you should Select one of the newer fields
add more questions that you want to of engineering like aerospace,
investigate. Present your research in a biomedical or nuclear
format of your own choosing, giving careful engineering. What does the
consideration to the information you are engineer in that field do? What
presenting. do they need to know? Who do
they work with? Where do they
work? What materials do they
>> Compact fluorescent lights work with? Name a significant
How do compact fluorescent lights project the engineer has
(CFLs) work? How do they differ worked on.
from fluorescent light globes? Why
are CFLs initially more expensive
to buy, but then more economical >> Plastic bank notes
over time? What is the benefit of
Investigate the history of
using CFLs?
how Australia used chemical
engineering to develop plastic
bank notes. Who did this work?
>> Energy-efficient housing Why did they do this? What
In previous societies, energy problems were encountered?
efficiency was important because What are some of the features
people had limited access to the of our plastic bank notes?
types of energy supplies and
their applications that we have
today. Research how civilisations
in tropical areas designed their
homes to keep them cool and
damp free. What types of energy-
efficient practices have humans
used through the ages?
Energy 61
3
KEY WORDS
chemical potential energy nuclear energy

energy stored in chemicals, e.g. in food, energy stored in the nucleus of an atom
fuel or explosives; also known simply as and released in nuclear reactors or
chemical energy explosions of nuclear weapons; much,
cost–benefit analysis much larger than the chemical energy
list of the costs compared with the benefits; released in chemical reactions
usually performed to analyse a proposed photovoltaic cells (PVCs)
engineering project an electrical device that converts light
criteria energy into electrical energy, see solar
the important aspects of a project that need cells
to be measured; designed to make sure potential energy
each project is as good as it can be energy stored in objects and waiting to be
elastic potential energy used, e.g. gravitational potential energy
energy stored through stretching or remote control
squashing, e.g. in a stretched spring or electronic device used for the remote
rubber band operation (i.e. at a distance) of a machine
electrical energy solar cell
energy associated with electric charge, used to transform sunlight directly into
either stationary (static) or moving (current) electrical energy; usually in the form of a
energy efficiency panel; also known as a solar panel
measure of the amount of useful energy sound energy
transformed in an energy transformation type of kinetic energy made when things
process; usually expressed as a percentage vibrate
of the input energy, e.g. 90% efficiency is thermal energy
very good scientific term for heat energy
gravitational potential energy transferred
energy stored due to the height of an object, said of energy that has moved from one
e.g. a child at the top of a slide object to another
kinetic energy transformed
energy of movement or moving objects changed one form of energy into another
law of conservation of energy form of energy
scientific rule that states that the total
energy in a system is always constant and
cannot be created or destroyed

4
Vibrating particles pass SOUND AND
LIGHT
4.1 on sound
4.2 Sound can travel at different speeds
4.3 Our ears hear sound
4.4 Ears can be replaced
Visible light is a small part

4.5 of the electromagnetic
spectrum
What if?
4.6 Light reflects off a mirror String phones
What you need:
2 foam cups, 3 metres of string,
scissors
Light refracts when moving in
4.7 and out of substances What to do:
1 Place a small hole in the bottom
of each foam cup.
2 Poke the end of the string
4.8 Different wavelengths of light are through the end of each cup and
different colours tie it off. The two cups should
now be connected.
3 Pull the string taut between two
people.
The electromagnetic spectrum
4.9
4 One person should speak quietly
into the cup at one end while
has many uses the second person listens in the
other cup.
What if?
4.10 Our eyes detect light »» What if the string was shorter?
(Would the sound be louder or
softer?)
4.11 Things can go wrong »» What if the string was longer?
with our eyes »» What if you used different types

of string between the two cups?

4.1 Vibrating particles pass
on sound
Sound is caused by the vibration of particles moving in a wavelike motion.
The vibration of a guitar string causes the particles in the air to compress
together (compression) and then move apart (rarefaction) in a longitudinal
wave. The distance the air particle moves is called the amplitude. The length
between the start of one compression and the next is the wavelength, and
the number of waves passing a point each second is the frequency of the
wave.
Modelling sound waves The region with the particles forced close
together is called a compression, and the less
We know that sound energy travels because dense region is called a rarefaction. Sound
we can often hear it a long way from its source. waves travel as a longitudinal wave. The air
Consider the example of a drum being played. particles move back and forth in the same
The drum skin vibrates (moves up and down) direction as the wave as the vibration passes
when it is hit. The kinetic energy of the through the air. The distance a particle of air
vibrations is transferred to the surrounding moves is called the amplitude of the wave.
air particles, pushing them closer together in Sound waves with a large amplitude mean the
one place and forcing them further apart in air particles move with greater kinetic energy.
another. In this way, the air around the drum This makes the sound appear louder to our
is made to vibrate too. This causes the particles ears. An example of this is when musicians
further away to vibrate, and so on, until the air use amplifiers to increase the loudness of
close to your ears eventually vibrates and causes their music. Amplifiers increase the distance
your eardrum to vibrate too. And that’s when air particles move during compression and
you hear the sound. rarefaction.
wave length A sound wave moves out in all directions
from the place where the vibration began
(Figure 4.2).
Less Describing sound
amplitude
You can sing high. You can sing low. You can
talk in a funny voice if you want to because
Waves
you can alter the number of vibrations coming
in air from your vocal cords every second.
Compression waves can be close together
or far apart. The distance between the start of
one compression wave and the start of the next
Greater
is called the wavelength. Short wavelengths
amplitude
mean more vibrations hit your eardrum each
second.
When the waves travel close together, then
wave length they are considered more frequent. The number
of waves that pass a point each second is called
Figure 4.1 Red arrows indicate how far a particle in a sound wave moves.

CHALLENGE 4.1: MODELLING SOUND WAVES
GO TO PAGE 190.
a
Compression
Air molecules
Sound wave Rarefaction
b
Air particles Rarefaction
Compression
Figure 4.2 (a) When a drummer hits a drum skin, (b) a sound wave is produced.
the frequency of the wave. This is measured in

the unit hertz (symbol Hz). We hear different
frequencies as different pitches. For example, a
soprano singer sings the high notes in an opera.
These notes are high pitched. The sound waves
for these notes have very short wavelengths and
therefore high frequency. A deep bass singer is
able to sing very low-pitched notes. These notes
have long wavelengths and few of them can
pass a point each second. Therefore, they have
a low frequency. Figure 4.3 Middle C (shown in red) played
on a piano has a wavelength of 1.33 metres
As the waves move further away from their and creates vibrations at a frequency of
source, they lose energy and eventually fade 256 vibrations every second or 256 Hz.
out. As neighbours will confirm, the closer you
live to a drummer, the louder they seem!

1 How are particles in air arranged in a:
a compression?
b rarefaction?
2 Work with a partner. Explain to your Figure 4.4
partner how the sound waves created
by hitting a cymbal reach your ears. Apply and analyse
Use the following terms: compression,
4 Imagine you have three tuning forks
rarefaction, sound wave, spread
of frequencies 250, 500 and 1000 Hz.
out, air particles and ear. Write your
Which one would:
description down.
a sound the lowest?
3 Of the two springs shown in
Figure 4.4, which demonstrates a: b have the highest pitch?
a lower frequency? 5 Research the speed of sound in air.
b smaller wavelength?
Sound and light 65

4.2 Sound can travel at
different speeds
Sound travels at 340 m/s at sea level at 20°C. The speed of sound varies
according to the temperature and material through which it travels.
At higher temperatures, particles have more kinetic energy, so they
can compress more easily. Therefore, sound travels faster at higher
temperatures. The more closely packed the particles, the faster the sound
wave travels.
Speed of sound
The speed of sound is affected by the closeness
of the particles in a material, and how far
they can move. For example, the particles in
water are much closer together than in air but
they can still compress against each other.
This means a compression sound wave can
travel very easily through water. The particles
in a solid are packed even closer together.
Therefore, sound will travel even faster in most
solids.
The speed of sound also depends on the
temperature of the material it is travelling
Figure 4.5 In outer through. Particles at higher temperatures have
Sounds of silence
space, there are so more kinetic energy. Since the particles are
few particles of gas, already vibrating fast, they can move more
and they are so far If you are a drummer, you have probably been easily in a compression wave.
apart, that they cannot told more than once to ‘keep the noise down!’
be compressed. As a
result, outer space is
But is there somewhere you could play your Table 4.1 Speed of sound in different materials and
silent. drum kit as hard and as loud as possible with at different temperatures
absolutely no sound being heard? The answer is MATERIAL SPEED (m/s)
‘yes’, but it is not a place you can get to easily. Air at 0°C 331
A famous sci-fi movie was advertised with
Air at 20°C 343
the tagline ‘In space, no one can hear you
Water at 20°C 1482
scream’. The moviemakers were right. In outer
space, you could play your drum kit without Lead 1960
anyone hearing a sound – but you wouldn’t Glass 5640
hear it either. You could even see an explosion Steel 5960
without hearing a thing. This is because sound
needs something to travel through; it needs a
substance (or medium) that contains particles
that can be compressed to create the sound
waves. The medium could be a solid, a liquid
or a gas. In space the particles are too far apart
to push against each other.

CHALLENGE 4.2A: THE SPEED OF SOUND CHALLENGE 4.2B: RACING DOMINOES
Figure 4.6 The speed of

sound travels five times
faster in water than in
air. Blue whales sing to
each other in a series
of moans, and pulses
(shown) that can travel
thousands of kilometres
underwater.
Sonar
In all wars since World War I, reflected waves
have been used to detect enemy submarines
under water. In a similar way to radar (radio
waves), sonar sends out sound waves and
records how long the sound takes to reflect or
echo back after striking an object. The longer
the sound takes to return, the further away the
object is. An exact location can be calculated
by knowing how fast sound travels in water.
This information, along with the time taken for
the sound to return, allows the exact location
of a submarine to be determined.
Sonar is widely used today and can help to
map the ocean floor, check the depth of water
and locate schools of fish. Figure 4.7 Sonar is used to map volcanoes on the ocean floor.

Remember and understand 3 Which of the following is most likely
1 Which of the following materials will to produce a loud echo? Explain your
allow sound to travel the fastest? answer.
a water A Talking in a furnished, carpeted
room
b lead
B Singing in a tiled shower
c air
C Yelling across an open field
d glass
4 If a nearby star were to explode, why
Apply and analyse wouldn’t we hear the noise of the
2 How is sonar similar to light striking a explosion here on Earth?
mirror? 5 Many movies show people tapping
SOS on water pipes to get help. Why is
tapping on water pipes a quicker way
of passing on a message than yelling?
Sound and light 67

4.3 Our ears hear sound
Our ears hear a sound when the vibration of air particles is funnelled down
the ear canal by the auricle (Figure 4.8). This causes the eardrum to vibrate,
which in turn passes the movement on to the ossicles in the middle ear.
These small bones vibrate against the oval window at the entrance of the
inner ear. The fluid in the cochlea sends waves that are detected by the hairs
attached to auditory nerve. This sends a message to the brain that sound
was heard.
Hearing Ear flap (auricle)

The ear flap (auricle) is made of
The ear is a highly sensitive spongy tissue called cartilage (the
and accurate system. In only a same tissue is in your nose).
few milliseconds it can collect,
transfer, detect and interpret
sound. Our ears consist of three
main parts, which are the:
> outer ear, where sound
waves are collected
> middle ear, where the sound
is amplified
> inner ear, where sound is
changed into an electrical
signal and sent along the
hearing or auditory nerve.
The brain decodes the signal
so it is recognised.
Ear canal
The ear canal contains fine hairs
and some wax. Sound waves enter
here and cause the air in the canal
to vibrate right down to the thin skin
covering at the end of the tube. This
thin skin is called the eardrum.
Eardrum
When hit by the sound waves, the
eardrum vibrates at the same rate Middle ear
as the sound waves coming in. The middle ear contains the ossicles, which are three
loosely connected bones. They are the smallest bones
in the body. The first little ossicle bone lies on the
back of the eardrum. It vibrates when the ear vibrates.
The vibrations pass along the two other bones. The
Figure 4.8 The main parts of the ear.
last little ossicle bone is shaped like a stirrup. It
presses against the oval window, which is a thin layer
of skin near the entrance to the inner ear.
EXPERIMENT 4.3: WHY DO WE NEED TWO EARS?
GO TO PAGE 192.
Semicircular canals
The semicircular canals are a set of tubes attached to the cochlea. These
Brain tubes are not part of the hearing system; they help us to keep our balance.
The incoming sound is The canals are filled with fluid. When you move around quickly, the fluid
checked in the inside the canals also moves quickly and keeps doing so even after you
auditory cortex stop. Detector cells inside the canals send messages to the brain that you
against other stored are moving, but messages from your eyes tell the brain you have stopped.
sounds to decide what The conflicting messages make you feel dizzy!
the sound is. The
brain then sends
messages to other Auditory nerve
parts of the the brain The auditory nerve (hearing nerve) carries all
associated with that of the information about the sound signals
particular sound. coming out of the receptor cells to the brain.
Cochlea Check your learning 4.3

The cochlea, a
snail-shaped bone, is the Remember and understand
sound detector. It is filled 1 Explain the role of the following
with fluid and tiny hairs parts in the hearing process:
attached to receptor cells. receptor cells, ossicles, eardrum,
The vibrations that pass
auditory nerve, Eustachian tube.
through the oval window
create waves in the fluid in 2 True or false?
the cochlea. These bend a The outer ear is used to detect
the little hairs that stick out sound.
of the receptor cells. The
b The middle ear contains little
bending sets off an
bones called ossicles.
electrical signal along the
auditory nerve to which the c The inner ear is protected by
receptor cells are all a bone in the shape of a spiral
connected. seashell.
d The hair cells in the hearing
system are found on the scalp
of the head.
Apply and analyse
3 Imagine you could not hear at all.
Explain how it might affect your
safety, communication and ability
to locate objects.
4 How can damage to the eardrum
affect hearing?
5 Doctors warn about poking
cotton buds into our ears to
remove wax from our ear canal.
They suggest that it is best to
remove wax only from the very
outer part of the ear and to see
a doctor to remove other excess
wax. Why do you think doctors
give this warning?
6 How many bones form the
Eustachian tube ossicles? Find out the names of
The Eustachian tube keeps the air pressure
these bones.
inside the middle ear the same as the air
pressure outside. It can do this because it is 7 Suggest why an ear infection
joined at the back of the throat behind the nose. can sometimes make you feel
When the pressure is not equal on both sides of Hair cell unbalanced.
the eardrum, the Eustachian tube opens to let air
move in or out to balance the pressure.
Sound and light 69

4.4 Ears can be replaced
Your hearing relies on very thin layers of skin in the

eardrum, small bones in the middle ear, and fine hairs
in the cochlea. These delicate mechanisms can become
damaged by loud noises, infections or age.
Sound level meter

The loudness of a sound can seem different to
different people. It depends on the frequency or
pitch of the sound. To measure it scientifically,
we use a sound level meter. Sound level is
measured in decibels (dB). Decibels were
named after Alexander Graham Bell, the Figure 4.10 Professor Graeme Clark, led the
inventor of the telephone. development of the cochlea implant.
Hearing aid
A hearing aid is designed to increase the
amplitude of sound waves as they move into the
middle ear. This makes sounds louder so that
the person is more likely to hear them.
Cochlea implant
Until the 1970s, everyone believed that nothing
could be done to restore the hearing of people
with profound deafness due to nerve damage.
Figure 4.9 A sound level With the invention of the silicon chip and
meter. advances in electronics, several scientists began
researching how to make a tiny electronic
Tinnitus replacement for a damaged cochlea that could
Tinnitus is usually described as a constant do the job of healthy receptor cells.
ringing in the ears. It can be low or high pitched Professor Graeme Clark and his team at the
and can be caused by loud noises, infections or University of Melbourne took 8 years to develop
drugs. It is occasionally the first sign of hearing a prototype, and it was a further 7 years before a
loss as a result of age. Exposure to constant commercial cochlea implant – a ‘bionic ear’ –
loud noise can damage the small hairs in the was available to people with profound nerve
cochlea. This damage can send confusing deafness.
messages through the aural nerves, which A cochlea implant has two sections: the
the brain interprets as the constant noise that internal and the external parts. The internal part
characterises tinnitus. of the implant consists of 22 tiny wire electrodes
that are surgically inserted inside the cochlea.
The external part of the cochlea implant
consists of a tiny computer (the speech
processor). The speech processor sits in a

CHALLENGE 4.4: IS SCHOOL BAD FOR YOUR HEALTH?
GO TO PAGE 192.
Head piece
Implant
Electrode
Cochlea
Figure 4.11 A cochlea implant.
small case behind the ear, looking similar to Researchers at Swinburne

other hearing aids. It has a powerful built-in University of Technology in
microphone. The sound of speech is processed Victoria are now investigating
by the computer and converted to electrical a similar approach to restoring
signals, which are sent by radio waves through sight. They are looking for
the skin into the internal part of the cochlea a non-contact method of
implant. The electrical signals activate the stimulating nerves and are
hearing nerve inside the cochlea and send a exploring the use of laser
message to the brain to indicate that sound light, perhaps as a tiny laser
has been detected, just as healthy receptor cells device fitted in a pair of
would. spectacles.

1 What causes tinnitus? 3 seconds to smash a glass. What else
2 Why do people have difficulty hearing has a loudness of 130 dB?
when they have a middle ear infection? 6 With a partner, write down as many
3 How are hearing aids different from jobs as you can that involve working
cochlea implants? in an extremely loud environment.
4 What does the unit dB stand for? Who Suggest at least three things that could
is it named after? help to prevent hearing damage in
these jobs.
5 In an experiment, an opera singer sang
at a particular frequency at 130 dB for
Sound and light 71

4.5 Visible light is a small part
of the electromagnetic
spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is a way of describing all the different forms
of light, including the light we see. All forms of light travel at the same speed
through a vacuum and behave similarly to a transverse wave. Light also
behaves like a particle called a photon.
Gamma waves X-rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwaves Radio waves

(10–12 m) (10–10 m) (10–8 m) (10–5 m) (10–2 m) (102 m)
Short wavelength, Long wavelength,

high frequency low frequency
Visible light
Figure 4.12 The Ancient civilisations believed that light was an obvious difference. They have different
electromagnetic emitted from the eye and this enabled us to wavelengths and therefore different frequencies.
spectrum.
see. We now know that light comes from
other sources and that we see objects by light Transverse waves
bouncing off them and hitting our eyes.
Light waves are different from sound waves.
Like sound, light is a form of energy,
Sound waves exist as longitudinal waves – the
which can behave like a wave. There are many
vibrations of the air particles are in the same
different types of light, with a very wide range
direction as the direction of travel of the wave.
of wavelengths. Together, these forms of light
In light waves, the vibrations are at right angles
are called the electromagnetic spectrum.
to the direction of travel of the wave. We call
these waves transverse waves.
Electromagnetic spectrum The distance between two neighbouring
The electromagnetic spectrum includes the peaks (rises) on a transverse wave is called
energy that provides music on your radio, the the wavelength. It is the same as the distance
picture on your television, and the heat to cook between two consecutive troughs (dips) or
popcorn in your microwave. between any two consecutive matching points
We only see a small amount of this light on the wave. At a different wavelength, the
energy. All of these different types of light nature of the light wave changes. In the region
have common features. They all travel at the of visible light, this change of wavelength is
same speed, the speed of light, but they have seen as different colours.

CHALLENGE 4.5: MODELLING LIGHT WAVES
GO TO PAGE 193.
Amplitude
Shorter
wavelength
Figure 4.13
The wavelength of
a wave is measured
from any point on the
wave (usually a peak
or trough) to the next
corresponding point.
Amplitude
Longer wavelength
Because light waves have different energy from atom to atom like sound waves
wavelengths, they also have different do. This means the different forms of light can
frequencies. As with sound waves, the travel through space to reach us on Earth.
frequency of a light wave is a measure of the
number of waves that pass a point each second Particle or wave?
(unit Hz). Amplitude is a measure of how far a
Experiments by early scientists provided two
particle moves from its place of rest.
forms of evidence about how light behaves. In
some experiments, light behaved as if it were a
Speed of light wave. Other experiments indicated that light
Light waves travel extremely fast: 300 000 km/s was a particle. Scientists now agree that light
in a vacuum. This value is known as the speed consists of a particle called a photon, which
of light. Light waves can travel through other can move in a wavelike fashion. Just like a wave
mediums too such as air, water and glass, where of water, it can bounce or reflect off surfaces
they slow down slightly. Unlike sound waves, and slow down if it travels through a thicker,
light waves don’t need a medium (solid, denser material. Just like a separate particle, it
liquid or gas) in which to travel, due to their can move by itself through space. This is how
electromagnetic nature. They don’t pass their the light from the Sun can reach the Earth.

Apply and understand Apply and analyse
1 What unit is used to measure 4 Sound is a wave but sound cannot
wavelength? travel through a vacuum (empty
2 The frequency of a wave is measured space)? Light can travel in a vacuum.
in units called hertz (Hz). How is this Why is this?
unit related to the unit of time, the 5 The relationship between wavelength
second (s)? and frequency is described as an
3 What is the speed of light in a vacuum? inverse or reciprocal relationship.
What do you think this means?
6 What is the difference between waves
of sound and waves of light?
Sound and light 73

EXPERIMENT 4.6: REFLECTION FROM
SKILLS LAB 4.6: USING A HODSON LIGHT BOX PLANE MIRRORS
4.6 Light reflects off

a mirror
Light can travel through transparent objects and is blocked by opaque
objects. Translucent objects allow some light energy through. When light
is reflected off a mirror, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. The image in the mirror is called a virtual image.
Light can reflect off a glass window but incidence is the angle between the incident
most of the light is transmitted and passes ray and the normal. The reflected ray leaves
through. This is because the glass in the the mirror from the base of the normal at
window is transparent. Some types of the same angle as the incidence ray. The
frosted glass prevent us seeing through angle of reflection is the angle between the
them clearly. They are translucent. If an reflected ray and the normal. An arrow is
opaque material is shiny enough or has a used to indicate which line is the incident
shiny coating, it will reflect the light and ray and which is the reflected ray. The
allow us to see the clear image. The best law of reflection states that the angle of
example of this is a mirror. incidence (symbol i) equals the angle of
The reflection of light from a mirror is reflection (symbol r).
shown in Figure 4.14. Light always follows When we look in a plane mirror we
particular rules when it reflects from a see a picture, or image, of ourselves. In
surface, no matter how rough or how the case of a plane mirror (a flat mirror),
smooth the surface is. The normal is an the image is always a virtual image. This
imaginary line that can be drawn at 90° means it cannot be captured on a piece of
(or perpendicular) to the mirror’s surface. paper or on a screen as a movie projector
It is usually drawn as a dotted line. does. The image always forms where the
The incident ray represents the light rays cross. The image we see in a
incoming light and strikes the mirror plane mirror is also laterally inverted, or
at the base of the normal. The angle of turned sideways.
Plane mirror
Mirror
Incident ray
i
Angle of r
incidence
Angle of
reflection
Object tcejbO
Normal Reflected ray
Figure 4.14 The angle of incidence (i) and the Figure 4.15 The image in a plane mirror is
angle of reflection (r) are the same when light virtual, laterally inverted, the same size as the
reflects off a mirror. object and the same distance from the mirror.

CHALLENGE 4.6A: MIRROR WRITING CHALLENGE 4.6B: USING CURVED MIRRORS
a b
Figure 4.16 (a) A mirror shows the lateral inversion of what we look like. (b) Curved mirrors can
distort the virtual image.
If we raise our left hand in front of a Concave mirrors cause the reflected
mirror, our image looks as if it is raising light to bend towards a central point. They
its right hand. The image is also the same are used in reflecting telescopes. Convex
distance behind the mirror as the object is mirrors scatter the light of an object. They
in front of it. are typically used in passenger side mirrors.
Curved mirrors are not as predictable
as plane mirrors. They can change the size
and nature of the object’s image. Curved
mirrors can be convex, where the centre
sticks out, or concave, where the centre
goes in, like a cave.

Remember and understand 4 Can you think of some
1 Summarise the meanings of uses of convex and
‘transparent’, ‘translucent’ and concave mirrors?
‘opaque’ and give two material 5 What do concave and
examples of each. convex mirrors have
2 Light fittings are often translucent. in common?
Why is this so? 6 What do plane
mirrors and a
Apply and analyse convex mirror
3 Draw up a table that explains the have in common?
meaning of the normal, incident ray,
angle of incidence, reflected ray and
angle of reflection.
Sound and light 75

4.7 Light refracts when
moving in and out of
substances
When light strikes a transparent material it enters the material and may
change direction. Refraction is the bending of light as it enters or leaves a
denser material at an angle. Light entering a denser material bends towards
the normal. Light entering a less dense medium bends away from the normal.
Refraction is the bending of light as it

passes at an angle from one transparent
medium (i.e. substance or material) into
another. Often when light is refracted, our
view is distorted. You might be familiar
with this effect when looking through
water.
The amount that light bends depends on
the optical density or refractive index of the
material and has the symbol n. The bent ray
is called the refracted ray and its angle with
the normal is the angle of refraction, r.
When a light ray enters a denser medium,
such as from air into water, it slows down and
consequently bends closer to the normal.
When the light ray leaves the denser
medium and moves into a less dense
medium, it speeds up. When this happens,
Figure 4.17 Water refracts light and distorts
images.
the light ray bends away from the normal.
Generally, dense liquids have a higher
refractive index than less dense gases. Dense
a b
solids have a higher refractive index than less
Normal Normal
dense liquids. Light bends because it changes
speed. The lower the refractive index, the
faster the light travels in the medium.
The only time that light does not refract
i i
Air Water is when it enters a new medium along the
Water Air normal (90° to the surface). It still changes
r r
speed, but there is no bending of the light.
Refraction in everyday life

Refraction explains a lot of everyday
phenomena (Figures 4.19 – 4.21).
Figure 4.18 (a) Light entering a denser medium bends towards the normal.
(b) Light entering a less dense medium bends away from the normal.

EXPERIMENT 4.7B: CREATING IMAGES WITH
EXPERIMENT 4.7A: BENDING OF LIGHT CONVEX LENSES
Lenses
A lens is usually a curved piece of transparent
material, such as glass or plastic. Convex lenses are
thicker in the centre than at the edges and concave
lenses are thinner in the centre than at the edges.
They work in a similar way to convex and concave
mirrors.
Convex lenses cause light rays to converge, or
focus. The focus (or focal point) is the point where
the rays cross and the focal length is the distance
from the focus to the middle of the lens.
Concave lenses cause light rays to diverge, or
Figure 4.19 Swimming pools and the ocean
look shallower than they really are. The depth
spread out. The focus is on the other side of the
we see is the apparent depth. This person looks lens and to find it the diverging rays are extended
shorter in the water because the apparent back until they cross at the apparent source. The
depth is less. focus can therefore be described as a virtual focus
because the light rays do not really come from this
point.
Convex lens Concave lens
Air
Water
Apparent Virtual focus
depth Focus
Actual
depth
Focal length
Focal length
Figure 4.20 Refraction makes underwater Figure 4.22 Parallel rays converge to a Figure 4.23 Parallel
objects appear closer to the surface than they focal point with convex lenses. rays diverge from a
really are. The fish looks closer than it really is focus through with
because the light has left a denser medium. concave lenses.
1 Make a list of the similarities and
differences between reflection and
refraction.
Apply and analyse
2 The refractive index of water is
1.33 and that of diamond is 2.42.
Draw a diagram to show how a
light ray bends when it travels
from water into diamond.
3 The refractive index of glass is 1.52
and that of air is 1.00. Draw a diagram
to show how a light ray bends when
it travels from glass into air.
Figure 4.21 Refraction makes straight
objects appear disconnected. This pencil looks
4 What are some uses of convex and
bent because its apparent position is different concave lenses?
from its real position. 5 What do convex and concave
lenses have in common?
Sound and light 77

4.8 Different wavelengths of
light are different colours
Visible light can be separated (dispersed) into the colours of the visible
spectrum – red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. Each colour has
a different wavelength and will refract different amounts to produce a
rainbow. An object appears coloured when some colours are absorbed, and
others are reflected into our eyes.
White light can be separated into an infinite mixed to produce white light. When two
range of different colours and shades, but there of the primary colours are mixed, they
are generally considered to be six (or seven) form secondary colours of light. Red light
basic colours – red, orange, yellow, green, and blue light make a red-blue light called
blue and violet. Sir Isaac Newton discovered magenta. Blue light and green light make
this concept and popular belief has it that he an aqua or turquoise light called cyan.
included a seventh colour for good luck, called Green light and red light make yellow
indigo, between blue and violet. This makes light. These rules are different for paints,
the colour sequence easy to remember as so if you are an art student, you will need
‘ROY-G-BIV’. This range of colours is called to think differently when considering
the visible spectrum. The process used to mixtures of light compared to mixtures of
produce these colours is called dispersion. paint!
If cyan light and red light are mixed,
the result is white. When only two colours
are needed to make white light, they are
called complementary colours of light.
2 3
Each colour of the visible spectrum has
a different wavelength (the length of one
complete cycle of a wave) and is refracted
by a different amount when moving
through mediums of different densities.
1. Yellow
This produces the separation of colours. A 2. Magenta
rainbow is an example of dispersion (and 3. Cyan
total internal reflection). Three of the six
basic colours are called primary colours Figure 4.24 Where the red, green and blue
of light. These are red, green and blue. lights overlap, white light is produced. The
This is because these three alone can be secondary colours are formed by the overlap of
two of the primary colours.

EXPERIMENT 4.8: WHAT COLOUR IS IT?
GO TO PAGE 198.
This is because the cyan light already Colour of transparent

contains blue and green, so if we add red
light, we effectively have the three primary objects
colours, which we already know make Transparent objects, such as the coloured
white. filters in the Hodson light box kits, or
coloured cellophane, transmit (allow to pass)
Colour of opaque objects and absorb colours in the same general way
that blue objects appear blue to us. If the blue
So, why do coloured objects appear
colour is transmitted while the red and green
coloured? When white light (or sunlight)
colours are absorbed, then the filter appears
falls on an opaque object, some colours
to be blue. For example, a red filter appears
may be reflected while others are absorbed
red because the blue light and green light are
(or soaked up or subtracted from the white
absorbed and red passes through. Therefore
light). The colour the object appears to be
we see the red light from the filter.
depends on the mix of colours that reflect
into our eyes. In most cases, it is easier to Yellow glass
consider white light as just made up of red,
green and blue light.
If some colours are absorbed and some Red light
are reflected, the object will appear to be the
colour of the mix it reflects. This rule is the
same for objects illuminated by coloured
light. So, a red top appears red because red
Green light
light is reflected from the red surface to our
eye. Grass is green because the red and blue
wavelengths are absorbed and the green
wavelength is reflected back to our eyes.
Blue light
a
White light Green light Figure 4.26 A filter that transmits red and
is reflected. green light and absorbs blue light will appear
B G R
yellow.
Green
grass
Blue and red light is absorbed.
1 What is the result when magenta
and yellow lights are mixed?
b Hence, what are these two colours
called?
White light 2 How does a green surface appear
B G R No light is in red light? Explain your answer.
reflected.
Apply and analyse
Black 3 What would you see if you looked
surface at white light through a yellow
filter? Explain your answer.
4 What is the difference between
All colours are absorbed.
primary and secondary colours of
light?
Figure 4.25 (a) A green surface reflects green 5 If white light is a mixture of all the
light and so looks green. (b) A black surface primary colours of light, what is
absorbs all colours and so looks black. No
black?
colours are reflected.
Sound and light 79

4.9 The electromagnetic
spectrum has many uses
When a light ray passes into a less dense medium at a particularly large
angle, it can be reflected back into the dense medium. This is called total
internal reflection. This characteristic of light is used in optic fibres. Other
forms of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as microwaves, are used in
everything from communication to cooking food.
Total internal reflection

Many optical instruments, such as cameras,
microscopes and some telescopes, use lenses but
several use prisms to reflect light. A prism is
usually a triangular block of glass. When light
passes from one medium to a less dense medium,
it is refracted away from the normal. As the
angle of incidence increases, the refracted ray
may be refracted so much that it travels along
the surface between the two mediums, known
as the interface, at an angle of 90° to the normal.
The angle of incidence at which this occurs is
called the critical angle (symbol ic ). If the angle
of incidence is increased further, the light has
nowhere to go and is reflected back into the dense
medium. This phenomenon is known as total Figure 4.28 Optic fibres are used to carry
internal reflection. It only occurs when light digital light signals and they have various
attempts to travel from a more dense medium applications.
a b
Normal
a Refracted ray Incident ray
Less dense material Refraction Refraction

More dense material
d
c i2 r2
Total
internal
reflection
Total internal Total internal
Light source i2 = r2 reflection reflection
Figure 4.27 (a) Rays a and b are refracted because the angle of incidence is less than the critical
angle. Ray c occurs when the critical angle is reached. Ray d is reflected when the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle. (b) Total internal reflection.

EXPERIMENT 4.9: WHAT IS THE WAVELENGTH OF A MICROWAVE?
GO TO PAGE 199.
into a less dense medium and only for angles Microwave ovens
greater than the critical angle.
The electromagnetic waves in a microwave oven
Using total internal reflection
provide energy to make the water molecules in
food move. The increased movement of the water
Optic fibres have revolutionised communication molecules causes friction between the other
systems. Instead of relying on copper wires to molecules in the food. This friction between
carry electrical signals, we now use bundles of all the molecules causes the food to heat up.
optic fibres to carry light signals for landline
telephone calls, the Internet and networking of
computers. An optic fibre is a very thin fibre
of glass or plastic that carries light. By sending Radio waves reflected from a
Microwaves pass charged layer of the upper atmosphre
the information as controlled pulses of light, a
single fibre less than a millimetre wide can carry through the
atmosphere Signal received
thousands of landline telephone calls. Atmosphere even though
The advantages of optic fibres over copper transmitter and
wire are less signal loss, greater carrying capacity receiver are not
and immunity to electromagnetic interference. in the line of sight
Hence, long distances can be covered with fewer
repeater (or booster) stations. A single optic fibre
carries much more data than a copper cable, so
optic fibres save space, and crossed messages (a
form of interference) cannot happen. Optic fibres
do not generate heat like the current in a copper
wire and are non-electrical, so they don’t pose a
fire risk and can be used around high voltages.
Microwaves
Microwaves are one small part of the Figure 4.30
electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelengths Check your learning 4.9 Electromagnetic
of microwaves are usually 1 mm to 1 m in waves with different
Remember and understand wavelengths behave
length. Microwaves have many uses from
1 List the ways total internal differently in the Earth's
communication (mobile phones) to cooking,
reflection is similar to and atmosphere.
from global positional systems (GPS) to radar.
different from reflection from a
Microwaves can be focused into narrower beams
plane mirror.
than radio waves. This allows them to be used
for person-to-person communication on Earth 2 Why can’t total internal reflection
occur for light passing from a
or even between Earth and the space station.
less dense material into a denser
material?
3 What is the advantage of using
optic fibres instead of copper wire
Light in for telecommunications?
Apply and analyse
Glass cladding 4 Why is the amount of water in a
Glass core food important when cooking in a
microwave?
5 Research three other uses for
other forms of electromagnetic
Light out
waves.
Figure 4.29 Light zigzags along inside an
optic fibre at the boundary of the core and the
cladding.
Sound and light 81

4.10 Our eyes detect light
Our eyes are amazing organs. They automatically control how much
light enters, enabling us to see in both dim and bright conditions. A lens
focuses the light onto the back of the eye. The light receptors detect light
and send a message to the brain, which then forms a picture.
Sclera Retina
Tough, white outer layer of eyeball Light-sensitive back section of the eye
that contains over a million rods and
Optic nerve
cones: sensory cells that convert light
Vitreous humour Nerve that connects the
signals into electrical messages
Transparent material retina to the brain and
inside the eyeball, conveys the light signals
behind the lens. It is as electrical messages
jelly-like in consistency
and gives the eyeball its
rounded shape.
Iris
Coloured ring that
Lens contracts (closes) and
Curved, dilates (opens) to
transparent control the amount of
structure that light entering the eye.
further bends the The light passes
light rays after through the hole in the
passing through centre of the iris – the
the cornea and pupil.
the pupil, to form
a focused image
on the retina
Pupil
Circular opening in the
Ciliary muscles iris that allows light to
These pull on the lens and enter the eye
adjust its shape. Different
shapes of the lens allow us to
focus on both near and far
objects. If the muscles cannot
apply the correct forces, then
our vision may become blurry
and need correcting with Cornea
spectacle or contact lenses. Curved front section of the eye that
bends the light rays before they are
further bent by the lens. Diseased or
cloudy parts of the cornea may be
Aqueous humour replaced by transplanted corneas from
Watery fluid between the cornea and the an organ donor.
lens. Its main function is to provide
nourishment for the cornea and the lens.
Figure 4.31 The human eye.

EXPERIMENT 4.10: EYE DISSECTION EXPERIMENT4.10:
CHALLENGE 4.10:VISION
EYE DISSECTION
TESTS
202.
The amount of light entering the eye is structures are transparent and curved so they
controlled by the iris. The iris is the coloured bend the light rays towards each other. Muscles
part of the eye and consists of a ring of attached to the lens allow it to change shape
muscular tissue that expands and contracts, and adjust the focus of the light from near and
effectively controlling the size of the hole in its far objects. The image produced on the back of
centre, the pupil. the eye, the retina, is upside down (inverted)
This automatic response can easily be tested and smaller than the object (diminished).
by shining a bright light into a person’s eyes The retina contains light-sensitive cells
to see if their pupils automatically constrict called rods (sensitive to dim light) and cones
(shrink). If they don’t, the person may have a (sensitive to colour). These cells detect light
head injury or an altered state of consciousness. and convert it into an electrical signal, which
As light enters the eye, it is bent, or is carried to the brain by the optic nerve. The
refracted, first by the cornea at the front of brain then interprets the signals, turning them
the eye and then by the lens. Both of these the right way and resizing them.
Retina Actual object

(at a distance)
Optic nerve
Cornea Light rays
Lens
Inverted and
diminished image
of object
Figure 4.32 The image produced on the retina is upside down.

1 List, in order, the parts of the eye that 3 Which shape of the lens in question 2
a ray of light passes through, starting is needed for our eye to focus on close
with the cornea and ending with the objects? Explain your answer.
retina. 4 What are the similarities and
2 The lens of the eye can change shape, differences between the aqueous
becoming thicker or thinner in the humour and the vitreous humour?
centre. What is the effect of each of
these two changes on the focal length
of the lens?
Sound and light 83

4.11 Things can go wrong
with our eyes
Some people find it difficult to focus their vision on close (hyperopia) or
distant objects (myopia). Other people may have an eyeball shaped like an
Australian Rules football (astigmatism). These problems can be fixed with
the correct lens. Other conditions may require surgery.
Myopia a
A person who can focus on near objects, such
as a book or newspaper, but cannot focus on
distant objects is described as short-sighted.
The scientific term for this condition is myopia.
In this case, the eyeball is too long and the lens
focuses the image in front of the retina.
The light rays need to be spread apart
(diverged) to refocus the image on the retina.
This defect is corrected by using glasses with
b
concave lenses.
Hyperopia
If a person can see distant objects but close
objects are blurry, they are long-sighted. This
is called hyperopia. It is caused by the eyeball
being too short and the lens focusing the image
behind the retina.
Figure 4.33
(a) In myopia, the a Figure 4.34 (a) In hyperopia, the close vision is
distance vision is blurred because the light rays focus behind the
blurred because the retina. (b) This is corrected by a convex lens.
light rays focus in front
of the retina. (b) This The light rays need to be drawn in closer
is corrected by a
concave lens.
together (converged) to refocus the image on
the retina. This defect is corrected by using
glasses with convex lenses.
Colour-blindness
b Another interesting problem is colour-
blindness. This doesn’t mean a person sees in
black and white. If the cone cells (that detect
the different wavelengths that make up colour)
do not function correctly, a person may not
be able to tell the difference between certain
colours. Red-green colour-blindness is an
inherited condition and is more common in
males than females.

CHALLENGE 4.11: MAKE A JELLY LENS FOR YOUR SMARTPHONE
GO TO PAGE 203.
Cataracts
As you get older, the lens in the eye can start
to become cloudy to the extent that is can
eventually frost over, like frosted glass. This is
called a cataract and leads to total blindness.
The cataract lens can be removed in eye surgery
and replaced with a plastic multifocal lens.
Astigmatism
Most people’s corneas are curved in the
shape of a soccer ball – curved evenly across
and up and down. If a person suffers from
astigmatism, their corneas are shaped more
like an Australian Rules football. In this
type of condition, the curvature is different
across the cornea from the lengthways curve.
Figure 4.35 The white film of a cataract
This condition leads to an inability to focus prevents light from entering the eye.
correctly and, therefore, blurry vision. It can be
corrected with prescription glasses.
Normal eye Astigmatic eye
Figure 4.36 The cornea of a normal eye is

round, whereas an astigmatic eye has a
football-shaped cornea.

1 Use a table to compare short- 3 What advantages can you think of for
sightedness and long-sightedness, wearing contact lenses compared to
listing the differences between these glasses? Are there any disadvantages?
two problems and how they are 4 Ask someone who wear glasses if you
corrected. could examine them. Carefully try to
2 If a person has more than one vision detect which type of lenses they have.
problem, how could their vision be Try the glasses on. What do they do
corrected? Explain your answer. to your near and far vision? (If you
already have glasses, try someone
else’s.)
5. Investigate what is involved in laser
eye surgery and write a short report.
Sound and light 85

4
REVIEW
Remember and understand 9 List the advantages of optic fibres over

copper wires for communications.
1 Complete this paragraph by inserting the
10 Create a table on your computer, listing the
missing words. The first letter of each
parts of the human eye. In another column,
missing word is given.
explain the role of each part.
Sound is created by v________. The
11 Exposure to 85 dB or more of noise for
v________ create c________ and
8 hours is illegal in Australian workplaces.
r_______ due to the movement of the
Suggest a reason why even though this
particles as the sound w_______ passes
sound is not regarded as ‘painful’.
through. The w_____ travels through the
substance and is known as a l_________ 12 Describe the appearance of the Australian
wave. The greater the vibration, the flag when viewed in:
higher the v_______ of the sound, which a blue light
means it sounds l_______. Sound waves b red light
must have a m_____ to pass through.
c green light.
2 The semicircular canals are located in
our ears but are not used for hearing.
What do they do? Evaluate and create
3 Print out and label the diagram of the 13 Bifocals are glasses that have two distinct
ear shown in Figure 4.37. sections. What might be the purpose of
these two sections?
e 14 Butchers sometimes use red lights to
illuminate their meat in the shop window.
d Why might they choose this colour?
15 Is black a colour? Explain your reasoning.
16 A grand piano can be played with the lid
opened or closed. Most often, concert
pianists will play with the lid open towards
the audience. Why do you think they would
choose to do this? What effect might this
have on the sound produced by the piano?
a 17 The table shows the speed of sound at
c
b different temperatures.
Figure 4.37
AIR TEMPERATURE (°C) SPEED OF SOUND (m/s)
4 What does the ‘frequency’ of a sound 0 330
describe? What is its unit? 10 336
5 Why does sound travel faster in solids 20 342
than in air?
30 348
6 What is the difference between the
40 354
primary colours of light and the primary
colours of paint.
a Using graph paper, draw a graph of
the speed of sound (vertical axis) at
Apply and analyse various air temperatures (horizontal
7 If radio communication between axis). Start the scale at 320 m/s on the
astronauts broke down on the Moon, vertical axis.
would it help if they shouted at each b What happens to the speed of sound as
other with their helmets touching? Why the temperature increases?
or why not? c Use your graph to determine the
8 Explain how pitch and frequency of speed of sound at 5°C.
sound are related. Is there a difference
between the two terms?

d Use your graph to work out the
temperature of the air if the speed of >> Supersonic planes
sound is 351 m/s. What does ‘supersonic sound’
18 Research the differences and similarities mean? What is the difference
between audible sound, ultrasound and between a supersonic jet and
infrasound. Display your answer using a a normal jet aircraft? What
Venn diagram. are some of the problems with
supersonic planes? Why was
19 Can you think of a device that works the Concorde removed from air
in a similar way to the retina–optic travel service?
nerve–brain system? It does not have to
produce visual images but should carry
a signal from some sort of receiver to a >> Hearing technologies
processing unit. Explain how the device
works and what similarities it has to the What would it be like to wear a
retina–optic nerve–brain system. bionic ear? What does ‘sound’
sound like with a bionic ear?
20 Interview someone who recently had What sound technologies are
their eyes tested, recently had laser eye being developed right now? What
surgery, wears contact lenses, is colour- other non-hearing technologies
blind or has a vision impairment. Prepare are being developed through our
some appropriate questions for the knowledge of sound energy?
person to answer. Present your findings
to the class or in an appropriate and
engaging format.
>> Vision defects
21 Astronauts in space can still see each
other even if they cannot hear them. Some people find it difficult to
focus on near or distant objects.
a What does this say about the This type of defect is reasonably
mechanism by which light travels common. Find out what causes
compared to how sound travels? both defects and how they can
b What can you infer about the ability of be corrected. What other vision
light energy to travel through outer defects are common and how
space? are they treated?
Research
>> Speed of light
22 Choose one of the following topics
What is the speed of light? Why
for a research project. A few guiding
can’t objects travel faster than the
questions have been provided, but you
speed of light? What if they could?
should add more questions that you wish
How is it measured and how was
to investigate. Present your report in a
it discovered? What applications
format of your own choosing, but one
does it have in science?
component of your report must include
a demonstration of sound (for example,
if you make an instrument, it needs to be
>> Night vision goggles
played). In a multimedia presentation,
sound must be part of the presentation. Night vision goggles allow
If you interview someone as part of your soldiers to see at night and
research, you must present a tape of your spot the enemy before they are
interview with your report. spotted themselves. They give
an army a tactical advantage,
but how do they work? Will
they work in a totally dark
environment? Do they have any
disadvantages to the soldiers
operating them?
Sound and light 87

4
KEYWORDS
amplitude medium
the distance a particle moves from its a substance or material through which light
position of rest can move
angle of incidence normal
the angle between the incident ray and the (light) an imaginary line that is drawn at
normal (the line drawn at right angles to a right angles to the surface of a reflective or
reflective surface) refractive material
angle of reflection opaque
the angle between the reflected ray and the a substance that does not allow light to
normal (the line drawn at right angles to a pass through
reflective surface) optic fibre
angle of refraction a thin fibre of glass or plastic that carries
the angle between the refracted ray and the information/data in the form of light
normal (the line drawn at right angles to a optic nerve
refractive surface) the nerve that carries information from the
compression eyes to the brain
part of a sound wave where air particles pupil
are forced close together the dark opening in the centre of the eye
concave that allows light to pass through
a lens or mirror in which the centre is rarefaction
thinner than the two ends a part of a sound wave where air particles
converge are forced apart
when rays of light move towards a single refracted ray
point a ray of light that has bent as a result of
convex light speeding up or slowing down
a lens or mirror in which the centre is refraction
thicker than the two ends the bending of light as a result of light
cornea speeding up or slowing down
a transparent layer at the front of the eye refractive index
diverge a measure of the bending of light as it
when rays of light move away from each passes from one medium to another
other retina
focal length the layer of cells at the back of the eye
the distance between the centre of the lens total internal reflection
and the focus when a light ray passes from a more dense
focus material at a large angle, it can be reflected
the point where rays of light cross back into the dense medium
frequency translucent
the number of waves that pass a point every a substance that allows light through, but
second; measured in hertz it diffuses so that objects cannot be seen
image clearly
a likeness of an object that is produced as a transparent
result of light reflection or refraction a substance that allows all light to pass
iris through
the coloured part of the eye transverse wave
lens a type of (light) wave where the vibrations are
a curved piece of transparent material at right angles to the direction of the wave
longitudinal wave wavelength

a type of (sound) wave where the particles the distance between two crests or troughs
move in the direction of travel of the wave of a wave

PHYSICAL AND
5
CHEMICAL
5.1 Atoms and elements
make up matter
CHANGE
Atoms bond together to make
5.2 molecules and compounds
Physical change is a change

5.3 in shape or appearance
Chemical change produces new

5.4 substances
Chemical reactions can break bonds

5.5 and re-form new bonds
What if?
5.6 Heat can speed up a reaction
Dissolving tablets
What you need:
effervescent antacid tablets,
beaker, water, timer, Vaseline
Many substances exist because
5.7 of the work of scientists
What to do:
1 Place 100 mL of water in a beaker.
2 Place the effervescent antacid
tablet in the water and time how
long it takes to dissolve.
What if?
» What if warm water were used?
Physical and chemical
5.8 changes are used to recycle » What if cold water were used?
» What if the tablet were
household waste broken up?
» What if more than 100 mL of
water were used?
» What if the tablet were covered
in Vaseline?

CHALLENGE 5.1A: CL ASSIFYING ELEMENTS
GO TO PAGE 204.
5.1 Atoms and elements make

up matter
The kinetic theory of matter helps us understand not just physical
properties, but also chemical properties. A closer look at the smallest
particles of matter shows us that it is made up of atoms. An element is a
pure substance made of only one type of atom. All the atoms in the element
are identical. The periodic table organises the elements according to their
chemical and physical properties.
What are atoms? The element is the substance that can

be observed and has properties that can be
In Year 7 you learnt about the ideas measured. Atoms are far too small to be
of Democritus and the Ancient observed and are incredibly difficult to measure.
Greeks. They used the word
The elements are broken into two main
atomos to describe those particles
types, metals and non metals. In the solid
that could not be divided up any
state, atoms of metals are held in a lattice. Most
further. The concept of the atom
other elements, which are not metals, are called
was also referred to in ancient
non-metals. Most non-metals are gases at
Indian texts. John Dalton and
normal temperatures. Some gases, such as neon
other chemists from the 19th century
and helium, are monatomic. This means that
onwards further developed the idea,
each gas particle is a single atom (mono = one).
using the term ‘atom’ to describe those
However, the atoms in other gases, such as
particles that couldn’t be broken down any
oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, are diatomic.
Figure 5.1 Not all metals further by chemical means.
The atoms of these elements join together in
are the same. The smallest atom in terms of mass is pairs (di = two).
the hydrogen atom. Next is helium. Heavier
atoms include those of lead and uranium.
What are elements?

An element is a pure substance made of
only one type of atom. All the atoms in the
element are identical. There are 90 different
elements that are found naturally on Earth.
Each element is made of a different type of
atom. Another 20 or so atoms have been made
artificially, but these are highly radioactive
Figure 5.3 A metallic lattice.
and break down within a second. These
artificially made atoms are too large to be
stable and they disintegrate almost as soon as
Figure 5.2 Aluminium
foil is made of the
they are made.
element aluminium Elements cannot be broken down into
and each strip contains other substances because they are already the
billions of aluminium simplest substances. They can be thought of as
atoms.
being ‘elementary’, which is the origin of the
name element.
Figure 5.4 Helium is monatomic.

CHALLENGE 5.1B: IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS EXPERIMENT 5.1: PROPERTIES OF
IN THE PERIODIC TABLE THE ELEMENTS
1 Group 18
6 Atomic number
1 2
C Chemical symbol
1 H 12.01 Atomic mass Non-metals He
1.01 Carbon Name of element 4.00
Hydrogen Helium
2 13 14 15 16 17
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Transition metals Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Sodium Magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.95 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.95 55.85 58.93 58.70 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.4 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.74 127.60 126.90 131.29
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
57
6 Cs Ba to Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 71 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
89
7 Fr Ra to Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
(223) 226.03 103 (205) 105 (271) (272) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (289) (294) (294)
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Flerovium Ununpentium Livermorium Ununseptium Ununoctium
Metals
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Rare earth elements La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Lanthanoid series 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.4 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Actinoid series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227.03 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260)
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Figure 5.5 The periodic table.
Elements and the periodic Check your learning 5.1

table Remember and understand
The periodic table arranges all the elements in 1 What is the connection between
order of the size of their atoms. It also groups atoms and elements?
together elements with similar properties. The
2 What are the two main types of
horizontal rows in the table are called periods. elements?
The vertical columns are called groups.
3 What are the rows of a periodic
The elements in a group often have similar
table called?
properties, such as the way they look or how
4 What are the names of the first
they behave. Metals are found to the left of
five elements on the periodic
the zigzag line in the table and non-metals are
table? What are their symbols?
found to the right.
5 Which element is in period 3,
On the periodic table, you will notice that
group 2?
elements are represented by their symbols, which
6 What two letters are not
consist of one or two letters: hydrogen has the
represented in the elemental
symbol H; helium has the symbol He. Other
symbols of the periodic table?
symbols are oxygen (O), carbon (C), nitrogen
7 How many words can you make
(N), sulfur (S), gold (Au) and silver (Ag).
up using the elemental symbols
Elements can also be classified on the basis of the periodic table?
of their chemical properties. These include how
they react with other substances, such as acids
and the oxygen in the air.
Physical and chemical change 91

5.2 Atoms bond together
to make molecules and
compounds
Molecules are groups of two or more atoms that are bonded together.
They can be the same element or different. When the atoms are different
elements they can also be called compounds. Compounds are different
from mixtures because the atoms are chemically joined or bonded.
Elements and compounds can be represented by chemical formulas,
while mixtures cannot.
What are molecules? oxygen atoms joined together. Oxygen gas is

a substance made of oxygen molecules. Pure
Molecular substances can be elements (made oxygen gas consists of millions and millions of
of the same type of atoms), such as oxygen oxygen molecules, all exactly alike.
(O2), or compounds (made of two or more
This means that the word ‘oxygen’ can
different types of atoms bonded together), such
Figure 5.6 Most tablets be used in two different ways: it can be used
and capsules are
as water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). We
to describe the element or it can be used as
compounds of the active use a chemical formula to show the types and
the name of the molecule. When you see the
ingredients mixed with numbers of atoms that make up molecules.
names of chemicals, check the way in which
substances to help Oxygen is an example of a molecular
the active ingredients the name is being used.
element. An oxygen molecule consists of two
absorb into the blood Molecules of a compound contain atoms
and reach their desired of two or more different elements. Carbon
target. dioxide is a molecular compound. Its
molecules contain one carbon and two oxygen
O O atoms (CO2). Pure carbon dioxide gas (the
O substance) consists of millions and millions of
carbon dioxide molecules.
Water is another molecular compound.
O A water molecule consists of one atom of
oxygen joined to two atoms of hydrogen
Figure 5.7 An oxygen molecule (O2) is formed by (H2O). Pure water consists of many millions
two oxygen atoms. of water molecules. The water molecules are all
identical.
H H When sugar (C6H12O6) is mixed with water
O C O O (H2O), there are two different compounds in
the mixture. Because the two compounds are
Figure 5.8 A carbon Figure 5.9 A water molecule
not chemically bonded to each other, they can
dioxide molecule (CO2) is (H2O) is a compound made up be easily separated. Therefore mixtures cannot
a compound made up of of two hydrogen atoms and be represented by chemical formulas.
one carbon atom and two one oxygen atom.
oxygen atoms.

EXPERIMENT 5.2: DECOMPOSING COPPER CARBONATE
GO TO PAGE 207.
Atoms of Atoms of Mixture of elements Compound of elements

element X element Y X and Y X and Y
Figure 5.10 Mixtures are different from compounds.
Compounds and mixtures

You have seen that elements contain only one
type of atom. However, you will know that
there are far more substances than just the 90
naturally occurring elements.
Most of the substances we use are
compounds. By altering the numbers and types
of atoms, chemists can alter the properties of Figure 5.11 A polyethylene molecule is made up of thousands of carbon
these substances. Many of the substances that atoms joined in a chain, with hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon chain.
are important to our society are used because of
their important properties. These compounds
are made in factories or obtained from natural
products. Some important compounds are Remember and understand
pharmaceuticals, fertilisers and polymers. 1 Look at the diagrams below, which show (i) a mixture of an
Some compounds are molecular, such as element and a compound, (ii) a mixture of two elements, and
water and carbon dioxide. Other compounds (iii) a pure element.
are called polymers. The molecules in polymers
are made of groups of atoms that repeat over
and over – like the beads on a necklace. Plastics
are examples of polymers. Other polymers
include chemicals found in plants and animals,
such as starch and proteins.
Other compounds do not contain
molecules but exist in a lattice arrangement, State which description matches which diagram, explaining
with atoms held together in three-dimensional your reasoning for each type of substance.
networks. 2 What are some elements that exist as molecules rather than
Elements and compounds are pure single atoms?
substances. The particles within one pure 3 How are molecules and compounds related? Explain your
substance, whether they are atoms or answer.
molecules, are all the same. The following 4 What is the difference in meaning between the following
chart shows the different types of substances. groups of words?
a atoms and molecules
b elements and compounds
c diatomic and monatomic
d molecule, polymer and lattice.
5 Ammonia is a gas that contains molecules with the formula
NH3. What elements are present in ammonia and how many of
each atom is there in each ammonia molecule?

5.3 Physical change is a
change in shape or
appearance
One way that substances can change is through a physical change. The
substance still consists of the same particles, but it looks different. A cut
diamond is made of the same material as an uncut diamond. Chocolate
that has melted and solidified into a mould is the same as the original block
of chocolate. Physical changes can happen when a force is applied, when
substances break down into smaller pieces and when substances change
state between solid, liquid and gas.
Physical changes are faster. Eventually they have so much energy

that the water molecules break free of the others
reversible around them and are free to move around.
Most physical changes are reversible, which The solid ice has melted to become liquid water.
means the change can be undone and the
substance goes back to how it was. When you Changing state
put water (H2O) in the freezer, it turns to solid
Substances can change between the three states.
ice. When you take the ice out of the freezer,
You are familiar with seeing water change state
it changes back into water. In this way we can
(when ice blocks melt), but other substances may
deduce that a physical change has taken place
only ever be seen in one state. Theoretically, all
Figure 5.12 Ice melting because the water is still water and no new
substances can be changed into different states
to water is an example substances have been created.
if the temperature is hot (or cold) enough. Even
of a physical change. For each of these substances the particle gases, such as nitrogen, can be turned into a
itself has not changed. The molecule of water liquid at very low temperatures. ‘Dry ice’ is
that contains two hydrogen atoms and one actually solidified carbon dioxide.
oxygen atom (H2O) is exactly the same when it
is a solid, liquid or a gas. The main difference is
how closely packed all the water molecules are
Vaporisation and
and how much kinetic energy they have. condensation
In ice, all the water molecules are in a When a liquid evaporates to become a gas, we
regular arrangement (rows, columns and layers). say it has vaporised. A vapour is the gaseous
A three-dimensional arrangement of particles form of a substance that is normally a solid or
in a regular pattern is called a lattice. The water liquid at room temperature. For example, when
molecules in ice are constantly vibrating. This water is turned into a gas, it is referred to as water
ice lattice is unique. The solid takes up more vapour. Vapours that are smelly are often called
space than the liquid water. fumes. However, remember that vapours and
When heat energy is added, the water fumes are still gases and will behave like gases.
molecules vibrate faster. However, the molecules Volatile substances, such as petrol, vaporise
are still held in place in the lattice by other water easily. Cooking oil does not vaporise if left at
Figure 5.13 Particles in a molecules around them. As the ice warms up, the normal room temperatures. Cooking oil is not
solid may be arranged in water molecules gain more energy and vibrate a volatile liquid.
a lattice.

EXPERIMENT 5.3: MELTING CHOCOL ATE CHALLENGE 5.3: EXPLORING PHYSICAL
GO TO PAGE 208. CHANGES GO TO PAGE 209.
Sublimation
Boiling,
Melting vaporisation
VAPOUR
Figure 5.15 Dry ice is
LIQUID
frozen carbon dioxide
SOLID OR GAS
gas.
Freezing, Condensation
solidification
Sublimation
Figure 5.14 Changing states of water molecules. A solid contains lattice water molecules, a liquid
contains a loose arrangement of water molecules and vapour or gas contains separated water
molecules.
Boiling occurs when we heat a liquid to to produce smoke effects on stage at

change it into a gas. The boiling point of pure concerts. However, the ‘smoke’ you
water is 100°C. At this temperature, water see is not carbon dioxide, but clouds
changes its state to become water vapour. Water of water. When dry ice sublimes to
left in the open at normal room temperature form carbon dioxide gas, it cools the air
will gradually evaporate. If the water is heated quickly, which causes water vapour in the
to its boiling point, the water molecules will air to condense and form clouds of water.
quickly gain kinetic energy and evaporate faster. Diamond is the hardest known substance
When a gas changes state to become a liquid, on Earth. It also sublimes, but only at Figure 5.16 Water
normally by cooling, we say it condenses. extremely high temperatures (above 3500°C). vapour in the air has
The most common condensation that you can condensed on this cold
window.
observe is when water vapour in the air (or
your breath) condenses on a cold surface. The Check your learning 5.3
kinetic energy of the water particle passes to the Remember and understand
surface as heat energy. The water particle does 1 Describe what the following words
not change, instead it slows its movement and mean:
becomes liquid water. a lattice
b sublimation
Melting and solidification c condenses
When a solid is heated and changes state to d volatile.
become a liquid, we say it has melted. When the
liquid loses heat and becomes a solid, it is called Apply and analyse
solidification. When solidification happens to 2 A student claimed that the bubbles
water, it is sometimes called freezing. In both in boiling water were oxygen. Are
they correct? Explain your answer.
these examples the molecules do not change,
just the amount of energy they have changes. 3 Explain why all perfumes are
volatile liquids.
Sublimation Evaluate and create
Some substances don’t ever exist as liquids. 4 Draw a diagram with the three major
They just change state from a solid to a gas states of water. Name the physical Figure 5.17 Dry ice
changes the water goes through to does not form a liquid.
or from a gas to a solid. This process is called
form ice and water vapour. Instead the particles
sublimation. Dry ice (CO2) changes directly
sublimate.
from a solid into a gas. Dry ice is often used

5.4 Chemical change
produces new substances
When substances interact, they may change. The changes can be noticed
in many ways, such as by a change in colour, the formation of bubbles,
a change in temperature or the formation of solids. In both pure elements
and pure compounds, the smallest particles in the substance are all
identical to each other, whether they are individual atoms or molecules
made up from a particular combination of atoms. When a chemical change
occurs, a new substance is formed.
Chemical changes Whether a change is physical or chemical

depends on the substances, the temperature
In a chemical change, a new chemical is made. and how you mix them.
This means that the atoms have been moved
around into new arrangements. In some
chemical changes, atoms can be separated
Physical change or chemical
to make new chemicals. Sometimes atoms change?
and molecules join together to make new When solid chocolate is heated gradually, it
chemical substances with larger molecules. melts and changes shape; when cooled, it goes
New substances have new particles and new back to the solid state. It may have a different
properties. Both the physical and chemical shape, but it is still chocolate. In this situation,
properties of the new substance (the product) a physical change has taken place because the
will be different from those of the original chocolate is still the same substance: it is still
substance (the reactant). made up of the same particles.
In every chemical reaction, one or more However, if you heat chocolate at too
substances are changed into new, different high a temperature, it burns. When it cools,
substances with different physical and chemical it no longer tastes of chocolate, but of burnt
properties. Chemical changes are usually not chocolate. This is a chemical change, because a
reversible – you cannot un-burn toast! new substance is formed that is different from
chocolate – you can tell by the taste and smell!
This is why most chocolate recipes suggest
heating chocolate over boiling water rather
than over a hot plate, so that the chocolate does
not get too hot and a chemical change does not
take place.
When you bake a cake, mixing the
ingredients together produces a physical change.
Baking the cake involves a chemical change.
Cooking often turns food brown. This is
due to the sugar in the food caramelising –
turning into brown caramel. The change forms
a new substance and is not reversible. It is a
chemical change.
Figure 5.18 Heating chocolate slowly causes it to melt – a physical change. We can usually identify a chemical change
If it is heated quickly and at a higher temperature, the chocolate will burn – if one of the following occurs (see Figures 5.19
a chemical change.
to 5.22).

CHALLENGE 5.4: MAKING CARAMEL EXPERIMENT 5.4: OBSERVING CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Figure 5.19 A gas is produced, which we Figure 5.20 A colour change occurs that is
either see as bubbles or fizz. non-reversible. Heating an iron nail to red
hot is a physical change because the red
colour will disappear as the nail cools down;
however, if the iron in the nail reacts with air
and becomes rusty, it is a chemical change.
Figure 5.21 Light or heat is absorbed or Figure 5.22 A precipitate (insoluble solid
produced in chemical reactions. When the substance) forms that does not go away.
atoms in sodium metal and water rearrange
themselves, the extra energy is released as
light and heat.

Remember and understand c Boiling water and condensing
1 When melted chocolate is put in the the vapour.
fridge, it cools quickly producing d Dissolving magnesium in acid to
small crystals that were not present produce hydrogen gas.
before. This changes the taste of e Separating leaves from woodchips
the chocolate. Is this a chemical or using a garden blower.
physical change?
Apply and analyse
2 What is the evidence for a chemical
change? 4 Why is caramelisation a chemical
reaction?
3 Identify the following as physical or
chemical changes. 5 What is the evidence that baking
a cake from egg, flour and butter
a Melting cooking chocolate into
is a chemical reaction?
animal shapes.
b Burning magnesium ribbon to form
a white ash.

5.5 Chemical reactions can
break bonds and re-form
new bonds
A chemical change can also be described as a chemical reaction. In
chemical changes or reactions in substances, the atoms in the reactants
separate from each other and bond together in new combinations to form
new products.
Chemical reactions
Reactants
Reactants Products
Products
The substances that you start with are called

reactants. They react or change to produce
new substances. The substances that you finish
with are called products. They are produced
in a chemical change. There may be more
than one reactant and product for each
chemical change.
Chemical reactions are all around
us. They not only occur in factories – Figure 5.25
they take place in our homes and in
our bodies. Every process in your body brown as the sugars are caramelised. The
requires chemical changes. Cooking food sugar is the reactant, and the caramel is the
Figure 5.23 Bacteria product. Usually the sugar comes from the
changes it chemically so it is more edible and
can cause chemical breakdown of the starch granules into starch
changes in dairy foods. easier to digest.
molecules, followed by a chemical change into
Reactions in cooking a sugar. Other chemical changes involve the
breakdown of proteins in meat. A few vitamins
Preparing and cooking food involves many may be destroyed by some cooking methods.
physical and chemical changes to the food. Some chemical changes are caused by
There are other similarities between chemistry microorganisms. Sour milk forms when a
and cooking – some of the techniques, such as bacterium converts milk sugar (lactose) into
heating, mixing and filtering, used in cooking an acid (lactic acid). The taste of sour milk is
are similar to the tasks of a chemist. unpalatable and the large numbers of bacteria
There are many chemical reactions in in the milk may make you sick. Cheese is
the kitchen. Baked vegetables and meat turn made by fungi that consume the sugars
Figure 5.24 How would a chemist use these cooking techniques?

EXPERIMENT 5.5: COMPARING REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS
GO TO PAGE 211.
in milk and cause the protein to thicken. in agriculture and construction, and plastics
In making yoghurt, the bacteria act as a such as PVC and polythene, are made from
culture (a colony of microorganisms) that is chemical reactions with crude oil.
transferred to the new medium (milk). These products are hard to make in
Other chemicals are added to our food, the laboratory because they require high
including emulsifiers, flavourings, colourings, temperatures and some specialised conditions.
antioxidants and preservatives. These help keep A substance that you can make in the
the food stable, improve its appearance and laboratory is nylon – a compound consisting of
increase its shelf life. Processed foods usually long molecules (called polymers). Figure 5.26 Some
have a list of these additives on the packet. processed foods have
Chemical equations artificial chemicals
More chemical reactions Scientists use a shorthand technique to describe
added to them.
Burning is a chemical reaction. The correct what happens to reactants and products in
scientific word for burning is ‘combustion’. chemical reactions. This is called a chemical
Magnesium is a metal that can burn fairly equation. The reactants are written on the
easily, giving off a lot of heat and bright, white left-hand side and the products are written on
light. Before any reaction starts, we know we the right-hand side. An arrow represents the
have magnesium in the ribbon. When the chemical change.
magnesium interacts with the oxygen in the
reactants S products
air, the reactants are magnesium and oxygen.
The chemical reaction takes place when we For magnesium ribbon burning in air,
see the magnesium ribbon burn. After the the chemical reaction could be represented
ribbon has burned, we are left with a white by the following chemical word equation and
powder, magnesium oxide, as the product of chemical symbol equation:
the reaction.
magnesium 1 oxygen S magnesium oxide Figure 5.27 Nylon
New products 1 in air 2 1 white powdered form 2 thread is made by
Many substances that we now take for 2 Mg 1 O2 S 2 MgO mixing two solutions.
granted, such as medicines, chemicals used

1 Complete the following table. In the final column, include details about the
substance’s properties near a flame.
SUBSTANCE FORMULA FOR COLOUR STATE AT ROOM CHEMICAL

SUBSTANCE TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Water
2 How different are reactants and a Iron ore is made into a steel ship.
products in chemical reactions? b Bread is made from flour.
3 What does the arrow represent in a c Freezer bags made from polythene
chemical equation? are manufactured from ethene.
4 Why is it unnecessary to write an d Nitrogen fertilisers are made from
equation for a physical change? nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas.
Apply and analyse e Carbon dioxide is produced when
5 Name the reactant and the product in petrol is burnt in a car engine.
the following chemical reactions.

5.6 Heat can speed up a
reaction
The rate of a reaction can be sped up or slowed down. A number of factors
affect the rate of a reaction. These include the particle size, temperature
and concentration of substances and the presence of catalysts. The particle
model helps us to understand this more clearly.
The effect of particle size One way to increase the number of

collisions between the particles is to increase
The size of a particle in a substance affects the the temperature. When heat energy is added
rate of a reaction. The smaller the size of the to the substance, the particles gain kinetic
particles, the faster the rate of the reaction. energy and therefore move quicker. To slow
This is because the smaller particles have a down a reaction, the temperature can be
greater total surface area, which means that the reduced so that the particles have less kinetic
particles have a greater chance of interacting energy and have less chance of colliding.
with each other.
The effect of concentration
The effect of temperature
In addition to changing the rate of chemical
If we know that the size of particles has an reactions through particle size and
effect on the rate of a chemical reaction, temperature, the number of particles trapped
how does temperature affect particles of the in a small area, the concentration, also has
same size? an effect. More concentrated substances will
For substances to react, their particles must react more easily, again due to the collision
come into contact with each other, or collide. theory. A more concentrated substance
This is known as the collision theory. In has more particles available to collide with
the collision theory, the more collisions that particles from another substance. For
happen between the particles, the more likely instance, to increase the rate of a reaction
it is that they will react.
Figure 5.28 More reactants can interact when the particles are small (left). Large particles have less
total surface area, compared to the small particles, to make contact with other reactants (right).

EXPERIMENT 5.6A: EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON EXPERIMENT 5.6B: SPEEDING UP REACTIONS
REACTION RATES WITH ENZYMES
Figure 5.29 At low concentrations there are few collisions between particles (left). At high
concentrations, the number of collisions between particles is increased (right).
between a solid substance and one in solution,

increasing the concentration of the solution Check your learning 5.6
will mean that there are more particles in the Remember and understand
solution to collide with the particles in the 1 How does the particle model of
solid. matter help explain the rate of
reactions?
The effect of catalysts 2 What is the collision theory?
Adding another substance or materials may 3 How does particle size affect the
also affect the rate of the chemical reaction. rate of a reaction?
Substances that increase the rate of a reaction 4 What effect do enzymes have on
without becoming used up by it are known the rate of a reaction?
as catalysts. 5 Describe what happens to the
Enzymes are types of catalysts that help number of particles when you
speed up reactions in living things. We have increase the concentration of
many enzymes in our bodies that help to a substance.
speed up chemical reactions. For example, 6 How does increasing the
enzymes found in the digestive system help concentration of reactants
break down food. Enzymes are very ‘fussy’ increase the rate of a reaction?
and only work with one type of reactant and Apply and analyse
so will only catalyse one reaction each. They
7 Does increasing the rate of a
act like landing strips for reactants, allowing reaction change the amount of
the chemicals to collide with each other product produced? Explain your
more easily. reasoning.
Enzymes are responsible for the ripening
of fruit. When a piece of fruit is cut and left
exposed to the air, enzymes help the oxygen
react with the fruit and make it turn brown.
This enzyme can be blocked by adding
vitamin C.
Figure 5.30 Adding lemon

juice to cut apples stops
them from going brown.
Lemons contain vitamin C.

5.7 Many substances exist
because of the work of
scientists
It is easy to forget just how much we rely on manufactured products in
our life. Increasingly, many substances and materials are processed (i.e.
changed) or manufactured before they are used. These substances, such
as medicines, electronic components, composite materials in aircraft and
polymers, only exist because of the work of scientists changing them from
their original state to one that you can use.
Pharmaceuticals
Pharmacies (sometimes also called ‘chemist
shops’) are where medicines are prepared and
dispensed. A pharmacist (sometimes also called
a ‘chemist’) has studied chemistry, but has
specialised in the study of medicines and their
effect on the body (called ‘pharmacology’).
Oil refinery
Petroleum, or crude oil, is an important
product in our society. Oil is pumped from the
ground and is carried in pipelines or tankers
to refineries, where it is separated into its
components. The low-value parts of the crude
oil mixture are converted into high-value Figure 5.33 Pharmacists are chemists with
a specialisation.
products, such as petrol, diesel and materials
used to produce plastics. ‘Plastic’ is the when King Nebuchadnezzar used bitumen (also
common name for a range of polymers used called ‘asphalt’) to hold building stones together.
Figure 5.31 All these
products come from
in items such as freezer bags, CD cases, shoes, Later, plant gums, egg white and animal products
petroleum. furniture and clothing. (such as gelatin) were used for gluing paper and
wood. The paints used by the old masters were
Glues and adhesives made using egg white, which helped to hold the
Glue was used in ancient Babylon 3500 years ago parts of the paint mixture together.
Figure 5.32 Many everyday items are the result of carefully considered chemistry.

EXPERIMENT 5.7: MAKING CASEIN GLUE
GO TO PAGE 214.
Figure 5.35 A glue is any

substance that sticks
things together.
Figure 5.34 Older paints contained egg white to help hold the paint together.
In World War I, aircraft were made of insects. This red dye, cochineal, is available
wood. The wood was glued with casein glue today in supermarkets, but it is now made
(casein is a protein in milk) and albumin (a synthetically.
protein in egg white). The first synthetic (or artificial) dye
Nowadays, many synthetic glues are was discovered accidentally by William
used. Once, shoes were made of layers of Perkin in 1878. He named his dye after its
leather nailed and sewn together; now these colour, mauve. Soon many other coloured
layers are mostly glued. Glue is used to hold dyes had been discovered and were being
many things together, including the chips manufactured.
in chipboard and the layers in MDF board, Computer printers use dyes when they
plywood and in a lot of furniture. Even the print photographs. Modern inks do not
brake linings in cars are glued (bonded). fade, so the photographs last longer than
photographs printed many years ago.
Dyes
Before the use of dyes, all clothes had the
same colour – the off-white colour of natural Check your learning 5.7
fibres, raw cotton, silk and wool.
The first dye was obtained from murex
1 What is the role of chemistry
whelk shells, a type of sea snail. It took 9000
in purifying crude oil in an oil Figure 5.36 Dyes
shells to make enough dye for one Roman refinery? originally came from
emperor’s toga! Only the emperor had dyed living organisms.
2 Describe how chemists have
clothes, and these were always purple. In fact, Today they are
improved on natural glues and
the whelk almost became extinct as a result mostly synthetic.
adhesives.
of being hunted for its dye.
3 What colour were the first natural
The soldiers in the British Army used dye and the first synthetic dye?
to be known as ‘redcoats’. Their uniform
4 List five materials that are made
consisted of a red coat, which was dyed
by chemists.
using the liquid extracted from scale

5.8 Physical and chemical

changes are used to
recycle household waste
Understanding the difference between physical and
chemical reactions can help us understand which objects
can be recycled. Objects that can undergo physical
reactions can be easily recycled because the reactions
are reversible and new shapes can be formed. Chemical
reactions can be used to create new materials that can be
used again.
Types of plastic
As you discovered in 5.7, plastics are made
from a chemical reaction with crude oil. This
is hard to recycle and as most plastic products
are only designed to be used for one year,
they often end up in landfill. Recycling the
chemicals in the plastic is often cheaper than
the oil needed to create new products.
All recycled plastic belongs in seven groups. Chemical recycling of
(See Figures 5.37 to 5.43). plastics
Chemical recycling involves creating a chemical
Mechanical/physical reaction that causes the long polymer molecules
recycling of plastics that make up the plastic to break into smaller
This is broken into several steps. molecules called monomers. This requires a
1 Cutting the large pieces of plastic using lot of energy because it is trying to reverse the
shears or saws. initial chemical change that created the plastic.
As the initial reactants (crude oil) become more
2 Shredding the plastic into small flakes.
expensive, the chemical recycling of plastics
3 Separating the contaminants in cyclone will become a more attractive option.
(centrifuge) separators.
4 Floating off the plastics according to their
density.
Recycling of metals
Metals such as iron can be easily recycled using
5 Extruding the plastic by heating it to
physical reactions. This means the metal can be
a melting state and forcing it into long
heated until it melts, and then reshaped in its
strands.
new form. One of the problems with recycling
6 Cooling the strands and cutting it into
metals, such as iron, is that they easily rust.
small pellets so that it can be reused for
You will have seen rust on cars, food tins,
new products.
tools, fences, roofs and bridges.
Rust is the most common type of corrosion.
Corrosion is a chemical reaction between a
substance and its environment. Rusting refers
to the corrosion of iron and steel objects when
they are exposed to air. These materials tend to

1 2
Figure 5.37 Polyethylene terephthalate Figure 5.38 High-density polyethylene
(PET or PETE) is the plastic found in soft (HDPE) is used to make milk and juice
drink bottles or oven ready meal trays. bottles, some washing-up bottles, toys
and grocery bags.
3 5
Figure 5.39 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is Figure 5.40 Low-density polyethylene Figure 5.41 Polypropylene (PP) is
used to make clear food packaging, (LDPE) is used to make grocery bags, used to make microwave meal trays,
shampoo and medication bottles, and bin liners, bread bags and frozen food sauce bottles, yoghurt containers and
food trays. bags. medicine bottles.
6
Figure 5.42 Polystyrene (PS) is used to Figure 5.43 Group 7 contains all other
make foam meat or fish trays, coffee plastics, including nylon and fibreglass,
cups, plastic cutlery and sandwich boxes. that cannot be recycled.
rust very easily and, once the reaction starts, it

is difficult to slow or stop. The rust is a reddish Extend your understanding
brown molecule of iron oxide that forms from 5.8
the reaction of iron with oxygen, as shown in 1 Examine your rubbish and write
the word equation below. a list of the plastics that can be
recycled.
iron 1 oxygen S iron oxide
2 Draw a picture of what happens
The chemical reaction of rusting is very at each stage of the mechanical
difficult to reverse, and this prevents metal being recycling process.
reused. Rust can be prevented in a number of 3 Why is the chemical recycling of
ways. Most methods involve preventing the iron plastics expensive?
from coming into contact with the oxygen in 4 What is corrosion?
air, such as coating the iron with paint or oil, or 5 What happens when iron rusts?
preventing the reaction from taking place.

5
REVIEW
Remember and understand 14 In one experiment, you observed the

reaction between copper sulfate solution
1 Use the particle model to explain: and iron to make copper and iron sulfate
a melting solution.
b freezing a Complete the following table to
c sublimation summarise the changes observed in
this reaction.
d condensation.
2 What is a reactant in a chemical NAME OF DESCRIPTION NAME OF DESCRIPTION
reaction? REACTANTS PRODUCTS
3 What changes might be observed during

a chemical change?
4 What is the difference between a physical
b Use the information in the table to
change and a chemical change?
explain why this is an example of a
5 Using your knowledge of particles, chemical change.
explain why most physical changes can
15 Dyes can be synthetic or natural in origin.
be reversed.
a Describe one advantage and one
6 Name four ways to speed up a chemical
disadvantage of using natural dyes.
reaction. Use the particle model to
explain why each method works. b Describe one advantage and one
disadvantage of using synthetic dyes.
7 Describe three uses of chemicals in
the home. 16 The use of chemistry to produce new
materials has affected people’s lives in a
8 Why is nylon described as a synthetic
range of ways.
material?
a Describe how new materials have
9 Name an object that is made from PVC.
changed the type of clothes that
10 What is the difference between elements people wear.
and compounds?
b Describe how new materials have
11 What is a group or period in the changed the type of food that people eat.
periodic table?
17 Describe a chemical change that may be
12 Draw a picture to represent a chemical harmful to the environment if it is allowed
change. to occur in an uncontrolled way.
18 The following are descriptions of
Apply and analyse interactions that occur around us in our
daily lives. Describe what the products of
13 Chemists would never write a chemical
these interactions might be and explain
equation for the melting of chocolate.
whether you think the changes described
Why is this?
are useful or harmful.
a A bike is left out in the rain so that
parts of the bike that are made of
steel are in contact with water for a
few hours.
b A barbecue fuelled by propane gas is
turned on.
c A hairdresser applies bleach to
someone’s hair.
19 Some of the chemical changes that occur
with food are described as biochemical
reactions. Why do you think that is?

Evaluate and create >> Magic or chemistry?
20 Think about what you do on a daily basis, Magicians use a range of tricks
including eating, washing, travelling, to deceive the audience into
working and playing. Describe how these thinking magic is real. Some
activities would be different if you were of these tricks use chemical
only able to use natural materials. reactions. What sort of chemical
21 An environmental action group wanted to reactions could be used by
ban the use of chemicals in your school. magicians? What sort of physical
Either: changes could be used in tricks
performed by magicians? How
a Write a letter to your school principal
does the ‘magic’ happen?
explaining why you think this would be
a good idea;
or:
>> Explosives
b Write a letter to the leader of the
environmental group explaining why The history of the development
you think this is a bad idea. of explosives is fascinating. Who
discovered them? When were
22 Substances can change when they interact explosives first used and how do
with each other. In each of the following they work? What are the main
situations, a change is described. For each chemicals used and what types
change, describe the interactions that have are there? What part did Alfred
caused the change to occur. The first one Nobel play?
has been done for you.
a Glue makes a bond between two
pieces of wood. Possible answer: The
>> Respiration
glue interacts with the oxygen in the air,
which causes it to set hard, which joins the Respiration is a chemical
two pieces of wood together. process that occurs in our body
and is essential for our survival.
b Sugar turns into caramel.
What are the reactants used
c Charcoal burns in air to form the gas in respiration? What are the
carbon dioxide. products? Where in our bodies
d Starch is digested in our stomach to does respiration occur? Why is
form simple sugars, such as glucose. respiration such an important
e A loaf of bread rises in an oven as process?
carbon dioxide gas is produced.
Research >> Barbecue fuels

Most home barbecues burn
23 Choose one of the following topics for a
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
research project. A few guiding questions
as the fuel. This is the gas that
have been provided for you, but you should
can be bought at hardware and
add more questions that you want to
camping stores in cylinders.
investigate. Present your research in a
What chemicals are present in
format of your own choosing, giving careful
LPG? What are the advantages
consideration to the information you are
of gas barbecues over solid
presenting.
fuel barbecues? What safety
precautions must be followed
when storing LPG cylinders?

5
KEY WORDS
atom lattice
smallest particle of matter that cannot three-dimensional arrangement of
be created, destroyed or broken down particles in a regular pattern
(indivisible) melt
boil to change state from a solid to a liquid
to change state from a liquid to a gas molecular compound
bonded a molecule that contain two or more
when two objects (atoms) remain attracted different atoms bonded together
to each other molecular element
catalyst a molecule that contains two or more of the
a substance that increases the rate of a same atoms bonded together
chemical reaction without undergoing any molecule
permanent chemical change group of two or more atoms that are
chemical reaction bonded together, e.g. a water molecule
procedure that produces new chemicals; monotomic
same as chemical change a single atom
collision theory periodic table
when substances react, their particles the arrangement of elements into a table
must come into contact or collide with according to their chemical properties
each other
periods
compound horizontal rows of elements in the periodic
substance made up of two or more different table of chemical elements
types of atoms bonded together, e.g. water
polymer
concentration long chain molecule made up of many
the amount of a substance in a set volume simpler repeating units
condense product
when a gas becomes a liquid substance obtained at the end of a chemical
corrosion reaction; written on the right side of a
the damage caused to metal by its chemical equation
environment reactant
diatomic substance used at the beginning of a
a molecule that contains only two atoms chemical reaction; written on the left side
element of a chemical equation
pure substance made up of only one type of sublimation
atom, e.g. oxygen, carbon change of state straight from a solid to a
enzyme gas or from a gas to a solid
chemical that helps make chemical vaporise
reactions happen; a type of catalyst to change state from a liquid to a gas; same
fume as evaporate
a gas or vapour that has a strong smell or vapour
is dangerous to breathe in gaseous form of a substance that
groups is normally a solid or liquid at room
vertical columns of elements in the periodic temperature, e.g. water vapour
table of chemical elements volatile
a substance that easily becomes a gas

6
6.1 All living things are
made up of cells
CELLS
6.2 Microscopes are used to study cells
6.3 Plant and animal cells

have organelles
What if?
6.4 All organisms have cells that specialise Building blocks
What you need:
building blocks (for example, Lego
blocks)
What to do:
1 Use the blocks to make a cube.
6.5 Bacteria are 2 Rearrange the blocks to make a
single-celled pyramid shape.
organisms 3 Rearrange the blocks a third
time to make a rough circle.
What if?
» What if you wanted to make your
6.6 Fungal cells can save lives shapes bigger?
» What if you just had one large
block? How many shapes could
you make?
» What if you had different shaped
blocks? How many shapes could
you make?
6.1 All living things are made
up of cells
Scientists have not always known that living things are made up of cells. It
was the invention of the microscope in the mid-17th century that allowed us
to see the building blocks of life – the tiny units that form every living thing.
Microscopes showed that each and every living thing is made up of cells.
Discovering cells Although some called Micrographia ‘the

most ingenious book ever’, others ridiculed
When Robert Hooke published his book Hooke for spending so much time and
Micrographia in 1665 it became a bestseller. money on ‘trifling pursuits’. Thankfully
Hooke had made one of the first microscopes. for us, and for the whole science of
With it, he observed many types of living microbiology, Hooke ignored the taunts and
things and made accurate drawings of what kept experimenting with microscopes.
he saw.
It was because of Hooke’s contribution to
Hooke’s most famous achievement was his microbiology that other scientists went on to
diagram of very thin slices of cork (Figure 6.1). develop a further understanding of cells.
He was surprised to see that, under the
Figure 6.1 Robert
microscope, the cork looked like a piece of
honeycomb. He described the ‘holes’ and their
Cell theory
Hooke’s drawing of
cork. boundaries in the ‘honeycomb’ as cells because Cell theory describes the properties of
they reminded him of the small rooms in a cells and their role in living things. It was
monastery, which were also called cells. Hooke first proposed in 1839 by two German
had discovered plant cells. biologists, Theodor Schwann and Matthias
Schleiden. In 1858, Rudolf Virchow
concluded the final part of the classic cell
theory. The combined cell theory included
the following principles:
> All organisms are composed of one or
more cells.
> Cells are the basic unit of life and
structure.
> New cells are created from existing cells.
Any living thing that has more than one
cell is referred to as multicellular, but there
are many living things, such as bacteria,
that consist of only one cell. These are called
single-celled or unicellular organisms.
Microorganisms, which are also often
referred to as microbes, are organisms that
can only be seen under the microscope – they
can be single-celled or multicellular.
Figure 6.2 Robert Hooke’s detailed drawing of a flea.

SKILLS LAB 6.1: DRAWING CELLS
GO TO PAGE 215.
a b
Figure 6.3 (a) Human nerve cells are part of multicellular humans, but (b) the amoeba is
a unicellular organism.
Why are cells so small? amount of surface area and the volume of a
The surface of a cell is called the cell cell through a fraction – the surface area to
membrane. Some substances can move across volume ratio. Small cells have a large surface
this membrane; nutrients enter the cell and area compared to their volume (a large surface
wastes exit the cell. In order to survive, cells area to volume ratio) and are therefore better
benefit from the relatively large surface area of able to survive.
the cell membrane to maximise the ability to This explains why single-celled organisms
take in nutrients and remove wastes. are so small. A single cell must do all the same
The total space inside the cell is referred things that a larger organism does. The cell
to as the cell’s volume. As a cell increases membrane is particularly important because it
in size, both its volume and its surface provides a barrier between the inside of the cell
area increase. The problem is, the volume and the external environment. All the nutrients
needed to keep the cells alive, and the waste Figure 6.4 The irregular
increases much more than the surface area. shape of this unicellular
Eventually the volume becomes so big that it products made by the cell, are transported
organism (called a
becomes difficult for nutrients to get into the across the cell membrane. It is essential that the desmid) maximises
centre of the cell and for wastes to get out. cell membrane provides a large surface area for the surface area to
the transport of so many molecules into and volume ratio.
We compare the relationship between the
out of the cell.

1 Who invented the first microscope? 7 The common house dust mite is a
2 Why are cells called ‘cells’? microorganism. Could you see this
animal without a microscope? Explain
3 What does ‘multicellular’ mean?
how you came to your answer.
4 Name five multicellular organisms.
8 Would a cell with a bigger surface
5 What do all unicellular organisms area to volume ratio be able to meet
have in common? its requirements for nutrients more
6 What are the three principles of the effectively? Why or why not?
combined cell theory? 9 Why are unicellular organisms always
very small?
Cells 111
6.2 Microscopes are used to
study cells
In the same way that eyeglasses have a glass or plastic lens for vision
correction, a microscope is an instrument that use lenses to magnify the
size of the object placed under it. The science of investigating small objects
using a microscope is called microscopy.
Types of microscopes microscope can have one or two eyepieces.

The word monocular is used to describe a
As a science student, you will probably use microscope with one eyepiece (mono = one).
a light microscope in your laboratory.
Microscopes with two lenses are called
You may also work with images
binocular (bi = two). The compound light
produced by different types of
microscope uses two lenses (one in the
microscopes, such as light microscopes
eyepieces and one further down the column,
and electron microscopes.
called the objective lens) combined with light
Light microscopes to give a greater magnification. Most cells
are clear in colour so a stain, such as iodine,
There are two common types of light is used to help make them more visible by
microscope – the stereomicroscope and providing contrast.
the compound light microscope. The
stereomicroscope is used for viewing larger Electron microscopes
objects, such as insects. It can magnify up to
An electron microscope uses electrons (tiny
200 times and shows a three-dimensional view.
negatively charged particles) to create images.
Figure 6.5 SEM image of The compound light microscope is used The first electron microscope, the transmission
a nerve cell. to observe thin slices of specimens. It can electron microscope (TEM), was invented in
magnify up to 1500 times. Its view is two- 1933 to help study the structure of metals.
dimensional. The specimen must be thin The scanning electron microscope (SEM),
enough to allow light to pass through it. developed later, uses a beam of electrons to
The stereomicroscope has two eyepieces scan across a specimen and to recreate the
to look through, whereas the compound light image, showing details of its surface.
a b a
Figure 6.6 (a) A stereomicroscope. (b) An insect, Figure 6.7 (a) A compound light microscope.
as seen under a stereomicroscope. (b) A flea, as seen under a compound light
microscope.

SKILLS LAB 6.2: GETTING TO KNOW YOUR MICROSCOPE
GO TO PAGE 216.
Electron microscopes can magnify up to a > Use the coarse focus knob to bring the
million times. Using this technology, many more specimen into view. Use the fine focus
details of the cell that were formerly invisible to knob to help you see it more clearly.
scientists are now beginning to be understood. > If you want a higher magnification,
rotate the objective lens to a higher
Getting to know your magnification.
compound light microscope > Draw what you see (as a record) using
a pencil.
Figure 6.8 shows the parts of a monocular
> Work out the total magnification.
compound light microscope. Microscopes
are fragile instruments that must be treated > Write the magnification next to your
with care. sketch.
> Label and date the sketch. Figure 6.9 Human hair
> Always use two hands to carry a microscope – root that is stained for
one hand around the main part of the contrast.
Magnification calculations
instrument and the other underneath it.
Using different combinations of lenses means
> Some microscopes have a built-in lamp.
you can magnify your object by different
Others have separate lamps that need to
amounts. To calculate the total magnification
be set up so they shine onto the mirror.
of a compound light microscope, multiply
Adjust the mirror to project the light
the magnification of the eyepiece lens by the
through the stage onto the specimen.
magnification of the objective lens. These
Do not allow sunlight to shine directly
figures are marked on each lens.
up the column.
> Place the slide on the stage then select the Table 6.1 The total magnification of a microscope can be determined by
objective lens with the lowest magnification. multiplying the magnifications of the eyepiece and the objective lens.
> Look from the side and adjust the coarse EYEPIECE OBJECTIVE LENS TOTAL MAGNIFICATION
focus knob so that the objective lens is just MAGNIFICATION MAGNIFICATION
above – and not touching – the slide. Check ×5 × 10 × 50
which way you must turn the knob to move
× 10 × 20 × 200
the objective lens away from the slide.
Light travels through Check your learning 6.2

microscope to eye
Eyepiece lens 1 What type or types of microscopes are in your science
Coarse focus knob (ocular) laboratory?
2 Why do you look from the side when you adjust the coarse
Fine focus Microscope focus knob?
knob tube 3 Why must very thin samples be used under a light microscope?
4 What is ‘microscopy’?
Revolving
Stage nosepiece Apply and analyse
slide clip
Objective lenses 5 Explain why it is important to label and date your specimen
Stage drawings. Give three different reasons.
6 Complete the following magnification table for a compound
light microscope by working out the missing values.
Base EYEPIECE OBJECTIVE LENS TOTAL

Light MAGNIFICATION MAGNIFICATION MAGNIFICATION
Slide ×5 × 100
Iris adjustment
Mirror × 20 × 300
× 10 × 50
Figure 6.8 Parts of a compound light
microscope.
Cells 113
6.3 Plant and animal cells
have organelles
A cell is the basic unit of life. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is
considered living. But, just as the basic unit of length – the metre – can be
broken down into smaller parts (e.g. centimetres and millimetres), the cell
is made up of smaller parts, too. Cells are made up of organelles (mini-
organs), cytoplasm, DNA, nutrients, wastes and other substances.
Cell structures everything inside the cell. It helps provide

structure to the cell and contains many
All cells, regardless of which type of organism dissolved nutrients and waste products.
they are found in, share the same basic
> DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – this
structure. This basic structure includes three
contains the instructions for every job your
key features.
cells need to do and is passed from one
> Cell membrane – this acts like the ‘skin’ generation to the next. The code for half
of a cell, forming a barrier around the cell. your DNA came from your mother, and the
It controls the entry and exit of things into other half came from your father. The same
and out of the cell. complete set of DNA is found in every one
> Cytoplasm – this is the jelly-like fluid of your cells.
inside the cell membrane that surrounds
Figure 6.10 Cells can be

different shapes and
sizes: (a) sperm cell, (b)
nerve cell, (c) skin cell
and (d) intestinal cell.

CHALLENGE 6.3: COMPARING THE SIZE OF CELLS AND THEIR PARTS
GO TO PAGE 217.
Chromatin (DNA) Nucleolus
Nucleus Mitochondrion
Ribosome
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Figure 6.11 Some key parts (organelles) of an animal cell.
Nucleus Nucleolus
Ribosomes
Rough endoplasmic Golgi apparatus
reticulum
Cell wall
Nuclear pore
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Cell membrane Vacuole
Figure 6.12 Some key parts (organelles) of an plant cell.
Cells 115
A closer look at organelles For example, skeletal muscle cells contain
a lot of mitochondria to make sure we have
The different organelles in cells all have enough energy to run and jump when we
specific functions. These functions are need to.
necessary for the cell to survive. Some
Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles
organelles, such as ribosomes, are part of
with an inner and an outer membrane. The
the cytoplasm, whereas other organelles are
inner membrane is folded to increase the
separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane,
surface area of the membrane. A chemical
much like the cell membrane. These organelles,
reaction called cellular respiration occurs inside
such as the nucleus and chloroplasts, are called
the mitochondria. This reaction involves the
membrane-bound organelles.
rearrangement of the atoms in glucose (from the
Let’s take a closer look at four very food we eat) and oxygen to produce water,
important organelles in the cell – the carbon dioxide and energy. This energy is used
mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts by our bodies to help us move and grow.
and vesicles.
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Ribosomes are where protein is made in the
Mitochondria (singular ‘mitochondrion’) cell. Proteins are small molecules with different
are the powerhouse of the cell, being the roles. There are many different types of
site of energy production in the cell. There proteins. For example, proteins make up hair
may be several thousand mitochondria in and nails, or help transport oxygen through the
a cell depending on what the cell does. bloodstream.
a a
Amino acids
Inner membrane Growing

Ribosome protein
Matrix
Cristae chain
DNA tRNA
Outer membrane
Enzyme complexes
mRNA
b b
Figure 6.13 (a) Schematic diagram showing Figure 6.14 (a) Schematic diagram showing
the structure of a mitochondrion. (b) Electron the structure of a ribosome (b) Electron
micrograph of a mitochondrion. micrograph of ribosomes.

EXPERIMENT 6.3A: LOOKING AT ORGANELLES EXPERIMENT 6.3B: MEASURING CELLS
Chloroplasts Micrometres (μm)

Chloroplasts are only found in plant cells and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
some unicellular organisms. These organelles
are like microscopic solar panels that transform Human egg
solar energy into chemical energy. cell (ovum)
with nucleus
Chloroplasts are usually green because of a
molecule called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll uses
the Sun’s light energy to rearrange molecules of
carbon dioxide and water into glucose (a sugar)
and oxygen. This chemical reaction is called
photosynthesis.
Vesicles
Vesicles are organelles that are used by plant
and animal cells to store water, nutrients and
White blood cell
waste products. A membrane surrounds the
vesicle, separating the substances from the
rest of the cell. Plant cells usually have one
large vesicle called a vacuole (see Figure 6.12). Human sperm
Animals cells may have many small vesicles.
a Thylakoid disks Red blood cell Human hair

cross-section
Cell from inside cheek
Figure 6.16 Different types of cells are different sizes and are measured
in micrometres (μm). One micrometre is equivalent to one-thousandth of
1 millimetre.

Tubules Grana (stacks Remember and understand
of thylakoids) 1 Name three organelles that are
b surrounded by a membrane.
2 What is the function of the cell
membrane? In other words, why
does a cell need a membrane?
3 What are some of the roles of
proteins in organisms?
4 In which organelle does cellular
respiration occur?
5 What is stored in a vacuole?
6 What is photosynthesis?
Apply and analyse
7 What features of cells mean they
are classified as living things?
Remember MRNGREWW from
Year 7?
8 Where would you be more
likely to find large numbers of
mitochondria, in a muscle cell or a
Figure 6.15 (a) Schematic diagram showing
the structure of a chloroplast. (b) Electron
bone cell? Explain your reasoning.
micrograph of chloroplasts.
Cells 117
6.4 All organisms have cells
that specialise
A giraffe, a worm and a mushroom are all classified as living organisms,
yet they have many differences. Although they all share cells as their basic
building blocks, the structure and function of these cells are different.
Because cells are the basic building blocks of life, understanding the
structure of cells enables us to better understand how organisms function.
a Prokaryotes and eukaryotes Plant cells

An organism’s cell type can be used to By looking at different characteristics of plants
classify it. Cells are classified into two main and animals, it’s fairly easy to see that they are
groups – prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. different types of organisms. However, once
Prokaryotic cells belong in the kingdom microscopes started to become more powerful,
Monera. They are the most primitive cellular scientists could see differences between plant
forms on Earth and are unicellular. They are and animal cells (Figure 6.17). Plant cells use
much simpler than eukaryotic cells and do their chloroplasts to photosynthesise and need
not have many of the organelles described in cell walls to provide structure. Many plant cells
b also store their nutrients in large vacuoles (large
the previous section. For example, they have
no nucleus and their genetic material is found spaces surrounded by a membrane).
free in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes include the
diverse range of bacteria. Fungal cells
Eukaryotic cells are more complex cells Fungi have often been considered as types of
and are found in organisms from each of the plants, but the development of the microscope
other four kingdoms – animals, plants, fungi allowed scientists to see that fungal cells are
and protists. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus different to plant cells. For example, fungal
as well as most of the membrane-bound cells don’t have chloroplasts, so they cannot
Figure 6.17 Typical (a) organelles. Most eukaryotes are multicellular.
plant and (b) animal cells. photosynthesise, and they don’t have large
vacuoles filled with liquid.
Table 6.2 Characteristics of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

CHARACTERISTIC KINGDOM
EUKARYOTES PROKARYOTES
ANIMALS PLANTS FUNGI PROTISTA MONERA
Number of cells Multicellular Multicellular Multicellular, Multicellular or Unicellular
some unicellular unicellular
(e.g. yeasts)
Cell wall Absent Present Present Present in some Present
Genetic material Present Present Present Present Present
Nucleus Present Present Present Present Absent
Figure 6.18 Cells in
Mitochondria Present Present Present Present Absent
kingdom Fungi have cell
walls and nuclei, but no Chloroplasts Absent Present Absent Present in some Absent
chloroplasts. Large vacuoles Absent Present Absent Present in some Absent
Ribosomes Present Present Present Present Present

CHALLENGE 6.4: CLASSIFYING USING CELLS EXPERIMENT 6.4: PL ANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
Protists Animal cells

Protists are a diverse group of organisms that Single-celled or unicellular organisms,
are mostly unicellular. Many live in water, such as bacteria, are made of one cell only.
some are photosynthetic (i.e. make their own Multicellular organisms, like us, are made of
food, like plants), some eat other organisms more than one cell and often many billions
and some causes diseases. Depending on where of cells. The different cells in a multicellular
it lives and its food sources, a protist’s shape organism communicate and work together
or structure will have evolved to suit. The to produce a functioning organism. Their
protists in Figures 6.19 to 6.22 have structures different roles in the body mean they have
particular to their lifestyles. different sizes and shapes.
Contractile vacuole (execretes water and waste) Eyespot

Cytoplasm Food being engulfed Chloroplast
Pseudopods by pseudopods
Pellicle
Reservoir
Nucleus
Contractile Nucleus
vacuole Nucleolus
Food vacuole (digests food)
Figure 6.19 An amoeba can change the shape of its Figure 6.21 Euglena moves quickly when it
blobby body, creating foot shapes for movement needs to, with a bullet-shaped body and a long
and mouth shapes for swallowing food. tail called a flagellum to whip it into action.
Mouth pore
Contractile vacuole
Flagella
Eyespot
Food vacuole
Macronucleus Chloroplast
Anal pore
Figure 6.20 The paramecium plods along slowly Figure 6.22 Chlamydomonas has an eyespot
with lots of tiny hairs called cilia that act like that can detect light for photosynthesis and
miniature oars. two flagella that help it to swim along in a
breaststroke-like motion.

Remember and understand a typical plant cell contains
1 Give an example of a unicellular chloroplasts, they are not found in all
organism and a multicellular organism. plant cells.
2 Describe the two main differences a Suggest why some cells in a plant
between eukaryotic and prokaryotic root may lack chloroplasts.
organisms. b In which part of a plant would
3 Where is the genetic material found in you expect cells to contain many
a prokaryotic cell? chloroplasts?
4 Table 6.2 shows that plant cells 5 Look back at Table 6.2, then suggest
contain chloroplasts. Although which kingdom is often referred to as
‘the rest’.
Cells 119
6.5 Bacteria are single-celled
organisms
Unicellular organisms, such as bacteria, are living in and around us all the
time. The average adult human has 1 kilogram of non-human life inside
their large intestine alone. Some bacteria and microbes are essential for
keeping our body healthy and working correctly. Others can be deadly.
Natural flora Microbes causing disease

The microbes that live happily in our bodies We have all been sick at some stage in our
are referred to as natural flora and it’s the lives and much sicker at some times than
balance between natural flora and the microbes others. Some forms of sickness are caused by
in our environment that is important to our pathogens. A pathogen is a microorganism
health. The right amount of natural flora that can potentially cause a disease. With
will protect us against foreign invaders, infectious diseases, the pathogen may be
whereas too much of the natural flora can passed from one organism to another. Such
actually make us ill. Bacteria in our intestines diseases are said to be contagious. The host
help our bodies digest food and provide is an organism, such as a human, animal or
vitamins to keep us healthy. The bacteria on plant, on which another organism lives. You
our skin act as a protective coating, preventing will be investigating pathogens in more detail
disease-causing bacteria from growing. in Year 9. The symptoms of a disease are
the changes that occur to an individual as a
consequence of the disease.
a b
c d e
Figure 6.23 (a) Staphylococcus epidermis, (b) Staphylococcus aureus in the hair, (c) Haemophilus influenza in
the nose, (d) Chlamydia trachamates in the eye, (e) Esherichia coli in the intestines.

EXPERIMENT 6.5: MICROBES ALL AROUND
GO TO PAGE 221.
a b c d
Figure 6.24 (a) Trichophyton mentagrophtes, cause of ringworm and tinea; (b) a red blood cell infected
with malarial parasites; (c) tuberculosis bacteria; (d) Rubella virus.
Harmful microbes may be bacteria, For this reason, your fridge should be below
fungi, protists or viruses. All these microbes 4°C and cooked food waiting to be served
can invade the body and cause disease. You should be stored above 60°C.
will probably be familiar with some diseases
caused by harmful microbes. Fungi can cause GROWTH OF BACTERIA OVER TIME
infections such as tinea, which is also known 70
as athlete’s foot, and ear infections. Protists can 60

cause malaria and dysentery. Bacteria cause
NUMBER OF BACTERIA
diseases such as tuberculosis (also known as 50
TB), pneumonia, legionnaires’ disease and 40

cholera. Viruses can cause diseases like the
30
common cold and flu, measles and herpes.
20
Viruses 10
Viruses are actually considered by most scientists
0
to be non-living pathogens. Viruses cannot 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
survive and reproduce outside a host cell. Instead TIME (MINUTES)
they need to invade a cell and use the cells
organelles in order to reproduce. Figure 6.25 The number of bacteria cells can
Viruses are responsible for most of the double every 20 minutes.
common colds that we experience and cannot
Figure 6.26 Human
be controlled by antibiotics because they’re Check your learning 6.5 rhinovirus, responsible
hiding inside our cells. This also makes it much for the common cold.
harder for our own immune cells to find and Remember and understand Viruses are much
fight them, so our best defence is to rest and to 1 What type of microorganism does smaller than cells.
eat a healthy diet, and let the cells in our body our digestive system rely on? What
concentrate on getting rid of the viruses by does this organism do?
themselves. 2 What is natural flora?
3 Can natural flora ever be harmful
Bacterial growth to our bodies?
Bacteria reproduce using a process called 4 What is a pathogen? What are the
four main groups of pathogens?
binary fission (binary = two; fission = split).
As the name suggests, a bacteria cell grows 5 Why is a virus not considered to
slightly larger and then splits in two. This is a be living?
very quick process, sometimes taking as little Apply and analyse
as 20 minutes. This can be represented on a 6 It is not recommended that food
graph such as the one in Figure 6.25. be left out of the fridge for more
Most bacterial growth is stopped at than 3 hours. Use binary fission to
temperatures below 4°C and above 60°C. explain why.
Cells 121
6.6 Fungal cells can save lives
Have you ever scratched yourself on a rose bush, or pricked yourself with
a needle? Before the discovery of antibiotics, such a simple break in the
skin could have been enough to kill you.
The discovery of penicillin

It has been accepted for over 3000 years
that some moulds could kill infection.
The discovery in 1928 of the chemical
that was responsible for this is
attributed to Alexander Fleming.
Fleming was trying to grow
bacteria on special agar plates as part
of his research. Bacteria usually grow Figure 6.27 Alexander Fleming.
very well across the top of agar plates.
However, this day Fleming failed to a b
clean up after his experiment and left
an agar plate open on his bench before
leaving for a holiday. When he returned
from his break, a small spot of mould had
started growing in the centre of the plate. All
Figure 6.28 Some around the mould was a clear circle where the
moulds are able to bacteria was unable to grow. Fleming concluded
prevent bacterial c d
that the mould (Penicillium) was producing
growth.
a molecule that prevented the bacteria from
growing. The molecule, which was named
penicillin, had the ability to stop bacterial
growth by preventing the bacteria repairing or
making a new cell wall.
Producing penicillin
It took ten more years and the work of Howard
Florey (an Australian) and Ernst Chain to e f
develop a method of isolating penicillin and
producing it on a large scale. They were part of
a team of specialists brought together to grow
the mould, extract the penicillin, purify it and
trial its treatment on patients.
Their most important experiment occurred
in May 1940. Eight mice were infected
with streptococcal bacteria, and four of the
mice were treated with the newly extracted Figure 6.30 These photos from 1942 show
the improvement of a child after penicillin
penicillin. These four mice survived, while the
treatment for a bacterial infection.
mice without the penicillin died. (a, b) Before treatment. (c) Four days after
Figure 6.29 Howard This led the researchers to trial the treatment. (d) Nine days after treatment.
Florey. (e, f) Fully recovered.

penicillin on their first patient. Albert Overuse of antibiotics
Alexander’s whole face was swollen after being
There are now many more different
scratched by a rose thorn. One eye had been
antibiotics available, most of which
removed while the other had been lanced to
are extracted from fungi. The overuse
drain the pus. Within one day of being given
of antibiotics is a cause for concern.
penicillin, he started to improve. Unfortunately
Due to the rapid rate at which bacteria
Fleming’s group did not have enough penicillin
reproduce, some strains of bacteria are
to finish the treatment and the patient suffered
becoming ‘resistant’ to treatment. That
a relapse and died. As a result the researchers
is, they are not affected by antibiotics.
tried treating children, as smaller doses could
Scientists are continually searching for new
be used and the treatment could last longer. Figure 6.31 Ernst Chain.
types of natural and artificial antibiotics to
Eventually their purification methods and
treat these new ‘superbugs’ that are resistant to
resulting treatment were successful. They were
all known antibiotics.
awarded a Nobel Prize in 1945 for their work.
A dose of antibiotics destroys not only the
The use of penicillin as an antibiotic
harmful bacteria, but also the good bacteria in
revolutionised health care and the lives of
your body, so they should only be used to treat
many people who, without such treatment,
bacterial infections when absolutely necessary.
would have died from bacterial infections.
Penicillin timeline 1922

Alexander Fleming: a tear (containing lysozyme)
from his eye prevents bacterial growth.
1930s
1870s 1897
Howard Florey and
Louis Pasteur: mould Ernest Duchesne: mould prevents
Ernst Chain: able to grow
prevents anthrax bacterial growth in animals.
and purify enough penicillin
growing. to be used by patients.
1800 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930
1000 BCE
Moulds and 1928
fermented materials 1871 Alexander Fleming: mould
used to treat infections. Joseph Lister: prevents bacterial growth in the
samples of urine same way as lysozyme.
do not allow
bacteria to grow.

1 What is the difference between fungi and 4 Many of our medicines today originate
bacteria? from the molecules made in nature. How
2 Fungi usually grow best at 22°C. How does the purity of penicillin prepared in a
did leaving the agar plate on the bench laboratory compare with the fermented
accidentally help Fleming make his materials used in 1000 bce?
discovery? 5 ‘The most exciting phrase to hear
3 Why did Florey and his group of scientists in science, the one that heralds
not give penicillin to four of their mice? discoveries, is not “Eureka” but “that’s
funny …”’ Use Fleming’s discovery to
explain this quote from Isaac Asimov.
Cells 123
6
REVIEW
Remember and understand a

1 Who was the first person to describe
cells? What cells did they draw?
2 What is the benefit of using a stain when
viewing some specimens?
3 What is the cell theory?
4 Explain two key ideas presented in the
cell theory.
5 Why does a specimen need to be
really thin to be viewed under a light
b
microscope?
6 Explain at least one similarity and one
difference between a mitochondrion and
a chloroplast.
7 How are fungal cells different from
bacterial cells?
8 Define the following words:
a nucleus
b mitochondrion
c
c chloroplast
d binary fission
e pathogen.
Apply and analyse

9 A cell membrane is ‘partially permeable’.
This means that only certain substances
are able to cross the membrane. List
some substances that would need to get
into the cell and some that would need to d
get out.
10 Explain why unicellular organisms
are always tiny and why multicellular
organisms are made up of so many cells.
11 Ribosomes are found in every cell on
Earth. What function do ribosomes
perform in cells? Why is it so important?
12 If you were sick with a cold or flu, a
doctor might prescribe antibiotics. But
Figure 6.32
antibiotics are quite useless against
viruses, the pathogens responsible for
colds and flu. So why would a doctor 15 Two students prepare slides from different
prescribe antibiotics? sections of a spring onion under a light
13 Light microscopes allow you to view microscope in their school laboratory. James
living cells. Electron microscopes view views a section of the green leafy part and
either dead cells or cells that have been observes many chloroplasts within each cell,
killed in the process of viewing them. In but has difficulty identifying a nucleus in each
what situations might light microscopes cell. Emily views a section of the white stem
be preferable to electron microscopes? of the plant. She comments that a nucleus is
clearly visible in most of the cells, but does
14 Identify the microscope most likely to have
not identify any chloroplasts.
created the images in Figure 6.32.

a Suggest why James identified many b The nucleus is like a control centre.
chloroplasts within each cell when they c The mitochondrion is like a power
appeared to be absent from the cells station.
viewed by Emily. 17 Write a very short creative story about
b Emily commented that she could a virus. Your story needs to be from the
identify a nucleus in most cells. If a point of view of a cell. The first line of your
nucleus is not visible in a particular cell, story is: ‘Once upon a time, a virus arrived
does this mean that the cell does not for an uninvited visit’.
contain a nucleus? 18 How has our understanding of how
living things function changed with the
Evaluate and create development of the microscope?
16 Similes are often used in creative writing to 19 Use the lenses from an old pair of reading
compare two things using the words ‘like’ or glasses or a magnifying glass to create a
‘as’. Explain the similarities that allow these model of a microscope. Describe how your
similes to be used. model is similar and different to Hooke’s
microscope and modern compound
a Cells are like building blocks. microscopes.
Research
20 Choose one of the following topics for a research project. A few guiding questions have
been provided for you, but you should add more questions that you want to investigate.
Present your research in a format of your own choosing, giving careful consideration to the
information you are presenting.
>> Linking big concepts >> Stem cells

In this chapter, six big concepts Stem cells are cells in
about cells were discussed. Think multicellular organisms that
of a creative way to represent haven’t become specialised yet –
these concepts and make links they’re like blank canvases.
between them, using as many of Find out what scientists have
the key words in the chapter as learnt about stem cells, where
you can. You might use a concept they find them and what they
map or mind map with each of hope to be able to do with them.
the questions as major bubbles.
You could choose to use diagrams
only or draw a picture that shows >> Plant cells
all the aspects of the particles of Plants do not have lungs to
life. The method of presentation breathe. Instead they have
that you select must enable you to small pores called stomata,
share your ideas with others. which allow air to pass in and
out of the plant. These stomata
are made up of two guard cells
>> Discovery of penicillin that can change their shape.
The discovery of penicillin was Find out how stomata open and
considered an important factor close in response to changing
behind the outcome of World War environmental conditions. Under
II. Soldiers who were injured on what type of conditions are the
the battlefield could be mended, stomata likely to open? What
given a shot of penicillin, and are the triggers for the stomata
returned to the battlefield again to close? How does the shape
instead of having limbs amputated. of the guard cells assist the
Write a newspaper article opening and closing of the pore?
describing the importance of this
major discovery.
Cells 125
6
KEY WORDS
apoptosis natural flora

programmed cell death microbes that live happily in our bodies
binocular nucleus
using two eyes; a type of microscope (in biology) control centre of a cell that
cell contains all the genetic material (DNA) for
(in biology) the building block of living things that cell
chlorophyll objective lens

green pigment found inside chloroplasts lens in the column of a compound light
that absorbs solar energy and uses it in microscope
photosynthesis organelle
chloroplast smaller part of a cell, each one having a
organelle found in plant cells that transforms different function
solar energy into chemical energy pathogen
compound light microscope microbe that can potentially cause a
a microscope with two or more lenses disease
electron microscope photosynthesis

a microscope that uses electrons (tiny chemical process plants use to make
negatively charged particles) to create glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide
images and water
eukaryotic cell prokaryotic cell

complex cell that contains a nucleus and primitive single-celled organism that has
membrane-bound organelles no nucleus
infectious disease ribosome

disease caused by the passing of a pathogen cell organelle where protein production
from one organism to another; also known takes place
as contagious disease single-celled
microbiology an organism that consists of one cell
the science involving the study of stain
microscopic organisms substance, such as iodine, used to make
microorganism cells more visible under a microscope
a living thing that can only be seen with the stereomicroscope
use of a microscope a microscope with two eyepieces that uses
microscopy low magnification
the study of living things that can only be surface area to volume ratio
seen with the use of a microscope the relationship between the area around
mitochondrion the outside of a cell and its volume, as a
powerhouse organelle of a cell; the site of fraction
energy production; (plural mitochondria) unicellular
monocular an organism that exists as a single cell
using one eye; a type of microscope
multicellular
an organism that has two or more cells

06_SIL_OXSCI8_VIC_06915_TXT_SI.indd 126 24/10/2016 10:54 am

7
Systems are made up of cells,
SURVIVING
7.1 tissues and organs
The digestive system is made up

7.2 of organs
The digestive system varies

7.3 between animals
7.4 Things sometimes go wrong in the digestive system
7.5 The respiratory system exchanges gases
Things sometimes go wrong

7.6 in the respiratory system
What if?
The circulatory system carries
7.7 substances around the body
Heartbeats
What you need:
a stopwatch
What to do:
Things sometimes go wrong
7.8 in the circulatory system
1 Sit down for 2 minutes.
2 Measure the number of times
you breathe in every minute.
3 Measure the number of times
your heart beats every minute.
4 Record your measurements in
7.9 The excretory system a table.
removes waste What if?
» What if you ran around the oval
for 5 minutes? How would your
heart rate and breathing rate
change?
7.10 Plants have tissues and organs » What if you listened to music
with a slow beat for 5 minutes?
» What if you listened to music
with a fast beat for 5 minutes?
7.1 Systems are made up of
cells, tissues and organs
Like all living things, we are made of different types of cells. Groups of
cells that do a similar task are called tissues. Groups of tissues that work
together are called organs. The liver, heart, eyes, brain and intestines are
all examples of organs. When groups of different organs work together, they
are called a body system.
How did the first scientists Leonardo da Vinci

learn about the body? Leonardo da Vinci is famous as a painter
The very first anatomists in the ancient and architect, but he also studied the human
Egyptian city of Alexandria performed body. He was involved in human and animal
dissections in the 3rd century bce dissections and, from these, he drew beautiful
to investigate how the human body and highly accurate drawings.
worked. Da Vinci began studying the human
The Egyptians were very clean and body through life drawing and by attending
quite fearful of illness; they believed the public dissections that were held by the
that illness was caused partly by evil medical schools.
spirits and so doctors were also part
shaman (spiritualists). Tissues
Perhaps because of this fear of illness, The development of the microscope by Robert
the Egyptians made many medical advances Hook in the 1600s led anatomists to examine
and learnt a lot about the human body. how cells work together to form the different
Figure 7.1 The process of Much of this knowledge about human body systems in the body. They found that some
mummification required systems and organs likely came about from similar looking cells work together to carry
organs to be removed. observations made during the mummification out a particular job or function. These tissue
They were sealed in
‘canopic’ jars.
process. As part of this process, the Egyptians functions are broken into four types.
removed key organs from the body because Connective tissue includes blood cells, fat
they contained so much liquid that they cells, bone cells or tendons and ligaments.
interfered with mummification. (These organs These cells are all surrounded by a non-living
were subsequently placed in ‘canopic’ jars to material called a matrix. This matrix can be
journey separately into the afterlife.) liquid or solid. For example, cells in the bone
Nerve cell
Red and white
blood cells
Muscle cells
Skin tissue Heart Respiratory system
CELLS TISSUES ORGANS SYSTEMS
Figure 7.2 The different levels of organisation in the body.

CHALLENGE 7.1: BROWN PAPER BODY BRAINSTORM
GO TO PAGE 222.
Skeletal system Digestive system Respiratory system Excretory system Circulatory system
All bones, including Mouth, stomach, Lungs, windpipe and Kidneys, liver, Heart, veins and
spine, skull, pelvis small intestine, diaphragm bladder, urethra, arteries
and ribs large intestine, skin and lungs
rectum and anus Filters oxygen Carries oxygen
Gives body structure from the air and Processes and and nutrients to
and supports and Breaks down food transfers it to the filters out wastes cells and waste
protects other organs; into substances blood so that it is and controls the materials away
provides attachment small enough to taken to all other amount and content from cells via
for muscles be absorbed into parts of the body; of body fluid the blood
the bloodstream; removes carbon
separates some dioxide from cells
waste via blood back
to the lungs
Figure 7.3 Our body

systems work together.
marrow are surrounded by solid bone and cells surface, and it contains blood (connective
in the blood are surrounded by liquid. tissue) and nervous tissue to help it to beat, and
The cells in muscle tissue are able to cause it contains muscle tissue to help it to contract.
parts of the body to move. For example, the The heart is connected to another organ; blood
muscle cells in the heart enable it to contract, vessels that also contain all four types of tissue.
whilst the muscle cells connected to the When groups of different organs work together
skeleton enable us to move. to perform a particular function, they are
Nervous tissue contain cells that enable the called a system. These systems work together
different parts of the body to pass on messages. to maintain the health of an organism.
This occurs though neuronal cells.
The cells that make up epithelial tissue are Check your learning 7.1
usually large and flat, enabling them to cover a Remember and understand
large surface. Their role is to provide a barrier
between the outside of the organism and the
cells, tissues and organs?
vulnerable inside cells. Epithelial tissues help
protect the internal parts of the body from 2 Why did the Egyptian shamans
study how the body worked?
damage, bacteria and water loss.
3 Why is Leonardo da Vinci (Figure
Organs 7.4) so famous?
Figure 7.4 Leonardo da
When the four types of tissues work together
Apply and analyse Vinci.
to do a particular job, they are called an 4 How are cells, tissues, organs and
organ. Your heart is an example of an organ. systems linked?
It is lined with epithelial tissue to protect the 5 Why do surgeons need a thorough
understanding of anatomy?
Surviving 129
7.2 The digestive system is
made up of organs
Digestion is the process by which food (and drink) are broken down and
absorbed into your blood for transport to your cells. The food we eat provides us
with the energy to stay alive and the building materials for growth and repair.
Digestion Hard palate

Gingiva
Incisors
Your digestive tract is made up of a group Soft palate
of organs in the digestive system that form
a tube travelling from your mouth to your Uvula
Canine
anus. Along the way, food is broken down
and absorbed across the intestinal walls into
the blood. The internal walls of the intestines
are wrinkly to increase their surface area for
absorption into the blood. Food that is not
required by the body remains in the digestive
tract until the end, where it is released into
the toilet.
Physical digestion
Your teeth are responsible for the physical
breakdown of your food. There are three main
types of teeth in your mouth that do this work. Molars
Palatine
The front ones are called incisors, the pointy tonsil
teeth next to the incisors are called canines Tongue
Papillae Lips
and the rest of your teeth, which are flatter, are
of tongue
called molars. You also have a large muscular
organ called a tongue that can push upwards, Figure 7.5 The teeth and mouth physically
break down food.
sideways and backwards. When you swallow
your food, the muscles behind the food squeeze These juices include acid that kills any bacteria
tight, and the muscles in front of the food that may be in the food, and an enzyme that
relax. This forces the food to move in a process digests the protein (found in meat) in your
called peristalsis. meal. The cells lining the inside of the stomach
produce mucus to stop the acid burning the
Chemical digestion stomach walls. The resulting mixture of acid,
enzymes and partially digested food is called
The mouth is also where saliva is found. Saliva
chyme.
is mostly water, but also contains different
types of enzymes. Enzymes are chemicals that
can speed up a reaction (Chapter 5). In the Absorbing nutrients
digestive system, enzymes encourage the lumps Most nutrients are absorbed in the small
of food to break down into nutrients that are intestine. The inside of the small intestine is
small enough to be absorbed by the body. full of ridges called villi. These ridges increase
The stomach contains a mixture of gastric the surface area that the nutrients pass over.
juices to help digest the food you have eaten. This allows more time for all the nutrients to
be absorbed from the chyme.

EXPERIMENT 7.2B: WHAT IF AN ENZYME WAS
EXPERIMENT 7.2A: DIGESTING PROTEIN BOILED?
Teeth and mouth

The teeth are responsible for the physical Stomach
breakdown of food and the tongue is important The stomach stores food for about 3 hours while
in pushing the food towards the teeth. Salivary it uses gastric juice (stomach acid) to help digest
glands make saliva, which contains enzymes the food. The food in your stomach looks nothing
to start chemical digestion. like what you ate for dinner. It is very runny, warm
and smelly and has a totally different taste. This
mixture is called chyme.
Pancreas
Oesophagus The pancreas makes pancreatic juice, which
The oesophagus is a tubular contains a mixture of digestive enzymes and
muscle that forces food down also neutralises stomach acid. Food does not
to your stomach in a process travel through the pancreas.
called peristalsis.
Small intestine
Liver and gall bladder The small intestine is called ‘small’ because it is
The liver makes a mixture of quite narrow. If you laid a small intestine out in a
chemicals called bile, which is straight line, it would be approximately 5 m long.
used to digest fat and neutralise The intestines are really important because they
(deactivate) stomach acid. The absorb the nutrients that all the cells of the
bile is stored in the gall bladder body require. The ability to absorb nutrients is
until food reaches the small intestine. increased by projections, called villi, along the
Bile is then released into the small inner wall of the intestine that increase the surface
intestine through a tube called the area for absorption. Bacteria in the small intestine
bile duct. Food does not travel also help with digestion. Chyme takes about 5 or
through the liver. 6 hours to pass through the small intestine.
Rectum and anus Large intestine

The rectum is the final part of the journey The large intestine is also called the colon and
for what is now solid, undigested food, is wider but shorter than the small intestine. The
or faeces. The rectum stores faeces until large intestine is approximately 1.5 m long. By
it starts to become full. As the rectum the time the chyme reaches the large intestine,
starts to stretch, messages are sent to most nutrients have been absorbed into the
the brain to make you realise that you bloodstream. However, some vitamins are
need to go to the toilet. Rectal absorbed from the large intestine. Water is also
muscles push the faeces out of the absorbed into the bloodstream from the large
ring of muscle at the end of the rectum intestine. Chyme stays in the large intestine for
called the anus. up to 14 hours, or sometimes longer.
Figure 7.6 The structure of the digestive system is shown here with key parts labelled.

Remember and understand 5 Which organs are involved in digestion
1 List, in order, the organs of the but do not have food pass through
digestive system that food moves them?
through, from the mouth to the anus. Apply and analyse
2 How does saliva make it easier to eat 6 Teeth would look very nice if they were
dry biscuits? all the same size and shape. What is
3 What is the difference between the advantage of having different types
mechanical and chemical digestion? of teeth in your mouth?
Which occurs in the stomach? 7 Can you think of any tools that may
4 What is the difference between the work the same way as incisors,
digestive system and the digestive canines or molars?
tract? 8 What are villi? What is their function?
Surviving 131
7.3 The digestive system
varies between animals
There are a large number of different types of animals in the world that
have a varied diet. Herbivores eat plants. Carnivores eat meat. Omnivores,
including us, eat a variety of foods. Although we all need the same basic
nutrients, how we obtain those nutrients from our food varies.
Teeth tell a story animals. Palaeontologists use the teeth to

predict what the animal ate when it was alive.
Before the invention of knives and forks, we
used to tear our food apart with our fingers
and teeth. Each type of tooth has a Herbivore hindgut
specialised function. Incisors have Some plants, such as sugar cane, have a ready
a sharp knifelike structure, and supply of the sugar that animals need for
animals such as rats and mice energy. Other plants, such as potatoes, contain
use their incisors to cut their way starch that our enzymes can break up for
through food. Canine teeth are nutrients. Not all plants make it easy to obtain
pointed and are useful in ripping the nutrients that herbivores need. The outside
lumps of meat apart. This is why many of a plant cell is surrounded by a cell wall made
meat eaters (carnivores) have large of cellulose. Few animals have the enzyme
canine teeth. Molars are flatter and are (cellulase) that can break up this solid nutrient.
Figure 7.7 The teeth on
especially good at grinding the plant Instead they rely on bacteria to break it up
this dinosaur show it
was a carnivore. food of herbivores into small pieces so that it for them. These bacteria live in the caecum,
can be digested more effectively by enzymes. a dead-end pouch where food is stored until
Palaeontologists are scientists who study the bacteria can digest it. In many animals the
fossils, including the skulls and teeth of extinct caecum is found between the small intestine
Ascending
Colon
Left ventral Left dorsal Pelvic
flexure
Descending
Sternal flexure Transverse
Diaphragmatic flexure
Caecum
Right ventral
Stomach Rectum
Right dorsal
Duodenum Ileum Anal canal
Jejunum
Small intestine
Figure 7.9 This fossil has a lot of molars and a
Figure 7.8 The caecum of a horse is found between the small intestine
few incisors. This suggests that it belonged to
and the large intestine.
a herbivore.

and the large intestine. This is a problem for that filter the fine particles and water into the
the animal as it means the plant matter is abomasum (the fourth stomach). It is this last
digested after it passes through the place where section that contains the acid and enzymes just
the nutrients can be absorbed, in the small like a human stomach.
intestine. This means some animals, such as
possums, rabbits, rodents and termites, eat
their own faeces to get the extra nutrients that
may have been missed the first time through. Large
intestine Small Oesophagus
Ruminants intestine
Rumen
Ruminants are animals with hooves that have
four chambers in their stomachs. A cow is an Rumen
Omasum
example of a ruminant. When the cow first Reticulum
swallows its food, the grass goes to the first Abomasum
stomach, which is called the rumen. This
allows the grass to mix with different types of
bacteria that can break up the cellulose in the
plant’s cell wall. The cow regurgitates the grass
and chews it over and over again to help the
bacteria break down the nutrients. The second
stomach (reticulum) is involved in trapping
any unwanted things the cow might have
swallowed, such as rocks or wire. The third Figure 7.10 The four stomachs of a cow allow it
stomach, the omasum, has many leaf-like folds to digest grass.
Check your learning 7.3 a b c

Remember and understand Small intestine Stomach
1 How many stomachs does a cow have? Small Stomach
2 Are digestive systems the same in all intestine
Caecum
animals? Explain. Caecum
Apply and analyse Colon

3 Examine the images in Figure 7.11 of (large
the digestive systems of a carnivore, a Colon intestine)
herbivore and an omnivore. Correctly (large
label each digestive system according intestine)
to the animal's diet. Provide evidence
Figure 7.11
from the diagrams to support each of
your answers.
4 Identify the possible diet of the fossils
in Figure 7.12. Provide evidence from
the photographs to support each of
your answers.
Evaluate and create
5 Research the digestive system of an
animal of your choice. In what way is it
similar, and different, to the digestive
system of humans? How does the
structure of your animal’s digestive
system relate to the food it eats?
Figure 7.12
Surviving 133
7.4 Things sometimes go wrong
in the digestive system
The digestive system is just like a production line in a factory. Each organ
relies on the previous section working effectively. This does not always occur.
The stomach can get ulcers. Gall bladders can get gallstones. The small
intestine may not be able to absorb a nutrient such as gluten and cause gluten
intolerance. The large intestine may become blocked causing constipation.
Stomach ulcers
For many years ulcers (small open sores) in the
stomach lining were thought to be caused by
too much rich, spicy food and stress. Patients
would come to hospital in a lot of pain from
the stomach acid burning the other tissues
around the ulcer. Because it was thought
no bacteria could survive in the stomach’s
acid environment, no one considered
that a bacteria could be the cause of the
ulcers. Two Australian scientists, Barry
Marshall and Robin Warren, noticed
that every patient who presented with
symptoms of a stomach ulcer also had
the bacterium Helicobacter pylori present in
their stomach. In the early 1980s they did a
series of experiments to show that the spiral-
shaped bacteria caused damage to the cells
lining the stomach, forming an ulcer. These
Figure 7.13 A stomach bacteria can be killed by antibiotics. In 2005,
ulcer. Marshall and Warren were awarded the Nobel Figure 7.14 Robin Warren (left) and Barry
Prize for medicine (the highest prize in science). Marshall (right).
Gallstones difficulty digesting fatty foods because of the

lack of bile to break up the fats.
The gall bladder is a small pouch-like structure
that stores the bile from the liver. Bile contains
many things, including a detergent-like
Gluten intolerance
substance that helps to physically break up Gluten is a small molecule found in many
the fat that leaves the stomach in the chyme. cereals and grains. Our body uses enzymes to
Occasionally, parts of the bile harden into chemically digest the gluten so that we can
a small stone that stops the bile leaving the use the nutrients it contains. Some people do
gall bladder. The amount of bile in the pouch not have this enzyme. This means they cannot
increases, causing the gall bladder to swell digest the gluten and that they are gluten
up. This causes severe stomach pains. If the intolerant. It can cause a range of different
stone cannot be shattered by ultrasound, or symptoms, from blockages of the intestines to
removed by surgery, the gall bladder may have diarrhoea (watery faeces). Gluten intolerance
to be removed. This means the person will have is different to gluten allergies. If a person is

Figure 7.15 Gallstones.
Figure 7.17 Constipation

may cause pain and
discomfort.
Figure 7.16 A number of grains contain gluten.
allergic to gluten, their body’s immune system Check your learning 7.4
fights against the gluten. This can affect their Remember and understand
whole body, not just their faeces. 1 What causes stomach ulcers?
2 What role does bile play in the
Constipation digestive system?
Sometimes the large intestine becomes 3 What is the difference between
blocked. This can be caused by a poor diet gluten intolerance and gluten
(not enough fruit and vegetables), or by allergy?
an infection. It usually starts with a small
Apply and analyse
blockage, but as more food moves down the
digestive system, it gets caught behind the 4 Why does a person with
constipation experience pain?
blockage and gradually fills the large intestine.
This causes pain and discomfort. Sometimes 5 Research the extreme measures
medication is needed to help the large intestine that Barry Marshall took to show
his colleagues that the spiral
move the blockage. If it is not treated, the
bacteria caused stomach ulcers.
person may die.
Surviving 135
7.5 The respiratory system
exchanges gases
The respiratory system is the body system responsible for breathing –
getting oxygen from the air we inhale down the trachea, the bronchi and
the bronchioles into the alveolar sacs and eventually into our blood. We
need oxygen to produce the energy for staying alive. As a result, our cells
produce carbon dioxide. Our lungs breathe out to help us remove the
carbon dioxide from our blood.
Why do we need oxygen?

The respiratory system makes sure that every
cell in your body gets the oxygen it needs. Why
do cells need oxygen? Most of the food we eat
is broken down to glucose, a simple sugar. To
Nasal cavity release energy from glucose, oxygen is required.
This process is called cellular respiration.
This process is a chemical reaction in which
glucose and oxygen is converted to carbon
Pharynx
Nostrils dioxide, water and energy. This energy is
Epiglottis then used for all the jobs the cell needs to
Larynx (voice box)
perform, from making and breaking down
substances to making new cells. You can see
Trachea (windpipe) Ribs why people get confused about the difference
between breathing and respiration. ‘Cellular
Ring of cartilage respiration’ is the actual process that happens
in cells and ‘breathing’ is the inhalation of
oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide
by your lungs and other organs in the
Lungs respiratory system.
Where does the air go?

Bronchial We breathe air in through our nose
tube and mouth, trapping all the dust and
pollens with hairs and wet surfaces as
it travels to our throat or pharynx.
At the bottom of the pharynx is a
trapdoor called the epiglottis that
controls the passage of food and air.
Diaphragm
Food goes down the oesophagus to
the stomach. Air needs to go down the
trachea to the lungs.
Alveoli (air sacs)

Figure 7.18 The structure of the respiratory system.

CHALLENGE 7.5A: MEASURE YOUR LUNG
CAPACIT Y CHALLENGE 7.5B: FISH DISSECTION
The lungs
Network of blood capillaries gives a
There are two lungs in our chest, changing Trachea large surface area for gas exchange
in size every time we take a breath and they
fill with air. The trachea branches into two to
carry air into each lung. These branches are
called bronchi. The lungs feel spongy to touch
because they are home to millions of tiny
air sacs called alveoli. If these air sacs were
unravelled and flattened, they would have a
surface area of approximately half the size of
a tennis court. Each tiny alveolus is covered
by a mesh of even smaller blood vessels called
capillaries. The lungs are structured to have as Bronchi
Blood flow around
many air sacs as close to as many blood vessels One alveolus
alveolus
as possible.
Oxygen moves into the blood, whereas
Bronchiole
carbon dioxide (the waste product of cellular
respiration) moves out of the blood. Air sacs
Blood contains
The diaphragm Carbon dioxide moves oxygen, moves
from blood into air into body
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that
is attached to your ribs and moves up and down
beneath your lungs. The muscle contracts down Blood from body
and relaxes up. The diaphragm also separates the contains carbon dioxide Oxygen moves
heart and lungs from the stomach and digestive from air to blood
system. The lungs have no muscle tissue, so
they can’t move on their own. Every time you Figure 7.19 Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli.
breathe in, the muscles in the diaphragm and
between the ribs work together to expand your
chest. This creates suction that opens the lungs, Check your learning 7.5
pulling air in. Then the muscles relax, allowing
the air to move out again.
1 Draw a simple diagram showing how air travels down from
the mouth and nose to the alveoli at the end of the branches of
Other respiratory systems the bronchioles.
As you learnt in Oxford Science 7, all living 2 Explain the term ‘gas exchange’.
organisms exchange gases. The lungs in many 3 At the same time that oxygen is passing into the blood, what
animals, including mammals and birds, gas is passing out of the blood back into the lungs?
provide a large surface for oxygen to move 4 Write the sequence of steps in breathing in and breathing out.
into the blood and for carbon dioxide to move
5 What role does the epiglottis play?
out. Other organisms have this gas exchange
surface on the outside of their body. The gills 6 What advantage does the large surface area of the alveoli
on fish have water passing over a large surface give in allowing oxygen to pass into the blood?
area, allowing oxygen in the water to be Apply and analyse
absorbed into the blood of the fish and carbon 7 In your own words, explain why we need to breathe.
dioxide to be removed. This water must
constantly be replaced so that the fish have a
fresh supply of oxygen.
Surviving 137
in the respiratory system
Our respiratory system is responsible for supplying the oxygen we need
for energy. When things go wrong, our body struggles to survive. Small
irritations make us cough. Asthma causes the airways to become smaller.
Emphysema prevents the oxygen from entering our blood. Pneumonia is
an infection that fills our lungs with fluid.
Coughing and sneezing

Every time you breathe in, you also take
in small particles of dust, pollen and other
particles. These particles are trapped by the
cells lining our upper airways. Small cilia (hair-
like structures) on the surface of the cells trap
these particles and push them back to the top
of the throat where they are swallowed. Larger
particles trigger the diaphragm to contract
quickly, making us cough. This pushes up the
large particle before it enters the bronchioles.
Sometimes the particles get trapped by the
hairs in our nose. This causes a message to go
to our brain, which coordinates the muscles
in the eyes, chest, stomach and diaphragm,
making us sneeze. Some sneezes have been
recorded at over 120 kilometres per hour.
a b
Figure 7.21 We cough or sneeze to clear small

particles from our airways.
Asthma
Asthma is quite common in our population,
affecting more than one in ten Australians.
Asthma usually starts when something in the
environment irritates the airways. This causes
the bronchi and bronchioles to narrow, making
it harder for air to move into the lungs. This
makes it hard to breathe. Asthma attacks can
Figure 7.20 Asthma causes the bronchioles to become narrow: (a) normal
airway and (b) asthmatic airway. be reversed by drugs, such as Ventolin, that
relax the airways.

a
Figure 7.22 Ventolin is commonly used to

control asthma attacks.
Emphysema
Smoking involves breathing toxic chemicals
and tar into your lungs. The tar is like
honey, covering the inside of the alveoli Figure 7.23 (a) Healthy lungs. (b) A smoker’s lungs.
and stopping oxygen from moving into the
blood. The toxic chemicals in the smoke kill
the cells, destroying the alveolar sacs, and
travel through the blood to cause trouble all
over your body. Emphysema is a disease that
is caused by the inability of the collapsed Check your learning 7.6
alveoli to move air in and out. A person Remember and understand
with emphysema struggles to breathe in 1 What causes each of the
enough oxygen to walk even 20 metres. following?
a a cough
Pneumonia b a sneeze.
Pneumonia is caused by a bacterial or viral 2 What is asthma?
infection in the lungs. The alveoli in the
Apply and analyse
lungs fill up with bacteria, pus and fluid.
3 Why do people with pneumonia
This prevents air moving into the lungs.
feel tired all the time?
Anyone can contract pneumonia, but it
tends to be most common in young children 4 It is physically impossible to keep
your eyes open during a sneeze.
and the elderly. A short course of antibiotics
Can you explain why?
(special drugs that kill bacteria) can clear
the lungs again. 5 Describe some health risks people
take with their lungs. What can be
done to avoid these risks?
Surviving 139
7.7 The circulatory system
carries substances around
the body
The circulatory system is the body system responsible for moving blood
around your body. Many different substances, including nutrients and
wastes, are transported in the blood, picked up from and dropped off at
different locations.
Superior Pulmonary
Right common carotid artery Aorta
Left common carotid artery vena cava artery
Pulmonary
Right internal jugular vein veins Left atrium
Left internal jugular vein
Arch of the aorta
Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
Right
Abdominal aorta atrium
Inferior vena cava Left ventricle

Right femoral artery Left femoral artery
Right ventricle
Figure 7.25 This diagram shows your heart, as

Figure 7.24 The
structure of the
The heart well as some of the major blood vessels that
travel to and from the heart. The diagram uses
circulatory system with The heart is a large two-part pump about the a common convention that shows the arteries
key parts labelled. in red and the veins in blue.
size of your fist. It is made of four chambers:
two atria at the top and two ventricles at the Blood is connective tissue containing
bottom. The ventricle on the right side of the cell fragments, liquid and dissolved substances
heart pumps blood to the lungs to ‘drop off’ and each aspect is absolutely necessary.
carbon dioxide and ‘pick up’ oxygen. This
> Oxygen is carried by the red blood cells
oxygenated blood moves back to the left atrium
from the lungs to all the cells of the body.
and on to the left ventricle. The more muscular
Carbon dioxide is dissolved in the plasma
left ventricle pumps blood out through the
(the straw-coloured liquid at the top of
aorta at the top of the heart and around the
centrifuged blood).
body. Valves keep the blood moving in the
right direction until it gets back to the right > Nutrients and wastes are also dissolved in
atrium of the heart. the plasma for transport to and from cells.

EXPERIMENT 7.7: HEART DISSECTION
GO TO PAGE 226.
> White blood cells use the blood to travel

Surrounding Platelets White blood cells
to places where bacterial cells that cause body cells Plasma
infection are growing. The white blood cells
then kill the bacterial cells.
> Platelets are cell fragments that burst when
exposed to breaks in the blood vessels. They
fill the hole and glue the edges together.
Blood vessels
Blood travels through tubes called blood
vessels. Just like our roads, blood vessels have
different sizes and structures depending on the
amount of blood they need to carry, as well as
the speed of the blood and whether it is picking Capillary wall
Red blood cells White blood cells
up or dropping off substances. can leave the blood
Arteries are the largest blood vessels. to fight foreign cells
Arteries have thick, muscular walls to cope
Figure 7.26 A cross-section of a blood vessel.
with high pressure and to help pass the blood
along. Arteries carry blood flow away from Blood flow from heart
the heart. The blood is at a higher pressure
here because it has just been pumped. Arteries Blood flow
Arteriole Venule to heart
branch into arterioles (smaller arteries).
Capillaries are possibly the most important
of the blood vessels. Their walls are only one
cell thick to allow substances to easily pass in
and out of the blood. Capillaries are the vessels Artery
connecting the arteries and veins; they are Vein
sometimes referred to as a capillary bed when
they are in large numbers surrounding an organ.
Veins carry blood back to the heart to be
pumped elsewhere. These vessels are similar Capillaries
in size to the arteries, but only have a small
Figure 7.27 Capillary bed, showing the relationship between arteries, veins
amount of muscle in their walls. To avoid and capillaries.
any blood going backwards due to a lack of
pressure, veins contain one-way valves.
Other circulatory systems Remember and understand
1 What is the function of red blood cells, white blood cells and
Not all organisms have large organised
platelets?
circulatory systems. Smaller organisms such as
2 Explain how the three blood vessel types differ in their
the hydra (1-2 mm long) spend life surrounded
structure, jobs and locations. Use diagrams in your answer.
by water. It does not have a heart or blood
vessels. Instead gases diffuse in an out of the 3 Use Figure 7.25 showing the structure of the heart to
describe the path a red blood cell takes as it moves through
organism’s cells. Other nutrients are partially
the heart from the body.
digested in the small tube-like stomach with
only one opening, and absorbed directly into 4 Rewrite your answer to question 3, adding the names of the
veins and the arteries involved.
the cells. Insects have open-ended tubes that
take in circulation fluid at the back of the 5 From which body system does the circulatory system absorb
organism and small heart-like pumps that push nutrients?
it forward to the brain. The fluid then leaves Apply and analyse
the tube and moves freely around the open 6 Instead of the blood travelling directly from the lungs to the
cavity until it enters the open-ended tube once rest of the body, the blood returns to the heart first. What is
more. the advantage of doing this?
Surviving 141
in the circulatory system
Blood vessels carry oxygen and nutrients around the body. When something
goes wrong, the body is unable to make the energy it needs to survive.
Valves in the heart can leak (valve disease), the vessels can narrow
(atherosclerosis) and the cells in the heart can die in a heart attack. Healthy
eating and regular exercise all help to keep your heart healthy.
a Valve disease Atherosclerosis

The heart has a series of valves that prevent the Atherosclerosis is a disease that results from
blood flowing backwards. This means when the narrowing of the blood vessels. This
the ventricle fills with blood from the atrium, narrowing is caused by a build-up of plaque
the valve between the atrium and ventricle on the inside of the arteries and veins. Plaque
closes (lub), forcing the blood to flow out of consists of fat, cholesterol and other substances
the heart when the ventricle contracts. The normally found in the blood. Layers of
valve between the ventricle and the aorta then plaque are laid down over time, eventually
closes (dub) allowing the ventricle to fill once hardening and restricting the blood flow. The
b
again. This is what creates the lub-dub sound symptoms depend on the part of the body
you hear when you listen to your heart. affected by the narrowed blood vessel. If
Sometimes these valves become damaged. the blood vessel is in the heart, then a heart
They may become narrowed from scarring attack will follow.
(stenosis), they may leak (regurgitation or
insufficiency) or not close properly (prolapse). a
This prevents the blood from flowing properly Artery
around the body. As a result, less oxygen and
Figure 7.29 (a) A blocked nutrients get carried to the cells. This makes Blood clot
artery and (b) an the person very tired all the time.
unblocked artery.
a b
Left atrium
Blood flow
Cholesterol
plaque
Coronary
artries
Healthy muscle
Mitral valve (closed) Left ventricle
Dying muscle
b
Figure 7.28 (a) The heart valve opens to allow blood to flow from the atrium
to the ventricle. (b) Closing of the valve prevents the backflow of blood so Figure 7.30 (a) Chest pain is often caused by a
that it can be pumped effectively around the body. (b) blockage in the heart's own blood vessels.

CHALLENGE 7.8: MODELLING BLOOD FLOW
GO TO PAGE 227.
Visceral pericardium
Fluid
Parietal pericardium
Pericardium
Figure 7.31 The pericardium reduces friction in a beating heart.
Coronary heart disease Pericarditis

A heart attack is usually caused by coronary The pericardium is the thin sac that surrounds
heart disease (CHD), which is basically fatty the heart and helps it move easily when it
deposits blocking important blood vessels beats. It reduces the friction when the heart
in the heart. ‘Coronary’ refers to the heart’s beats. Sometimes this thin layer of cells can
own blood vessels. The ‘attack’ occurs when become infected by bacteria, causing the
the vessels become completely blocked or sac to fill with fluid– a condition known as
when a bit of the fatty deposit breaks off and pericarditis. As a result the heart cannot beat
travels into the heart. Heart muscle cells properly. This restricts the heart from filling
may be killed in the process. properly with blood. Antibiotics are needed to
So how can you keep your heart healthy? help kill the bacteria.
Eating less fatty food is a really good start,
but it’s not the only thing you can do.
The heart is a muscle and, like all
muscles, it needs exercise to keep it strong. Remember and understand
Regular exercise is all it needs. In people 1 What causes the lub-dub sound you hear when you listen
who are overweight or who smoke cigarettes, to your heart?
the heart needs to work much harder to 2 What is the cause of the following valve conditions?
do the same job. This is actually stressful a stenosis
for your heart. Elite athletes work their b regurgitation or insufficiency
bodies very hard, so they need to make c prolapse
sure they have their hearts checked
3 What is the purpose of the pericardium around the heart?
regularly by a doctor.
4 What is the link between atherosclerosis and
cardiovascular disease?
5 What things could you do to ensure your circulatory
system stays healthy?
6 How does the heart muscle become damaged during a
heart attack?
7 How does the function of the pericardium become affected
when it fills with fluid during an infection?
Surviving 143
7.9 The excretory system
removes waste
Our cells and our bodies create a number of waste products. If we are to
keep functioning correctly, these wastes need to be removed. The process
of removing wastes is called excretion. The organs of excretion are the
kidneys, liver, lungs and skin. These organs make up the excretory system.
Diseased kidneys or livers may need to be replaced by transplantation. This
can raise ethical issues.
Liver Skin
uses energy to change the ammonia into a safer

Renal substance called urea, which is also filtered by
artery the kidneys for removal.
Renal
vein
The kidneys
Ureter You have two kidneys, one on each side of
your lower back. They are approximately 10 cm
long. Blood carrying waste products enters
your kidneys to be filtered by the million tiny
Kidney structures in the kidney called nephrons. At
Urethra
the end of this filtering process there are two
Bladder
main outputs: clean blood and urine.
Figure 7.32 The structure of the excretory
system with key parts labelled. The skin
The skin plays a very important role in releasing
What is waste? waste heat by evaporation from wet skin. If
you’ve ever licked your upper lip after exercise,
Our bodies produce a number of substances you will know that your sweat is very salty.
that need to be removed to avoid damage Sweat also contains waste products such as urea.
to our bodies. The human body, like all
organisms, relies on a careful balance of inputs
and outputs to work properly. Water is really
The liver
important in controlling wastes because it All our food has to be metabolised, or
can dilute harmful substances, diluting their processed. Metabolism is the name given to
impact at the same time. Water is also great for the chemical reactions that occur in the body.
moving substances quickly and is essential for These reactions can break down substances or
Figure 7.33 The salt keeping our body temperature just right. build new substances. The liver is responsible for
that you eat helps the metabolism of many substances, especially
When your body digests proteins, it breaks
substances move in and waste substances. Dangerous substances are
out of cells. However, if them down into smaller molecules called amino
acids. However, it cannot store the amino acids often changed into less dangerous forms by the
there is too much salt
in your body, things get that it doesn’t use immediately. Your liver breaks liver before their removal from the body.
out of balance. Your down these amino acids into other substances
body gets rid of the for energy. When it does this, it produces a very
excess salt by filtering it
out through the kidneys.
toxic substance called ammonia. The liver then

EXPERIMENT 7.9: KIDNEY DISSECTION
GO TO PAGE 227.
Transplantation Figure 7.34 Amoebas

are small single-
Ethics is the series of rules that define right from celled organisms with
wrong. Often science offers possible solutions a nucleus. Because
to problems that challenge people’s perceptions they live in a watery
of what is right. Organ transplantation is one of environment, they are
these areas. able to excrete their
waste directly into their
When the kidney or liver becomes diseased surroundings.
the types of treatments can be limited. Kidney
function can be replaced by dialysis, a 4-6 hour
treatment that filters the blood, three times a
week. Occasionally dialysis is not possible and Digestive
Midgut
transplantation is the only option. system Circulatory
Transplantation waiting lists are a list of people (green) Foregut Crop system
that will not survive unless their organ such (red)
as kidneys or liver, is replaced. This list is not
affected by race, religion, gender, social status,
disability or age. Instead it relies on how well
the organs match the recipient, how long the
person has been waiting for a transplant, how
urgent the transplant is and whether the organ
can be made available to the person in time. Anus
Most commonly organs are donated by patients Hindgut
who are brain dead. This means their brain is Rectum
no longer able to keep their hearts and lungs
functioning. Often the donor had decided Malpighian tubes x 6
around midgut
to offer their organs before they became ill,
however, the family of the donor must also give Figure 7.35 The wastes that accumulate in an insect’s circulation fluid,
their permission for the organs to be removed. are absorbed by malpighian tubules that are part of the insect’s digestive
This is where the ethical issues arise. system. The wastes are then excreted by the insect.

Remember and understand a What if the donor wanted to donate
1 What does the word ‘excretion’ mean? their organ but the family do not?
2 Can you think of any similarities b Can minors (patients under 18
between your excretory system and years old) be donors?
your respiratory system? c Can the donors or their families be
4 How does your body get rid of the given gifts by the recipients?
following wastes? d Does this constitute the selling of
a salt organs?
b water e What if a doctor had to choose
between heavy
c urea
smoker and
Apply and analyse drinker organ
5 What effect would running a marathon recipient or a
have on the quantity and concentration young child organ
of the urine? recipient? Is one
more important than
Evaluate and create the other?
5 Examine each of the five ethical
questions raised by organ
transplantation. Choose one issue and Figure 7.36 Protein
suggest a possible answer. Provide digestion produces toxic
reasoning to support your answer. ammonia.
Surviving 145
CHALLENGE 7.10A: LOCATING THE STOMATA CHALLENGE 7.10B: LOCATING THE X YLEM AND
OF A LEAF PHLOEM IN A STEM
7.10 Plants have tissues

and organs
Plants are multicellular organisms that have specialised organs to help
move water and nutrients around the body. Roots use osmosis to absorb
water from the soil. Stems transport the water and nutrients around the
plant. Leaves exchange gases and produce the sugars needed for energy.
Roots Small amounts of

Roots help to anchor a plant to the soil and mineral salts in soil
help it absorb nutrients and water. Most root
cells have a series of small hairs to increase the
amount of surface area that can take in the
water. First the roots take mineral salts from
the soil and store them in their cells. This
makes the inside of the roots more ‘salty’ than
the soil. Water molecules are attracted to the
mineral salts in the root cells. As a result, water
moves through the root cell membrane and
into the plant. This process is called osmosis.
Stem
The stem of a plant is the organ responsible for
the transport of water and nutrients between Root hair: high
the leaves and roots. There are two main amounts of root salts
structures in the vascular bundle of the stem.
Figure 7.37 Osmosis into a root hair.
VASCULAR BUNDLE
Phloem Xylem
Figure 7.38 The structure of the stem of a plant.

CHALLENGE 7.10C: MODELLING ROOT CELLS EXPERIMENT 7.10: FACTORS THAT AFFECT
GO TO PAGE 229. TRANSPIRATION
GO TO PAGE 229.
The xylem (zi-lem) is a straw-like structure

that moves the water from the roots to the Guard cells
top of the plant. Water molecules like to stick
together; you can see this in the way a drop
of water forms a spherical shape. When water
evaporates from the leaves at the top of a
plant (transpiration), other water molecules
move up to replace it. This can pull water Stomatal
molecules from the roots to the top of a aperture
Outer wall
10 metre tree.
The phloem (flo-em) is another network Inner wall
Epidermal
of cells in the plant stem that transport the cells
glucose produced in the leaves to other parts
of the plant. These sugars are needed for all
cells in the plant to produce the energy they
need to stay alive.
Chloroplasts
Leaves Figure 7.39 The structure of a plant stoma.

The leaves of a plant are involved in
exchanging gases. In sunlight, a plant needs
carbon dioxide to produce the sugars it needs When the sun is shining, the leaves
for energy. The carbon dioxide moves in and convert the water from the roots and
out of cells through a small opening called a the carbon dioxide from the stomata into
stoma (plural stomata). A plant stoma has two glucose (sugar) and oxygen in a process called
specialised guard cells that can grow longer, photosynthesis. Photosynthesis cannot happen
forcing a hole to appear between them. This without the help of chlorophyll. This is the
allows air to move in and out. When it is reason most leaves are green.
too hot, the plant loses more water than the During autumn, some leaves lose their
roots can replace. This causes the guard cells green chlorophyll. This allows the other colours
to become smaller, closing the pores in the present in the leaves (reds, oranges and yellows)
plant’s stomata. to appear.

1 Name three organs found in most
plants and describe their function
(what they do).
2 What is osmosis?
xylem and phloem?
4 Why do leaves become red and
yellow in autumn? Figure 7.41 Artificially
coloured orchids.
5 What system in humans provides
the same function as a plant stem?
Apply and analyse
6 Some florists sell blue orchids
that are artificially coloured. Use
your knowledge of plant systems
to explain how these orchids may
have become blue.
Figure 7.40 Autumn leaves come in a range of
colours.
Surviving 147
7
REVIEW

1 What was Leonardo da Vinci famous for? 13 How does the human digestive system
2 What do you think motivated the earliest ‘feed’ all the other systems?
studies of the human body? 14 Why would muscles need more blood
3 Name four things that the circulatory during exercise?
system transports around your body.
4 What is the gaseous waste product
removed by the lungs?
5 Describe how the respiratory system and
circulatory system work together.
Figure 7.43 Each system in the human body is

made up of organs that must work together.
15 Would you expect to find chloroplasts in the

roots of a plant? Why or why not?
16 Sweating is often considered to be a
bad thing. What is your perspective? Put
forward an argument for your point of view.
What do you think would happen if you
didn’t sweat?
17 Imagine it is your job to construct a ‘user’s
manual’ for one of the systems covered in
this chapter. Write a list of ten ‘Frequently
Asked Questions’ (FAQ) to go at the front
of the manual. Write an answer to as
many of your questions as you can. If you
don’t know the answer, write down where
Figure 7.42 The respiratory system and you could find the answer or who you
circulatory system must work together to could ask.
supply oxygen to the muscles.
18 Some people have had the valves in their
6 What is the difference between heart replaced with prosthetic valves,
respiration and breathing? either made from synthetic materials or
7 Where does chemical digestion occur in transplanted directly from a pig or cow
the body? heart. Why is it so important that the valves
in a heart are functioning properly?
8 Where does peristalsis occur in the
body? Explain how it causes food to 19 Mangrove trees get rid of excess salt
move. through their leaves. This salt is often seen
as white crystals on the underside of the
9 Plants do not have a digestive system.
leaves. Which system does this represent
What organ helps the plant supply all its
for the plant? How is this similar to
energy needs?
humans? Which organ(s) is responsible for
10 What is the function of each type of this in humans?
tissue?
20 Human dissections sound like grisly work,
11 What is meant by an ethical issue? so why do you think it was so important
12 What is the difference between organ that they happened?
and system?

Evaluate and create
>> Smoking bans
21 Use your understanding of the different
Many smoking bans, such as
systems of the human body to create a
bans in workplaces, are related
concept map detailing the connections
to the issue of secondhand
between the systems. An example has
smoke. This refers to how smoke
been provided to help you get started.
affects people standing near a
person who is smoking. Find out
some facts about the impacts
of secondhand smoke. Do you
think the rules are required?
Argue your position on whether
smoking bans should be
extended, removed or are fine as
they are now.
>> Getting rid of nitrogen

Animals need to get rid of
Figure 7.44 There are many different systems nitrogen. Some animals produce
in your body that must work together to keep
ammonia, some produce uric
you alive.
acid, some produce urea and
22 Revisit Challenge 7.1, the brown paper others produce guanine. Find out
body brainstorm that you did at the start which types of animals produce
of this unit. Look at the body you and your these different substances
group created. Evaluate your own work by to remove nitrogen. In which
writing a short paragraph about how your environments do animals that
knowledge of your major body systems produce ammonia live? In which
has changed after completing this unit. environments do animals that
Give yourself a score out of 5 for then and produce urea live? What are
a score out of 5 for now. the advantages for animals of
producing the different forms of
Ethical understanding nitrogenous wastes?
23 There are many diseases that affect the

different organs in the body. Sometimes
>> Omega-3 fatty acids
the only treatment available is an organ
transplant. Replacement hearts and What are omega-3 fatty acids?
lungs can only be obtained from critically What foods should be eaten to
injured patients, who have been certified include them in your diet? How
brain dead. Discuss the advantages and do omega-3 fatty acids help
disadvantages of organ donation with reduce heart disease? What
a partner. Would you want your organs other diseases are helped by
donated if you were brain dead? Explain omega-3 fatty acids? Why is this
the reasoning behind your decision. sort of fat good for you to eat?
Research >> Rh factor

24 Choose one of the following topics for a What is the Rh factor? How is
research project. A few guiding questions the Rh factor written with blood
have been provided for you, but you should groups? What percentage of the
add more questions that you want to population is Rh negative and
investigate. Present your research in a what percentage is Rh positive?
format of your own choosing, giving careful What effect does the Rh factor
consideration to the information you are have in pregnancy?
presenting.
Surviving 149
7
KEY WORDS
abomasum peristalsis
the fourth stomach of a cow when muscles behind the food squeeze
alveoli tight, and the muscles in front of the food
tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas relax, causing the food to move along the
exchange occurs throat or intestines
aorta pharynx
the major artery that carries oxygenated the throat; connects the mouth to the
blood from the heart and divides into oesophagus
smaller arteries around the body phloem
arterioles the vascular tissue found in plant stems
smaller arteries that carries the sugars around the plant
artery plasma
thick, muscular-walled blood vessel that the straw-colour fluid that forms part of the
carries blood away from the heart under blood
pressure platelets
atria small disc-like cells found in blood that are
the smaller upper chambers of the heart involved with forming clots
bronchi red blood cells

the air passages that carry air in and out of cells found in the blood that carry oxygen
the lungs; airways around the body
caecum reticulum
a small dead-end pouch that connects the the second stomach of a cow
small and large intestines rumen
capillary the first stomach of a cow
blood vessel with a wall only one cell thick, trachea
allowing substances to easily pass into and the large tube that connects the throat to
out of the blood the bronchi; carries air in and out of the
diaphragm body
the dome-shaped muscle that is attached transpiration
to ribs and moves up and down beneath the the process of water evaporation from plant
lungs leaves that causes water to move up from
epiglottis the roots
a flap of skin that controls the passage of vascular bundle
food and air groups of tubes found in plant stems that
excretory system carry water and nutrients around the plant
a group of organs that are involved in vein
excretion thin-walled blood vessel that carries blood
lungs back to the heart
organs found in the ribcage that are part of ventricles
the respiratory system the large lower chambers of the heart
nephron villi
tiny structure in the kidneys that filters the small ridges found in the small intestine
blood that absorb nutrients from the digestive
omasum system
the third stomach of a cow white blood cells
osmosis cells found in the blood that help fight
the movement of water through a selective infections
membrane from an area of low ‘salt’ xylem
concentration to an area of high ‘salt’ the tissue in plants that carries water from
concentration; occurs in root cells the roots to the rest of the plant

8
REPRODUCING
There are
8.1 different ways
of reproducing
The female reproductive system

8.2 produces eggs in the ovaries
The male reproductive system

8.3 produces sperm in the testes
Things sometimes go wrong in

8.4 reproduction
What if?
Dogs and roses
Plant sexual reproduction What you need:

8.5 produces seeds A3 paper, pens
What to do:
1 Divide into small groups.
2 Divide the piece of paper in two
equal sections.
3 On one half, write down
everything you know about how
show dogs are bred.
Reproduction techniques have an
8.6 impact in agriculture
4 On the other half, write down
everything you know about how
prize roses are grown.
What if?
» What if a show dog were unable
to breed? What would happen
to it?
» What if all rose bushes could
grow identical flowers? What
other factors could influence
how the rose flower appeared?
8.1 There are different ways
of reproducing
All living things reproduce, leaving new organisms to carry on when others
die. Asexual reproduction involves a single organism making an exact
genetic copy of itself. Sexual reproduction involves a combining of the
genetic material from two organisms to produce a new organism.
Asexual reproduction organisms. A reticulated python in a zoo,

which had been kept isolated from other
For some organisms, finding a partner to snakes, managed to lay eggs that produced
Figure 8.1 The queen bee reproduce with is not an easy option. Some six daughters. The zoo keepers tested the
likes parthenogenesis have found a way, but for those that live genetic material (DNA) of the baby snakes
because her unfertilised alone or are stuck to the one spot, asexual
eggs always become
and found that it was identical to the mother’s
reproduction may be their only chance of genetic material. Other animals, such as the
male bees, which means
no competition for her
continuing the species. crown of thorns starfish, are able to form new
crown! In asexual reproduction, the offspring have individuals when they are split in two. This is
exactly the same genetic material (known as called fragmentation.
DNA) as the parent. If an organism is really Fragmentation in plants is generally
suited to an environment, the lack of variation referred to as vegetative reproduction.
can contribute to further success. However, Related to the term vegetable, this refers to
if the environment changes in any way that all non-flower parts of a plant. Vegetative
becomes unsuitable for the organism, the reproduction generally involves a part of the
entire species risks extinction. The simplest plant breaking off and surviving as a new
version of asexual reproduction is an organism organism with no need for spores or seeds – a
splitting in half to form two new organisms. bit like fragmentation, but with structures
Figure 8.2 The mouth- This is known as binary fission. that have been grown specifically to be
brooding frog doesn’t An amazing asexual reproductive
eat at all while
broken off.
strategy known as parthenogenesis Vegetative structures include plantlets,
protecting the eggs it
holds in its mouth. involves unfertilised eggs hatching into new stolons and rhizomes.
Figure 8.3 Plantlets Tiny plants Figure 8.4 Stolons (runners) Stems Figure 8.5 Rhizomes Underground
that grow on either the parent stem, running along the ground. stems.
leaf or root.

EXPERIMENT 8.1: VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
GO TO PAGE 230.
Sexual reproduction Figure 8.7 Even though

The two cells that joined to make you were nudibranchs are
called sex cells or gametes – an egg from hermaphrodites, they tend
to find a partner to mate
your mum and sperm from your dad. Many
with. Whichever is fastest at
organisms rely on gametes fusing to make new injecting a chemical into the
organisms and this process is referred to as other will get to be the boy!
sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction produces variations
in a population. The offspring (babies) are
all different from their parents, having new
combinations of features. This variation
is really important for the survival of the
entire species. Sometimes a female produces
more than one egg. If the two or more eggs
are fertilized, then non-identical twins
(with different genetic material) can
be produced. Occasionally a single
fertilised egg can be split into two
separate cells. This produces two
organisms with identical genetic
material, identical twins.
Hermaphrodites
Hermaphrodites are organisms
that have both male and female
reproductive systems. This means
they can reproduce sexually by
themselves but, in most cases,
it results in organisms that Figure 8.6 When garden snails mate, both snails Figure 8.8 Identical twins are only
can change sex by give and receive sperm, so both get pregnant. identical according to their DNA.
‘turning off’ one system and
‘turning on’ the other. This helps to maintain
genetic diversity within the species. Check your learning 8.1
Nature or nurture? 1 What does ‘reproduction’ mean?
Your DNA doesn’t control how you cut your 2 How does sexual reproduction differ from asexual
hair or what you eat and the same goes for reproduction?
other organisms. Scientists have often had 3 What substance is responsible for family resemblances?
lengthy discussions about ‘nature versus
nurture’ – whether DNA is responsible for Apply and analyse
certain features or whether the features are 4 Is variation within a species essential? Explain.
the result of lifestyle or even upbringing. 5 What circumstances might make it difficult for an organism
Your DNA controls your genetic features, to reproduce sexually?
whereas the environment (lifestyle, education 6 When would parthenogenesis be useful for organisms that
etc.) controls everything else and can change usually reproduce sexually?
regularly.
Evaluate and create
7 As a class, brainstorm the features of an organism that
are genetically controlled compared with those that are
influenced by the environment. It may be easiest to begin
with a human as the subject and then try other animals
and even plants.
Reproducing 153
8.2 The female reproductive
system produces eggs in
the ovaries
The female reproductive system varies between vertebrates depending
on the reproductive habits of the species. For example, humans have
a uterus that is large enough and stretchy enough to hold one or two
developing foetuses until they are fully formed. Rats and rabbits have
uteri large enough for multiple foetuses. Amphibians have almost no
uterus at all.
Human reproduction
In humans, girls are born with hundreds of
Fallopian tube thousands of eggs or ova (singular ‘ovum’)
partially formed in their ovaries. Every
a b month a chemical messenger from the brain
(FSH, follicle stimulating hormone) sends
a message to the ovaries to secrete oestrogen,
which causes one egg to mature and be
released. This process is called ovulation.
Ovary
The egg travels down the fallopian tubes to
the uterus. If sperm are present in the fallopian
tubes, then the egg may become fertilised. In
Ovary the 3–5 days it takes for the egg to travel the
Uterus fallopian tubes, the lining of the uterus (the
endometrium) becomes thicker. This is to
Uterus provide a safe place for the fertilised egg, or
zygote, to grow into a foetus.
Cervix If the egg is not fertilised, then the
Cervix
Vagina endometrial lining will break down and,
Vagina 2 weeks after ovulation, will pass through the
cervix and vagina as a period. This monthly
Opening of cycle is called menstruation.
urethra
Oestrogen Egg released
level
Vulva
Menstruation Lining maintained Lining
Lining of uterus breaks
Figure 8.9 The female reproductive system
builds up down
varies between vertebrates. (a) Human and
(b) rabbit reproductive systems. Uterus lining
Day 1 Day 4 Day 14 Day 28
Figure 8.10 During the average 28 day

menstrual cycle, ovulation occurs at day 14.

08_SIL_OXSCI8_VIC_06915_TXT_SI.indd 154 8/8/19 10:45 am

Me
ns
28 1 t ru
27 2 a
26 3
tio
Menstruation usually first occurs
n
25 4
Uterus lining
in females between 10 and 16 years 24 breaks down,
menstruation
5
of age. It can take up to 2 years for 23 occurs 6
LU TE AL P HA S E
FOLL I CU LAR PHASE

menstruation to become a regular cycle. 22
Uterus lining
7
continues to
The average length of the cycle is 28 21 thicken Uterus lining 8
thickens again
days, but it can vary from 23 to 35 days. 20 9
If the egg is fertilised and develops 19 10
into a zygote, then it attaches to the 18 11

Ovulation occurs
17 12 (usually on day 14)
thick endometrial layer. A special organ 16
15 14
13
called the placenta forms between the O vul ati o n

Figure 8.11 The
foetus and the uterus. The placenta menstrual cycle begins
allows oxygen and nutrients to pass from on the first day of a
the mother to the developing foetus. The period.
length of time between fertilisation and
birth is called gestation (or pregnancy).
In humans this takes 9 months.
Stage 1
Giving birth Initial (latent) phase

Foetus Uterus
Active phase
Foetus Uterus
Human mothers go through three
Effaced cervix
stages when giving birth. The first Cervix
stage involves the muscular walls of the
uterus contracting, gently squeezing
the baby down against the cervix. This
causes the cervix to flatten and start Vagina Vagina
dilating (opening). The cervix must open
10 cm before the baby’s head can move Umbilical cord Umbilical cord
through the vagina. This is the second Stage 2 Stage 3
stage of birth. When born, the baby Foetus Uterus Placenta
is still attached to the placenta, which
is inside the mother, via the umbilical Cervix
cord. When the umbilical cord is cut, Umbilical
it will form the belly button on the clamp
baby. The third and final stage of birth
is the delivery of the placenta. This is
important to prevent infections from
Umbilical cord Crowning
developing in the uterus.
of the head Umbilical cord Vagina
Figure 8.12 The three stages of childbirth.

Remember and understand 6 On what day in the average
1 List a chemical messenger in human cycle does ovulation occur?
females. Apply and analyse
2 Where does the ovum become 7 A student said that a baby girl
fertilised in humans? already had all her eggs intact
3 What is menstruation? when she was born. Are
4 How often does menstruation occur? they correct? Explain your
reasoning.
5 What are the three stages of giving
birth?
Reproducing 155
8.3 The male reproductive
system produces sperm
in the testes
The vast majority of animals reproduce sexually. They are also sexually
dimorphic, which means that the males look physically different from the
females. For baby animals to be born there needs to be fertilisation of
an egg by a sperm. This could happen inside the female or male (internal
fertilisation) or out in the open (external fertilisation).
Male reproductive organs Once sperm are produced in the testes,

they move to the epididymis to mature. When
In fertilisation, a gamete from the father necessary, the epididymis contracts (squeezes
(sperm) must meet the gamete from the mother tight), and the sperm is moved into the vas
(egg or ovum). The sperm is produced in deferens. The sperm need energy to be activated.
special organs called the testes. The testes are Seminal vesicles are small pouch-like structures
also responsible for producing a male chemical that provide a sugary fluid that is needed for
messenger called testosterone. In most the sperms’ journey along the vas deferens tube
animals, the two testes are kept outside the to the prostate gland. The prostate gland is
body in a sack called the scrotum. This is to a walnut-sized structure that blocks the flow
keep the sperm cooler than the 37°C of the rest of urine so that the sperm can move along the
of the body. If sperm get too hot then they will urethra and be ejaculated out through the penis.
not be able to fertilise an egg properly. The function of the penis is to help the sperm
reach the eggs.
Urinary bladder
Seminal vesicle
Fertilisation
Ureter
Mammals, such as humans, use internal
fertilisation and the mother is responsible for
nurturing the growing foetus until it is ready
Prostate gland to face the world. Placental mammals, like
humans, keep the foetus in the uterus for this
period, whereas marsupial foetuses such as those
of the koala, crawl into the pouch for the final
Vas deferens stages of development.
Monotremes, a very rare group of mammals
Ovary that consists of the platypus and the echidna, lay
leathery eggs.
Epididymis
ometrium All mammals suckle their young with highly
nutritious milk from the mother to give them
Urethra the best start in life.
Testis
Like monotremes, reptiles and birds lay
Glans penis internally fertilised eggs. Reptile eggs are
leathery, whereas bird eggs have a hard shell. The
Figure 8.13 Human male reproductive system. eggs contain all the nutrients the foetus needs

to develop fully, which is really important
for reptiles because most reptiles leave their
babies to fend for themselves.
Amphibians and fish generally practise
external fertilisation. This usually involves
the female laying the eggs in the water and
the male coating them with sperm. Often
Figure 8.14 Marsupial foetuses finish
hundreds of eggs are laid at once so there’s a
developing in the pouch. greater chance some will survive – they make
a tasty snack for passing predators! Some
a b parents will keep watch to ward off predators.
Invertebrates making
babies
Invertebrates account for approximately 95%
of all animals, so it’s not surprising that their
reproductive strategies vary quite a lot.
Arthropoda, the group that
includes insects, spiders and
crustaceans, is the largest group
of invertebrates.
Figure 8.15 (a) Birds' eggs are hard while (b) Terrestrial (land)
reptile eggs are leathery. arthropods generally favour
internal fertilisation because
of the harsh conditions they
often live in. Sometimes the
sperm is transferred directly
into the female’s oviduct
(similar to the vagina) and
sometimes the sperm is
packaged for delivery to
the female in more complex
ways. Most arthropods will
then lay their eggs. Insects and
crustaceans tend to hatch as
larvae. Spiders hatch as miniature
Figure 8.16 Some fish protect their eggs from adults.
predators.

Remember and understand 5 Which two vertebrate classes lay
1 Explain ‘sexual dimorphism’ in your leathery eggs?
Figure 8.17 A female fly
own words. 6 Why would terrestrial invertebrates
lays eggs through her
2 Name a chemical messenger in males. fertilise their eggs internally?
oviduct.
Apply and analyse Evaluate and create
3 Why do animals that use external 7 Make up a story that describes the
fertilisation usually lay large numbers journey of Mr Sperm from his home in
of eggs? the testes to meet the love of his life,
Ms Ovum.
4 Which group of mammals has the
longest gestation? Explain why.
Reproducing 157
8.4 Things
sometimes
go wrong in
reproduction
There are many situations in which we wish to encourage
reproduction. For example, when a human couple are
unable to have a baby, technology can intervene. When a
species is threatened with extinction, technology can reduce
the threat; when certain features or characteristics are
favoured, humans step in to influence the outcome; and
when reproduction is just not an option, something can be
done to prevent it.
Figure 8.18 In IVF, eggs are injected with sperm
Endometriosis for fertilisation.
Sometimes the lining of the uterus, the

endometrium, starts growing outside the sampling). The problem with these tests is
uterus. These cells can grow on the outside of that they involve inserting a needle into the
the uterus, or spread to other organs such as belly, which may result in an infection or may
the ovaries. Each month these endometrial interfere with the pregnancy, risking more
cells grow, and then break down, just as in the problems than can be diagnosed. Thankfully,
menstrual cycle. This can be very painful and many issues can be spotted in an ultrasound –
the scarring can prevent the eggs from moving a picture of what’s going on inside, complete
down the fallopian tubes. This can make it with heartbeats.
difficult for pregnancy to occur.
Preserving biodiversity
Human reproduction Humans rely on the diverse range of living
Assisted reproductive technology (ART) is things (biodiversity) for food, transport, tourism
the name given to any procedure that is used and even inspiration, so it’s really important that
to help a couple have a healthy baby. Through we try to stop species becoming extinct.
in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) an egg is fertilised Many scientists work out in the wild to
by sperm in vitro or ‘in glass’, meaning in a test try to help different organisms, but the most
tube. This is done so that a doctor can carefully intensive programs are often happening in our
watch every step to make sure that the egg gets zoos and sanctuaries. These are called captive
fertilised and begins dividing as it is supposed breeding programs.
to. The tiny embryo can then be transferred When an animal is in a zoo, specialists
back into the mother’s uterus to go through a of all types can observe and help the animal
normal pregnancy. to breed. They might try to make the
Unborn babies can be screened for environment ideal or bring animals together at
problems. The amniotic fluid that protects the just the right time, or even try animal IVF.
growing foetus can be tested (amniocentesis),
as can the cells of the placenta (chorionic villus

CHALLENGE 8.4: WORKING WITH THE RSPCA
GO TO PAGE 230.
Figure 8.20 Captive

breeding programs
are helping to save the
bilby.
Contraception
and desexing
It may sound silly, but many
animals in captivity are on some
form of contraception to stop them
getting pregnant. This may be to control Figure 8.21 It’s not
inbreeding or simply because there’s not a very happy life for
enough room or resources for more animals in domestic animals
the facility. without food or shelter.
Desexing is a permanent contraceptive
strategy that involves either the male or the
female having their vas deferens or fallopian
tubes ‘tied’, or blocked, or removed altogether.
Local councils very commonly require
animals that are pets to be desexed. Cats, for
example, often wander freely during the day
and have many opportunities to breed – but
who will look after all the kittens? If everyone’s
cats were free to breed, the neighbourhood
would soon be swarming with kittens.

1 What does IVF stand for?
2 Why are babies less likely to be born
with problems now compared with 50
years ago?
3 What is biodiversity? Why is it so
important to preserve biodiversity?
4 Explain, in your own words, why it is
necessary for zookeepers to control the
Figure 8.19 Ultrasounds allow the developing
foetus to be seen.
reproduction of animals in the zoo.
Reproducing 159
8.5 Plant sexual reproduction
produces seeds
Flowers come in all shapes and sizes. Not all of them are attractive and
many smell terrible instead of lovely. However, the purpose of a flower is
not necessarily to be sweet-smelling and beautiful, but to contain the sexual
reproductive organs of the plant and to help fertilisation to occur.
Stigma Pollen grain =

Anther plant sperm cells
Pollen tube
Petals Ovary
Style
Stamen
Carpel Ovum (egg)
Filament Ovary
Sepals
Ovum
Figure 8.22 Basic structure of a flower. Figure 8.23 Structure of the carpel with key
structures labelled.
Pollination Anther Stigma

The female gamete, also called an ovum, is
located at the base of the stigma inside the
ovary. All these female parts together are called
the carpel. For fertilisation to occur, the male
Pollen
gamete needs to find its way from the top of grains
the male structure, the anther, to the ovum.
This requires pollination, the process of pollen
attaching to the stigma and ‘digging’ a pollen
tube down to the ovary. Figure 8.24 Cross-pollination.
Flowers need assistance from other
organisms (insects, birds or mammals) or the Pollen
environment (wind or rain) for pollination to grains
occur. Self-pollination involves pollen from
a flower landing on its own stigma or that
of another flower on the same plant. Cross- Anther
pollination occurs when pollen from a flower
lands on the stigma of a flower on a different Stigma
plant, combining two different sets of genetic
material. Just as in animals, the pollen from
one flower can only fertilise flowers from the
Figure 8.25 Self-pollination.
same or or a similar species.

EXPERIMENT 8.5: FLOWER DISSECTION
GO TO PAGE 231.
After fertilisation, the ovary takes on a role be small and need to be forced to brush against
similar to that of a bird’s egg. It swells to pollen, followed by the stigma, so the flower
become a fruit, which provides nutrition and may be full of obstacles or simply a tight fit.
protection for the zygotes to grow into embryos
inside the seeds. The ovary structure is seen in Sexual spores
the structure of the seed-bearing area of the
If you’ve ever had a good look at a fern
fruit.
you will have noticed that its leaves
are usually quite different from the
Not all flowers are the same leaves of flowering plants. You will
If a flower smells, it is usually to attract a often see brown patches on the
pollinator – but not all smells are sweet. underside of fern fronds. These
Rafflesia is a flower in Borneo that smells like brown patches are specialised cells
rotting flesh to attract flies for pollination! that make and release spores onto
The colour of a flower is also important for the ground. The spores are tiny
attracting pollinators. Birds tend to pollinate reproductive structures that have
red flowers, whereas insects may be more half the genetic material of seeds.
attracted to a wide range of colours. Mammals They grow into tiny heart-shaped plants
that feed at night will rely on strong scents and called prothalli that are made up of male
not on colour at all. and female reproductive organs. Male and
Some flowers have modified structures to female gametes are produced and released Figure 8.29 Fern ‘sori’
suit their pollinators. Birds may damage flowers when it rains – hopefully, to find a match for produce spores for
with their sharp beaks when they drink the fertilisation. The little plant then dies, but the reproduction.
nectar, so flowers need to be strong. Insects can fertilised eggs grow into new ferns.
Figure 8.26 Rafflesia. Figure 8.27 Bottlebrush. Figure 8.28 Daffodil. Figure 8.30 Mosses
produce spores for
sexual reproduction.
Remember and understand 5 Why are some flowers large and
1 What is the name of the structure that coloured, and others tiny and plain?
holds a plant’s sexual reproductive 6 How is a spore like a seed? How is it
systems? different?
2 What is the difference between self- Apply and analyse
pollination and cross-pollination?
7 Plants that are successful weeds
Which produces more variety?
often use both sexual and asexual
3 How is fertilisation different from reproduction. Mint is common in herb
pollination? gardens and reproduces with little
4 Draw a circular flow diagram using the flowers as well as using vegetative
following terms: flower, pollen, seed, reproduction. Why would it be difficult
fruit, pollination, fertilisation, ovum, to get rid of mint once it has spread
pollen, ovary, stigma and anther. through a garden bed?
Reproducing 161
8.6 Reproduction techniques
have an impact in
agriculture
Many reproductive technologies are used in agriculture to improve desired
characteristics in plants and animals. This has an impact on diversity and
increases the risk of inbreeding.
Selective breeding
There are many examples of animals and
plants being bred to keep, lose or enhance
certain characteristics by people choosing the
‘partners’. For example, a cow that is known to
produce lots of milk would be chosen to breed
with a bull that is known to produce healthy,
strong offspring. This would mean that there’s
a great chance of any female offspring being
good milk producers and any male offspring
being good meat producers.
Occasionally animals have difficulty in
breeding. This may be due to location (the
animals may be on opposite sides of the
country) or their owners wanting to have
greater control over the animals they breed
with. As a result, sperm banks for animals have
been developed. Desired characteristics, such
as speed or ‘staying power’ in racing horses,
or facial shape or coat colour in dogs, are
described in a catalogue for owners to examine.
The desired frozen sperm can be purchased and Figure 8.31 Some people get a little carried
sent to the owner of the female animal, where away with selective breeding.
it will be used to create offspring with the
selective breeding, then any cow that does not
desired characteristics.
produce ‘enough’ milk is not encouraged to
Selective breeding also applies to plants. A breed. This often means the genetic material
type of wheat that is known to survive frost from that cow is not passed on to the next
or disease can be deliberately cross-pollinated generation. Instead the next generation of
with a type of wheat that produces high- calves will only have genetic material from
quality grains with the aim of producing a the few cows that meet the milk production
grain that combines both features. criteria. As a result, there is less variation in the
genetic material. Although this does not seem a
Loss of diversity problem initially, it puts the whole population
Diversity in plants and animals refers to at risk of disease. If one plant or animal
the variety of genetic material in a single is at risk of a disease, then the rest of that
population or species. When a characteristic, population, with the same genetic material, is
such as milk production in cows, is used for also vulnerable.

An example of this is the facial tumour in
the Tasmanian devil. All Tasmanian devils Figure 8.33 In the mid-
1800s, the population
have very similar genetic material. When one of Ireland relied very
individual devil developed a tumour on its heavily on potatoes for
face, it was able to pass it on to another devil food. When a fungus
that had similar genetics. infected the potatoes,
the lack of genetic
Inbreeding diversity meant that

all potato crops were
Inbreeding results from animals reproducing wiped out and about 1
with animals to which they’re closely related. million people died of
starvation.
When this happens, rare diseases can show up.
For example, some dogs that were chosen to
breed because of their particular looks may also
have hip problems. Inbreeding has been quite a
problem with dog breeds, especially when people
don’t check an animal’s ancestry carefully.
Figure 8.34 Labradors

Check your learning 8.6 are known to have
hip problems as the
Remember and understand result of many years of
1 What is selective breeding? Give inbreeding.
examples in your answer.
2 What technology can be used to
assist selective breeding?
3 What is inbreeding? Give an
example.
4 Why is genetic diversity in a
population important?
Apply and analyse
5 Is selective breeding always a
good idea?
6 Research an example of the
Figure 8.32 The Tasmanian devil facial tumour difficulties faced by breeding
is caused by the uncontrolled growth of a flat-faced pug dogs.
cancerous cell.
Reproducing 163
8
REVIEW
Remember and understand 13 Examine the images in Figure 8.36, then

give two features that are genetic and two
1 What is the scientific term for ‘making that are environmental.
new organisms’?
14 If a hermaphrodite reproduced alone,
2 What is a gamete? would it be considered sexual or asexual
3 What are the common names for the two reproduction? Explain.
gametes in animals? In plants? 15 Skinks drop their tails when threatened,
4 What is the difference between a foetus but their tails can grow back. Is this a type
and a baby? of asexual reproduction? Explain.
5 Which produces greater variation: sexual 16 Some reptile eggs are affected by the
or asexual reproduction? temperatures they experience while
6 What is the function of a fruit? incubating in the nest (see figure 8.37).
For example, within a single nest, the
7 Why do organisms that fertilise internally
temperature may vary enough to produce
tend to produce fewer eggs than those
a mix of both sexes. How might warmer
that fertilise externally?
weather as a result of the enhanced
8 Which is better for maintaining greenhouse effect impact green sea turtle
biodiversity: self-pollination or cross- populations?
pollination? Give reasons for your
answer.
9 What is the difference between a spore
Evaluate and create
and a seed? 17 The life cycles and reproductive strategies
of invertebrates are incredibly diverse.
Choose an invertebrate to research and
Apply and analyse present your findings in the form of a
10 Use your understanding of sexual poster or webpage to present to the class.
dimorphism to describe three features Research projects could be shared in a
that differ between a male and a female mini-conference format.
in humans. Describe three features that 18 Humans don’t reproduce asexually – ever.
may differ in birds. What consequences might there be if a
11 A farmer grows two types of corn on the human was able to reproduce asexually?
farm. One type is affected by the frosts What consequences might there be if many
in winter but produces really large, juicy humans were able to reproduce asexually?
corn cobs when it is protected. The other 19 Divide into two groups to debate one of the
copes in winter without a problem but topics below.
has only small corn cobs. What could the
a Selective breeding is essential to
farmer do to improve his crops?
maintain food production for humans.
12 A 13-year-old girl was keeping a record
b Reproductive technologies interfere
of her menstrual cycle. She found her
with nature.
cycle lasted approximately 28 days. If her
last period started on 1 June, determine c Selective breeding is important in
the following: preventing extinction.
a When will she ovulate? d Genetic diversity can be maintained
without technology.
b When will her next period start?
Oestrogen Egg released

level
Menstruation Lining maintained Lining

Lining of uterus breaks
builds up down
Uterus lining Figure 8.35 The average 28 day

menstrual cycle.
Day 1 Day 4 Day 14 Day 28

Figure 8.36 These dogs are from the same litter.
Research
20 Choose one of the following topics for a
research project. A few guiding questions
have been provided for you, but you should
add more questions that you want to
investigate. Present your research in a
format of your own choosing, giving careful
consideration to the information you are
presenting.
>> Dog breeding in Australia Figure 8.37 Green sea turtle eggs produce
female babies when the eggs are warmer and
Some breeds of dogs are male babies when the eggs are cooler.
vulnerable to genetic problems,
such as difficulty breathing or
displaced hips, as a result of >> Chorionic villi sampling (CVS)
decades of inbreeding. Research
Chorionic villi sampling is a
a breed of dog that has such
procedure that some mothers
difficulties. What features are these
undergo to test for genetic
pedigree dogs judged on in dog
problems in the foetus. How is
shows? What problems have arisen
this procedure performed? When
as a result of the inbreeding? What
can this test be taken? What type
measures are the RSPCA and the
of abnormalities can be detected
Australian National Kennel Council
with this test? What is genetic
taking to ensure these problems do
counselling?
not continue?
>> Contraception
>> Seed banks
Contraception is the term
A seed bank stores a large variety
used for the range of methods
of seeds in case a particular
or devices that are used to
species of plant is placed at risk
prevent pregnancy. Birth control
as a result of natural disaster,
methods have been used for
outbreaks of disease or war.
thousands of years. What is
Research a major seed bank near
the difference between barrier,
your school. What type of seeds
surgical and chemical methods
do they collect? Who collects the
of contraception? Research two
seeds for the bank? How are they
methods of contraception that
collected? What conditions are
can be used by humans. Do
needed for the seeds to remain
males or females use them? How
viable (alive)?
effective are they at preventing
pregnancy?
Reproducing 165
8
KEY WORDS
anther placenta
part of the stamen (male plant) that the organ the connects the developing
contains pollen foetus to its mother
asexual reproduction prostate gland
type of reproduction not involving the fusing the walnut-sized structure surrounding the
of gametes; where an organism can create neck of the male bladder that blocks the
offspring without a partner flow of urine so that the sperm can move
carpel along the urethra
the female reproductive organ of a flower; scrotum
includes the stigma, style and ovary the sac-like structure that contains the testes
cervix seminal vesicle
the narrow neck connecting the uterus and small pouch-like structures that provide a
the vagina sugary fluid that is needed for the sperms’
endometrium journey along the vas deferens tube
the lining of the uterus sexual reproduction
epididymis type of reproduction involving the fusing of
the coiled tube behind the testes that gametes
carries sperm to the vas deferens sexually dimorphic
fallopian tubes those species in which the male and female
the tubes that connect the ovaries to the organisms look structurally different
uterus in a female spore
fertilisation tiny reproductive structure that, unlike a
stage of sexual reproduction involving the gamete, does not need to fuse with another
joining of a sperm and an egg cell to form a new organism
foetus stigma
stage in the development of a human the male part of a plant, which consists of
baby taken from when the baby acquires a filament supporting an anther
human features (normally after 8 weeks of testis
development) the male organ of the reproductive system
gamete that produces sperm; plural testes
sex cell; in humans, the sperm and egg cells testosterone
hermaphrodite a male hormone involved in the
organism that has both male and female reproductive system
reproductive systems uterus
menstruation an organ in the female reproductive system;
also know as a period; the process of the where the foetus develops
endometrial lining of the uterus breaking vagina
down and leaving the vagina an organ that is part of the female
oestrogen reproductive system; a muscular tube
a reproductive hormone found in females connecting the outside of the female body to
the cervix
ovary
the female organ that produces eggs vas deferens
the tube through which sperm travels from
oviduct the epididymis to the prostate
the tube through which eggs travel from the
ovary vegetative reproduction
type of asexual reproduction where part of
ovulation a plant breaks off, forming a new organism
the part of the menstrual cycle when an egg with no need for seeds or spores; similar to
is released from the ovary fragmentation
ovum zygote
the reproductive egg a fertilised egg

9
EXPERIMENTS

Learning How to clean equipment
and
working in
a laboratory
Working in a science laboratory
requires you to use a variety of
special skills. Many of these you Figure 9.2 Place warm water in the
equipment (e.g. beaker).
may not use anywhere else. You
must know how to identify, prepare
and clean up equipment safely to
prevent chemicals contaminating
future experiments, or harming
yourself or someone else.
Wearing lab coats and

safety glasses, having hair
tied back
Figure 9.3 Add a small amount of
detergent.
Figure 9.1 Wearing a lab coat and Figure 9.4 Use a brush or cloth to wipe
safety glasses is an essential part of around the equipment.
completing any experiment.

What to do with broken glass
DO NOT USE
YOUR HANDS
TO PICK UP THE
GL ASS!
Figure 9.5 Clean test tubes using a Figure 9.8 Place the glass in a special
small bottle brush. glass bin. Alternatively, wrap the glass in
newspaper and dispose of it in the normal
rubbish.
How to clean up common spills
TELL YOUR
TEACHER FIRST.
Figure 9.6 Tip out water and rinse the

equipment with fresh water to prevent
contamination for the next experiment.
Figure 9.9 If it is safe, wipe the spill up
with paper towel and dispose of it in the
normal rubbish.
Figure 9.7 Place the equipment upside Figure 9.10 If it is not safe, follow your
down to drain. teacher’s directions. Some schools have
a special spill kit you can use.
EXPERIMENTS 169
Safely smelling chemicals
CHECK WITH YOUR

TEACHER IF IT IS
SAFE TO SMELL THE
CHEMICAL, AND ONLY
PROCEED IF IT IS.
Figure 9.11 Hold the chemical Figure 9.12 Use your hand to
slightly away from your face. gently waft a small amount of air
above the container towards your
face.
How to light a Bunsen burner
Figure 9.13 Place the Bunsen Figure 9.14 Connect the rubber Figure 9.15 Close the air hole by
burner on a heating mat. hose firmly to the gas tap. turning the collar.
Figure 9.16 Light a match and Figure 9.17 Open the gas tap Figure 9.18 The Bunsen burner
place it above the barrel, with fully. will now have a yellow (safety)
your hand below the flame.. flame.
REMEMBER TO KEEP YOUR HAND BELOW THE FL AME.

1.4
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To determine
Marshmallow slingshots
the relationship
between the Method change from the first method?
distance the elastic 1 Make a chain of rubber bands by threading > What (dependent) variable will you
is pulled back the end of one band through and over the measure/observe?
and the distance end of the second band, then pulling tight. > Name three variables you will keep the
a marshmallow 2 Place a plastic ring in the centre of the same/control.
moves after it is rubber band chain. > Record your method, observations and
released.
3 Secure the rubber bands to the legs of an results in your logbook.
upside down chair as shown.
Materials Results
4 Insert a marshmallow into the ring.
> Rubber bands Record your results and observations in
5 Pull back the marshmallow the measured
> Plastic ring or amount ensuring the elastic is horizontal a table.
pipe cleaners to the ground.
> Marshmallows Discussion
6 Wait until everyone is out of the flight path,
> Chair and then release the elastic bands. 1 What was your independent variable? What
was your dependent variable?
> Long tape 7 Measure the distance the marshmallow
measure travelled. 2 What variables were difficult to control?
Explain how you overcame this difficulty.
Inquiry: Choose one of the following 3 Was your hypothesis supported? Use
questions to investigate. evidence from your results to support your
answer.
> What if the elastic bands were not
horizontal?
Conclusion
> What if the rubber bands were tied
What is the relationship between the distance
tighter?
the elastic is pulled back and the distance a
> What if a smaller marshmallow was used? marshmallow moves?
Answer the following questions in relation to
your inquiry.
> Write a hypothesis for your question.
> What (independent) variable will you
Figure 9.19 Secure the chain to the legs of a Figure 9.20 Pull back the marshmallow the
chair. measured amount.
EXPERIMENTS 171
2.1
SKILLS L AB
What you need

> Rock samples
Identifying rocks
(unnamed, What to do Questions
perhaps labelled
1 Examine each rock sample with the hand 1 How difficult was it to identify your rock
A, B, C, D etc.)
lens and use the key in Table 9.1 to identify samples?
> Hand lens it. Be aware of the following. 2 Were there any samples you could not
> Table 9.1 > Crystals in rocks have straight edges identify?
and flat, shiny surfaces. 3 Compare your results with those of
> Grains are not shiny, they are jagged or another group. Were there any differences
rounded and more like grains of sand. between your results?
> Coarse grains are about the size of
a grain of rice, medium grains are 4 Ask your teacher for the names of your
smaller but still visible to the naked eye rock samples and see which ones you got
and small grains are only visible with a right (hopefully all of them).
hand lens or magnifier.
2 Display your results in a table that identifies
the rock sample (e.g. sample A), lists its
main properties and gives its name.
Table 9.1 Key for common types of rocks.
1 Does the rock have layers? (Use a magnifying glass to check) Yes – Go to 3; No – Go to 2
2 Can you see cracks in the rock? Yes – Go to 4; No – Go to 5
3 Can sand be rubbed off the rock? Yes – Sandstone; No – Go to 8
4 Is the rock a light colour (i.e. mostly white)? Yes – Marble; No – Go to 10
5 Does the rock look like glass? Yes – Obsidian; No – Go to 6
6 Does the rock have a lot of holes that make it light to hold? Yes – Pumice; No – Go to 7
7 Is the rock grey to black? Yes – Basalt; No – Limestone
8 Can you see crystals in the rock? Yes – Gneiss; No – Go to 9
9 Can you easily split the rock into thin, flat pieces? Yes – Slate; No – Shale
10 Does the rock have a lot of holes that make it light to hold? Yes – Pumice; No – Granite
2.2 Testing the hardness of common

SKILLS L AB substances
What you need What to do Questions
> 5 cm long 1 Scratch the objects against each other and 1 Did your results match the results of other
iron nail for rank them from softest to hardest. When groups? Use examples as evidence to
scratching tool testing the hardness, scratch only a small support your answer.
> Samples of: part of the mineral or object. A 5 cm long 2 Explain the phrase, ‘Hardness of a rock is a
> glass scratch is all that is needed. relative measurement’.
microscope Which sample is the hardest?
slide Which sample is the softest?
> disposable 2 Collect some mineral samples. Arrange
plastic Petri them in order of hardness. Minerals such
dish as feldspar, quartz and calcite are listed in
> 2 cm × 5 cm Table 2.2.
piece of
copper sheet
> half a stick of
chalk

2.3
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To determine
Testing the minerals in toothpaste
which brands of
toothpaste, and Method Results
which minerals, 1 Record the list of ingredients in the Copy and complete Table 9.2 to show the
are most effective toothpaste. number of strokes required to clean the tile.
in removing a stain 2 Use the permanent marker to mark a
from porcelain tiles. cross in the centre of each porcelain tile. Discussion
3 Put a pea-sized amount of toothpaste on 1 Why did you repeat each measurement
Materials the toothbrush. Brush one of the marked three times?
> 3 porcelain tiles tiles 50 times in one direction. Try to use
2 Which brand of toothpaste was most
the same force with each stroke.
> Toothbrush effective in cleaning the mark off the tiles?
4 Record how many strokes it took to remove
> Water 3 Many false teeth are made of porcelain.
the mark from the tile.
> Permanent What recommendations would you make to
5 Use the water to rinse off the toothbrush a person with teeth of this type?
marker
thoroughly.
> Toothpaste 4 What role does fluoride play in toothpaste?
6 Repeat this measurement three times.
(at least three 5 Excess fluoride ingestion causes fluorosis
brands) – a condition in which developing teeth
Inquiry: What if another toothpaste,
become discoloured. Describe how
with different minerals, was used to young children may be vulnerable to this
remove a stain? condition.
> Write a hypothesis for your question.
> What (independent) variable will you Conclusion
change from the first method? Describe the role of each of the following
> What (dependent) variable will you minerals in toothpaste.
measure and observe? > Fluorite
> Name three variables you will keep the > Mica
same/control. > Sand/silica
> Use the method you followed previously to > Sodium carbonate
test the various toothpastes.
> Record your measurements in a table.
Table 9.2
TOOTHPASTE MINERALS NUMBER OF STROKES REQUIRED OBSERVATIONS

BRAND PRESENT ATTEMPT 1 ATTEMPT 2 ATTEMPT 3 AVERAGE
EXPERIMENTS 173
2.4
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To grow crystals
What affects crystal size?
and determine what
affects their size. Method Results
1 Prepare a solution of alum by mixing 2½ Draw a labelled diagram of the crystals
tablespoons of alum with ½ cup of hot formed in the evaporating dish and in the two
Materials Petri dishes. Your diagram needs to show the
water. Stir until the alum is dissolved.
> Alum solution different sizes of the crystals in the different
2 Pour roughly equal amounts of alum
> Bunsen burner solution into the evaporating dish and the dishes.
> Matches two Petri dishes.
Discussion
> Heatproof mat 3 Put one of the Petri dishes in the
refrigerator. 1 What was the independent variable for this
> Tripod
experiment?
> Gauze mat 4 Put the other Petri dish on a window sill.
2 What was the dependent variable?
> 2 Petri dishes 5 Place the evaporating dish on the
gauze mat. 3 Name three variables you needed to
> Evaporating dish control. How were these controlled?
6 While wearing safety glasses, gently heat
> Safety glasses 4 Each of these crystals grew over a different
the evaporating dish containing the alum
> 250 mL beaker solution over a yellow (safety) flame. The time span. How does the time allowed for
> Tablespoon yellow flame is cooler and will allow for the crystal to form affect the size of the
gentle boiling. crystals?
7 Continue heating the solution until nearly
Conclusion
all the water has evaporated.
What do you know about the factors affecting
8 Observe the size of the crystals formed in
crystal size?
the evaporating dish.
9 After 2 days, compare the size of the
crystals formed in the two Petri dishes.
10 Observe the crystals formed in the
refrigerator again after 4 or 5 days.

2.5
EXPERIMENT
Aim Making sedimentary rocks

To make small
samples of Method 6 When your ‘rock’ is dry, peel off the
sedimentary rocks matchbox and examine your sample. Take
and compare 1 Grind a lump of dry clay with a mortar and
digital photos of your samples and photos
them against real pestle until it is fine and powdery.
of the ‘real’ rocks for comparison. Keep
samples. 2 Using the teaspoon, mix the dry ingredients your two shale samples for Experiment 2.6.
for each rock sample on a white tile
Materials according to the recipes in Table 9.3, but Results
don’t add the water just yet. You will need
> Dry clay Include images of your rocks here, along with
to prepare two shale samples to use in
> Dry sand any statements about the process or products.
Experiment 2.6.
> Plaster of Paris 3 Pile up your ingredients into a little hill Discussion
> Small, smooth and make a small dip in the centre for
the water. 1 In what ways were your rocks similar to
pebbles
real sedimentary rocks?
> Samples of 4 Slowly add the water and stir until the
ingredients are uniformly mixed. Be careful 2 What were the differences between your
sedimentary
not to make the mixture too wet. samples and the real rocks?
rocks
> Water 5 Press your mixture into an empty Conclusion
> Mortar and matchbox, label it with the rock type and
your name and leave it to dry for 2 days. What have you discovered about sedimentary
pestle rocks?
> Teaspoon Table 9.3
> 4 empty ROCK NUMBER OF TEASPOONS
matchboxes
DRY CLAY SAND PLASTER OF PEBBLES WATER
> White tile PARIS
Sandstone 1/2 4 1/2 0 2
Shale 5 1/2 0 0 2
Conglomerate 1/2 1 1/2 4 2
EXPERIMENTS 175
2.6
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To make a sample of
Making a metamorphic rock
a metamorphic rock.
Method Results
1 Allow your shale samples from Experiment Record your observations in a table.
Materials 2.5 to dry for approximately 1 week.
> 2 shale rock 2 Place one of the shale samples on a pipe Discussion
samples from clay triangle on top of a gauze mat and 1 What differences do you notice about the
Experiment 2.5 heat strongly over a blue Bunsen burner two rock samples when they are dropped
> Bunsen burner flame for about half an hour. You could into the water?
place an evaporating dish upside down 2 Can strong heat change the properties of
> Tripod
over the shale to retain more heat. rocks over time?
> Pipe clay triangle
3 After about 30 minutes of heating, allow 3 How different was your new metamorphic
> Gauze mat the sample to cool for 10 minutes. Then, rock sample from the original shale
> Evaporating dish use the tongs to carefully pick up the shale sample? Was the method successful?
> Tongs sample and drop it into a beaker of water.
> 2 × 250 mL 4 Drop the second, unheated shale sample Conclusion
beakers into another beaker of water and observe What do you know about the formation of
what happens to the two rock samples. metamorphic rocks?

2.7
SKILLS L AB
What you need

> Crayons
Modelling the rock cycle
> Sharpener What to do 7 Place the second wooden block on top
> 2 sheets of of the foil and press down with as much
1 Remove the paper from the crayons.
aluminium foil pressure as possible.
2 Shave the crayons into small piles. Keep
> 2 wooden blocks 8 Remove the top block and aluminium foil
each colour in a separate pile.
> Beaker and examine the compacted shavings.
3 Cover one wooden block with aluminium
> Bunsen burner 9 Place the shavings between the aluminium
foil.
foil and wooden blocks again.
> Large clamp 4 Sprinkle a layer of crayon shavings over
10 Apply the large clamp around the wooden
> Tripod the aluminium foil to form the first layer.
blocks and shavings. Tighten the clamp as
> Gauze mat 5 Repeat step 4 for the remaining colours of much as possible.
> Stirring rod crayons.
11 Remove the clamp and examine the
> Matches 6 Cover the layers of crayons with another compacted crayon shavings.
sheet of aluminium foil.
12 Place the compacted crayon shavings into
the beaker.
13 Heat the compacted crayon shavings over
the Bunsen burner, stirring occasionally.
Glass rod
14 Allow the crayon mixture to cool.
15 Examine the resulting crayon sample.
Beaker Questions
1 What type of weathering (mechanical or
chemical) took place at step 2?
Shaved crayons 2 What term is used to describe the
movement of the sediment pile of crayon
Gauze mat shavings onto the aluminium foil at step 4?
3 What type of rock did you form in step 8?
4 What type of rock did you form in step 11?
Tripod stand 5 What type of rock did you form in step 15?
6 What are the similarities and differences
between the three forms of rock you
Bunsen burner
created?
Figure 9.21 Experimental setup.
EXPERIMENTS 177
2.8
CHALLENGE
Preventing soil erosion

Design brief Processing, analysing and evaluating
Design a way to prevent a 5 cm layer of soil in a large foil 1 What changes did you have to make to your design to
lasagne dish from being eroded when water is poured from ensure that it was stable?
a watering can. The lasagne dish should be set at 2 What was the most successful feature of your design?
an angle to the bench.
3 What were the limitations of your design?
Criteria restrictions 4 Would it be possible to create a large-scale version of
your design? If so, would you use different materials in
> Pebbles can be no larger than 1.5 cm in diameter.
the large-scale version?
> Sticks must be less than 5 cm long.
5 If you were doing this experiment again, explain how
> Artificial materials must not be toxic to the you would modify your design.
environment.
> No more than 1 cup of material may be added. Communicating
> A maximum amount of soil must still be available for Present the various stages of your investigation in a
cultivation. formal experimental report.

> How will you prevent the soil from being washed away?
> What materials will you use?
> Where will you position the materials on the lasagne
tray?
> Figure 9.22 shows the general setup of the
experiment.
Figure 9.22
Experimental
set-up.

2.9
CHALLENGE
Copper treasure hunt

You are a geologist employed to identify the location of Results
new copper sources. You have used geophysical testing
Include your results in the table.
to determine a region around Mount Isa that has an
intense electrical chargeability. You decide to complete a
Discussion
series of geochemical tests on the river silt to identify a
possible source of the metal. 1 Describe the possible location of the source of copper.
Describe the evidence that supports your claim.
Aim 2 Why did you clean the loop between each test?
To determine the location of a source of copper 3 Would this geochemical method be useful if the copper
mineral from samples collected along a river. ore was located deep under the ground? Explain your
answer.
Materials 4 How would you test for copper ore that was located
> Wire loops well below the Earth’s surface?
> 0.1 M hydrochloric acid
Conclusion
> Bunsen burner
Describe what is geochemical testing and how it is used
> Matches to test for minerals.
> Heat proof mat
> Soil samples 1-6
NOTE: Samples with lower numbers contain 1 teaspoon

of copper sulphate dissolved in 5 teaspoons of water.
This will be mixed into a thick slurry with 13 teaspoons
of sand. Samples with higher numbers have no added
copper sulphate.
Method
1 Set up your Bunsen burner, observing safety
instructions, and light your Bunsen burner on the
safety flame.
2 Adjust your Bunsen burner to the blue flame. Take
a wire loop and dip it on a small beaker of 0.1 M
hydrochloric acid. Flame the loop. This will clean the
loop, ready for your soil sample. Avoid getting too close
to the flame. Stand back a little.
3 Take a loop of the soil sample
and place it in the flame.
Observe the colour of the flame.
A green flame suggests copper
is in the soil sample. No green
colour suggests the copper
is further downstream.
4 Once you have finished your
observation, dip the loop in
the 0.1M hydrochloric acid again
and re-flame it. This will clean
your loop for the next sample.
EXPERIMENTS 179
3.1
SKILLS L AB
What you need Draw flow diagrams of energy

transfer
> Station 1: A
variety of wind-
up toys
> Station 2: What to do 7 Where did this energy come from?
Battery, wires,
Spread around the room are stations with
small buzzer
different types of energy. Follow the steps
STATION 5
> Station 3: Tuning below for each station. 1 Blow on the plastic windmill.
fork
2 What energy makes the windmill move?
> Station 4: Plastic STATION 1
cup, water, 3 Where did this energy come from?
1 Wind up the toys and watch them move. 4 Hold the plastic windmill over a boiling
salt, aluminium
kettle while being careful not to burn
strip, copper STATION 2 yourself with the steam.
strip, 2 wires,
multimeter 1 Connect the battery to a buzzer. 5 Where is the energy coming from this
> Station 5: Plastic time?
windmill, kettle
STATION 3
> Station 6: Toy car, 1 Gently tap the forked end of the tuning fork
STATION 6
ramp, measuring on the table. 1 Set up the ramp so that the top end is 10
tape 2 What do you notice happens? cm above the ground.
2 Place the car at the top of the ramp.
STATION 4
3 Allow the car to roll down the ramp and
1 Fill most of the cup with water. along the floor.
2 Add 1 tablespoon of salt to the water. 4 How far did the car roll?
3 Fold a strip of aluminium and a strip of 5 Where did the energy for the car to move
copper over opposite sides of the cup so come from?
that one end is in the saltwater and the 6 How could you increase this energy?
other end is on the outside of the cup.
4 Attach wires to the outside edges of the Results
metal strips. Copy and complete Table 9.4 and identify the
5 Connect the multimeter to the wires and object where you first see evidence of the
check the voltage reading. energy, and the object where you last see
6 What energy does the multimeter read at the energy.
this station?
Table 9.4
STATION WHERE DOES THE ENERGY COME WHICH OBJECT OR PART OF THE
FROM? OBJECT HAS THE ENERGY LAST?
1
2
3
4
5
6

Station 1 What path does the energy take as it Station 2 Use wires to connect the buzzer to
is transferred through the wind-up toys? the battery.
Station 3 Where does the sound energy come Station 4 Connect the saltwater battery to a
from or transfer from? multimeter.
RAMP
Station 5 A toy windmill acts like an Station 6 What path does the energy take as
electricity-generating turbine. the car moves down the ramp?
EXPERIMENTS 181
3.2
EXPERIMENT
Aim What if the amount of elastic

potential energy was increased?
To investigate how
elastic potential
energy can be used
to power a boat.
Method Results
Materials 1 Cut out the waxed cardboard to match the Complete Table 9.5.
> Waxed diagram in Figure 9.23. Draw a line graph showing the effect of
cardboard 2 Put the rubber band around the increasing the elastic potential energy of the
(fruit boxes propeller and attach it to the boat using propeller on the distance the boat travelled.
work well) butterfly pins.
Discussion
> Scissors 3 Wind the propeller anticlockwise (when
> Rubber band viewed from the right side of the boat), 1 Did you collect qualitative or quantitative
place the boat in the water and release it. data for this experiment? Explain.
> Butterfly pins
4 Measure how far the boat travels. 2 Why did you make three attempts at each
> Water bath or propeller rotation to determine the average
swimming pool distance travelled?
Inquiry: What if more elastic potential
energy was stored in the rubber band 3 What type of energy was the elastic
propeller? potential energy converted to?
4 Your hands provided the energy to wind
1 Write a hypothesis for your inquiry.
the propeller. Where did this energy come
2 What (independent) variable will you from?
3 What (dependent) variable will you Conclusion
measure/observe? Describe the relationship between the
4 What variables will you need to control to potential energy given to the propeller and
ensure a fair test? How will you control them? the distance the boat moved.
Table 9.5
NUMBER OF ROTATIONS OF DISTANCE DISTANCE DISTANCE AVERAGE DISTANCE THE
THE PROPELLER THE BOAT THE BOAT THE BOAT BOAT TRAVELLED
TRAVELLED TRAVELLED TRAVELLED
ATTEMPT 1 ATTEMPT 2 ATTEMPT 3

1
2
3
4
5
Figure 9.23 The parts

and method of assembly
for a rubber band boat.

3.3 3.4
CHALLENGE CHALLENGE
Exploring sound Energy converters

energy Consider each device in Table 9.6, the energy it uses
to work (the energy input) and the useful energy it
produces (the energy output).
What you need
Table 9.6 Common devices that convert energy.
> Tuning fork
DEVICE ENERGY INPUT ENERGY OUTPUT
> Wooden table or wooden box
Drum Sound
> Electric guitar
Hydroelectricity Gravitational
> Acoustic guitar
Electrical Sound
What to do Light bulb Light
1 Hit a tuning fork on the sole of your shoe and then Battery Chemical
listen to the sound it makes. Car engine Kinetic
2 Now repeat that process, and then hold the tuning Elastic Kinetic
fork so it is standing upright on a wooden table or
Gas heater Heat
wooden box. What difference did the table make to
the loudness of the sound? Nuclear Light
3 Do it again, but see if you can feel the table or box Solar panel Solar energy
vibrating this time. Why do you think this may have Phone charger Electrical
happened?
4 If possible, compare the sound of an unplugged 1 Work in groups to fill in the gaps in the table.
electric guitar to that of an acoustic guitar. Which is 2 Discuss any patterns you see in the table. For
louder? Why do you think this is so? example, are there any energy types that are more
5 Now place your hand on the body of the acoustic commonly ‘inputs’ rather than ‘outputs’?
guitar as it is played. Can you feel the vibrations? 3 Extend the list with five more devices your group
What about with the electric guitar? Does this help comes up with.
you explain why the acoustic guitar may be louder?
Discussion
1 How do you change the way you play a recorder so
that it gives out more sound energy?
2 How does a pianist manage to play some notes softly
and others very loudly?
3 When you want to yell or speak louder, how do you
make the sound coming from your mouth louder?
4 How do drummers make their drums sound louder?
EXPERIMENTS 183
3.5
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To investigate the
What if you bounced a ball?
energy efficiency of
a bouncing ball. Method > What (dependent) variable will you
measure/observe?
1 Hold the tennis ball 1 metre above the
ground next to the vertical ruler. > Write a list of variables you will need to
Materials control to ensure a fair test. Describe how
2 Drop the ball (do not throw it) on a hard
> Tennis ball you will control each variable.
surface.
> Metre ruler
3 Use the metre ruler to measure how high Results
> A selection of the ball bounces back. Be careful to avoid
other types of parallax error by ensuring your eye is level 1 Complete Table 9.7.
balls with the ball. 2 Draw a column graph showing how
4 Determine the percentage energy the energy efficiency of the balls changed
efficiency by using the formula below: with your independent variable.
height of bounce 100 Discussion

Percentage efficiency = x
starting height 1 1 Describe the results of your experiment.
2 Did your experiment provide evidence that
Inquiry: Choose one of the following
supported your hypothesis?
questions to investigate.
3 What type of energy did the ball have:
> What if another ball was bounced on the
> before it was dropped?
same surface? (Does it have the same
> just before it hit the ground?
efficiency?)
> as it touched the ground?
> What if the same ball was bounced on 4 Where did the waste energy go?
another surface? (Does it have the same
5 Draw a flow diagram of the energy
efficiency?)
transformation.
your inquiry. 6 Draw a flow diagram of the energy transfer.
> Write a hypothesis for your inquiry. 7 Describe the evidence that supported or
refuted your hypothesis.
Table 9.7
INDEPENDENT HEIGHT OF BOUNCE AVERAGE EFFICIENCY

VARIABLE HEIGHT OF (PERCENT)
BOUNCE
(SURFACE/BALL)
ATTEMPT 1 ATTEMPT 2 ATTEMPT 3
Figure 9.24 Experimental setup.

3.6
CHALLENGE
Design an energy-efficient house

Design brief
Design and build two identical houses out of cardboard
or wood. Add a feature to one of the houses that will
make it more efficient in staying cool. Test your design
feature by exposing both houses to an energy source
(a strong light) and determine the rate of temperature
increase for each house.
Criteria restrictions
> Only one feature may be added to the second house.
> The feature must represent a design feature that is
currently available to home owners.
> The feature must be proportionate in size to the
house.

> Which feature will you add? Figure 9.25 General setup of experiment.
> What materials will you use?

> Why do you think your added feature will keep the 2 How efficient was your feature at preventing the
house cool? transfer of thermal energy?
3 What were the limitations of your design?
4 Would it be possible to create a large-scale version of
> How will you measure the temperature of the your design for a real house?
two houses?
5 If you were doing this experiment again, how would you
> For how long will you expose the houses to the modify your device? Explain.
energy source?
Communicating
Processing, analysing and evaluating Present the various stages of your investigation
1 Describe the rate of temperature increase in in a formal experimental report.
both houses.
EXPERIMENTS 185
Leakywater Council swimming pool
and waterslide
Design brief
The Leakywater Council invites suitably qualified and
experienced students to construct a prototype waterslide
to supplement the Leakywater Olympic Swimming Pool.
The waterslide must engage children of all ages in safe
play. All people who use the waterslide should have
enough gravitational potential energy to transform into
effective kinetic energy (and speed) at the base of the
slide.
Criteria restrictions
The prototype (scale model) should comprise all parts of
a successful waterslide that engages children of all ages
in safe play. Your prototype tower must be built from the
list of materials in Table 9.8. You must supply your own
materials.

> What features do you think a waterslide should have?
How many slides should there be?
> What restrictions do you think the council would put
on the design of a waterslide? (Remember that as
a body loses height it loses gravitational potential Figure 9.26 Waterslides convert gravitational potential
energy to kinetic energy.
energy and gains kinetic energy (i.e. it speeds up). You
don’t want people travelling too fast on the slide.)
> How wide does your support tower need to be?
> How high will your model tower be?

> What will your waterslide look like?
> Find examples of waterslides that show the types of
designs you could use for your support structure.
> How do the examples support the slides?
> How do the examples provide access to the top of the
slide?
> Keep safety in mind. You don’t want someone falling
out of the slide.
> How is the structure going to be held together?
Figure 9.27 Long waterslides have more friction than short
> What parts of the design may be difficult to build?
waterslides.
> Are there ways the model could be improved before
you begin building?
> What materials will you use to build your prototype?
All materials have a cost. Consider the materials
listed in Table 9.8 (and any others you can think
of) and choose those that you would use for each
component of your waterslide prototype.

3.7
CHALLENGE
Table 9.8 Materials and their approximate costs.

MATERIAL APPROXIMATE COST MATERIAL APPROXIMATE COST
Garden hose $5 per metre Pipe cleaners $2 for 20
Toilet rolls $0.75 each Paper clips $3 for 30
Icy pole sticks $5 for 20 Cardboard box $2 each
Toothpicks $3 for 50 Lunch box $6 each
Sticky tape $2.50 per roll PVC tube $8 each
Blu Tack $1 per strip Plasticine $4 for 250 grams
Wooden rulers $2 each Newspaper $2 each
Plastic rulers $3 each Chopsticks $1 each
Bubble wrap $1 per metre Forks $1.50 each
Wooden rods $1 each Plastic wrap $4 per roll
Ice-cream containers $4 per container Plastic bag $0.10 each
Processing, analysing and evaluating

1 Is the tower freestanding?
2 How much weight does the tower support?
Does it need to be stronger?
3 Is there any room for improvement? What
other materials could be used to improve
the performance of the tower?
4 What is the cost of the prototype? How
would this relate to the cost of the full size
water slide?
Communicating
Present the various stages of your
investigation in a formal experimental report.
Figure 9.28 Long waterslides have more friction than short

waterslides.
Figure 9.28 You may need to test a variety of Figure 9.29 The amount of kinetic energy a person has at the
materials to determine their suitability for bottom of a waterslide often indicates the success of the design.
your waterslide.
EXPERIMENTS 187
3.7
EXPERIMENT
Aim Investigating structures and

materials using icy pole sticks
To investigate
the difference in
structural capacity
(how much weight it
can hold) of the icy This experiment uses icy pole stick beams to Inquiry: What if the ‘beam’ is placed
pole beam based on investigate elements of structure such as the flat?
its orientation. beams in buildings and bridges.
> Write a hypothesis for your inquiry.
CAUTION! IT MAY BE > What (independent) variable will you
Materials WORTH PERFORMING THIS change from the first method?
> Icy pole sticks INVESTIGATION OUTSIDE, OR > What (dependent) variable will you
(at least six per WHERE THE WATER WILL DO THE
LEAST AMOUNT OF DAMAGE.
measure/observe?
group) > Write a list of variables you will need to
> 2 small blocks control to ensure a fair test. Describe how
of timber with Method you will control each variable.
a 1.5 mm slot cut
1 Place an icy pole stick across the slots on
across them to Results
hold the ‘beam’ the two blocks of timber to act as a ‘beam’
on its side. Draw a table to show your results.
> A bucket with
2 Hang the empty bucket from the centre of
a handle Discussion
the ‘beam’.
> A second bucket 1 The ‘beams’ were both the same size.
full of water 3 Add water to the bucket, 100 mL at a time.
What comments can you make about
Record how much water is needed to make
> 100 mL the difference between the two ways the
the ‘beam’ break.
measuring ‘beams’ were tested?
cylinder or jug 4 Draw a picture of the break in the icy
2 Were you surprised by the difference in
pole stick.
how much water was needed to make the
5 Repeat this procedure twice more to ‘beams’ break?
determine an average breaking weight for
3 Which orientation do you think would be
the ‘beam’.
more suitable for construction? Use your
6 Did the icy pole stick break the same way investigation to justify your answer.
each time?
Conclusion
What do you know about how the structural
capacity of the beam is affected by its
orientation?

3.8
CHALLENGE
During what time of

the day does the Sun
produce the most
energy?
What you need
> Solar cell
> Motor with propeller
> Wires
> Sunshine
> Timer
What to do
1 Connect the solar panel to the motor using the wires.
2 Record the weather conditions.
3 Expose the solar panel to sunshine. Count how many
times the propeller rotates in 1 minute.
4 Repeat this test at different times of the day, or on
different days.
5 Record your data in the following table.
DATE TIME REVOLUTIONS WEATHER

OF PROPELLER/ CONDITIONS
MINUTE
Discussion
1 At what time of day does the Sun produce the most
light energy?
2 Why should you take readings over several days?
3 Why did you record the weather conditions?
4 Draw a flow diagram that shows the energy
transformations for your challenge.
EXPERIMENTS 189
4.1
CHALLENGE
Modelling sound waves

What you need
> Slinky spring
> Pipe cleaner
What to do
1 Twist a pipe cleaner around a single curl in the slinky spring so that the rest of the spring can move easily.
2 Two people slowly stretch the spring out slightly beyond its normal length along the floor.
3 One person pushes their end of the spring firmly towards the other person. This will create areas where the
coils are pushed together (compressions) and areas where the coils are stretched out (rarefactions).
These areas will travel along the spring to the other end. The person at the other end needs to hold the spring
firmly and still.
4 Try to make the wave have more or less energy by pushing the end harder, while keeping the speed of the
wave the same. This is the same as making a sound louder. Pushing less models a softer sound.
5 Try to change the frequency (number of waves per second) of your wave. Try to create four waves per second
(a higher frequency) and 0.5 waves per second (a lower frequency).
6 Draw labelled diagrams of the waves you created, carefully indicating how the waves show that different
frequencies have been achieved.
Discussion
1 How far did the pipe cleaner move as the wave moved along the spring?
2 What happened when the wave reached the other end of the spring?
3 What is this called in real life? Think of what happens to sound waves as they hit a hard surface.
What do you hear?
4 What do you notice about how far apart the waves are when they are travelling at the higher frequency?
5 Are the distances between the compressions bigger or smaller at the lower frequency?
Compressions Rarefactions
Figure 9.30 Experimental set-up.

4.2A 4.2B
CHALLENGE CHALLENGE
The speed of sound Racing dominoes

This is a whole class activity.
What you need
What you need > Large set of dominoes
> Tape measure or trundle wheel > Metre ruler
> Stopwatches
> ‘Slap sticks’ (or two large sticks that make a What to do
sound when hit together) 1 Set up two rows of dominoes 1 metre long on the
floor (Figure 9.31). One set of dominoes should be
What to do spaced far apart from each other (but still close
1 On the school oval, measure a distance of enough to knock each other over).
100–200 metres. 2 Use the metre ruler to knock over the first domino of
2 One person takes the slap sticks to the far end of each row at the same time.
the measured distance. When everyone is ready,
Discussion
slap the sticks together to make a noise.
3 The rest of the class should start their 1 Which row of falling dominoes reached the end first?
stopwatches when they see the sticks hit Suggest a reason for this result.
together, and stop them when they hear the 2 How does the space between the dominoes relate
‘slap’. to the space between the particles of liquids and
4 Repeat this measurement five times. gases?
5 Record your measurements in a table. 3 Will sound travel faster in gas or liquid? Use
evidence from your results to support your answer.
Discussion
1 Why did you need to repeat this measurement Row 1
many times? Row 2
2 What was the average amount of time it took for
sound to travel the measured distance?
Finish
Start
3 Use the formula:

distance travelled 1 m 2
Speed 5 1 metre
time 1 s 2
to determine the approximate speed of sound.
4 How does your measurement compare to
the accepted value of 340 m/s? Explain any
differences.
EXPERIMENTS 191
4.3
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To investigate why
Why do we need two ears?
we need two ears
Method Results
Materials 1 Work in groups of three. Allocate one person Present the results in a table.
to be tested, one person to be the tester and
> Chair one person to be the recorder. Discussion
> Blindfold 2 The person being tested sits on the chair 1 According to your results, which system –
(optional) and closes his or her eyes (or is blindfolded) two ears or one – is the more accurate way
during the whole test. to locate a sound?
3 The tester clicks his or her fingers 2 Were most people’s results for two ears
approximately 1 metre away from the ear of more correct when sounds were heard
the person seated. in front of the ear or when sounds came
4 The tester makes the clicking sounds and from behind the ear? Why do you think this
the seated person points to where he or she is so?
thinks the sound came from. 3 Was there any difficulty in detecting sounds
5 The recorder writes down whether this is made directly above your head? If so, why
correct. do you think this happens?
6 The tester tries a total of 10 different
Conclusion
positions, including one from directly above
the seated person’s head. Why do we have two ears rather than one?
7 Record the seated person’s score out of 10.
8 Swap roles so that everyone has a turn at
each role.
9 Repeat the experiment, with each person
covering one ear with the palm of their hand.

4.4 4.5
CHALLENGE CHALLENGE
Is school bad for your Modelling light waves

health? What you need
> Slinky spring
CAUTION: NEVER EXPOSE YOURSELF > Clear space on the floor
TO VERY LOUD NOISE OR YELL INTO
SOMEONE’S EAR. WHEN YOU ARE
MEASURING LOUD SOUNDS AT YOUR What to do
SCHOOL, AND TESTING THE VOLUME OF 1 Two people hold the spring, one at each end. On
YOUR CL ASSMATE’S YELL, STAND 1 METRE the floor, slowly stretch the spring out slightly
AWAY FROM THE SOURCE OF SOUND.
beyond its normal length. One person flicks their
end of the spring firmly to one side. This will
create a sideways ‘pulse’ in the spring. The other
What you need person needs to hold the spring firmly and still.
The pulse will travel along the spring to the other
> 1 sound level meter per group end (Figure 9.33).
> Map of your school
> Metre ruler
What to do
Conduct a survey of the noise levels around your
school.
1 Visit your allocated part of the school and measure
the sound levels inside rooms and outside. (Make
sure someone checks the library.)
2 When outside and far away from any classes, Figure 9.33 Flicking the slinky creates a pulse.
check the loudness levels of the individual voices
in your group. First, speak as softly as possible
and measure the sound level at 1 metre. Then,
measure a loud yell, again at 1 metre distance. 2 Continue flicking the spring to create a continuous
Collect these results for each person in the group. transverse wave. Can you see the peaks and
troughs of the wave?
Discussion
3 Make the wave have more or less energy by
1 What was the average sound level of your group for changing how hard you flick the end. Try to keep
a loud yell? the speed of the wave the same.
2 What would you recommend about yelling in 4 Increase the number of waves per second. You
someone’s ear? have just modelled a wave of higher frequency.
3 Find the average 5 Try to reduce the number of waves. This model
noise level in represents a lower frequency wave.
classrooms.
6 Draw labelled diagrams of the waves you created,
Which rooms were
carefully indicating how the waves show that
the noisiest?
different wavelengths have been achieved.
4 List the loudest and
quietest places in Discussion
your school.
1 What is the link between frequency and the
distance between the peaks of the wave?
2 What else in your world behaves as a transverse
wave?
EXPERIMENTS 193
4.6
SKILLS L AB
Using a Hodson light box

A Hodson light box is often used to 4 Aim the light ray at the target, in this case
experiment with light. This six-step process a plane mirror.
outlines how to use a Hodson light box.
What to do
1 Place the light box on a piece of white A4
paper.
5 Use a sharp pencil to mark the incident

and reflected rays with dots.
2 Plug the light box into either the AC or DC

sockets of a power supply. The voltage dial
controls the brightness of the light globe.
6 Remove the light box and join the dots with

thin, straight pencil lines.
3 Slide a slot former into the opposite end of
the light box to where the mirror flaps are.
Usually a single-slot or a three-slot former
is used.

4.6
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To investigate the
Reflection from plane mirrors
law of reflection: the
angle of incidence Method 3 Line up the 0° of the protractor along the
normal each time and read the angles
equals the angle of 1 Rule a straight line in pencil centrally
between the normal and incident rays, and
reflection across the width of the A4 paper. The mirror
between the normal and reflected rays.
surface will be placed along this line.
Materials 4 Record your results in a suitable table.
2 Use the protractor to construct a normal
> Hodson light box line at 90° in the centre of the first line.
Discussion
kit 3 Position the back edge of the plane mirror
along the first pencil line. Keep it in place 1 Why was the back edge and not the front
> Power supply edge of the plane mirror lined up on the
with Blu Tack.
> Sheet of white pencil line?
A4 paper 4 Set up the Hodson light box, darken the
room and aim a single incident ray at the 2 Compare your angles of incidence to your
> Plane mirror angles of reflection. Do they support the
centre of the mirror where the normal
from light box kit Law of Reflection?
begins. Mark the position of the incident and
> Blu Tack reflected rays with pencil dots. 3 List some sources of error in this
> Ruler 5 Move the light box to a different angle and experiment.
> Pencil aim another incident ray so that it hits the 4 Describe what happened when you directed
> Protractor mirror at the same place as it did the first the light at right angles to the mirror.
time. Mark the rays and repeat until five 5 Explain whether the Law of Reflection is
sets of lines are obtained. still obeyed if the angle of incidence is 0°.
6 List at least 3 examples where you have
Results observed the Law of Reflection in action.
1 Remove the light box and rule lines to show
the positions of the incident and reflected Conclusion
rays. What do you know about the relationship
2 Carefully use the protractor to measure the between the angle of incidence and the angle
five angles of incidence and the five angles of reflection?
of reflection.
woof! 4.6A
CHALLENGE
Mirror writing
What you need view mirror. See if you can work out how to write the
word ‘ambulance’ backwards in capital letters so it
> Large plane mirror
would read correctly when viewed this way. Have a
> Logbook/workbook friend hold the word up behind you and hold the mirror
> Pencil up in front of your eyes.
3 Draw a short maze, then attempt to guide your pen
What to do through the maze by only looking in the mirror.
1 Hold a large plane mirror in front of your page in A friend could cover the real maze so you are not
your logbook and try to write your name so that it tempted to look. Just look in the mirror.
is readable in the mirror. Practise with other words
until you get good at this. Discussion
2 In some countries, ambulances have their name Which was the hardest of all these activities? Suggest a
spelt backwards so drivers can see it in their rear- reason for your answer.
EXPERIMENTS 195
4.6B
CHALLENGE
Using curved mirrors 3 Repeat step 1 with a concave mirror. It is possible to

form a real image with a concave mirror and there
is more variation in the nature of the image as the
What do you need object is moved further from the mirror. Summarise
> Convex mirror > Pen your findings in a table that compares the two types of
mirrors.
> Concave mirror > Hodson light box
4 Use the Hodson light box kit to investigate curved
What to do mirrors. There should be a convex and concave mirror
in the kit. Use the three-slot former in the kit to draw
1 Investigate the behaviour of a concave mirror. Place diagrams of the incident and reflect rays for both types
an object, such as a pen tip, close to the mirror and of curved mirrors.
observe the image. Try to describe the nature of the
image. Discussion
> Is it upright or inverted (upside down)?
> Is it larger (magnified) or smaller (reduced) than 1 In which mirror do the rays converge?
the object? 2 In which mirror do the rays diverge?
> Is it real (capable of being captured on a screen 3 How would your appearance change if you viewed your
or piece of paper) or virtual? image in concave and convex mirrors?
2 Move the object further from the mirror and repeat 4 How could a shop use mirrors to make their clothes
your observations. look better on customers?
4.7A Bending of light

EXPERIMENT
Method 2 Use the protractor to measure the four
Aim angles on your diagram. Line up the 0°
1 Place the Perspex block in the centre of
line of the protractor along the normal
To investigate the the A4 paper. Trace around the outside of
each time and read the angles between the
path of light rays the Perspex block with your pencil.
normal and incident rays and between the
during the process 2 Remove the block and use the protractor normal and the refracted rays. Record your
of refraction to construct a normal at 90° to one of the results in two tables for refraction from air
long sides of the block. to Perspex and refraction from Perspex to
Materials 3 Position the block on the paper again. Keep air.
> Hodson light box it in place with the Blu Tack.
kit 4 Set up the Hodson light box, darken the Discussion
> Power supply room and aim a single incident ray at the 1 Explain your observation when the incident
> Sheet of white face of the block at the normal line. Does light travelled along the normal.
A4 paper the light bend as it enters and then exits 2 Compare your angles of incidence to your
the block? angles of refraction as the light entered the
> Perspex block
from light box kit 5 Move the light box so that the ray is aimed Perspex block. Explain your observation.
at the face of the block at an angle of 3 Compare the size of the angle at which the
> Blu Tack approximately 45°. Mark the position of the light hit the glass block with the angle at
> Ruler incident ray and the ray that exits the block which it leaves.
> Pencil on the other side with pencil dots. Ignore
any reflected rays at this time. 4 Do your results support the rules of light
> Protractor passing from a less dense medium into a
6 Remove the block and turn off the light denser medium and vice versa? Explain
box. your answers.
Results 5 List some sources of error in this
experiment.
1 Join the end of the incident ray to where it
exits the block on the other side. Construct Conclusion
a normal to the face of the block where the
What do you know about the path of light rays
ray exits.
during the process of refraction?

4.7B
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To investigate the
Creating images with convex lenses
behaviour of a
convex lens and Method results table. In some cases, the image
may not form on the screen. Instead, it can
the nature of the 1 Determine the focal length of the lens by
be found by looking into the lens towards
image produced at placing the lens on a piece of paper and
the candle flame. This will be a virtual
different object– shining three rays of light through it so the
image. In one case, there may be no image
lens distances light converges into a single focal point.
– real or virtual.
Measure the distance from the centre of
Materials the lens to the focal point. This is the focal
Results
length f. Double the focal length. This is
> Hodson light box Complete the table below.
called 2f.
kit
2 Light the candle. Mount the lens in the lens
> Candle
holder and check to see if the centre of the
> Matches lens is in line with the candle flame. If not, Discussion
> Convex lens raise it to the correct height. 1 When did the lens produce a real image
> Lens holder 3 Darken the room and position the lens at and when did it produce a virtual image?
> Rulers (30 cm, a distance of more than twice the focal 2 Try to explain any other observations you
1 m) length from the candle flame (the object). made or ask your teacher about them.
Try to capture an image on the paper
> White paper 3 How do your results compare with those of
screen by moving the screen slowly until
screen other members of the class?
a focused image of the candle is formed.
> Blu Tack Describe the size of the image compared 4 Can you suggest any changes to your
to the object (magnified, same size or method that might have improved your
reduced), the type of image (real or virtual) results?
and the orientation of the image (inverted
or upright). Conclusion
4 Move the lens closer to the candle so that What do you know about the behaviour of a
they object–lens distance is between f and convex lens and the images it produces?
2f. Repeat your observations.
5 Repeat for the other lens positions in the
OBJECT–LENS SIZE OF IMAGE TYPE OF ORIENTATION OF ANY OTHER

DISTANCE IMAGE IMAGE OBSERVATIONS
Larger than 2f
Equal to 2f
Between f and 2f
Equal to f
Less than f
EXPERIMENTS 197
4.8
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To investigate the
What colour is it?
addition of coloured
light and explore Method
Discussion
the behaviour of 1 Connect the light box to a power supply
coloured filters and place it on the sheet of paper. 1 List combinations of colours that produce
white light.
2 Place the three primary filters (red, green
Materials and blue) in each of the three separate 2 What patterns did you observe in each
slotted sections in the light box. Adjust the of the tables? Explain the patterns you
> Hodson light box observed.
kit mirror flaps so that the colours can overlap
on the paper. Change the combination of 3 Name two possible sources of error in the
> Power supply experiment.
filters and copy and complete the following
> Sheet of white table. 4 What difficulties did you have and how did
paper you overcome them?
ADDITION OF PRIMARY COLOUR PRODUCED
COLOURS Conclusion
Red + green + blue What do you know about what happens when
Red + blue coloured light is added to each other?
Green + blue
Red + green
3 Replace one of the primary filters with

the secondary filters (yellow, cyan and
magenta) and copy and complete the
following table.
ADDITION OF COLOURS COLOUR PRODUCED

Yellow (side slot) + blue
(front slot)
Magenta (side slot) +
green (front slot)
Cyan (side slot) + red
(front slot)
4 Switch off the light box and remove the

filters. Select a red, green, blue and yellow
surface from the light box kit. Hold each of
the coloured surfaces against the back of
each primary filter. Record the colour that
each surface appears.
SURFACE COLOUR COLOUR SURFACE APPEARS WHEN VIEWED THROUGH A

RED FILTER GREEN FILTER BLUE FILTER
Red
Green
Blue
Yellow

4.9
EXPERIMENT
Aim What is the wavelength of a

microwave?
To determine the
wavelength of a
microwave
Background 4 Remove the plate from the microwave and
Materials A microwave oven uses electromagnetic identify the centre of the cooked stripes/
waves to heat food. These waves move patches. Measure the distance between
> Microwave
through the cooking area in a set fashion. All two of the cooked patches.
oven with
the turntable microwave ovens have turntables to rotate 5 Repeat this experiment several times and
removed food so that it cooks evenly. This is because determine an average distance between
of the wavelike motion of the energy. Without the cooked egg white.
> Large flat plate
at least 20 cm the turntable, the energy is focused in fixed
in diameter parts of the oven.
(safe for use in a You can use this to determine the wavelength
microwave) of the microwaves in your microwave oven.
> Oven mitts
> Egg white
> Ruler
> Black cardboard
CAUTION:
Figure 9.36 Using the cooked portions of the
SOME STUDENTS
MIGHT HAVE EGG Figure 9.34 A microwave oven uses egg white to measure the distance between
ALLERGIES. electromagnetic waves to heat food. ‘hot spots’ in the microwave oven.
Results
1 Record all your observations in a table.
2 Multiply the average distance between the
cooked eggwhite by 2 to determine the
length of a full wavelength.
Discussion
1 What is the wavelength of the microwaves
in your microwave oven?
2 How difficult was it to determine the
centre of the cooked portion of egg? Can
you determine the error margin of your
Figure 9.35 A microwave oven with the calculation (± the width of the cooked egg
rotating platter removed and drive mechanism bands)?
removed. 3 Why did you have to repeat your
Method experiment several times?
1 Crack the egg and separate the egg white
from the egg yolk.
Conclusion
What do you know about the wavelength of
2 Spread the egg white evenly over the black
microwaves?
paper.
3 Place the paper on the plate in the oven
and turn on for 15–30 seconds (depending
on the power of the microwave). The egg
should start cooking in stripes/patches.
EXPERIMENTS 199
4.10
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To examine the
Eye dissection
structure of the
eye and consider Method is transparent. Note that this transparent
how the various portion of the sclera is more sharply
1 With the forceps and the scalpel or
components work curved than the rest of the coating.
scissors, carefully remove the fatty tissue
separately and from around the eyeball. 5 Use the scalpel to make a small cut on
together the side of the eye, then use the scissors
to carefully cut the eye into two equal
Materials parts, front and rear. Taking care not to
squeeze the eyeball, cut all the way around
> Animal eyeball the eyeball until the two halves can be
(fresh cow eyes separated.
are best)
> Dissecting board
> Scalpel
> Scissors
> Forceps
> Newspaper
CAUTION: WEAR
YOUR L AB COAT,
SAFET Y GOGGLES
AND GLOVES. BE
CAREFUL WITH THE
SCALPEL BECAUSE IT 2 Look for the optic nerve. It should look like
IS LIKELY TO BE VERY a thick strand coming from the back of the 6 Carefully separate the lens from the rest of
SHARP. eyeball. the eye by slicing through the fine muscles
then put it on a piece of newspaper. The
lens is colourless and transparent in
life, but it is usually white in preserved
specimens.
3 Rotate the eyeball until the pupil is facing 7 Pick up the lens with your forceps and
you. Notice the tough white outer coating move it about above the newspaper print
extending over much of the eye. as you look down on it. Squeeze the lens
from the side as you look down through it.
4 Observe that in front of the eye the coating
Note what you observe.

8 Examine the rear half of the eyeball and Results
notice the black/pearly inside layer. Include labelled diagrams and observations
9 Examine the back of the front part of the in your results.
eye from which you earlier took the lens.
The iris, the muscular ring-like structure Discussion
surrounding the pupil, is now exposed.
1 What are the muscles attached to the
outside of the eyeball used for?
2 What does the optic nerve do?
3 What is the white outer coating of the eye
called?
4 What is the transparent part of the sclera
called?
5 What is the name of the watery-like
substance in the eyeball? What function
does it serve?
6 The space between the cornea and the lens
is also filled with a colourless, transparent,
watery fluid. What is this fluid called?
7 Is the lens convex or concave?
8 What is the name of the black/pearly inside
layer of the eye? What function does this
layer have?
9 What function does the iris serve? How
10 Leave your gloves on until you have does it work?
finished the experiment. All dissecting
equipment must be washed. All parts of Conclusion
the eye must be wrapped in newspaper
What do you know about the structure and
and placed in the special bag provided.
function of the eye?
Disinfect your workspace and, finally, wash
your hands thoroughly.
EXPERIMENTS 201
4.10
CHALLENGE
Vision tests
PART A: NEAR POINT OF VISION PART C: FINDING THE DOMINANT EYE
The closer an object is to the eye, the thicker the lens What you need
needs to be. However, there is a limit to how much the
> Sheet of A4 paper
lens can change shape and at very close distances the
lens cannot clearly focus on an object. The distance from
What to do
the eye to the nearest point that can be focused clearly
(minimum focal length) is called the near point of vision. 1 Roll the sheet of A4 paper into a tube of 3–4 cm diameter
and hold it out in front of your eyes. Look through it with
What you need both eyes open at an object across the room.
> Ruler 2 Keeping the tube steady, close one eye, open it and then
close the other eye.
> Sheet of A4 paper
> Pencil Discussion
1 Which is your dominant eye?
What to do
2 How do you know?
Work in pairs.
1 Hold a pencil at arm’s length.
PART D: JUDGING DISTANCES
2 Place a hand over your left eye.
3 Focus your right eye on the tip of the pencil. What to do
4 Slowly bring the pencil closer to your eye until the tip 1 Hold your arms outstretched to the side and at shoulder
becomes blurred. height, with elbows slightly bent and just your index
5 Hold the pencil in this position and ask your partner fingers pointing.
to measure the distance from your eye to the tip of the 2 Keeping both eyes open, try to make your fingertips meet
pencil with the ruler. in front of you.
6 Repeat the steps to find the near point for your left eye, 3 Repeat this procedure with one eye closed. Repeat for
then swap with your partner. the other eye.
> How does the near point for your left eye compare
with that for your right eye? Discussion
> How do your partner’s near points compare with 1 Can you judge distance as accurately with one eye closed?
yours? 2 Why do you think this is so?
PART B: TESTING BINOCULAR VISION PART E: FINDING YOUR BLIND SPOT

What you need
What you need
> Sheet of A4 paper
> Sheet of A4 paper
What to do
What to do
1 Roll the sheet of A4 paper into a tube of 3–4 cm diameter
1 On the piece of paper, draw a dot and a cross in line with
and hold it up to one eye so that only the view through
each other but about 7 cm apart.
the tube can be seen.
2 Hold the paper approximately 15 cm from your eyes.
2 With the other eye, look at your hand, palm open, held
alongside the end of the tube. Keep both eyes open. 3 Close your right eye and concentrate on the cross with
your left eye.
Discussion 4 Slowly move the paper away from you until the dot
1 What do you see? disappears from your vision.
2 Explain this phenomenon. Discussion
1 Explain why the dot disappears.
2 Why doesn’t the dot disappear if both eyes are kept open?

4.11
CHALLENGE
Make a jelly lens for your smartphone

You will need 5 Let the jelly set for 15 minutes.
> Gelatine powder (no colours or flavours) 6 Repeat steps 3–5 several times so that the best lens
can be used.
> Petri dish
7 Gently lift off the gelatine drop and place it over the
> Boiling water
lens
> Small beaker of your smart phone.
> Measuring spoons 8 Try taking close-up photos of things using your lens.
> Pipette When finished, remove the gelatine lens and carefully
wipe the phone clean.
What to do
1 Add 2 teaspoons of boiling water to one of the small Discussion
beakers. 1 How far away did the phone need to be to focus without
2 Add a quarter of a teaspoon of gelatine to the water the gelatine lens?
and stir it for 4 minutes until it starts to thicken. 2 How far away did the phone need to be to focus with
3 Use the pipette to place 1 drop of the mixture on the the gelatine lens?
underside of a Petri dish. 3 Explain how the lens changed the light moving into the
4 After 5 seconds, turn the Petri dish over so that the phone.
drop of gelatine hangs down. The drop will form a (Use terms such as ‘refraction’, ‘convex’ and
parabolic shape without dripping off the petri dish. ‘converge’.)
EXPERIMENTS 203
5.1A
CHALLENGE
Classifying elements
What you need > How many have a two-letter symbol?
> Why is classifying elements according to their
> Cardboard
symbol a bad idea?
> Felt-tipped pens 3 Sort the cards according to the colour of the element.
> Scissors > How many elements are silver?
> How many elements have another colour?
What to do > Why is classifying elements according to their
1 Make up some cards like the ones shown in Figure 9.37 colour a bad idea?
to represent the different elements. 4 Sort the cards according to whether they are solids,
2 Sort the cards into those with a one-letter symbol and liquids or gases.
those with a two-letter symbol. > How many elements are solids, liquids and gases?
> How many elements have a one-letter symbol? > Why is classifying elements according to their state
a bad idea?
Cu Al Mg Cl C S
Copper Aluminium Magnesium Chlorine Carbon Sulfur
Solid Solid Solid Gas Solid Solid
brown, shiny silver, shiny silver, shiny yellowish-green black, dull yellow, dull
Fe P Pb K Hg O
Iron Phosphorus Lead Potassium Mercury Oxygen
Solid Solid Solid Solid Liquid Gas
grey, shiny red, dull grey, shiny silver, shiny silver, shiny colourless
H I Ca Sn Br Zn
Hydrogen Iodine Calcium Tin Bromine Zinc
Gas Solid Solid Solid Liquid Solid
colourless grey, sparkly grey, shiny silver, shiny red-brown silver, shiny
Figure 9.37 Example element cards.

5.1B
CHALLENGE
Identifying the elements in the periodic table

What you need 3 Research the following information for your element:
> A copy of the periodic table > name
> symbol
> Coloured pencils > atomic number
> atomic mass
What to do > five properties of your element
1 On your periodic table: > some uses for your element
> Draw a triangle around all the elements that > where your element can be found
are liquids. > who discovered your element
> Draw a circle around all the gases. 4 Is your element dangerous? A Material Data Sheet
> Draw a square around all the metalloids. (MDS) is provided for every dangerous substance.
> Colour all the transition metals in blue. It contains information about the risks involved in
2 Choose one element on the table. handling the substance. Research a MDS for your
> Colour your element in green. chosen element and record the following information:
> Colour the period that your element belongs to red. > Risks associated with your element
> Colour the group your element belongs to yellow. > How to handle your element safely
1 Group 18
6 Atomic number
1 2
C Chemical symbol
1 H 12.01 Atomic mass Non-metals He
1.01 Carbon Name of element 4.00
Hydrogen Helium
2 13 14 15 16 17
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Transition metals Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Sodium Magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.95 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.95 55.85 58.93 58.70 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.4 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.74 127.60 126.90 131.29
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
57
6 Cs Ba to Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 71 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
89
7 Fr Ra to Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
(223) 226.03 103 (205) 105 (271) (272) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (289) (294) (294)
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Flerovium Ununpentium Livermorium Ununseptium Ununoctium
Metals
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Rare earth elements La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Lanthanoid series 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.4 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Actinoid series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227.03 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260)
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
EXPERIMENTS 205
5.1
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To observe the
Properties of the elements
differences between
Method 4 Replace your sample into the test tube and
different elements
of the periodic table. 1 Use the steel wool to rub a small section add 3 cm of hydrochloric acid to the test
of your material. Record the colour and tube. Do you see any immediate reaction?
appearance in Table 9.9. Is it shiny or dull? If possible, leave it overnight to see if there
Materials is any change.
2 Use the forceps to try to bend each
> Steel wool substance. Is it malleable (able to bend)? Is 5 Repeat your tests with all of your samples
> Aluminium it brittle (breaks when bent)? and record your observations in the table.
metal strips 3 Set up a circuit with the battery, lamp
> Copper and wires as shown below. Connect the
Results
metal strips two loose wires to the material. Does the Record your results in Table 9.9.
> Magnesium light glow? Does your material conduct
metal strips electricity? Discussion
> Graphite/lead 1 What similarities do you observe between
pencil the elements you tested?
> Zinc metal strips 2 Can you divide all the materials into two
groups? What properties do you use to
> Iron nail (non-
separate the materials?
galvanised)
3 If you discovered a new material that was
> Forceps
shiny and that bent when you dropped it,
> Battery which groups would you put it in? Explain.
> 3 wires What other properties might you expect it to
> Lamp have?
> 0.5 M
hydrochloric acid
Conclusion
Describe what you know about the
> Distilled water
physical and chemical properties of these
> 6 test tubes materials.
Figure 9.38 This incomplete circuit can
> Test tube holder measure the conductivity of objects.
Table 9.9
ELEMENT IS IT SHINY/DULL IS IT MALLEABLE/ DOES IT CONDUCT DOES IT REACT

BRITTLE? ELECTRICITY? WITH ACID?

5.2
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To decompose
Decomposing copper carbonate
(break into smaller Safety test tube over the flame twice. Record any
parts) copper changes. Continue to do this for 2 minutes,
carbonate. WEAR SAFET Y GL ASSES AND L AB recording any changes. Be very careful to
COAT, AND TIE LONG HAIR BACK, point the open end of the test tube away
Materials WHEN USING A BUNSEN BURNER.
from others and yourself.
> Plastic beaker 5 Allow the test tube and copper carbonate
> Test tube or > Use a yellow (cooler) safety flame for this to cool. Wipe any black powder from the
crucible experiment. outside of the tube off with paper towel.
> Electronic > Hold the test tube or crucible securely 6 Place the test tube in the original plastic
balance with the tongs and always point it away beaker. Reweigh the test tube and beaker
from yourself and others. and record the mass in grams (this is W2).
> Spatula
Note any change in weight.
> Copper > Never place hot objects on the balance.
carbonate Results
Method
> Bunsen burner Record your results in Table 9.10.
and heating mat 1 Place a plastic beaker containing the test
tube on the balance. Tare the balance so it Discussion
> Tripod stand
reads zero.
> Matches 1 What happened to the copper carbonate?
2 Using a spatula, add approximately 3 grams
> Wooden tongs Consider the colour and any change in mass.
of copper carbonate into the test tube.
> Paper towel Record the mass in grams (this is W1). 2 What evidence is there that copper
carbonate is a compound and not an
3 Set the Bunsen burner up on the heating
element?
mat. Light the flame, ensuring the hole
is closed and a yellow (safety) flame is 3 What are the possible sources of error in
burning. this experiment?
4 Using the wooden tongs to hold the top of
Conclusion
the test tube, gently wave the base of the
What happens when copper carbonate
decomposes?
Table 9.10
WEIGHT OF COPPER CARBONATE WEIGHT OF COPPER CARBONATE DIFFERENCE W1 – W2 (g)
BEFORE HEATING (W1) (g) AFTER HEATING (W2) (g)
EXPERIMENTS 207
5.3
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To examine the
Melting chocolate
physical change in Method
melting chocolate
1 Place 4 to 6 buttons of milk cooking
chocolate in a beaker.
Materials 2 Place a thermometer in the beaker.
> Milk, dark and 3 Place the beaker in a hot water bath (or
white cooking boiling water in a beaker) and heat it to
chocolate 60°C. Do not stir the chocolate.
buttons 4 Time how long it takes to melt. Record your
(approximately observations.
10 of each)
> 3 × 100 mL Inquiry: What if another type of Figure 9.39 Placing the small beaker of
beakers chocolate was melted? Would it melt chocolate buttons in a beaker of boiling water
> Thermometer faster or slower than milk chocolate? causes the chocolate to melt.
> 250 mL beaker > Write a hypothesis for your question.

Discussion
(as a water bath) > What (independent) variable will you
change from the first method? 1 Was there any difference in the time it took
> Stirring rod
for each type of chocolate to melt?
> Bunsen burner > How will you determine when the
chocolate has melted? 2 Did all three types of chocolate melt in
and heating mat
the same pattern? (Inside first or outside
or hotplate > Name three variables you will keep the edges first?)
> Timer same/control.
3 How could a chef apply your observations
> Record your observations and in the kitchen?
measurements in a table.
4 Did you burn any of the types of chocolate?
Results 5 if you burnt the chocolate, did a new
substance form? How can you tell?
1 Record your observations, including any
diagrams and photographs.
Conclusion
2 Draw a column graph of the time it took for
What similarities and differences are there
each type of chocolate to melt.
between milk, dark and white chocolate?

5.3 5.4
CHALLENGE CHALLENGE
Exploring physical Making caramel

changes What you need
> Sugar
What you need > Test tube
> Aluminium drink can > Test tube holder
> Elastic/rubber band > Bunsen burner and heating mat
> Rock salt
> Ice What to do
> Sugar cube 1 Place a pea-sized amount of ordinary sugar into a
> Vitamin C tablet dry test tube.
> Slice of bread 2 Wearing safety glasses and, with the test tube facing
away from you and everyone else, gently heat the
> Piece of cloth sugar by passing it through the top part of a blue
> Scissors flame.
3 If you are careful, the sugar grains will crumble (they
What to do lose water in a chemical reaction) and turn into a
1 For each of the materials provided, find ways to brown syrup. This brown syrup is caramel. You may
change its physical appearance. see condensation on the inside of the test tube as
2 Record the method you used and your observations the water is driven out of the sugar.
in Table 9.11. 4 If you continue heating, or heat too strongly, you will
burn the sugar. Charcoal residue is left behind. This
Discussion is another chemical change.
1 List three different ways in which a physical change
can take place.
2 What did each change have in common?
Table 9.11
MATERIAL METHOD HAS THE CAN THE
USED SUBSTANCE CHANGE BE
CHANGED? REVERSED/
UNDONE?
Figure 9.40 Heated sugar undergoes a chemical

change.
EXPERIMENTS 209
5.4
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To observe the
Observing chemical reactions
reactants and Method
products in
chemical reactions. PART A
1 Place a large spatula of copper carbonate
Materials in a test tube.
> Spatula 2 Set up the Bunsen burner.
> Copper 3 Using a test tube holder, gently heat the
carbonate (solid) test tube by passing it over the flame
> Bunsen burner twice. Make sure the test tube is facing
and heating mat away from you and everyone else. Observe
any changes and repeat until the powder
> Matches
changes colour.
> 2 test tubes and
4 Collect the waste powder in a beaker for
test tube holder
disposal.
> Baking soda
(sodium PART B
bicarbonate)
1 Place the baking soda in a test tube to a
> 5 mL of 1 M
depth of 0.5 cm.
hydrochloric acid
2 Add an equal amount of 1 M hydrochloric
> Thermometer
acid to the test tube and observe.
> Wooden splint
3 Conduct a carbon dioxide test by holding a
> Magnesium burning wood splint above the tube. If the
ribbon (1 cm flame goes out, carbon dioxide is present
length) as one of the products of the chemical Figure 9.41 When heating a test tube, be sure to
> ~0.5 M copper reaction. point it away from you or anyone else close by.
sulfate solution
> 100 mL beaker
PART C Results
> Tongs 1 Pour 5 mL of hydrochloric acid into Include your observations here.
> Piece of steel the bottom of a test tube. Measure its
wool, about temperature with the thermometer. Discussion
thumb size when 2 Add the magnesium ribbon to the test tube. 1 What happened to the copper carbonate
rolled up Measure its temperature again. when it was heated?
3 Observe what happens using sight, touch 2 Did it change when taken away from the
(the outside of the tube only!) and sound. heat?
3 Is this similar to the melting chocolate
PART D experiment? Why or why not?
1 Pour approximately 30 mL of the copper 4 What is produced in the baking soda and
sulfate solution into a 100 mL beaker. acid experiment?
2 Use the tongs to place the steel wool into 5 Why does the flame on the burning splint
the copper sulfate solution. go out if carbon dioxide is present?
3 Carefully observe the changes that occur to 6 What happened to the magnesium metal?
both the steel wool and the copper sulfate
solution. Conclusion
4 Collect the copper sulfate/steel wool What did you observe about the reactants and
solution in a beaker for safe disposal. products of chemical reactions?

5.5
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To examine the
Comparing reactants and products
physical and Method Discussion
chemical properties
of reactants and 1 Examine each sample by looking and 1 Do magnesium and magnesium oxide have
products. carefully moving the sample in the bottom the same physical properties?
of a test tube. Record your observations in 2 Do magnesium and magnesium oxide have
your table. the same chemical properties?
Materials 2 Add 10 mL of 1 M hydrochloric acid into
each test tube in the test tube rack. Conclusion
> Piece of
magnesium 3 Observe any reactions. Record your What do you know about the physical and
ribbon (1 cm) observations in Table 9.12. chemical properties of reactants and
products?
> 1 pea-sized
Results
sample of
magnesium Write a short statement describing each
oxide powder sample and how it reacted with acid.
> 20 mL of 1 M Table 9.12
hydrochloric acid
SUBSTANCE COLOUR STATE SHINY/DULL REACTION WITH ACID
> 2 test tubes and
test tube rack Magnesium
Magnesium oxide
EXPERIMENTS 211
5.6A
EXPERIMENT
Aim Effect of particle size on

reaction rates
To observe how
particle size
affects the rate of a
reaction.
Method 8 Place another piece of filter paper onto
Materials 1 Place a piece of filter paper on the the electronic balance and then place the
electronic balance and then place a ground-up eggshell onto the filter paper.
> Dried eggshells
quarter of an eggshell onto the filter paper. Measure and record the combined mass.
> Mortar and Remove the filter paper and record the
pestle Measure and record the combined mass.
Remove the filter paper and record the mass of the ground-up eggshell.
> Electronic mass of the egg shell. 9 Place the ground-up eggshell into a small
balance beaker and add 5.0 mL of 1 M HCl. Record
2 Place the eggshell into a beaker and add
> Pieces of filter 5.0 mL of hydrochloric acid. Record the time.
paper the time. 10 Stir the eggshell and the acid occasionally.
> 2 small beakers 3 Stir the eggshell and the acid occasionally. 11 Time how long it takes for the reaction
> 10 mL graduated 4 Time how long it takes for the reaction to stop.
cylinder to stop. 12 When the reactions stops, filter the
> Dilute 5 When the reaction stops, filter the remaining remaining solution using the original
hydrochloric acid solution using the original filter paper. filter paper.
(1 M HCl) 13 Allow the filter paper to dry overnight and
6 Allow the filter paper to dry overnight and
> Stirring rod measure the mass. measure the mass.
> Stopwatch 7 Now grind a quarter of the eggshell into very 14 Calculate the mass lost in the first reaction
small pieces using the mortar and pestle. by subtracting the mass of the filter paper
after the reaction from the combined
starting mass.
15 Calculate the percentage of calcium
CAUTION! SOME
STUDENTS MAY HAVE
carbonate in the quarter of the eggshell
EGG ALLERGIES. using the formula below.
Mass lost in the first reaction 100

x
Starting m ass of egg shell in the first reaction 1
16 Repeat these calculations for the

ground-up eggshell.
Results
Draw an appropriate table for your results.
Figure 9.42 Weighing the eggshells allows you
to calculate the mass lost in the reaction. Discussion
1 Which eggshell dissolved faster?
2 How many times faster was the rate of the
reaction for the ground-up eggshell than
for the large piece of eggshell?
3 Why do small pieces react faster than one
large piece?
4 Why is stirring necessary?
5 Did grinding up the eggshell change the
amount of calcium carbonate in it?
Conclusion
What do you know about how particle size
Figure 9.43 Grinding the eggshells creates affects reaction rate?
smaller particles.

5.6B
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To investigate the
Speeding up reactions with enzymes
effect of enzymes
on breaking down Hydrogen peroxide breaks down into oxygen Discussion
hydrogen peroxide. and water slowly over time. Yeast has a 1 Was the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
catalyst that speeds up this reaction. into oxygen and water noticeable before
the yeast was added?
Materials Method
2 What happened to the rate of hydrogen
> 1 packet of 1 Add the yeast into the beaker. peroxide breakdown when the yeast was
dried yeast 2 Add 10 mL of the hydrogen peroxide into added?
> 200 mL beaker the beaker. 3 What effect did the gas produced have on
> 10 mL hydrogen 3 Light the splint and then blow it out. Place the glowing splint?
peroxide (3%) the glowing splint in the top half of the 4 What gas would cause this reaction?
beaker.
> 1 splint
4 Record your observations. Conclusion
> Matches
What do you know about how enzymes affect
Results the rate of a reaction?
Record your observations in a table.
EXPERIMENTS 213
5.7
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To improve the
Making casein glue
manufacture of
casein glue. Casein is a protein in milk. It can be extracted Inquiry: Choose one of the questions
from milk and chemically changed so it has below to investigate.
the properties of a glue.
Materials > What if skim milk was used?
> Full cream Method > What if soy milk was used?
milk (70 mL for 1 Pour 70 mL of milk into the 250 mL beaker. > What if more vinegar was used?
each group of > What if more baking powder was added?
2 Set up your Bunsen burner and heat the
students)
milk to no more than 50°C. Remove the Answer the following questions in relation to
> 250 mL beaker milk from the heat using a heatproof glove. your inquiry.
> Bunsen burner 3 Slowly add 20 mL of vinegar to the milk, > Write a hypothesis for your question.
and heating mat with gentle stirring. Do not stir vigorously > What (independent) variable will you
> Tripod stand and as you will break up the curd (lumpy bits) change from the first method?
gauze mat being formed. The curd should clump as > How will you determine which glue is
> Matches much as possible. stronger?
> Thermometer 4 Set up the sieve over the sink or a large > Name three variables you will keep the
> Heatproof glove beaker. Put a piece of disposable cloth over same/control.
the sieve.
> Vinegar (20 mL)
5 Gently pour the mixture through the cloth Results
> Stirring rod and sieve to filter the whey (liquid) from the Record your observations and measurements
> Sieve curds (lumps of mainly protein). Once it has in a table.
> Disposable stopped dripping, very gently squeeze the
cleaning cloth cloth to remove any excess liquid. Discussion
> 15 mL warm 6 Return the solids to the original 250 mL
1 Why is it important to wear safety glasses
water beaker and crush the curds with a glass
in this experiment?
> ½ teaspoon stirring rod to break them up as much as
possible. 2 What are the reactants used in this
baking powder experiment? What are the products?
> Icy pole sticks 7 Add 15 mL of warm water and stir until it
has an even consistency. Add ½ teaspoon 3 How could you compare the strength of
(for gluing different glues?
together) of baking powder.
8 Take your sample and two icy pole sticks to 4 How do you think someone worked out that
your bench. you could make glue from milk?
9 Spread your sample between the sticks
Conclusion
and press them together. Leave them
overnight and then test how well your glue What do you know about making glue?
has worked.

6.1
SKILLS L AB
Drawing cells
Several stations are set up around the 3 Draw two more cells that are close to your
laboratory with microscopes adjusted to original cell. (Do not attempt to draw every
show different kinds of cells. cell that you see.)
4 If you can see anything inside the cells (it
DO NOT ATTEMPT TO ADJUST may only be a dark dot), mark this on your
ANY OF THE MICROSCOPES! ASK
YOUR TEACHER OR L ABORATORY
sketch.
TECHNICIAN TO ADJUST THE 5 Label any parts that you can identify.
MICROSCOPE IF YOU THINK IT HAS
BEEN BUMPED OR HAS GONE OUT Questions
OF FOCUS. 1 Which cells, in your opinion, were the most
unusual?
What to do 2 Which cells had very obvious walls around
1 Look carefully at each specimen. Write them?
down its name and a sentence that 3 Which cells were the smallest?
describes what you see. 4 Which cells were the largest?
2 Make a very simple pencil sketch of a 5 How did your view through the microscope
single cell that you can see. Draw the compare with the images of the cells in
outside edge of the cell first, including any Figure 6.17?
bump or unusual shape you notice.
6 Describe some of the difficulties of drawing
cells seen through a microscope.
Nuclei
Cell walls
50µm
Figure 9.44 (a) What onion cells look like through a microscope. (b) How you would draw the cells you see through a microscope.
EXPERIMENTS 215
6.2
SKILLS L AB
What you need

> Compound light
Getting to know your microscope
microscope
What to do
> Microscope slide
1 Always use two hands to carry a
> Coverslip microscope – one hand should be around
> Small piece of the main part of the instrument and the
newspaper other underneath it.
> Eyedropper 2 Some microscopes have a built-in lamp.
> Small beaker of Others have separate lamps that need to
water be set up so they shine onto the mirror.
Adjust the mirror to project the light
> Small piece of
through the stage onto the specimen. Do
tissue paper
not allow sunlight to shine directly up the
> Hair (use your column.
own) Figure 9.47 Carefully adjust the focus of the
3 Place the slide on the stage then select the microscope.
> 1 cm sticky tape objective lens with the lowest magnification
(transparent) first.
4 Cut out two small words from a piece of
newspaper.
5 Place the cut-out newspaper on the
microscope slide and add two drops of
water to help it ‘stick’ to the slide. Place a
coverslip on top. This is called a wet mount.
6 Look from the side and adjust the coarse
focus knob so that the objective lens is just
above – and not touching – the slide. Check
which way you must turn the knob to move
the objective lens away from the slide.
Figure 9.48 Examine a hair under the microscope.
7 Use the coarse focus knob to bring the
Figure 9.45 Use scissors specimen into view. Find one letter from
to cut out words from the newsprint to focus on.
the newspaper. Questions
8 Move the slide slightly towards your body
and observe what happens. 1 Describe what the newspaper letter looks
like through the microscope. What does
9 Move the slide slightly to the left and
this mean for all things you see through
observe what happens.
this type of microscope?
10 Increase the magnification by rotating the
2 What features could you see on the tissue
objective lens to a higher magnification.
paper and sticky tape that you could not
11 Draw a diagram of the newspaper letter see with the naked eye?
(as a record) using a sharp lead pencil.
3 Use a series of cause-and-effect graphic
Never colour or shade areas; if absolutely
organisers, similar to that shown in
necessary, use dots or lines instead.
Table 9.13, to record the results of your
12 Work out the total magnification. experiment when you moved the slide in
Figure 9.46 Gently lower 13 Write the magnification next to your sketch. different ways. For example, the cause link
the glass coverslip 14 Label and date the sketch. may be ‘move the slide to the left’. Then
down until it is flat. write what happened in the effect link.
15 Take the newspaper out and prepare
another slide using the tissue paper. Make Table 9.13 Cause-and-effect graphic organiser.
sure a drop of water is added and the CAUSE → EFFECT
coverslip is placed over the top carefully.
What did you do to What effect
16 Sketch what you see. cause the change you did it have?
17 Repeat with sticky tape and then a hair observed?
from your head.

6.3
CHALLENGE
Comparing the size of cells and their parts

What you need a
Thylakoid disks
> Sheet of poster paper
> Pencil
> 30 cm ruler
> Eraser
What to do
PART A
1 Using a scale of 1 cm : 1 µm, draw a series of circles
Tubules Grana (stacks
to represent the average size of various cells and of thylakoids)
microbes according to the measurements given in
Table 9.14.
b
Table 9.14 Average diameters of different cell types.
CELL TYPE AVERAGE DIAMETER (µm)
Human cheek cell 30
Human red blood cell 7
Human white blood cell 25
Epidermal plant cell 50
Staphylococcus bacterium 1
(spherical)
Escherichia coli bacterium 3
(rod shaped)
2 Rank the cells and microbes from smallest to largest.
PART B
Organelles vary in size. Some organelles, such as
chloroplasts, are large enough to be visible under the
light microscope. Others, such as mitochondria, are
usually too small to be visible.
1 Use the measurements given in Table 9.15 to add a
chloroplast and a mitochondrion (singular) to your set
of diagrams.
Table 9.15 Size of cell organelles.
CELL ORGANELLE AVERAGE SIZE (µm)
Chloroplast 5 µm long × 1.5 µm wide
Mitochondrion 2 µm long × 1 µm wide
2 Which of the cell organelles in Table 9.15 are not

Figure 9.49 (a) Schematic diagram showing the structure of
visible under the light microscope? a chloroplast. (b) Electron micrograph of chloroplasts.
3 Viruses are much smaller than bacterial cells. For
example, the influenza virus, which causes the flu,
is 0.1 µm in diameter. Add the influenza virus to your
diagrams.
EXPERIMENTS 217
6.3A
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To prepare slides to
Looking at organelles
view the organelles
in the cells of a Method
brown onion and an
Elodea canadensis ONION SKIN CELLS – UNSTAINED
plant. You may wish Light microscopes depend on the light being
to review Skills lab able to pass through the specimen. When
6.2 for slide and preparing a slide, it is important that the
microscope use. specimen is as thin as possible.
1 Between the fleshy layers of an onion there
Materials are some thin, transparent layers. These
> Onion wedge layers are one cell thick. Peel off a layer of
> 3 glass slides this skin and put it onto a microscope slide.
> 3 glass 2 Add one drop of water and then gently
coverslips lower the coverslip so that no air bubbles
are trapped.
> Water
3 Draw and label what you see. Try to identify
> Light
the nucleus, which contains the DNA, and Figure 9.50 Add a drop of water to the slide then
microscope
the cell membrane and cytoplasm. add a coverslip.
> Methylene blue
4 Keep this slide for use in the next part of
stain or iodine
the experiment. 11 What other organelle is clearly visible in
> Leaf from an these cells?
Elodea canadensis ONION SKIN CELLS – STAINED
plant Results
Stains are often used on specimens because
> Blotting paper they add contrast to the image. Some Include your labelled diagrams in this section.
highlight a particular feature of the cell.
5 Use another thin layer of onion skin to Discussion
prepare a second slide as above. 1 How does the use of a stain change the
6 Add a drop of methylene blue stain or image of the onion cells?
iodine instead of the water before lowering 2 Both types of cells viewed are from plants.
the coverslip carefully so that no air Suggest why there are differences between
bubbles are trapped. Be careful not to get each of the cell types. (Hint: Consider which
the stain on your skin or clothes because it part of the plant the cells come from.)
is very hard to remove.
3 It is often difficult to identify the nucleus
7 Draw and label what you see. How does the in the Elodea canadensis cells. Can you
use of the methylene blue stain or iodine suggest why?
change the appearance of the onion cells?
4 The Elodea canadensis cells contain another
ELODEA CANADENSIS CELLS structure that is very prominent. What
could be the role of this structure within
8 Pick a small green Elodea canadensis leaf the cell?
and put it onto a microscope slide. 5 Can you suggest why it is not necessary to
9 Add one drop of water and then gently stain the Elodea canadensis cells?
lower the coverslip so that no air bubbles
are trapped. Conclusion
10 Draw and label what you see. Try to identify What do you know about the organelles in
the cell membrane and cytoplasm. onion cells and Elodea canadensis cells?

6.3B
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To measure the size
Measuring cells
of various plant and
animal cells using a Method Results
mini-grid. 1 Focus the onion cells under the light Rank the cells viewed in size from smallest to
microscope. largest.
Materials 2 Once in focus, estimate the average length
and width of one cell in relation to the field Discussion
> Onion cell slide
of view. Does your ranking match Table 9.14 from
(prepared in
3 Gently remove the slide and insert the slide Challenge 6.3?
Experiment 6.3a)
> Light microscope containing the mini-grid.
Conclusion
> Mini-grid 4 Each box is 1 mm in length. Determine the
length of the field of view by counting how What do you know about the relative sizes of
slide or 1 mm plant and animal cells?
graph paper many boxes fit across the light field.
photocopied onto 5 Use this measurement to calculate
a transparency the average length of one onion cell by
> Other various estimating how many cells fit across the
prepared slides, light field.
such as human 6 Repeat this process for each of the other
blood, nerve prepared slides.
cells, leaf
epidermis
6.4
CHALLENGE
Classifying using cells

What you need What to do
> Light microscope 1 Look at each slide under the microscope.
> Four pre-prepared cells labelled A–D, supplied by 2 Using Table 9.14 to help you, classify each slide into
your teacher (these may include leaf epidermal cells, one of the five kingdoms.
yeast cells, protea cells or animal cells) 3 Use a table like the one below to present your results.
SLIDE AVERAGE DIAMETER (µm) KINGDOM EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT YOUR SELECTION

A 30
B 7
C 25
D 50
EXPERIMENTS 219
6.4
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To compare plant
Plant and animal cells
and animal cells.
Method
1 Peel off a very thin piece of brown onion
Materials skin so that it looks a bit like cling film.
> Brown onion
> Microscope slide
> Coverslip
> Iodine in dropper
bottle
> Light
microscope
> Prepared slide of 7 Remove the slide and place the prepared
animal cells slide of animal cells under the microscope.
Focus the microscope.
8 Draw the cells you observe.
2 Place the skin on the microscope slide and 9 Write down the total magnification and
add a tiny drop of iodine. This stains parts label the diagram.
of the cells to make them easier to see.
Results
Include your cell diagrams here.
Discussion
1 What is the purpose of staining the onion
skin cells?
2 What kind of living thing did the onion skin
come from?
3 Compare the two sketches you have
prepared with the images of plant and
animal cells in Figure 6.17. List any
differences and similarities.
3 Place one edge of the cover slip onto the 4 Use the Venn diagram in Figure 9.51 to
slide and carefully lower it so that no air show how plant and animal cells are
bubbles are trapped underneath. similar and how they are different.
Conclusion
What do you know about plant and animal
cells?
Animal cells What feathures plants cells

What feathures do the two What feathures
are only found in cells have in are only found in
animal cells? common? plant cells?
Figure 9.51 What are the similarities and

4 Place the slide on the stage.
differences between plant and animal cells?
5 Focus the microscope.
6 Draw the cells you observe. Don’t forget
to label your diagram and write down the
total magnification.

6.5
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To determine the
Microbes all around
effectiveness of In this activity you will investigate if common growth? (This is your dependent variable.)
detergents in killing detergents can kill the bacteria found in the > List three variables you will keep the
or restricting local environment. Most human pathogenic same/control between the three plates.
bacterial growth. bacteria and fungi (those that are potentially
> Record your observations in a table.
harmful to humans) grow optimally at 37°C.
Materials For this reason, samples should be sealed > At the end of the activity, dispose of the
with paraffin wax or tape prior to incubation agar plates appropriately.
> 3 Petri dishes
(containing and destroyed immediately after analysis.
Discussion
nutrient agar) Method
1 Describe the growth on your sample plates
> 2 sterilised 1 2 agar plates are to be used for growing after the incubation period. A labelled
swabs microbes and the third is the negative diagram may assist your description. Did
> Paraffin wax control plate. The negative control plate you observe the growth of both bacteria
strips should not be opened at any stage of the and fungi? What were some of the
> Incubator activity, but must be incubated alongside differences between them?
the sample plates.
2 If your sample plate showed evidence
2 Decide on a site around the school to be of bacterial growth, do you think that
tested for microbes. there was more than one type of bacteria
3 Keep the swabs sterile (germ free) until present? Justify your response.
CAUTION! DO NOT you reach the site. 3 Was your detergent effective in controlling
OPEN THE AGAR 4 Rub the swab over the site and then gently bacterial growth?
PLATE AFTER
INCUBATION. rub it across the surface of the agar in both 4 Suggest why there may be some
directions. Take care not to damage the differences between the growth on your
surface of the agar. plates and those of other students.
5 Quickly place the lid on the plate, seal it 5 Explain why it is important that both the
with a wax strip and then incubate it, along swab and the plate are sterile and are only
with the control plate, at 37°C for 2–3 days. exposed to the environment for a short
Do not open the agar plate again. period while collecting the sample.
6 If the negative control plate was sterilised
Inquiry: What if a detergent was appropriately prior to the beginning of
spread over the surface of the agar this activity and then incubated alongside
plate? the sample plate, it should have shown
> Choose a detergent that you would like no bacterial or fungal growth. Explain the
to test. purpose of the negative control plate.
> Write a hypothesis for your experiment.
Conclusion
What do your results conclude about the
effectiveness of your detergent?
Figure 9.52 Carefully > How will you know if the detergent is
wipe the swab over the effective in killing/restricting bacterial
agar plate.
a b
Figure 9.53 (a) Bacterial

colonies growing on
an agar plate. (b) Fungi
tend to have a dusty or
fuzzy appearance.
EXPERIMENTS 221
7.1
CHALLENGE
Brown paper body 3 Have one student lie down on the paper. Trace
around them.
brainstorm 4 Spend a minute discussing the best way to illustrate

the body shape with all the body parts from your
brainstorming list. What is the best way to make use
of the different-coloured pens?
What you need
5 Then, using the list you brainstormed and any other
> Large pieces of butcher’s paper
body parts you think of as you work, make a drawing
> Several different-coloured felt-tipped pens of the inside of a human body.
6 Try to make connections between body parts where
What to do you can. For example, you may want to connect the
1 Working with a partner, spend 5 minutes stomach to the intestines.
brainstorming all the internal parts of the body you
can think of. Write them down in your notebook as
you brainstorm.
2 Unravel a couple of metres of butcher’s paper along
the floor.
Figure 9.54 Draw a model of the survival systems of your body.

7.2A
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To investigate the
Digesting protein
function of pepsin,
an enzyme found Safety 2 How can combining the class’s
in the stomach, Bring the materials to the test tubes, rather data improve the accuracy of the
and to establish than risking them being dropped when interpretations?
the conditions carrying them around the room. 3 Construct a sentence to explain how the
under which pepsin comparison of tubes relates to the human
functions best. stomach for A and B, A and C, and A and D.
CAUTION! SOME STUDENTS MAY
Egg white is being HAVE EGG ALLERGIES. 4 In which test tube(s) has the protein been
used as the source almost completely digested? How do you
of protein in this know?
experiment. 5 Has the pepsin digested the protein? If so,
CAUTION! DANGEROUS
CHEMICALS ARE INVOLVED – how can you be sure?
Materials POUR CAREFULLY, CLEAN UP ALL 6 What are enzymes?
> 4 test tubes and SPILLS IMMEDIATELY AND RINSE
YOUR HANDS IF YOU COME INTO 7 Does HCl digest the protein by itself? How
test tube rack
CONTACT WITH ANY CHEMICALS. do you know?
> Permanent
8 Copy and complete the following word
marker
equations to show what has happened in
> Hard-boiled egg Method
this experiment.
white 1 Label 4 test tubes A, B, C and D with the
permanent marker. Tube A: protein + +
> 10 mL → amino acids
measuring 2 Collect some hard-boiled egg white. Cut
four cubes of approximately 1 cm3 ensuring Tube B: water +
cylinder
that the cubes are the same. + →
> 1% pepsin
solution 3 Put a cube of egg white in each tube.
Tube C: pepsin +
> Water 4 Add 10 mL pepsin to tubes A, C and D. + →
> Dilute 5 Add 10 drops of water to tube B.
hydrochloric acid 6 Add 10 drops of HCl to tubes A and B. Tube D: pepsin +
(1 M HCl) 7 Add 10 drops of 0.1 M NaOH to tube D. + →
> Dilute sodium 8 Add 10 drops of water to tube C.
hydroxide 9 Why does the body digest protein? What
solution (0.1 M 9 Bind the 4 tubes with a rubber band and
label the bunch with your initials. would happen to the protein after it has
NaOH) been digested?
> 1 mL pipette 10 Incubate for at least 24 hours at 37°C.
10 Predict what would happen if this
> Incubator (37°C) Results experiment was repeated with
carbohydrates instead of protein, leaving
Record the ingredients for each tube with a
the rest of the experiment exactly the same.
tick or cross in Table 9.16. Provide very brief
statements to describe your observations of
Conclusion
the results.
What do you know about the function of
Discussion pepsin and the conditions under which pepsin
functions best?
1 This experiment is a ‘controlled’ experiment.
What do you understand this term to mean?
Table 9.16
TUBE EGG WHITE PEPSIN SOLUTION HCl NaOH WATER RESULTS

A
B
C
D
EXPERIMENTS 223
7.2B
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To determine
What if an enzyme was boiled?
what conditions The gelatine in jelly is a protein that can > What (independent) variable will you
are needed for an be broken up by an enzyme found in fresh change from the first method?
enzyme to digest pineapple or kiwi fruit. For this reason many > What (dependent) variable will you
protein. packets of jelly come with a warning not to measure/observe?
add fresh fruit to the jelly.
> Name three variables you will keep the
Materials same/control.
> Jelly crystals Method
> Record your observations in a table.
> Boiling water to 1 Make up the jelly according to the
make up jelly instructions on the packet. Results
> Large beaker to 2 Pour 50 mL of liquid jelly into two beakers. Draw a table to record your observations.
make up jelly 3 Add a few pieces of the fresh pineapple to
> 3 × 100 mL one of the beakers. Discussion
beakers 4 Allow to cool overnight in the fridge. 1 Describe the difference between the jelly
> Fresh pineapple 5 Record your observations in a table. with the fresh pineapple and the jelly with
> Boiled pineapple no pineapple.
> Tinned pineapple Inquiry 2 Use the term ‘chemical digestion’ to
Choose one of the questions below to explain your observations.
investigate. 3 Was your hypothesis supported in your
> What if the pineapple was boiled before inquiry? Explain your answer.
being added to the jelly? 4 Suggest an alternative reason for the
> What if tinned pineapple was added to results you obtained in your inquiry.
the jelly?
Answer the following questions in relation to Conclusion
your inquiry. Explain why you should not add fresh
> Write a hypothesis for your question. pineapple to jelly.

7.5A 7.5B
CHALLENGE CHALLENGE
Measure your lung Fish dissection

capacity What you need
> A fish, complete with internal organs, from a
What you need fishmonger or market
> A large 5 litre container with single litres marked > Dissection tools
> Access to a large sink or tub
SAFETY REFER TO CHAPTER 1 FOR
> 1 metre of tubing or bendy straw DISSECTION SKILLS AND SAFET Y
GUIDELINES.
What to do
1 Place 10 cm of water in the bottom of a sink. PART A
2 Fill the container with water. What to do
3 Tip the container upside down in the sink so that the
opening is submerged. This will prevent the water Use your dissection skills to open the abdomen and
from leaving the container. head of the fish and record your observations of the
internal organs, using labelled diagrams.
4 Place one end of the tubing under the opening of the
container.
Discussion
5 Take a deep breath and blow as much as you can
1 What do you notice about the arrangement of
into the tubing. As you blow air into the container,
the organs?
the water should be pushed out the bottom.
2 Are the systems clearly separated or are they
6 Measure how much air you are able to blow out of
intertwined?
your lungs into the container.
3 Are certain organs a darker red colour than others?
Discussion 4 What might this tell you about their blood supply?
1 Can you repeat the results by performing your 5 What might this tell you about their importance?
experiment two more times?
2 Is there a chance your results could have been PART B
affected by something else? For example, do you What to do
have a lung infection?
Identify and remove the gills of the fish. Reflect on the
3 Compare your results to others in the class. Can you significant features of our lungs that make them such
notice any relationship between height of the person effective gas exchange organs.
and their lung capacity?
Discussion
1 What feature do lungs have that is similar to fish
gills?
2 How does this feature enable both gills and lungs to
1
2
3
perform their functions?
4
5
Figure 9.55 Measure the capacity of your lungs.
Figure 9.56 Identify the key organs in the dissected fish.
EXPERIMENTS 225
7.7
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To explore the
Heart dissection
structure and SAFETY REFER TO CHAPTER 1 FOR
function of a heart. DISSECTION SKILLS AND SAFET Y
GUIDELINES.
Materials
> Sheep, cow, ox Method
or pig heart 1 Examine the outside of the heart and
> Scalpel identify the left and right sides. Your
fingers will work better than a probe
> Newspaper for that.
> Dissecting probe 2 Use your fingers to feel the right side of
and forceps the heart. Compare the thickness of the
Figure 9.57 Identify the right and left sides of
right and left sides. Feel the muscle in the the heart.
centre of the heart.
3 Using a scalpel, cut open the right atrium
and right ventricle. Pull back the wall
and look inside to see the atrium and the
ventricle. The ventricle is the chamber
closest to the pointed end of the heart. The
white tendons hold the valves in place.
4 Push a dissecting probe or your finger out
through the artery leading from the right
ventricle.
5 Cut open the left side of the heart. Locate
the atrium, ventricle and tendons holding
Figure 9.58 Compare the thicknesses of the
the valves.
right and left ventricles.
6 Push a dissecting probe or your finger out
through the artery leading from the left
ventricle.
Results
Include labelled diagrams and
observations here.
Discussion
1 What is the artery from step 4 called?
2 What is the artery from step 6 called?
3 How does the thickness of this artery wall Figure 9.59 Use the dissecting probe to identify
compare with the thickness of a vein wall? the arteries.
4 How does the thickness of ventricle walls
compare with that of atrial walls?
5 How can you explain the difference
between the left and right ventricle walls?
Conclusion
What do you know about the structure and
function of the heart?
Figure 9.60 Identify the artery leaving the left

ventricle.

7.8
CHALLENGE
Modelling blood flow

What you need
4 Cut the straw so that it is 5 cm in length.
> Scissors
5 Repeat this with another cup for the thick straw
> Plastic cups
making sure the straw is placed in approximately the
> 1 thin straw same height from the cup’s base.
> Play dough 6 Place the cups in the tray and fill both cups with equal
> 1 thick straw amounts of coloured water.
> Food colouring 7 Time how long each cup takes to become empty.
> Water
> Large tray
Discussion
> Timer 1 What effect did narrowing the straws have in the
effectiveness of water flow?
What to do 2 What complication of the circulatory system does this
model reflect?
1 Use the scissors to poke a straw-sized hole
through the side close to the cup base. 3 Treatment for this complication involves inserting a
small balloon into the blood vessel and allowing it to
2 Place the thin straw through the hole of the cup
stretch the vessel so that it becomes wider. How will
making sure the straw is not being squeezed.
this help the patient?
3 Use play dough to seal around the hole so that there
are no leaks. Water should only be able to escape
through the straw.
7.9 Kidney dissection

EXPERIMENT CAUTION! REFER TO CHAPTER 2 The colour of the kidney gives an indication
1 FOR DISSECTION SKILLS AND of the amount of waste products it
Aim SAFET Y GUIDELINES.
contains. How does this support your
To investigate observations?
the structure of a 3 Could you actually see any nephrons? What
mammalian kidney Method does this tell you about their size and the
and explore the 1 Place the whole kidney on the board and size of the substances they filter?
various functions of identify as many parts as possible. 4 The medulla, the middle section of the
the different parts. kidney, has a stripy appearance. This is due
2 Draw a labelled diagram.
to the collecting ducts heading in the same
3 Cut the kidney in half longitudinally
Materials (lengthways).
direction. Where are they heading?
> Sheep’s kidney 4 Draw a labelled diagram. Conclusion
> Dissecting kit
What do you know about the form and
> Dissecting board Results
function of a mammalian kidney?
Include your labelled diagrams here.
Discussion
1 What did you notice about the colour of the
kidney on the outside compared with the
colour on the inside?
EXPERIMENTS 227
7.10A 7.10B
CHALLENGE CHALLENGE
Locating the stomata Locating the xylem

of a leaf and phloem in a stem
What you need What you need
> Clear fingernail polish > 500 mL beaker
> Fresh plant leaf > Water
> Clear sticky tape > Blue or red food colouring
> Glass slide > Fresh stick of celery
> Microscope > Scalpel and cutting board
> Permanent marker
What to do
> Magnifying glass
1 Paint a thick patch of clear nail polish in the
underside of the leaf and allow to dry. What to do
2 Place a piece of the clear sticky tape over the dried 1 Add 200 mL of water to the beaker.
nail polish.
2 Add 15 drops of food colouring to the water.
3 Gently peel the sticky tape off the leaf, removing the
3 Cut the bottom 10 cm off the celery.
nail polish patch from the leaf’s surface.
4 Place the top half of the celery in the beaker of
4 Tape the peeled section of leaf onto the glass slide.
coloured water.
5 Examine the slide under the microscope and locate a
5 Mark the water level with a permanent marker.
stoma (singular of stomata).
Leave for 2–3 days.
6 Draw a labelled diagram of the stoma.
6 Remove the celery from the water and use the
scalpel to cut a horizontal transverse section of the
Discussion
celery stalk.
1 What function do stomata have in a plant? 7 Locate the pathway by which the coloured water
2 Was the stoma you located open or closed? moved through the celery. Draw a labelled diagram
3 Refer to the time of day and the location of the plant of the celery cross-section.
to explain why the stoma on your plant was open or
closed. Discussion
1 What did you notice about the amount of water in the
beaker after 2–3 days?
2 Use the term 'transpiration' to explain your answer
to the previous question.
3 What is the name of the pathway that moved the
coloured water through the celery?
4 How is this similar to the circulatory system in
humans? How is it different?
a b
Figure 9.61 (a) The dye marks the path the water takes
from the roots. (b) As water evaporates from the leaves,
the coloured water replaces it.

7.10C
CHALLENGE
Modelling root cells

What you need 6 Pat the outside of the tubing dry and determine its
weight using the scales.
> 15 cm dialysis tubing
7 Place the tubing in the beaker. Add 100 mL distilled
> Distilled water water.
> 5 mL of 2% starch solution 8 Leave overnight.
> Scales 9 Remove the dialysis tubing from the water and carefully
> 200 mL beaker pat dry.
10 Determine the weight of the dialysis tubing.
What to do
1 Soften the dialysis tubing by running distilled water Discussion
over the outside of it. 1 What was the difference in weight of the dialysis tube
2 Tie a knot in one end of the tubing. with starch before and after soaking in water?
3 Add 5 mL of starch solution to the tubing. 2 What caused the change in the weight of the tubing?
4 Seal the open end by tying a knot. 3 What is osmosis?
5 Wash the outside of the tubing with distilled water. 4 Use the term ‘osmosis’ to explain how the dialysis
tubing is similar to the cells in a root.
7.10 Factors that affect transpiration

EXPERIMENT Method > Write a hypothesis for your question.
1 Add 100 mL of water to one of the > What (independent) variable will you
Aim measuring cylinders. change from the first method?
To determine the 2 Discard the bottom 10 cm of a celery stalk > What (dependent) variable will you
factors that affect and trim so that the end of it fits into the measure/observe?
the transpiration of measuring cylinder. > Name three variables you will keep the
water from plants. same/control.
3 Place the top half of the celery in the
measuring cylinder.
Materials Results
4 Mark the water level with a permanent
> 200 mL marker. Leave for 2–3 days at room Record your observations and measurements
measuring temperature. in a table.
cylinders 5 Measure how much water has been lost by
Discussion
> Water the celery stick.
1 What is transpiration?
> Fresh celery
stalks Inquiry: Choose one of the questions 2 What factors would you expect to affect
below to investigate transpiration?
> What if the celery was placed in sunshine? 3 Did your results support your hypothesis?
> What if the celery was placed in wind? Use evidence from your results to support
(A fan may be used.) your answer.
> What if the celery was placed in a humid 4 How could you use your results to support
environment? (A large clear plastic bag the plants in your garden?
may be placed over the celery.)
Conclusion
your inquiry. What do you know about the factors that
affect transpiration?
EXPERIMENTS 229
8.1
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To produce a
Vegetative propagation
new plant using
vegetative Method Discussion
propagation. 1 Fill the beakers 3/4 full with distilled water. 1 Is this form of reproduction sexual or
2 Use the scissors to cut four healthy stems asexual? Provide a reason for your answer.
Materials with 1–2 healthy leaves on each from the 2 How similar is the genetic material in the
same plant. parent plant to that of the new (daughter)
> 2 x 500 mL
3 Place the cut ends of the stems into the plants?
beakers
distilled water. 3 Will the daughter plants be identical in
> Distilled water
4 Observe the cut ends of the stems for shape and size to the parent plant?
> Scissors
2–3 weeks. 4 A student claimed that they were making
> Geranium plant plant clones. What are plant clones? Was
5 Transfer the cuttings to the flowerpots.
> Flowerpots with the student correct?
6 Water the plants regularly and observe
potting mix
their growth.
Conclusion
Results What do you know about vegetative
propagation?
Record your observations in a logbook.
Take photos of any changes in growth.
8.4
CHALLENGE
Working with the RSPCA

The RSPCA is a community-based charity, well Cats can start the breeding cycle almost straight after having
known in Australia for its work with and for animals. kittens, which means, on average, cats can have three litters of
Unlike humans, animals do not have a voice and so kittens a year.
they cannot ask for help. The RSPCA is one of the Include a graph that shows the growth of numbers of cats
best ‘voices’ for animals and their rights. One of the against time.
RSPCA’s biggest campaigns is about desexing, mostly
to do with cats. Every year, approximately 60 000 cats Discussion
are brought in to the RSPCA; of these, over half have to
be put down. 1 Explain what desexing is and why it is important.
2 Based on your calculations, how many cats were produced
What to do after 4 years?
Create a mathematical model (or diagram) 3 How would desexing the first mating pair change your
demonstrating how many cats can be produced from results?
two fertile cats. 4 Do you think this was a ‘fair test’? Explain the reasons for
The growth modelled in this task is exponential, your answer.
meaning that when the two cats reach 6 months of age 5 What other factors could affect the number of cats?
they can start to breed and, after 60 days, will have a 6 Why do you think the RSPCA takes in so many more cats
litter of four kittens, after 6 months these four kittens than dogs?
will also be able to have kittens themselves and so on.

8.5
EXPERIMENT
Aim
To examine the main
Flower dissection
parts of a flower.
Method Results
Materials 1 Place the newspaper on the bench. Draw labelled diagrams of the male and
2 Cut the flower off the stalk. female parts of the flower.
> Newspaper
> A flower (you 3 Observe the flower. Identify the main parts Discussion
can dissect any of the flower from Figure 9.63.
1 What colour is the filament (the stem of the
type of flower 4 Draw a labelled diagram of the flower.
stamen)? Why do you think this is?
available; lilies 5 Gently remove the sepals and petals.
and fuchsias are 2 How easy was it to clean the pollen from
6 Look for the stamens with anthers at your fingers? Is this good for the flower?
a good choice)
the top. The anthers hold the pollen. You
> Scalpel blade or 3 How were the male and female parts
should be able to dust some pollen onto
sharp knife arranged to encourage pollination?
your finger.
Explain.
> Hand lens 7 Cut off the male parts at the bottom of
4 Do you think the flower is more likely to
the petal.
be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated?
8 Observe the female part of the flower. It Explain.
has the stigma at the top and the ovary at
5 Do you think pollination is more likely to be
the bottom.
by wind, water or animals? Explain.
9 Cut the ovary lengthwise. In it you will
see tiny white scales, which are the Conclusion
ovules. When the ova inside the ovules are
What do you know about the parts
fertilised by the pollen, they will grow to
of a flower?
become seeds and the ovary will grow to
become the fruit.
10 Draw a labelled diagram of the ovary.
11 Clean up your bench by wrapping the
flower in the newspaper. Wash your hands.
Stigma
Anther
Petals
Style
Stamen
Carpel
Filament Ovary
Sepals
Ovum
Figure 9.62 The structure of a flower.
EXPERIMENTS 231
GL
A B
abomasum binary fission
the fourth stomach of a cow a form of asexual reproduction used by
bacteria; the splitting of a parent cell into
alveoli two equal daughter cells
OS
tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas
exchange occurs binocular
using two eyes; a type of microscope
amino acid
small molecule that makes up a protein blood
liquid that circulates in the blood vessels
ammonia and contains a combination of cells, cell
a toxic substance produced by the liver; a fragments, liquid and dissolved substances
cleaning fluid
blood vessel
amplitude tube in the body that carries blood
SA
the distance a particle moves from its
body system
position of rest
a collection of organs with a common
anatomy purpose
structure of an organism and its
boil
component parts; usually refers to human
to change state from a liquid to a gas
anatomy
boiling point
angle of incidence the temperature at which a liquid
the angle between the incident ray and
RY
becomes a gas
the normal (the line drawn at right angles
to a reflective surface) bonded
when two objects (atoms) remain
anther attracted to each other
part of the stamen (male plant) that
contains pollen bronchi
the air passages that carry air in and out
aorta of the lungs; airways
the major artery that carries oxygenated
blood from the heart and divides into
smaller arteries around the body C
arterioles caecum
smaller arteries a small dead-end pouch that connects the
small and large intestines
artery
capillary
thick, muscular-walled blood vessel that
carries blood away from the heart under blood vessel with a wall only one cell
pressure thick, allowing substances to easily pass
into and out of the blood
asexual reproduction
type of reproduction not involving the carcinogen
fusing of gametes; where an organism can cancer-causing substance
create offspring without a partner carpel
asthma the female reproductive organ of a flower;
condition where the bronchi and includes the stigma, style and ovary
bronchioles swell, making it harder to catalyst
breathe; usually triggered by something in a substance that increases the rate of a
the environment chemical reaction without undergoing
any permanent chemical change
atom
smallest particle of matter that cannot cataract
be created, destroyed or broken down a cloudiness of the eye lens
(indivisible)
cell
atria (in biology) the building block of living
the smaller upper chambers of the heart things

cell membrane colour corrosive
barrier around a cell that controls the property of rocks and minerals used to a substance that is destructive to living
entry and exit of things into and out of identify them tissues, such as skin and eyes, or to some
a cell types of metals
colour-blindness
cell theory when a person has difficulty identifying cost–benefit analysis
the theory that all organisms are different colours; red-green colour list of the costs compared with the
composed of one or more cells, cells are blindness is an inherited condition benefits; usually performed to analyse a
the basic unit of life and structure, and proposed engineering project
comparative dating
new cells are created from existing cells
determining the age of rocks by criteria
cellular respiration the important aspects of a project that
comparing them to rocks of known age
need to be measured; designed to make
the chemical process where sugars
(glucose) and oxygen is converted to compound sure each project is as good as it can be
carbon dioxide, water and energy substance made up of two or more critical angle
different types of atoms bonded together, the angle at which total internal reflection
cervix e.g. water occurs
the narrow neck connecting the uterus
and the vagina compound light microscope cross-pollination
a microscope with two or more lenses involves pollen from a flower landing on
chemical potential energy the female part of a flower on a different
energy stored in chemicals, e.g. in food, compression
plant, producing greater variation than
fuel or explosives; also known simply as part of a sound wave where air particles
self-pollination
chemical energy are forced close together
crystal
chemical property concave small, organised particle in rocks, which
how a substance behaves in a chemical a lens or mirror in which the centre is has smooth sides and sharp edges
reaction, e.g. how it reacts with acid thinner than the two ends
cytoplasm
chemical reaction concentration the 'jelly-like' fluid inside the cell
procedure that produces new chemicals; the amount of a substance in a set volume membrane that contains dissolved
same as chemical change condense nutrients, waste products and organelles
chemistry when a gas becomes a liquid
branch of science that deals with matter connective tissue D
and changes that take place with it tissue that provides connection, supports daughter cell
chlorophyll or separates other tissues in organs a cell that results from parent cell division
green pigment found inside chloroplasts constipation decibels
that absorbs solar energy and uses it in a medical condition that results from a the unit for sound level
photosynthesis blockage in the large intestine dependent variable
chloroplast contraception variable that may change as a result of the
organelle found in plant cells that method used to prevent pregnancy experiment
transforms solar energy into chemical
energy controlled variables desexing
variables that will remain unchanged a surgical form of contraception used
chyme through the experiment with animals
mixture of acid, enzymes and digested
diaphragm
food that leaves the stomach converge
the dome-shaped muscle that is attached
when rays of light move towards a single
cilia point
to ribs and moves up and down beneath
small hairs on the surface of a cell the lungs
involved in movement convex diarrhoea
a lens or mirror in which the centre is watery faeces
cleavage
thicker than the two ends
number of smooth planes a mineral diatomic
breaks along cornea a molecule that contains only two atoms
a transparent layer at the front of the eye
collision theory diffusion
when substances react, their particles corrosion spontaneous spreading out of a substance
must come into contact or collide with the damage caused to metal by its through a liquid or gas, e.g. the diffusion
each other environment of perfume in air
GLOSSARY 233
digestion energy efficiency filters
process by which food is broken down measure of the amount of useful energy a transparent material that allows only
and absorbed into the blood for transport transformed in an energy transformation one colour of light to pass through
to the cells process; usually expressed as a percentage
focal length
of the input energy, e.g. 90% efficiency is the distance between the centre of the
directly proportional relationship very good
the dependent variable increases as the lens and the focus
independent variable increases enzyme focus
chemical that helps make chemical the point where rays of light cross
dispersion reactions happen; a type of catalyst
the separation of white light into its foetus
different colours epididymis stage in the development of a human
the coiled tube behind the testes that baby taken from when the baby acquires
dissection carries sperm to the vas deferens human features (normally after 8 weeks of
the process of disassembling and studying development)
epiglottis
the internal structures of plants, animals
a flap of skin that controls the passage of foliation
and humans food and air occurs when rock is subjected to uneven
diverge epithelial tissue
pressure
when rays of light move away from each tissue that provides a physical barrier fragmentation
other across a body surface or within a body type of asexual reproduction where an
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) cavity such as the intestine organism splits into fragments and each
fragment grows into a new organism
a molecule that contains all the erosion
instructions for every job performed by movement of sediment to another area frequency
the cell; this information can be passed the number of waves that pass a point
from one generation to the next eukaryotic cell every second; measured in hertz
complex cell that contains a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles frost shattering
E excretion
process of weathering in which repeated
freezing and melting of water expands
elastic potential energy process of removing wastes from the body cracks in rocks so that eventually part of
energy stored through stretching or the rock splits off
excretory system
squashing, e.g. in a stretched spring or a group of organs that are involved in fume
rubber band excretion a gas or vapour that has a strong smell or is
electrical energy external fertilisation
dangerous to breathe in
energy associated with electric charge, when the egg and sperm meet outside the
either stationary (static) or moving
(current)
bodies of the parents G
extrusive igneous rock gallstone
electromagnetic rock formed at the Earth’s surface by a hard substance or stone that is produced
the physical interaction between moving quickly cooling lava by the gall bladder
charged particles and the magnetic field
eyepiece gamete
that is created as a result
lens where eye is placed when using a sex cell; in humans, the sperm and egg cells
electron microscope microscope geologist
a microscope that uses electrons (tiny scientist who studies rocks
negatively charged particles) to create
images F gestation
fair testing the time between fertilisation and birth
element experiment where only the independent gluten intolerance
pure substance made up of only one type variable is changed and all other variables an inability to digest or break down
of atom, e.g. oxygen, carbon are kept constant gluten
emphysema fallopian tubes grain
disease that results from damage to the the tubes that connect the ovaries to the small rock particle; grain size can be used
alveoli in the lungs; one of the diseases uterus in a female to identify rock type
that can be caused by smoking
fertilisation gravimeter
endometrium stage of sexual reproduction involving the a device that measured the difference in
the lining of the uterus joining of a sperm and an egg Gravity between one location and the next

gravitational potential energy
energy stored due to the height of an
internal fertilisation M
when the sperm fertilises the egg inside magma
object, e.g. a child at the top of a slide the body of an organism hot, molten rock inside the Earth
groups
intrusive igneous rock magnetometer
vertical columns of elements in the
rock formed underground by slowly a device the detects the difference in
periodic table of elements
cooling magma magnetic field between one location and
the next
inversely proportional relationship
H the dependent variable increases as the mass
hardness independent variable decreases
amount of matter in a substance, usually
how easily a mineral can be scratched; measured in kilograms
measured on the Mohs hardness scale iris matter
the coloured part of the eye
hazard anything that has mass and volume
something that has the potential to put medium
your health and safety at risk
K a substance or material through which
hermaphrodite kinetic energy
light can move
organism that has both male and female energy of motion or moving objects melt
reproductive systems to change the state from a solid to a liquid
hertz melting point
the unit used to measure frequency L the temperature at which a solid becomes
hyperopia lattice a liquid
long-sightedness; when a person has three-dimensional arrangement of
menstruation
difficulty seeing a close object particles in a regular pattern
also know as a period; the process of the
hypothesis lava endometrial lining of the uterus breaking
a statement that describes the expected hot, molten rock that comes to the down and leaving the vagina
relationship between the independent surface of the Earth in a volcanic eruption metabolism
variable and the dependent variable chemical reactions that occur in the body
law of conservation of energy
scientific rule that states that the total metamorphic rock
I energy in a system is always constant and rock formed from other rock that has
igneous rock cannot be created or destroyed experienced intense heat and pressure
rock formed by cooling magma and lava layer microbe
image property of rocks used to identify them a living thing that can only be seen with
a likeness of an object that is produced as the use of a microscope; a microorganism
leaf
a result of light reflection or refraction microbiology
a plant organ that transforms light
inbreeding the science involving the study of
energy into chemical energy through microscopic organisms
breeding of animals that are related, photosynthesis
increasing the chances of genetic microorganism
abnormalities appearing lens a living thing that can only be seen with
a curved piece of transparent material the use of a microscope
independent variable
a variable (factor) that is changed in an longitudinal wave microscope
experiment a type of (sound) wave where the particles scientific instrument used to magnify the
move in the direction of travel of the size of an object
index mineral
a mineral that only forms under a wave microscopy
particular temperature and pressure; used the study of living things that can only be
long-sighted
to determine the history of the mineral seen with the use of a microscope
having difficulty seeing a close object
infectious disease mineral
disease caused by the passing of a lungs naturally occurring solid substance with
pathogen from one organism to another; organs found in the ribcage that are part its own chemical composition, structure
also known as contagious disease of the respiratory system and properties
inhale lustre mirror
to breathe in shininess a material that is able to reflect light
GLOSSARY 235
mitochondrion nutrient
soluble substance that an organism needs
P
powerhouse organelle of a cell; the site of
to live and grow; usually taken in from palaeontologist
energy production; (plural mitochondria)
the environment scientist who studies fossils
molecular compound parent cell
a molecule that contains two or more
different atoms bonded together O the original cell before it undergoes cell
division
objective lens
molecular element parthenogenesis
lens in the column of a compound light
a molecule that contains two or more of asexual reproductive strategy where
microscope
the same atoms bonded together unfertilised eggs hatch into new
oestrogen organisms
molecule a reproductive hormone found in females
group of two or more atoms that are particle model of matter
bonded together, e.g. a water molecule offspring theory that all matter is made up of very
an organism’s young, or child
tiny particles
monatomic
omasum
a single atom pathogen
the third stomach of a cow
microbe that can potentially cause a
monocular onion-skin weathering disease
using one eye; a type of microscope weathering of rock where the outside of
the rock peels off periodic table
multicellular the arrangement of elements into a table
an organism that has two or more cells opaque according to their chemical properties
a substance that does not allow light to
muscle tissue periods
pass through
tissue that is able to contract causing horizontal rows of elements in the
other tissues to move optic fibre periodic table of chemical elements
a thin fibre of glass or plastic that carries
myopia information/data in the form of light peristalsis
short-sightedness; when a person has when muscles behind the food squeeze
trouble seeing objects in the distance optic nerve tight, and the muscles in front of the food
the nerve that carries information from
relax, causing the food to move along the
the eyes to the brain
throat or intestines
N ore
pharynx
natural flora mineral containing a large amount of
useful metal the throat; connects the mouth to the
microbes that live happily in our bodies oesophagus
nephron organ
group of tissues that work together, e.g. phloem
tiny structure in the kidneys that filters the vascular tissue found in plant stems
liver, heart, eyes, brain
the blood that carries the sugars around the plant
organelle
nervous tissue smaller part of a cell, each one having a photosynthesis
tissue that allows communication different function chemical process plants use to make
between other tissue types glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide
osmosis and water
normal the movement of water through a
(light) an imaginary line that is drawn at selective membrane from an area of low photovoltaic cells (PVCs)
right angles to the surface of a reflective ‘salt’ concentration to an area of high ‘salt’ an electrical device that converts light
or refractive material concentration; occurs in root cells energy into electrical energy, see solar cells
nuclear energy ovary physical property
energy stored in the nucleus of an atom the female organ that produces eggs can be measured or observed without
and released in nuclear reactors or oviduct changing a substance into something else,
explosions of nuclear weapons; much, the tube through which eggs travel from e.g. colour, boiling point
much larger than the chemical energy the ovary placenta
released in chemical reactions ovulation the organ the connects the developing
nucleus the part of the menstrual cycle when an foetus to its mother
egg is released from the ovary
(in biology) control centre of a cell that plasma
contains all the genetic material (DNA) ovum the straw-colour fluid that forms part of
for that cell the reproductive egg the blood

platelets red blood cells seminal vesicle
small disc-like cells found in blood that cells found in the blood that carry oxygen small pouch-like structures that provide a
are involved with forming clots around the body sugary fluid that is needed for the sperms’
journey along the vas deferens tube
pneumonia refracted ray
when the alveoli in the lungs fill up with a ray of light that has bent as a result of sexual reproduction
bacteria, pus and fluid as a result of a light speeding up or slowing down type of reproduction involving the fusing
bacteria or virus infection of gametes
refraction
pollination the bending of light as a result of light sexually dimorphic
process that occurs in flowering plants speeding up or slowing down those species in which the male and
when a pollen cell lands on the female female organisms look structurally
refractive index
part of the flower different
a measure of the bending of light as it
polymer passes from one medium to another short-sighted
long chain molecule made up of many when a person has difficulty seeing
remote control
simpler repeating units distance objects
electronic device used for the remote
potential energy operation (i.e. at a distance) of a machine single-celled
energy stored in objects and waiting to be an organism that consists of one cell
reticulum
used, e.g. gravitational potential energy
the second stomach of a cow solar cell
primary colours of light used to transform sunlight directly into
retina
the three colours of light (red, blue and electrical energy; usually in the form of a
the layer of cells at the back of the eye
green), which can be mixed to create panel; also known as a solar panel
white light ribosome
cell organelle where protein production sound energy
product type of kinetic energy made when things
takes place
substance obtained at the end of a vibrate
chemical reaction; written on the right of rock cycle
a chemical equation process of formation and destruction of spore
different rock types tiny reproductive structure that, unlike
prokaryotic cell a gamete, does not need to fuse with
primitive single-celled organism that has root another cell to form a new organism
no nucleus a plant organ involved in absorbing water
and minerals stain
property substance, such as iodine, used to make
(in chemistry) characteristic or behaviours rumen cells more visible under a microscope
of something that are always the same, the first stomach of a cow
e.g. the density of gold stem
a plant organ involved in transporting
prostate gland S sugars, water and nutrients
the walnut-sized structure surrounding
the neck of the male bladder that blocks scrotum stereomicroscope
the flow of urine so that the sperm can the sac-like structure that contains the a microscope with two eyepieces that uses
move along the urethra testes low magnification
pupil secondary colours of light stigma
the dark opening in the centre of the eye the colours of light (magenta, cyan and the male part of a plant, which consists of
that allows light to pass through yellow) that result from the mixing of two a filament supporting an anther
primary colours of light
pure streak
(substance) a substance is pure when it sedimentary rock colour of powdered or crushed mineral
has a definite and a constant composition rock formed from compacted mud, sand
or pebbles, or the remains of living things sublimation
change of state straight from a solid to a
seismic geophysical testing
R collection of geophysical data such as
gas or from a gas to a solid
rarefaction differences in magnetic fields and gravity surface area to volume ratio
a part of a sound wave where air particles fields between different geological the relationship between the area around
are forced apart locations the outside of a cell and its volume, as a
fraction
reactant self-pollination
substance used at the beginning of a involves pollen from a flower landing on symptom
chemical reaction; written on the left of a its own ovum or that of another flower on changes that occur to an individual as a
chemical equation the same plant consequence of a disease
GLOSSARY 237
system transverse wave ventricles
a collection of organs that perform a a type of (light) wave where the vibrations the large lower chambers of the heart
common purpose in an organism are at right angles to the direction of the
villi
wave
small ridges found in the small intestine
T that absorb nutrients from the digestive
testis
U system
the male organ of the reproductive system ulcer virtual focus

an open sore on the inside or the outside the point at which a virtual image appears
that produces sperm; plural testes
of the body virtual image
testosterone
ultrasound an image that appears in a mirror; it
a male hormone involved in the cannot be captured on a screen
using sound vibrations to shatter stones
reproductive system inside the body; can also be used to viscosity
theory develop images of organs inside the body a measure of how slowly a liquid changes
explanation of a small part of the natural unicellular its shape; the thickness of a liquid
world that is supported by a large body of an organism that exists as a single cell
evidence visible spectrum
urea the variety of colours of wavelengths of
thermal energy a waste product formed by the body light that can be seen by the human eye
scientific term for heat energy volatile
uterus
tissue an organ in the female reproductive a substance that easily becomes a gas
group of cells that do a similar task system; where the foetus develops volume
tor how much space an object takes up,
round rocks produced by onion skin V usually measured in litres
weathering vagina
total internal reflection an organ that is part of the female W
when a light ray passes from a more reproductive system; a muscular tube wavelength
dense material at a large angle, it can be connecting the outside of the female body the distance between two crests or troughs
to the cervix of a wave
reflected back into the dense medium
vaporise weathering
trachea to change state from a liquid to a gas;
the large tube that connects the throat to break down of rocks and minerals by
same as evaporate movement of water and animals, and
the bronchi; carries air in and out of the
body vapour extremes of temperature
gaseous form of a substance that is weight
transferred normally a solid or liquid, e.g. water property of rocks used to identify them
said of energy that has moved from one vapour
object to another white blood cells
variable cells found in the blood that help fight
transformed something that can affect the results of an infections
changed one form of energy into another experiment
form of energy vascular bundle
translucent groups of tubes found in plant stems that X
a substance that allows light through, but carry water and nutrients around the xylem
it diffuses so the objects cannot be seen plant the tissue in plants that carries water from
the roots to the rest of the plant
clearly vas deferens
the tube through which sperm travels
transmit
to allow light to pass through
from the epididymis to the prostate Z
vegetative reproduction zygote
transparent type of asexual reproduction where a a fertilised egg
a substance that allows all light to pass part of a plant breaks off, forming a
through new organism with no need for seeds or
transpiration spores; similar to fragmentation
the process of water evaporation from vein
plant leaves that causes water to move up thin-walled blood vessel that carries blood
from the roots back to the heart

IN
A blood flow, modelling 227
blood vessels 140, 141, 142
abomasum 133
cross-section 141
acid rain 31
blue light 78, 79
adhesives 102–3
bluestone 25
agriculture, reproduction techniques 162–3
body systems 128, 129, 222
allergies 134–5
circulatory system 129, 140–3
DE
aluminium 22–3, 90
digestive system 129, 130–5
alveoli 136, 137, 139
excretory system 129, 144–5
amino acids 144
respiratory system 129, 136–9
ammonia 144
skeletal system 129
amniocentesis 158
boiling 95
amoeba 111, 119, 145
bonds 92
amphibians 157
breaking and reforming 98–9
amplitude 64
brain 69, 82, 83, 131, 138
anatomy 4, 128
breathing 136–7
angle of incidence 74, 80
broken glass 169
angle of reflection 74
X
bronchi 136, 137, 138
angle of refraction 76
bronchioles 136, 137, 138
animal cells 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 220
Bunsen burner, lighting 170
structure 115
burning 99
animal teeth 132
by-products (energy) 50, 53
animals 118
digestive system 132–3
respiratory system 137, 225
sexual reproduction 154, 156–7 C
caecum 132
anthers 160
calcite 21
antibiotics 122–3, 134, 143
calcium carbonate 27
overuse of 123
cancer 163
anus 131
canine teeth 132
aorta 140, 142
capillaries 137, 141
appliances, star ratings 52
capillary bed 141
aqueous humour 82
captive breeding programmes 158, 159
arteries 140, 141, 142
caramelisation 96, 98, 209
arterioles 141
carbon atoms 20, 92
arthropods 157
carbon dioxide 31, 95, 117, 140
asexual reproduction 152, 230
from respiration 136, 137
assisted reproductive technology (ART) 158
in plants 147
asthma 138–9
carbon dioxide molecule 92
astigmatism 85
carnivores 132
atherosclerosis 142
carpels 160
atoms 90, 92, 93
casein glue 214
atria 140, 142
catalysts 101, 213
auditory nerve 68, 69
cataracts 85
autumn leaves 147
cats, desexing 159, 230
CD players 44
B cell membrane 111, 114
cell structures 114–17, 118
bacteria 110, 118, 119, 120–1
cell theory 110
diseases causes by 121, 143
cell volume 111
growth 121, 221
cells 110, 119, 128
natural flora 120, 131
animal 114–15, 116, 117, 118, 119, 220
role in herbivore digestion 132, 133
classification 118, 219
and stomach ulcers 134
discovery 110
bacterial resistance 123
drawing 215
balloon rocket 8, 9
organelles 114–17, 118, 217
basalt 19, 25
plant 110, 115, 116, 117, 118, 217, 218,
batteries 44
220
bauxite 22, 23
size of 117, 217, 219
bile 131, 134
staining 112, 218
binary fission 121, 152
cellular respiration 116, 136
binocular microscope 112
cellulose 132, 133
biodiversity, preserving 158
cervix 154, 155
biological sedimentary rocks 27
Chain, Ernest 122, 123
biological weathering 31
changing states 94–5
bionic ear 70–1
chemical changes 96–7, 209
birds 156, 157, 161
recycling household waste 104–5
birth, stages of 155
chemical digestion 130, 131
blood 140, 144
INDEX 239
chemical engineers 56
chemical equations 99
cooling 54
copper 22, 23
E
ear canal 68
chemical formulas 92 treasure hunt 179
ear flap (auricle) 68
chemical potential energy (CPE) 47, 50, 58 copper carbonate, decomposition 207
eardrum 68
chemical reactions 97, 98–9, 210 copper wires (communications) 81
ears
in cooking 96, 98–9 cornea 82, 83, 85
and hearing 68–9, 192
factors affecting rate of reaction 100–1 coronary heart disease (CHD) 143
restoring hearing 70–1
chemical safety 2 corrosion 104–5
structure 68–9
chemical sedimentary rocks 27 corrosive chemicals 2
eggs 154, 155, 158
chemical weathering 31 cost–benefit analysis 56
Egyptian shamans 128
chicken wing, dissection 6–7 coughing 138
elastic potential energy 46, 182
childbirth, stages of 155 criteria (engineering projects) 57
electric cars 43
Chlamydomonas 119 critical angle 80, 81
electrical energy 49, 50, 51, 54
chlorophyll 117, 147 cross-pollination 160, 162
electrical engineers 56
chloroplasts 117, 118, 147, 217 crude oil 102, 104
electricity generation 51
chocolate 94, 96, 208 crystals 19, 20, 24, 28
electricity usage 54
chorionic villus sampling 158 size of 25, 174
electromagnetic radiation 48
chyme 130, 131 curved mirrors, reflection from 75, 196
electromagnetic spectrum 72, 80–1
cilia 138 cyan 78, 79
electromagnetic testing 35
ciliary muscles 82 cytoplasm 114
electromagnetic waves 81, 199
circulatory system 129, 140–3
electron microscopes 112–13
structure 140
when things go wrong 142–3 D elemental symbols 91
elements 90, 92, 93
civil engineers 56 Dalton, John 64
classification 91, 204
classification decibels (dB) 70
and the periodic table 91, 206
cells 118, 219 Democritus 64
properties 91, 206
elements 91, 204 dependent variable 8, 12
Elodea canadensis cells 218
cleaning laboratory equipment 168–9 desexing 159, 230
embryos 158, 161
cleavage 21, 29 diamond 20, 95
emphysema 138, 139
close vision 84 diaphragm 137, 138
endometriosis 158
coal 18, 19, 22, 23, 27, 51 diarrhoea 134
endometrium 154
coal-based electricity generation 51 diatomic gases 90
energy
cochlea 68, 69 diesel fuel 44
cannot be created or stored 52–3
cochlea implants 70–1 digestion 130
kinetic 48–9, 50, 51, 94, 100
collision theory 100 absorbing nutrients 130, 131
potential 46–7, 50, 51, 58, 182, 186
colon 131 chemical 130, 131
sources of 42
colour-blindness 84 digesting protein 223–4
transformation of 50–1, 52, 53, 54, 58
colours physical 130, 131
use of 42–3
autumn leaves 147 digestive system 129, 130–5
energy consumption 54–5
flowers 161 herbivore hindgut 132–3
energy converters 183
opaque objects 79 human 129, 130–1, 134–5
energy drinks 47
primary 78, 79, 198 ruminants 133
energy efficiency 52
rocks and minerals 18, 20 when things go wrong 134–5
of a bouncing ball 184
secondary 79 directly proportional relationship 12, 13
houses 54–5, 185
transparent objects 79 diseases
energy transfer 42–4, 50
visible spectrum 72, 78–9 caused by microbes 120–1
flow diagrams 50, 180–1
common cold and flu 121 circulatory system 142–3
engineering assessments 57
complementary colours of light 78 digestive system 134
engineering solutions to erosion 33
compound light microscope 112, 216 respiratory system 139
engineers
features 113 symptoms 120
evaluating proposals 56–7
magnification calculations 113 dispersion 78
types of 56
compounds 92, 93 dissections 4–5, 128
entertainment, energy transfers 44–5
compressions 64, 66, 190 chicken wing 6–7
environmental impact 57
concave lenses 77, 84 equipment 4–5
enzymes
concave mirrors 75 eye 200–1
as catalysts 101, 213
concentration 100–1 fish 225
digesting protein 223–4
condensation 95 flowers 231
in digestion 130, 131, 134
cones (eyes) 83, 84 heart 227
epididymis 156
conglomerate 18, 19, 26 kidney 227
epiglottis 136
connective tissue 128–9, 140 safety 5
epithelial tissue 129
constipation 134, 135 distance vision 84
erosion 30, 31
contact lenses 82 diverging rays 77
preventing 32–3
contamination assessment 57 diversity, loss of 162–3
ethics 145
contraception 159 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 114, 152, 153
Euglena 119
controlled variables 8 dry ice 94, 95
eukaryotic cells 118
converging rays 77 DVD players 44
Eustachian tube 69
convex lenses 77, 84, 197 dyes 103
excretion 144
convex mirrors 75 dysentery 121
excretory system 129, 144–5
cooking, reactions in 96, 98–9

structure 144 genetic material 114, 152, 160, 161 assisted technology 158
exercise 143 geochemical testing 36, 179 hybrid cars 43
exhalation 137 geological mapping 35 hydra 141
experimental design 8 geologists 18, 34, 37 hydroelectricity 51
external fertilisation 157 geophones 34–5 hydrogen 90
extracting minerals 37 geophysical testing 34–6 hyperopia 84
extrusive igneous rocks 25 geophysicists 35 hypothesis 8
eyepieces 112, 113 geotechnical hazard assessment 57
eyes gestation 155
detection of light 82–3 glasses (spectacles) 82, 84 I
dissection 200–1 glossary 233–8 ice 94
structure 82 glucose 116, 117, 136 identical twins 153
things that can go wrong 84–5 glues 102–3, 214 igneous rocks 24–5, 30, 31
vision tests 202 gluten intolerance 134–5 images 74
gneiss 18, 19, 28 concave lenses 77, 84
gold 22 convex lenses 77, 84, 197
F grains (rocks) 19, 26 curved mirrors 75, 196
faeces 131, 134 granite 18, 19, 24, 28, 36 plane mirrors 74–5, 195
fair testing 8 graphite 20 immune system 121, 135
fallopian tubes 154, 159 graphs in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) 158
female reproductive system 154–5 common features 12 inbreeding 163
ferns 161 interpreting 12–13 incident ray 74, 80
fertilisation gravimeters 36 incisors 130, 132
animals 154, 155, 156–7 gravimetric testing 36 independent variable 8, 9, 12
plants 160–1 gravitational potential energy (GPE) 46–7, index minerals 28
filters 79 50, 186 infectious diseases 120
fish 137, 157 green light 78, 79 inhalation 137
dissection 225 greenhouse gas emissions 23 inner ear 68
Fleming, Alexander 122, 123 groups (periodic table) 91 insects 141, 145, 157, 161
Florey, Howard 122 groynes 33 insulation 54
flow diagrams 50, 180–1 guard cells 147 internal fertilisation 156, 157
flowers intrusive igneous rocks 24
attracting pollinators 161 inversely proportional relationship 12–13
dissection 231 H invertebrates, reproduction 157
pollination 160–1 hair dryers 54 iris 82
structure 160, 231 hardness 21, 172 iron, rusting 104–5
fluorescence 21 hazard symbols 2, 3
fluorite 23 hazards 2, 3
focal length 77, 83 hearing 68–9, 192 K
focus 77 hearing aids 70 kidneys 144, 145
foetus 154 heart 140 dissection 227
foliated rock 28 dissection 227 kinetic energy (KE) 48–9, 50, 51, 64, 94, 100,
food additives 99 structure 140 186, 187
forceps 4, 7 heart attack 142 kinetic theory of matter 90, 94
formal reports 10 heart valves 140, 142
fossils 132 heat energy 49, 53, 54, 94, 97, 100
fragmentation 152 heating 54 L
frequency 64, 65, 73 Helicobacter pylori 134 large intestine 131, 135
frost shattering 30 helium 90 lattice arrangements 90, 93, 94
fumes 94 herbivore hindgut, digestion 132–3 lava 24, 25
fungal cells 118 hermaphrodites 153 law of conservation of energy 53
fungi 118 herpes 121 layers (rocks) 18
antibiotics from 122–3 hertz (Hz) 65 lead 22
diseases caused by 121 Hodson light box 194 leaves 146, 147
Hooke, Robert 110, 128 legionnaires’ disease 121
household waste recycling 104–5 lens (eye) 82, 83, 85
G houses, energy efficiency 54–5, 185 lenses
concave 77, 84
gall bladder 131, 134 human body 222
gallstones 134 circulatory system 129, 140–3 convex 77, 84, 197
gametes 153, 160, 161 digestive system 129, 130–1, 134–5 jelly lens for smartphone 203
gas exchange 136–7 early studies 128 microscopes 112
in the alveoli 137 excretory system 129, 144–5 Leonardo da Vinci 128
in animals 137, 225 reproductive system 154–6 light
gas ovens 54 respiratory system 129, 136–9 as a particle or wave 73
gases 90, 94, 95 skeletal system 129 primary and secondary colours 78–9, 198
gastric juices 130, 131 systems of the 128–9 reflection off a mirror 74–5, 195–6
genetic diversity 162–3 human reproduction 154–6 refraction 76–7, 196
speed of 73
INDEX 241
wavelengths 78–9 identifying 20 excretory system 144
light energy 48, 72, 97 locating 34–6 plants 146–7, 228, 229
capturing 58, 189 properties 20–1 reproductive system 154, 156
converting to chemical potential energy 58 recycling 22–3 respiratory system 136–7
light microscopes 112, 113 in toothpaste 23, 173 osmosis 146, 229
light waves 72–3 mirror writing 195 ossicles 68
modelling 193 mirrors, reflection from 74–5, 195 outer ear 68
limestone 19, 27 mitochondria 116 ovary (ovaries) 154, 160, 161
limestone caves 27 mixtures 92, 93 oviduct 157
line graphs 12–13 mobile phones 44 ovulation 154
liquids 94, 95 and minerals 23 ovum (ova) 154, 160
liver 131, 144, 145 Mohs scale of mineral hardness 21 oxygen 90, 92
logbooks 10–11 molars 130, 132 for circulation 140, 142
long-sightedness 84 molecular compounds 92 for respiration 116, 136, 137
longitudinal waves 64 molecular elements 92 oxygen atoms 92
lung capacity 225 molecules 92 oxygen molecules 92
lungs 136–7 monatomic gases 90
lustre 20 Monera 118
monocular microscope 112 P
monotremes 156 palaeontologists 132
M mouth 130, 131 pancreas 131
magenta 78 movement energy 48–9 paramecium 119
magma 24, 25, 31 mudslides 32 parthenogenesis 152
magnesium ribbon, burning 99 mudstone 26 particle model of matter
magnetometers 35 multicellular organisms 110, 111, 118, 119 and increased kinetic energy 94
magnetometric testing 35 muscular tissue 129 and rate of reactions 100–1
magnification (microscopes) 113 myopia 84 particle size 100, 212
malaria 121 pathogens 120, 121
male reproductive system 156–7 penicillin, discovery and production 122–3
malphigian tubules 145 N penis 156
mammals 156, 161 natural flora 120 pepsin, digesting protein 223
manufactured substances 102–3 nature versus nurture 153 pericarditis 143
marble 19, 29 near point of vision 202 periodic table 91, 206
Marshall, Barry 134 neon 90 periods (menstruation) 154, 155
marshmallow slingshots 171 nephrons 144 periods (periodic table) 91
marsupial foetuses 156, 157 nervous tissue 129 peristalsis 130, 131
matter new products 99 pets, desexing 159, 230
kinetic theory 90, 94 nitrogen 90, 94 pharmaceuticals 102
particle model 94, 100–1 noise levels at school 193 pharynx 136
measles 121 non-metals 90, 91 phloem 147, 228
mechanical engineers 56 normal (mirror) 74 photons 73
medium 66, 73, 76, 80 nuclear energy 47 photosynthesis 117, 118, 119, 147
melting 95 nutrients 111, 130, 131, 132, 133, 140, 146 photovoltaic cells (PVCs) 58
membrane-bound organelles 116–17 physical changes 94–5, 96, 209
menstrual cycle 154, 155 melting chocolate 96, 208
menstruation 154–5 O recycling household waste 104–5
metabolism 144 objective lens 112, 113 reversibility 94
metals 90, 91 obsidian 19, 25 physical digestion 130, 131
and ores 22, 36 oceanography boats 35 physical weathering 30
recycling 104 oesophagus 131 placenta 155
rusting 104–5 oestrogen 154 placental mammals 156
metamorphic rocks 28–9, 30, 31, 176 offspring 153 plane mirrors, reflection from 74–5, 195
mica 21, 23 oil refining 102 planes 43
microbes 110, 120–1, 221 omasum 133 plant cells 110, 116, 117, 118, 217, 218, 220
microbiology 110 onion skin cells 218 structure 115
microorganisms 110 onion-skin weathering 30 plantlets 152
microscopes 110, 112–13, 216 opaque materials 74 plants 42, 48, 118
microscopy 112 opaque objects, colour 79 and coal formation 27
microwave ovens 54, 81, 199 open mining 37 digestion by herbivores 132–3
microwaves 81, 199 optic fibres 80, 81 photosynthesis 117, 118, 147
middle ear 68 optic nerve 82, 83 roots 146, 229
mineral resources 22 ores 22, 36 sexual reproduction 160–1
mineral salts 146 organ donation 145 stem structure 146–7, 228
mineral sands 22 organelles 114–17, 118, 217, 218 tissues and organs 146–7, 228, 229
minerals organs 128, 129 transpiration 147, 229
extraction 37 circulatory system 140–1 plaque 142
hardness 21, 172 digestive system 130–1 plasma 140

plastics 93, 102 reproduction sedimentary rocks 26–7, 30, 31, 36, 175
recycling 104, 105 animals 156–7 seeds 160, 161
types of 104, 105 asexual 152 seismic geophysical testing 34–5
platelets 141 human 154–6 selective breeding 162
pneumonia 121, 138, 139 invertebrates 157 self-pollination 160
pollination 160–1 sexual 152, 153, 154–7 semicircular canals 69
pollinators 161 reproductive systems seminal vesicles 156
polyethylene molecule 93 female 154–5 sex cells 153
polymers 93, 102 male 156–7 sexual reproduction 152, 153
potential energy 46–7, 51 when things go wrong 158–9 animals 154, 156–7
chemical 47, 50, 58 reproductive techniques human 154–6, 158
elastic 46, 182 in agriculture 162–3 plants 160–1
gravitational 46–7, 50, 186 assisted reproductive technology (ART) 158 sexual spores 161
precipitates 97 inbreeding 163 sexually dimorphic animals 156
pregnancy 155 and loss of diversity 162–3 shale 19, 26
pressure 28, 31 selective breeding 162 short-sightedness 84
preventing erosion 32–3 reptiles 156, 157 sight
primary colours of light 78, 79, 198 respiratory system 129, 136–9 eye problems 84–5
prisms 80 in animals 137, 225 and eyes 82–3
probes 4, 7 structure 136 restoring 71
products 98, 99, 210 when things go wrong 138–9 silica 23
physical and chemical properties 211 reticulum 133 siltstone 26
prokaryotic cells 118 retina 82, 83, 84 single-celled organisms see unicellular
prostate gland 156 rhizomes 152 organisms
protists 118, 119, 121 rhyolite 19 skeletal system 129
public transport 43 ribosomes 116 skin 144
pumice 18, 19, 25 ringworm 121 slate 19, 29
pupil (eye) 82, 83 risk assessment 57 small intestine 131, 134
pure substances 90, 93 rock cycle 30–1 smelling chemicals 170
modelling 177 smoking 139, 143
rock salt 27 sneezing 138
Q rocks social impact assessment 57
quartz 20, 28 change in appearance 28 soil erosion 32
quartzite 19 identifying 18, 19, 172 preventing 178
igneous 24–5, 30, 31 solar cars 58–9
metamorphic 28–9, 30, 31, 176 solar cells 49, 58–9
R minerals in 20–1 solar energy 58, 59, 189
rabbit reproductive system 154 properties 18–19 solidification 95
racing dominoes 191 sedimentary 26–7, 30, 31, 36, 175 solids 94, 95
radio waves 81 temperature and pressure effects 28, 31 sonar 67
rarefactions 64, 190 rods (eyes) 83 sound
rate of reaction 100 root cells, modelling 229 describing 64–5
catalyst effects 101 roots 146 and hearing 68–9, 192
concentration effects 100–1 RSPCA 230 of silence 66
enzyme effects 101, 213 rumen 133 speed of, in different materials 66–7, 191
particle size effects 100, 212 ruminants, digestion 133 vibrating particles pass on 64–5, 66
temperature effects 100 rusting 97, 104–5 sound energy 49, 50, 53, 183
reactants 98, 100, 210 rutile 22 sound level meter 70, 193
physical and chemical properties 211 sound waves 72
recrystallisation 28 and hearing 68–9
rectum 131 S modelling 64–5, 190
recycling safe disposal of materials 2 sour milk 98
household waste 104–5 safety in the laboratory 2–3, 5, 168–70 spectacles 82, 84
minerals 22–3 saliva 130, 131 speed of light 73
plastics 104, 105 sandstone 18, 19, 26 speed of sound 66–7, 191
red blood cells 140 scalpels 4, 7 sperm 154, 156, 157, 158
red–green colour blindness 84 scanning electron microscope (SEM) 112 sperm banks 162
red light 78, 79 schist 19 spills, cleaning up 169
reflected ray 74 science laboratories spores 161
reflection cleaning equipment 168–9 staining of cells 112, 218
from a curved mirror 75, 196 safety 2–3, 5, 168, 169–70 stalactites 27
from a plane mirror 74–5, 195 scissors 4 stalagmites 27
refracted ray 76, 80 sclera 82 static electricity 47
refraction 76, 196 scoria 18, 19, 25 stems 146–7, 228
in everyday life 76–7 scrotum 156 stereomicroscopes 112
refractive index 76 secondary colours of light 78 stigma 160
sediment 26, 31 stolons 152
GLOSSARY 243
stomach
humans 130, 131
V
vacuoles 117
ruminants 133
vagina 154, 155
stomach ulcers 134
valve disease 142
stomata 147, 228
vaporisation 94–5
stored energy 46–7
vapours 94
streak 21
variables 8
strength and facility life assessment 57
vas deferens 156, 159
structures and materials 188
vascular bundles 146–7
sublimation 95
vegetative propagation 230
substances
vegetative reproduction 152, 230
chemical changes 96–7
veins 140, 141, 142
manufactured 102–3
Ventolin 138, 139
physical changes 94–5
ventricles 140, 142
sub-surface mining 37
verandahs 55
Sun 42, 48, 54, 55, 58, 189
vesicles 117
surface area to volume ratio 111
vibration of particles, and sound 64–5, 66
sweat 144
villi 130, 131
symptoms of a disease 120
virtual focus 77
systems of the body see body systems
virtual image 74
viruses 121
T visible light 72–3, 78
visible spectrum 78
Tasmanian devil facial tumour 163
vision 82–3
teeth 130, 131, 132
vision problems 84–5
television remote control 44, 45
vision tests 202
temperature 28, 31, 100, 121
vitreous humour 82
terraces 33
volatile substances 94
testes 156
volcanic eruptions 24, 25
testosterone 156
thermal energy 49, 54
thylakoids 117, 217
tinea 121
W
Warren, Robin 134
tinnitus 70
waste removal (excretory system) 144–5
tissues 128–9, 146–7
water
toasters 54
changing states 94–5
toothpaste, minerals in 23, 173
controlling wastes 144
tors 30
transport by plants 146, 147
total internal reflection 80–1
water molecules 92, 94, 95
trachea 136
water vapour 94, 95
trains 43, 44
waterslide design 186–7
trampolines 52
wavelength 64, 65, 72–3
trams 43
weathering 30–1, 32
transfer of energy 42–5, 50, 180–1
weight (rocks) 18
transformation of energy 50–1, 52, 53, 54, 58
white blood cells 141
translucent objects 74
white light 78
transmission (light) 79
wind energy 51
transmission electron microscope (TEM) 112
window awnings 54–5
transparent objects 74
colour 79
transpiration 147, 229
transplantation 145
X
xylem 147, 228
transverse waves 72
tuberculosis 121
tumours 163
tweezers 4
Y
yellow light 78
U Z
ultrasound 134, 158, 159 zoos 158, 159
umbilical cord 155 zygotes 154, 155, 161
unicellular organisms 110, 111, 118, 119,
120–1
urea 144
urine 144
uterus 154, 155

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OXFORD

TWELVE APOSTLES, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA. FIVE NEW LIMESTONE

Licensed to Chelsea Truong, from Wellington Secondary College until 2022-12-31.

Licensed to Chelsea Truong, from Wellington Secondary College until 2022-12-31.

Silvester, Helen, author.

Dewey Number: 507.12

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

Licensed to Chelsea Truong, from Wellington Secondary College until 2022-12-31.

00_SIL_OXSCI8_VIC_06915_PRE_SI.indd 2 24/01/2017 1:39 pm

Sound and light

Physical and chemical change

iv OXFORD SCIENCE 8 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

EXPERIME NT 1.4: MARSHMA

1 February 2016 Aim and hypothesis of

1.4 Scientists Student-directed inquiry is encouraged throughout this series using

and write formal report

a simple questioning technique. As the series progresses, students

forget and provides evidence

Distance elastic pulled back

Creating a logbook Check your learning 1.4 2 cm

Students are given access to the chapter concepts at the start of

every chapter. Each double-page spread of this series represents

The unit heading Many substances exist or skills task as a practical

Diagrams and photos are

Each unit begins

with a short Pharmaceuticals

Every double-page spread

Body text elaborates

ends with Check your

learning questions, allowing

clear and accessible

students to consolidate their

understanding. Questions are

graded according to Bloom’s

Taxonomy – catering for a

range of abilities and learning

Harmful microbes may be

For this reason, your fridge

Oxford Science has been engineered

Natural flora We have all been sick at some

to be accessible to all science students.

flora and the microbes a microorganism . Bacteria cause

We believe that science students are

crafted into short sentences. Students will

be engaged by the inclusion of stunning

OXFORD SCIENCE 8 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

Ears can be replaced

Your hearing relies on

Sound level meter

Concepts are linked to real-world

applications in the highly engaging

Science as a human endeavour

spreads. The Extend your

understanding questions on this

spread are designed to be used flexibly Modelling light waves

Is school bad for your

Why do we need two ears?

as either homework tasks or as an

Uniquely, experiments are organised

at the end of the book in an extended