Power System Analysis

Power Flow Analysis

Fault Analysis
Power System Dynamics and Stability

Lecture 227-0526-00, ITET ETH Zürich

Göran Andersson
EEH - Power Systems Laboratory
ETH Zürich

September 2012
ii
Contents

Preface vii

I Static Analysis 1

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Power Flow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fault Current Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Network Models 5
2.1 Lines and Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 In-Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Phase-Shifting Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Unified Branch Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Shunt Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.1 Stator Current Heating Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.2 Field Current Heating Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.3 Stator End Region Heating Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Active and Reactive Power Flows 21

3.1 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 In-phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Phase-Shifting Transformer with akm = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Unified Power Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4 Nodal Formulation of the Network Equations 27

5 Basic Power Flow Problem 31

5.1 Basic Bus Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 Equality and Inequality Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

iii
iv Contents

5.3 Problem Solvability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6 Solution of the Power Flow Problem 37

6.1 Solution by Gauss-Seidel Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Newton-Raphson Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.2.1 One-dimensional case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2.2 Quadratic Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2.3 Multidimensional Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.3 Newton-Raphson applied to the Power Flow Equations . . . . 44
6.4 P θ − QU Decoupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.5 Approximative Solutions of the Power Flow Problem . . . . . 49
6.5.1 Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.5.2 Matrix Formulation of DC Power Flow Equations . . 52

7 Fault Analysis 57
7.1 Transients on a transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.2 Short circuit of a synchronous machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.3 Algorithms for short circuit studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.3.1 Generator model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.3.2 Simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.3.3 Solving the linear system equations . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.3.4 The superposition technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.3.5 The Takahashi method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

II Power System Dynamics and Stability 77

8 Classification and Definitions of Power System Stability 79

8.1 Dynamics in Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.1.1 Classification of Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.1.2 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.2 Power System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.2.1 Definition of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.2.2 Classification of Power System Stability . . . . . . . . 84
8.3 Literature on Power System Dynamics and Stability . . . . . 87

9 Synchronous Machine Models 89

9.1 Design and Operating Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.1.1 Rotor Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.1.2 Stator Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.1.3 Magnetic Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.2 Stationary Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.2.1 Stationary Single Phase Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . 95
9.2.2 Phasor diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Contents v

9.2.3 Operational Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

9.3 Dynamic Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.3.1 Transient Single Phase Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . 100
9.3.2 Simplified Mechanical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

10 The Swing Equation 103

10.1 Derivation of the Swing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2 Analysis of the Swing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3 Swing Equation as System of First Order Differential Equations106

11 Power Swings in a Simple System 109

11.1 The Swing Equation and its Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.1.1 Qualitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11.1.2 Stable and Unstable Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
11.2 Equal Area Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.3 Lyapunov Stability Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
11.4 Small Signal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
11.5 Methods to Improve System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

12 Power Oscillations in Multi-Machine Systems 131

12.1 Classical Model for Systems with Several Machines . . . . . . 131
12.2 General Model for Electro–Mechanical Oscillations . . . . . . 134

13 Voltage Stability 137

13.1 Mechanisms of Voltage Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
13.1.1 Long Term Voltage Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
13.1.2 Short Term Voltage Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
13.2 Simple Systems for Analysis of Voltage Stability . . . . . . . 139
13.3 Analysis of Voltage Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.3.1 Stability Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.3.2 Analysis of Simple System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

14 Control of Electric Power Systems 153

14.1 Control of Active Power and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
14.1.1 Spinning reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
14.1.2 Supplementary Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
14.1.3 Back-Up Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.2 Control of Reactive Power and Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.2.1 Reactive Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
14.2.2 Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.3 Supervisory Control of Electric Power Systems . . . . . . . . 162

A Phase-Shifting Transformers 165

vi Contents

B Protections in Electric Power Systems 169

B.1 Design of Protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
B.2 Distance Protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
B.2.1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
B.2.2 Automatic Re-Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
B.3 Out of Step Protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
B.4 System Protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Preface

These notes are intended to be used in the lecture Power System Analy-
sis (Lecture number ETH Zürich 227-0526-00) (Modellierung und Analyse
elektrischer Netze) given at ETH Zürich in Information Technology and
Electrical Engineering. In these lectures three main topics are covered, i.e.

• Power flow analysis

• Fault current calculations

• Power systems dynamics and stability

In Part I of these notes the two first items are covered, while Part II gives
an introduction to dynamics and stability in power systems. In appendices
brief overviews of phase-shifting transformers and power system protections
are given.
The notes start with a derivation and discussion of the models of the most
common power system components to be used in the power flow analysis.
A derivation of the power flow equations based on physical considerations is
then given. The resulting non-linear equations are for realistic power systems
of very large dimension and they have to be solved numerically. The most
commonly used techniques for solving these equations are reviewed. The role
of power flow analysis in power system planning, operation, and analysis is
discussed.
The next topic covered in these lecture notes is fault current calcula-
tions in power systems. A systematic approach to calculate fault currents
in meshed, large power systems will be derived. The needed models will be
given and the assumptions made when formulating these models discussed.
It will be demonstrated that algebraic models can be used to calculate the
dimensioning fault currents in a power system, and the mathematical analy-
sis has similarities with the power flow analysis, so it is natural to put these
two items in Part I of the notes.
In Part II the dynamic behaviour of the power system during and after
disturbances (faults) will be studied. The concept of power system stability
is defined, and different types of power system instabilities are discussed.
While the phenomena in Part I could be studied by algebraic equations,
the description of the power system dynamics requires models based on
differential equations.
These lecture notes provide only a basic introduction to the topics above.
To facilitate for readers who want to get a deeper knowledge of and insight
into these problems, bibliographies are given in the text.

vii
viii Preface

I want to thank numerous assistants, PhD students, and collaborators of

Power Systems Laboratory at ETH Zürich, who have contributed in various
ways to these lecture notes.

Zürich, September 2012

Göran Andersson
 Part I

Static Analysis

1
1
Introduction

This chapter gives a motivation why an algebraic model can be used to de-
scribe the power system in steady state. It is also motivated why an algebraic
approach can be used to calculate fault currents in a power system.

A POWER SYSTEM is predominantly in steady state operation or in a

state that could with sufficient accuracy be regarded as steady state.
In a power system there are always small load changes, switching actions,
and other transients occurring so that in a strict mathematical sense most
of the variables are varying with the time. However, these variations are
most of the time so small that an algebraic, i.e. not time varying model of
the power system is justified.
A short circuit in a power system is clearly not a steady state condition.
Such an event can start a variety of different dynamic phenomena in the
system, and to study these dynamic models are needed. However, when
it comes to calculate the fault currents in the system, steady state (static)
models with appropriate parameter values can be used. A fault current
consists of two components, a transient part, and a steady state part, but
since the transient part can be estimated from the steady state one, fault
current analysis is commonly restricted to the calculation of the steady state
fault currents.

1.1 Power Flow Analysis

It is of utmost importance to be able to calculate the voltages and currents
that different parts of the power system are exposed to. This is essential
not only in order to design the different power system components such
as generators, lines, transformers, shunt elements, etc. so that these can
withstand the stresses they are exposed to during steady state operation
without any risk of damages. Furthermore, for an economical operation of
the system the losses should be kept at a low value taking various constraints
into account, and the risk that the system enters into unstable modes of
operation must be supervised. In order to do this in a satisfactory way the
state of the system, i.e. all (complex) voltages of all nodes in the system,
must be known. With these known, all currents, and hence all active and

1
2 1. Introduction

reactive power flows can be calculated, and other relevant quantities can be
calculated in the system.
Generally the power flow, or load flow, problem is formulated as a non-
linear set of equations
f (x, u, p) = 0 (1.1)
where

f is an n-dimensional (non-linear) function

x is an n-dimensional vector containing the state variables, or states, as

components. These are the unknown voltage magnitudes and voltage
angles of nodes in the system

u is a vector with (known) control outputs, e.g. voltages at generators with

voltage control

p is a vector with the parameters of the network components, e.g. line

reactances and resistances

The power flow problem consists in formulating the equations f in eq. (1.1)
and then solving these with respect to x. This will be the subject dealt with
in the first part of these lectures. A necessary condition for eq. (1.1) to have
a physically meaningful solution is that f and x have the same dimension,
i.e. that we have the same number of unknowns as equations. But in the
general case there is no unique solution, and there are also cases when no
solution exists.
If the states x are known, all other system quantities of interest can
be calculated from these and the known quantities, i.e. u and p. System
quantities of interest are active and reactive power flows through lines and
transformers, reactive power generation from synchronous machines, active
and reactive power consumption by voltage dependent loads, etc.
As mentioned above, the functions f are non-linear, which makes the
equations harder to solve. For the solution of the equations, the linearization

∂f
∆x = ∆y (1.2)
∂x
is quite often used and solved. These equations give also very useful infor-
∂f
mation about the system. The Jacobian matrix , whose elements are
∂x
given by  
∂f ∂fi
= (1.3)
∂x ij ∂xj
can be used for many useful computations, and it is an important indicator
of the system conditions. This will also be elaborated on.
1.2. Fault Current Analysis 3

1.2 Fault Current Analysis

In the lectures Elektrische Energiesysteme it was studied how to calculate
fault currents, e.g. short circuit currents, for simple systems. This analysis
will now be extended to deal with realistic systems including several gener-
ators, lines, loads, and other system components. Generators (synchronous
machines) are important system components when calculating fault currents
and their modelling will be elaborated on and discussed.

1.3 Literature
The material presented in these lectures constitutes only an introduction
to the subject. Further studies can be recommended in the following text
books:

1. Power Systems Analysis, second edition, by Artur R. Bergen and Vijay

Vittal. (Prentice Hall Inc., 2000, ISBN 0-13-691990-1, 619 pages)

2. Computational Methods for Large Sparse Power Systems, An object

oriented approach, by S.A. Soma, S.A. Khaparde, S. Pandit (Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 2002, ISBN 0-7923-7591-2, 333 pages)

3. Electric Energy Systems - Analysis and Operation. A. Gómez-Expósito,

A.J. Conejo, C. Cañizares (Editors), (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida,
2009, ISBN 978-0-8493-7365-7)

4. Power System Stability and Control, P. Kundur, (McGraw-Hill, New

York, 1994. ISBN 0-07-035958-X)

5. Power System State Estimation: Theory and Implementation, A. Abur,

A. Gómez-Expósito (Marcel Dekker, 2004, ISBN 0-8247-5570-7)
4 1. Introduction
2
Network Models

In this chapter models of the most common network elements suitable for
power flow analysis are derived. These models will be used in the subsequent
chapters when formulating the power flow problem.

A LL ANALYSIS in the engineering sciences starts with the formulation

of appropriate models. A model, and in power system analysis we al-
most invariably then mean a mathematical model, is a set of equations or
relations, which appropriately describes the interactions between different
quantities in the time frame studied and with the desired accuracy of a phys-
ical or engineered component or system. Hence, depending on the purpose
of the analysis different models of the same physical system or components
might be valid. It is recalled that the general model of a transmission line
was given by the telegraph equation, which is a partial differential equation,
and by assuming stationary sinusoidal conditions the long line equations,
ordinary differential equations, were obtained. By solving these equations
and restricting the interest to the conditions at the ends of the lines, the
lumped-circuit line models (π-models) were obtained, which is an algebraic
model. This gives us three different models each valid for different purposes.
In principle, the complete telegraph equations could be used when study-
ing the steady state conditions at the network nodes. The solution would
then include the initial switching transients along the lines, and the steady
state solution would then be the solution after the transients have decayed.
However, such a solution would contain a lot more information than wanted
and, furthermore, it would require a lot of computational effort. An alge-
braic formulation with the lumped-circuit line model would give the same
result with a much simpler model at a lower computational cost.
In the above example it is quite obvious which model is the appropriate
one, but in many engineering studies the selection of the “correct” model
is often the most difficult part of the study. It is good engineering practice
to use as simple models as possible, but of course not too simple. If too
complicated models are used, the analysis and computations would be un-
necessarily cumbersome. Furthermore, generally more complicated models
need more parameters for their definition, and to get reliable values of these
requires often extensive work.

5
6 2. Network Models

i R´dx L´dx i+di

u G´dx C´dx u+du

dx
Figure 2.1. Equivalent circuit of a line element of length dx
Figure 2.1. Equivalent circuit of a line element of length dx

In the subsequent sections algebraic models of the most common power

system components suitable for power flow calculations will be derived. If
not explicitly stated, symmetrical three-phase conditions are assumed in the
following.

2.1 Lines and Cables

The equivalent π-model of a transmission line section was derived in the lec-
tures Electric Power Systems (Elektrische Energiesysteme), 227-0122-00L.
The general distributed model is characterized by the series parameters

R′ = series resistance/km per phase (Ω/km)

X ′ = series reactance/km per phase (Ω/km)

and the shunt parameters

B ′ = shunt susceptance/km per phase (siemens/km)

G′ = shunt conductance/km per phase (siemens/km)

as depicted in Figure 2.1. The parameters above are specific for the line
or cable configuration and are dependent on conductors and geometrical
arrangements.
From the circuit in Figure 2.1 the telegraph equation is derived, and from
this the lumped-circuit line model for symmetrical steady state conditions,
Figure 2.2. This model is frequently referred to as the π-model, and it is
characterized by the parameters

Zkm = Rkm + jXkm = series impedance (Ω)

sh = Gsh + jB sh = shunt admittance (siemens)
Ykm 1
km km
1
In Figure 2.2 the two shunt elements are assumed to be equal, which is true for
2.1. Lines and Cables 7

zkm
I km I mk
k m

sh
sh
ykm ykm

Figure 2.2. Lumped-circuit model (π-model) of a transmission line

between nodes k and m.

Note. In the following most analysis will be made in the p.u. system. For
impedances and admittances, capital letters indicate that the quantity is ex-
pressed in ohms or siemens, and lower case letters that they are expressed
in p.u.

Note. In these lecture notes complex quantities are not explicitly marked
as underlined. This means that instead of writing z km we will write zkm
when this quantity is complex. However, it should be clear from the context
if a quantity is real or complex. Furthermore, we will not always use specific
type settings for vectors. Quite often vectors will be denoted by bold face type
setting, but not always. It should also be clear from the context if a quantity
is a vector or a scalar.

When formulating the network equations the node admittance matrix

will be used and the series admittance of the line model is needed
−1
ykm = zkm = gkm + jbkm (2.1)

with
rkm
gkm = 2 (2.2)
rkm + x2km
and
xkm
bkm = − 2 + x2 (2.3)
rkm km

homogenous lines, i.e. a line with equal values of the line parameters along its length, but
this might not be true in the general case. In such a case the shunt elements are replaced
sh sh sh sh
by Ykm and Ymk with Ykm 6= Ymk with obvious notation. A general model is presented in
sect. 2.2.3, which takes asymmetric conditions into account.
8 2. Network Models

For actual transmission lines the series reactance xkm and the series resis-
tance rkm are both positive, and consequently gkm is positive and bkm is
negative. The shunt susceptance ykm sh and the shunt conductance g sh are
km
sh is so
both positive for real line sections. In many cases the value of gkm
small that it could be neglected.
The complex currents Ikm and Imk in Figure 2.2 can be expressed as
functions of the complex voltages at the branch terminal nodes k and m:
sh
Ikm = ykm (Ek − Em ) + ykm Ek (2.4)
sh
Imk = ykm(Em − Ek ) + ykm Em (2.5)
where the complex voltages are

Ek = Uk ejθk (2.6)

Em = Um ejθm (2.7)
This can also be written in matrix form as
sh
    
Ikm ykm + ykm −ykm Ek
= sh (2.8)
Imk −ykm ykm + ykm Em

As seen the matrix on the right hand side of eq. (2.8) is symmetric and
the diagonal elements are equal. This reflects that the lines and cables are
symmetrical elements.
Example 2.1. The series impedance of a 138 kV transmission line section
is
z = r + jx = 0.0062 + j0.0360 p.u.
The total shunt susceptance (double the susceptance that appears in the
equivalent π-model) is
bsh = 0.0105 p.u.
and the shunt conductance is ignored. Calculate the series conductance and
series susceptance and the ratio between the series and shunt susceptances.

Solution The series conductance is given by

r 0.0062
g= = = 4.64 p.u.
r2 +x 2 0.00622 + 0.03602
and the series susceptance by
x 0.0360
b=− =− = −27.0 p.u.
r2 +x 2 0.00622 + 0.03602
The b/bsh ratio is given by
−27.0
b/bsh = = −2596
0.0105
2.2. Transformers 9

Of interest is also the ratio x/r

0.036
x/r = = 5.8
0.0062


Example 2.2. The series impedance and the total shunt impedance of a
750 kV line section are
z = r + jx = 0.00072 + j0.0175 p.u.
bsh = 8.77 p.u.
Calculate the series conductance and series susceptance and the ratio be-
tween the series and shunt susceptances and the x/r ratio.

Solution The series conductance and susceptance are given by

0.00072
g= = 2.35 p.u.
0.000722 + 0.01752
0.0175
b=− = −57 p.u.
0.000722 + 0.01752
The x/r ratio and b/bsh ratio are
0.0175
x/r = = 24.3
0.00072
−57
b/bsh = = −6.5
8.77


Note. The 750 kV line has a much higher x/r ratio than the 138 kV line
and, at the same time, a much smaller (in magnitude) b/bsh ratio. (Why?)
Higher x/r ratios mean better decoupling between active and reactive parts
of the power flow problem, while smaller (in magnitude) b/bsh ratios may
indicate the need for some sort of compensation, shunt or series, or both.

2.2 Transformers
We will start with a simplified model of a transformer where we neglect the
magnetizing current and the no-load losses 2 . In this case the transformer
2
Often the magnetizing current and no-load losses are modelled by a shunt impedance,
with much higher impedance than the leakage impedance. The inductive part of this
impedance is then determined by the value of the magetizing current and the resistive
part by the no load losses.
10 2. Network Models

Uk e jqk Up e jqp Um e jqm

1:tkm zkm
k m
p
Ikm Imk

Uk e jqk Up e jqp Um e jqm

tkm:1 zkm
k m
p
Ikm Imk

Figure 2.3. Transformer model with complex ratio tkm = akm ejϕkm
(tkm = a−1
km e
−jϕkm
)

Uk e jqk Up e jqp Um e jqm

1:akm zkm
can be modelled by an ideal transformer with turns ratio tkm in series with
k m
a series impedance zkm which represents
p resistive (load-dependent) losses
Ikm
and the leakage reactance, see Figure 2.3. Depending Imk on whether tkm is
real or non-real (complex) the transformer is in-phase or phase-shifting,
respectively.

2.2.1 In-Phase Transformers

Figure 2.4 shows an in-phase transformer model indicating the voltage at the
A
internal – non-physical – node p. In this model the ideal voltage magnitude
k is
ratio (turns ratio) m
Ikm Up I mk
= akm (2.9)
Uk
Since θk = θp , this is also the ratio
B between the
C complex voltages at nodes
k and p,
Ep Up ejθp
= = akm (2.10)
Ek Uk ejθk
There are no power losses (neither active nor reactive) in the ideal trans-
former (the k-p part of the model), which yields
∗ ∗
Ek Ikm + Ep Imk =0 (2.11)

Then applying eqs. (2.9) and (2.10) gives

Ikm |Ikm |
=− = −akm , (2.12)
Imk |Imk |
which means that the complex currents Ikm and Imk are out of phase by
180◦ since akm ∈ R.
 Uk e jqk Up e jqp Um e jqm
Uk e jqk tkm:1 Up e jqp zkm Um e jqm
tkm:1 zkm
k m
k p m
Ikm p Imk
Ikm Imk

2.2. Transformers 11

Uk e jqk Up e jqp Um e jqm

Uk e jqk 1:akm Up e jqp zkm Um e jqm
1:akm zkm
k m
k p m
Ikm p Imk
Ikm Imk

Figure 2.4. In-phase transformer model

A
k A m
k Ikm Imk m
Ikm Imk

B C
B C

Figure 2.5. Equivalent π-model for in-phase transformer

Figure 2.5 represents the equivalent π-model for the in-phase transformer
in Figure 2.4. Parameters A, B, and C of this model can be obtained by
identifying the coefficients of the expressions for the complex currents Ikm
and Imk associated with the models of Figures 2.4 and 2.5. Figure 2.4 gives

Ikm = −akm ykm (Em − Ep ) = (a2km ykm )Ek + (−akm ykm )Em (2.13)

Imk = ykm (Em − Ep ) = (−akm ykm )Ek + (ykm )Em (2.14)

or in matrix form
   2  
Ikm akm ykm −akm ykm Ek
= (2.15)
Imk −akm ykm ykm Em

As seen the matrix on the right hand side of eq. (2.15) is symmetric, but
the diagonal elements are not equal when a2km 6= 1. Figure 2.5 provides now
the following:
Ikm = (A + B)Ek + (−A)Em (2.16)
Imk = (−A)Ek + (A + C)Em (2.17)
or in matrix form
    
Ikm A+B −A Ek
= (2.18)
Imk −A A+C Em
12 2. Network Models

Identifying the matrix elements from the matrices in eqs. (2.15) and (2.18)
yields
A = akm ykm (2.19)
B = akm (akm − 1)ykm (2.20)
C = (1 − akm )ykm (2.21)

Example 2.3. A 138/69 kV in-phase transformer with a series resistance

of zero, a 0.23 p.u. series reactance, and p.u. turns ratio of 1 : 1.030 (from
the model in Figure 2.4) Calculate the equivalent π-model parameters.

Solution
A = akm ykm = 1.030(j0.230)−1 = −j4.48 p.u.
B = akm (akm − 1)ykm = 1.030(1.030 − 1)(j0.230)−1 = −j0.13 p.u.
C = (1 − akm )ykm = (1 − 1.030)(j0.230)−1 = j0.13 p.u.
Hence, since A, B, and C denote admittances, A and B are inductive, and
C is capacitive. 

Example 2.4. A 500/750 kV in-phase transformer with a series resistance

of zero, a 0.00623 p.u. series reactance, and p.u. turns ratio of 1 : 0.950
(from the model in Figure 2.4) Calculate the parameters for the equivalent
π-model. (100 MVA base)

Solution As in the previous example one obtains:

A = −j152.5 p.u.

B = j7.62 p.u.
C = −j8.03 p.u.
i.e., parameter B is capacitive and parameter C is inductive (762 Mvar
and −803 Mvar, respectively, assuming nominal voltage magnitudes and a
100 MVA base). 

2.2.2 Phase-Shifting Transformers

Phase-shifting transformers, such as the one represented in Figure 2.6, are
used to control active power flows; the control variable is the phase angle
and the controlled quantity can be, among other possibilities, the active
power flow in the branch where the shifter is placed. In Appendix A the
physical design of phase-shifting transformer is described.
2.2. Transformers 13

Uk e jqk Um e jqm
1:akme jjkm zkm
k m
p
Ikm Imk

qp = qk + jkm

Up = akmUk

Figure 2.6. Phase-shifting transformer with tkm = akm ejϕkm .

Uk e jqk Up e jqp Uq e jqk Um e jqm

zkmboth the phase and magnitude of
A phase-shifting transformer affects
k
the complex voltages Ek and Ep , without changing their ratio, i.e., m
p q
Ikm 1:tkm Ep tmk:1 Imk
= tkm = akm ejϕkm (2.22)
Ek
Thus, θp = θk + ϕkm and Up = akm Uk , using eqs. (2.11) and (2.22),

Ikm
= −t∗km = −akm e−jϕkm (2.23)
Imk
As withU in-phase
jqk transformers,
Up e jqp the complex
Uq ecurrents
jqq Ikm and UImkecan
jqm
ke m
be expressed in terms of complex voltages at the phase-shifting
tmk:1 transformer
1:tkm p zkm q
terminals:
k m
∗
Ikm = −t km ykm (Em
Ikm − Ep ) = (a2km ykm )Ek + (−t∗km ykm)Em Imk(2.24)
Imk = ykm(Em − Ep ) = (−tkm ykm)Ek + (ykm )Em (2.25)
sh sh
ykm ymk
or in matrix form
  2
akm ykm −t∗km ykm
  
Ikm Ek
= (2.26)
Imk −tkm ykm ykm Em

As seen this matrix is not symmetric if tkm is non-real, and the diagonal
matrix elements are not equal if a2km 6= 1. There is no way to determine
parameters A, B, and C of the equivalent π-model from these equations,
since the coefficient −t∗kmykm of Em in eq. (2.24) differs from −tkmykm in
eq. (2.25), as long as there is nonzero phase shift, i.e. tkm ∈
/ R. A phase-
shifting transformer can thus not be represented by a π-model.

Example 2.5. A 230/138 kV transformer (Figure 2.6) has a series resis-

tance of zero, a 0.0127 p.u. series reactance, and a complex turns ratio of
◦
1 : 1.007ej30 (Y-∆ connection).
14 2. Network Models

Show that this transformer can be seen to consist of a series connection

of two transformers: an ideal in-phase transformer with a turns ratio of
1 : 1.007 (constant voltage phase) and a phase-shifting transformer with a
◦
complex turns ratio of 1 : ej30 (constant voltage amplitude) and a series
reactance of 0.0127 p.u.

Note. If no parallel paths exist, the phase-shifting has no significance. The

introduced phase-shift can in such a case be seen as a shift of the phase
angle of the reference node. Y-∆ connected transformers are often used to
provide zero-sequence de-coupling between two parts of the system, and not
for active power flow. For active power flow control usually phase-shifting
much lower than 30◦ is needed. Often the phase-shifting could be varied to
cope with different loading situations in the system.

Example 2.6. Consider two transformers connected in parallel according

to Figure 2.7. Transformer A has a turns-ratio of 1:1 (p.u./p.u.) while the
turns-ratio of transformer B will be varied as described below. The trans-
formers are feeding a load at bus 2, Iload = 1.05∠ − 45◦ p.u. and E2 = 1∠0◦
p.u. The reactances of the transformers are given in the figure.
Calculate the complex power through the transformers when the turns-
ratios of transformer B are (t12 = a12 ejϕ12 )
(a) a12 = 1, ϕ12 = 0◦

(b) a12 = 1.05, ϕ12 = 0◦

(c) a12 = 1, ϕ12 = 3◦

Comments!

2.2.3 Unified Branch Model

The expressions for the complex currents Ikm and Imk for both transformers
and shifters derived above depend on the side where the tap is located; i.e.,
they are not symmetrical. It is however possible to develop unified complex
expressions which can be used for lines, transformers, and phase-shifters,
regardless of the side on which the tap is located (or even in the case when
there are taps on both sides of the device). Consider initially the model
in Figure 2.8 in which shunt elements have been temporarily ignored and
tkm = akm ejϕkm and tmk = amk ejϕmk . In this case

Ikm = t∗km Ipq = t∗km (Ep − Eq )ykm = t∗km (tkm Ek − tmk Em )ykm (2.27)

and

Imk = t∗mk Iqp = t∗mk (Eq − Ep )ykm = t∗mk (tmk Em − tkm Ek )ykm (2.28)
2.2. Transformers 15

1:1
XtA = 0.2 p.u. A
Iload

1:t12
XtB = 0.4 p.u B E2
Load

Figure 2.7. System for Example 2.6.

which together yield

Ikm = (a2km Ek − t∗km tmk Em )ykm (2.29)
and
Imk = (a2mk Em − t∗mk tkm Ek )ykm (2.30)
(These expressions are symmetrical in the sense that if k and m are inter-
changed, as in the expression for Ikm , the result is the expression for Imk ,
and vice-versa.)
Figure 2.9 shows the unified branch model. All the devices studied above
can be derived from this general model by establishing the appropriate def-
initions of the parameters that appear in the unified model. Thus, for in-
stance, if tkm = tmk = 1 is assumed, the result is an equivalent π-model of
a transmission line; or, if the shunt elements are ignored, and tkm = 1 and
tmk = amk e−jϕmk is assumed, then the result is a phase shifting transformer
with the tap located on the bus m side. The general expressions for and Imk
can be obtained from the model in Figure 2.9:
Ikm = (a2km Ek − t∗km tmk Em )ykm + ykm
sh 2
akm Ek (2.31)
and
Imk = (a2mk Em − t∗mk tkm Ek )ykm + ymk
sh 2
amk Em (2.32)
or
a2km (ykm + ykmsh
−t∗km tmk ykm
    
Ikm ) Ek
= (2.33)
Imk −t∗mk tkm ykm a2mk (ykm + ykm
sh
) Em
The transformers modelled above were all two-winding transformers. In
power systems there are also three-winding and N -winding (N > 3) trans-
formers, and they can be modelled in a similar way. Instead of linear rela-
tionships between two complex currents and two complex voltages, we will
 k Ikm Imk m
p
Ikm Imk
qp = qk + jkm
qp = qk + jkm
Up = akmUk
Up = akmUk

16 2. Network Models
Uk e jqk Up e jqp Uq e jqk Um e jqm
zkm
jq Up e jqp Uq e jqk Um e jqmm
kUk e k zkm
p q
k Ikm 1:tkm tmk:1 Imk m
p q
Ikm 1:tkm tmk:1 Imk

Figure 2.8. Transformer symmetrical model.

Uk e jqk Up e jqp Uq e jqq Um e jqm

t :1
Uk e jqk 1:tkm Uppe jqp zkm Uqqe jqq mk Um e jqm
k 1:tkm p zkm tmk:1 m
q
k Ikm Imk m
Ikm Imk
sh sh
y km y mk
sh sh
y km ymk

Figure 2.9. Unified branch model extended (π-model).

have linear relationships between these quantities modelled by N × N ma-

trices. It should be notes that for N -winding transformers there are leakage
reactances between each pair of windings, i.e. in total N (N − 1)/2 reac-
tances. Since the power ratings of the different windings are not necessarily
equal, as in the two-winding case, it should be noted that the power bases
for expressing the reactances in p.u. are not always equal.

2.3 Shunt Elements

The modelling of shunt elements in the network equations is straightforward
and the main purpose here is to introduce the notation and the sign con-
vention to be used when formulating the network equations in the coming
chapters. As seen from Figure 2.10 the current from a shunt is defined as
positive when injected into the bus. This means that

Iksh = −yksh Ek (2.34)

with Ek being the complex voltage at node k. Shunts are in all practical cases
either shunt capacitors or reactors. From eq. (2.34) the injected complex
2.4. Loads 17

sh Ik Ikm
Ik
k

sh
yksh Ik
yksh

Figure 2.10. A shunt connected to bus k.

load
Ik
power is k
sh ∗ sh ∗ 2
S sh P sh + jQsh 2



k = k k = − y k |Ek | = − y k Uk (2.35)

Load
2.4 Loads
Load modelling is an important topic in power system analysis. When for-
mulating the load flow equations for high voltage systems, a load is most
often the infeed of power to a network at a lower voltage level, e.g. a dis-
tribution network. Often the voltage in the distribution systems is kept
constant by controlling the tap-positions
gen of the distribution transformers
which means that power, active and Ik reactive, in most cases can be regarded
k on the high voltage side. This means that the
as independent of the voltage
load ∗
complex power Ek (Ik ) is constant, i.e. independent of the voltage mag-
nitude Uk . Also in this case the current is defined as positive when injected
into the bus, see Figure 2.11. In the general case the complex load current
can be written as Generator
Ikload = Ikload (Uk ) (2.36)

where the function Ikload (·) describes the load characteristics.3 More often
the load characteristics are given for the active and reactive powers

Pkload = Pkload (Uk ) (2.37)

Qload
k = Qload
k (Uk ) (2.38)

3
This refers to the steady state model of the load. For transient conditions other
load models apply. These are usually formulated as differential equations and might also
involve the frequency.
 sh
yksh Ik
yksh

18 2. Network Models

load
Ik
k

Load

Figure 2.11. Model of a load connected to bus k.

gen
Ik
2.5 Generators k
Generators are in load flow analysis modelled as current injections, see Fig-
ure 2.12. In steady state a generator is commonly controlled so that the
Generator
active power injected into the bus and the voltage at the generator termi-
nals are kept constant. This will be elaborated later when formulating the
load flow equations. Active power from the generator is determined by the
turbine control and must of course be within the capability of the turbine-
generator system. Voltage is primarily determined by the reactive power
injection into the node, and since the generator must operate within its
reactive capability curve it is not possible to control the voltage outside cer-
tain limits. The reactive capability of a generator depends on a number of
quantities, such as active power, bus voltage and other operating conditions,
and a typical example is shown in Figure 2.13. The shape of the generator
capability curve is specific for each generator and depends on design char-
acteristics, type of generator, hydro or steam turbine, stability constraints,
etc. In Figure 2.13 it is also indicated what imposes the different limits for
this particular generator. These are briefly discussed below. These limits
are also discussed in Chapter 9.

2.5.1 Stator Current Heating Limit

The losses in the armature windings are given by Rt It2 , with obvious no-
tation. These losses result in a temperature rise in the armature wind-
ings, and this must be limited to a given value otherwise the generator is
damaged or its life time is reduced. Since the complex power is given by
S = P + jQ = Ut It∗ it means that for a given terminal voltage, Ut , circles
in the P − Q-plane with centre at the origin correspond to constant value
of the magnitude of the armature current It . The stator current limit for a
given terminal voltage is thus a circle with the centre at the origin. At high
 Load

2.5. Generators 19

gen
Ik
k

Generator

Figure 2.12. Model of a generator connected to bus k.

Q Field current
heating limit
Overexcited

Stator current
heating limit

P
Underexcited

End region
heating limit

Figure 2.13. Reactive capability curve of a turbo generator.

loading of the generator, this is usually determining the reactive capability

of the synchronous machine.
20 2. Network Models

2.5.2 Field Current Heating Limit

The reactive power that can be generated at low load is determined by the
field current heating limit. It can be shown that the locus for constant field
current is a circle with the centre on the Q-axis at −Et2 /Xs , where Et is the
terminal voltage and Xs is the synchronous reactance. The radius is given
by machine parameters and typical behaviour is shown in Figure 2.13. The
field current heating is usually limiting at overexcited operation at low load.

2.5.3 Stator End Region Heating Limit

When the synchronous machine is underexcited the armature end leakage
flux is increased. This flux enters and leaves in a direction perpendicular to
the stator laminations causing eddy currents in the laminations, and hence
heating. This can limit the capability, particularly for round rotor machines.
A typical example of such a limitation is shown in Figure 2.13.
The limits on reactive power generation and absorption given in this
subsection and the two previous ones are imposed by internal synchronous
machine design. As seen they are dependent on the terminal voltage of the
generator. There are also other considerations that can further limit the re-
active capability of the synchronous machine. These are stability limits that
could further limit the operation of the machine in underexcited operation.
3
Active and Reactive Power Flows

In this chapter the expressions for the active and reactive power flows in
transmission lines, transformers, phase-shifting transformers, and unified
branch models are derived.

T HE SYSTEM COMPONENTS dealt with in this chapter are linear in

the sense that the relations between voltages and currents are linear1 .
However, since one usually is interested rather in powers, active and reactive,
than currents, the resulting equations will be non-linear, which introduces
a complication when solving the resulting equations.

3.1 Transmission Lines

Consider the complex current Ikm in a transmission line

Ikm = ykm (Ek − Em ) + jbsh

km Ek (3.1)

with quantities defined according to Figure 2.2. The complex power, Skm =
Pkm + jQkm , is
∗ ∗
Skm = Ek Ikm = ykm Uk ejθk (Uk e−jθk − Um e−jθm ) − jbsh 2
km Uk (3.2)

where the conductance of ykm sh has been neglected.

The expressions for Pkm and Qkm can be determined by identifying the
corresponding coefficients of the real and imaginary parts of eq. (3.2), which
yields

Pkm = Uk2 gkm − Uk Um gkm cos θkm − Uk Um bkm sin θkm (3.3)
Qkm = −Uk2 (bkm + bsh
km ) + Uk Um bkm cos θkm − Uk Um gkm sin θkm (3.4)

where the notation θkm = θk − θm is introduced.

1
This is at least true for the models analysed here. Different non-linear phenomena,
e.g. magnetic saturation, can sometimes be important, but when studying steady state
conditions the devices to be discussed in this chapter are normally within the region of
linearity.

21
22 3. Active and Reactive Power Flows

The active and reactive power flows in opposite directions, Pmk and Qmk ,
can be obtained in the same way, resulting in:
2
Pmk = Um gkm − Uk Um gkm cos θmk + Uk Um bkm sin θmk (3.5)
2
Qmk = −Um (bkm + bsh
km ) + Uk Um bkm cos θmk + Uk Um gkm sin θmk (3.6)

From these expressions the active and reactive power losses of the lines
are easily obtained as:

Pkm + Pmk = gkm (Uk2 + Um

2
− 2Uk Um cos θkm )
= gkm |Ek − Em |2 (3.7)

Qkm + Qmk = −bsh 2 2 2 2

km (Uk + Um ) − bkm (Uk + Um − 2Uk Um cos θkm )
= −bsh 2 2
km (Uk + Um ) − bkm |Ek − Em |
2
(3.8)

Note that |Ek − Em | represents the magnitude of the voltage drop across
the line, gkm |Ek − Em |2 represents the active power losses, −bsh
km |Ek − Em |
2
sh 2 2
represents the reactive power losses; and −bkm (Uk + Um ) represents the
reactive power generated by the shunt elements of the equivalent π-model
(assuming actual transmission line sections, i.e. with bkm < 0 and bsh
km > 0).

Example 3.1. A 750 kV transmission line section has a series impedance

of 0.00072 + j0.0175 p.u., a total shunt admittance of 8.775 p.u., a voltage
magnitude at the terminal buses of 0.984 p.u. and 0.962 p.u., and a voltage
angle difference of 22◦ . Calculate the active and reactive power flows.

Solution The active and reactive power flows in the line are obtained by
applying eqs. (3.3) and (3.4), where Uk = 0.984 p.u., Um = 0.962 p.u., and
θkm = 22◦ . The series impedance and admittances are as follows:

zkm = 0.00072 + j0.0175 p.u.

−1
ykm = gkm + jbkm = zkm = 2.347 − j57.05 p.u.
The π-model shunt admittances (100 MVA base) are:

bsh
km = 8.775/2 = 4.387 p.u.

and

Pkm = 0.9842 ·2.347−0.984·0.962·2.347 cos 22◦ +00.984·0.962·57.05 sin 22◦ p.u.

Qkm = −0.9842 ·(−57.05+4.39)−0.984·0.962·57.05 cos 22◦ −00.984·0.962·2.347 sin 22◦ p.u.

which yield
Pkm = 2044 MW Qkm = 8.5 Mvar
3.2. In-phase Transformers 23

In similar way one obtains:

Pmk = −2012 MW Qmk = −50.5 Mvar

It should be noted that powers are positive when injected into the line. 

3.2 In-phase Transformers

The complex current Ikm in an in-phase transformer is expressed as in
eq. (2.13)
Ikm = akm ykm(akm Ek − Em )
The complex power, Skm = Pkm + jQkm , is given by
∗ ∗
Skm = Ek Ikm = ykm akm Uk ejθk (akm Uk e−jθk − Um e−jθm ) (3.9)

Separating the real and imaginary parts of this latter expression yields
the active and reactive power flow equations:

Pkm = (akm Uk )2 gkm − akm Uk Um gkm cos θkm − akm Uk Um bkm sin θkm
(3.10)
Qkm = −(akm Uk )2 bkm + akm Uk Um bkm cos θkm − akm Uk Um gkm sin θkm
(3.11)

These same expressions can be obtained by comparing eqs. (3.9) and

(3.2); in eq. (3.9) the term jbsh 2
km Uk is not present, and Uk is replaced by
akm Uk . Hence, the expressions for the active and reactive power flows on
in-phase transformers are the same expressions derived for a transmission
line, except the for two modifications: ignore bsh
km , and replace Uk with
akm Uk .

Example 3.2. A 500/750 kV transformer with a tap ratio of 1.050:1.0

on the 500 kV side, see Figure 2.4, has negligible series resistance and a
leakage reactance of 0.00623 p.u., terminal voltage magnitudes of 1.023 p.u.
and 0.968 p.u., and an angle spread of 5.3◦ . Calculate the active and reactive
power flows in the transformer.

Solution The active and reactive power flows in the transformer are given
by eqs. (3.10) and (3.11), where Uk = 1.023 p.u., Um = 0.968 p.u., θkm =
5.3◦ , and akm = 1.0/1.05 = 0.9524. The series reactance and susceptance
are as follows:
xkm = 0.00623 p.u.
bkm = −x−1
km = −160.51 p.u.
24 3. Active and Reactive Power Flows

The active and reactive power flows can be expressed as

Pkm = −0.9524 · 1.023 · 0.968 · (−160.51) sin 5.3◦ p.u.

Qkm = −(0.9524·1.023)2 (−160.51)+0.9524·1.023·0.968·(−160.51) cos 5.3◦ p.u.

which yield
Pkm = 1398 MW Qkm = 163 Mvar
The reader is encouraged to calculate Pmk and Qmk . (The value of Pmk
should be obvious.) 

3.3 Phase-Shifting Transformer with akm = 1

The complex current Ikm in a phase shifting transformer with akm = 1 is as
follows, see Figure 2.6:

Ikm = ykm (Ek − e−jϕkm Em ) = ykm e−jϕkm (Ek ejϕkm − Em ) (3.12)

and the complex power, Skm = Pkm + jQkm , is thus

∗ ∗
Skm = Ek Ikm = ykm Uk ej(θk +ϕkm ) (Uk e−j(θk +ϕkm ) − Um e−jθm ) (3.13)

Separating the real and imaginary parts of this expression, yields the
active and reactive power flow equations, respectively:

Pkm = Uk2 gkm − Uk Um gkm cos(θkm + ϕkm )

− Uk Um bkm sin(θkm + ϕkm ) (3.14)

Qkm = −Uk2 bkm + Uk Um bkm cos(θkm + ϕkm )

− Uk Um gkm sin(θkm + ϕkm ) (3.15)

As with in-phase transformers, these expressions could have been ob-

tained through inspection by comparing eqs. (3.2) and (3.13): in eq. (3.13),
the term jbsh 2
km Uk is not present, and θkm is replaced with θkm + ϕkm . Hence,
the expressions for the active and reactive power flows in phase-shifting
transformers are the same expressions derived for the transmission line, al-
beit with two modifications: ignore bsh
km and replace θkm with θkm + ϕkm .

Example 3.3. A ∆-Y , 230/138 kV transformer presents a 30◦ phase an-

gle shift. Series resistance is neglected and series reactance is 0.0997 p.u.
Terminal voltage magnitudes are 0.882 p.u. and 0.989 p.u., and the total
angle difference is −16.6◦ . Calculate the active and reactive power flows in
the transformer.
3.4. Unified Power Flow Equations 25

Solution The active and reactive power flows in the phase-shifting trans-
former are given by eqs. (3.14) and (3.15), where Uk = 0.882 p.u., Um =
0.989 p.u., θkm = −16.6◦ , and ϕkm = 30◦ . The series reactance and suscep-
tance are as follows:
xkm = 0.0997 p.u.
bkm = −x−1
km = −10.03 p.u.

The active and reactive power flows can be expressed as

Pkm = −0.882 · 0.989 · (−10.03) · (−160.51) sin(−16.6◦ + 30◦ ) p.u.

Qkm = −0.8822 (−10.03) + 0.882 · 0.989 · (−10.03) cos(−16.6◦ + 30◦ ) p.u.

which yield
Pkm = 203 MW Qkm = −70.8 Mvar
The reader is encouraged to calculate Pmk and Qmk . (The value of Pmk
should be obvious.) 

3.4 Unified Power Flow Equations

The expressions for active and reactive power flows on transmission lines,
in-phase transformers, and phase shifting transformers, see Figure 2.9, can
be expressed in the following unified forms:

Pkm = (akm Uk )2 gkm

− (akm Uk )(amk Um )gkm cos(θkm + ϕkm − ϕmk )
− (akm Uk )(amk Um )bkm sin(θkm + ϕkm − ϕmk ) (3.16)

Qkm = (akm Uk )2 (bkm + bsh

km )
+ (akm Uk )(amk Um )bkm cos(θkm + ϕkm − ϕmk )
− (akm Uk )(amk Um )gkm sin(θkm + ϕkm − ϕmk ) (3.17)

Where, for the transmission lines like the one represented in Figure 2.2,
akm = amk = 1 and ϕkm = ϕmk = 0; for in-phase transformers such as the
sh = y sh = 0, a
one represented in Figure 2.4, ykm mk mk = 1 and ϕkm = ϕmk = 0;
sh =
and for a phase-shifting transformer such as the one in Figure 2.6, ykm
sh = 0, a
ymk mk = 1 and ϕmk = 0.
26 3. Active and Reactive Power Flows
 4
Nodal Formulation of the Network Equa-
tions

In this chapter the basic network equations are derived from Kirchhoff ’s
Current Law (KCL) and put into forms that are suitable for the formulation
of the power flow equations in the subsequent chapter

T HE NET COMPLEX current injection at a network bus, see Figure 4.1,

is related to the current flows in the branches connected to the bus.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) yields
X
Ik + Iksh = Ikm , for k = 1, . . . , N (4.1)
m∈Ωk
where k is a generic node, Ik is the net current injection from generators
and loads, Iksh is the current injection from shunts, m is a node adjacent to
k, Ωk is the set of nodes adjacent to k, and N is the number of nodes in the
network.
The complex current Ikm in the unified branch model, Figure 2.9, is

Ikm = (a2km Ek − t∗km tmk Em )ykm + ykm

sh 2
akm Ek (4.2)
where tkm = akm ejϕkm and tmk = amk ejϕmk .

sh Ik Ikm
Ik
k

sh
yksh Ik
yksh

Figure 4.1. Generic bus with sign conventions for currents and power flows.

27
load
Ik
k

Load
28 4. Nodal Formulation of the Network Equations

Equations (4.1) and (4.2) yield

 X  X
Ik = yksh + a2km (ykm
sh
+ ykm ) Ek − (t∗km tmk ykm )Em (4.3)
m∈Ωk m∈Ωk

for k = 1, . . . , N . This expression can be written as

I = YE (4.4)
where

• I is the injection vector with elements Ik , k = 1, . . . , N

• E is the nodal voltage vector with elements Ek = Uk ejθk

• Y = G + jB is the nodal admittance matrix, with the following ele-

ments
Ykm = −t∗km tmk ykm (4.5)
X
Ykk = yksh + a2km (ykm
sh
+ ykm ) (4.6)
m∈Ωk

We see that the nodal admittance matrix defined by eqs. (4.5) and (4.6)
is modified as compared with the nodal admittance matrix without trans-
formers. Particularly it should be noted that Y as defined above is not
necessarily symmetric.
For large practical networks this matrix is usually very sparse. The
degree of sparsity (percentage of zero elements) normally increases with
the dimensions of the network: e.g., a network with 1000 buses and 1500
branches typically presents a degree of sparsity greater than 99 %, i.e. less
than 1 % of the matrix elements have non-zero values.
The kth component of I, Ik , defined in eq. (4.3), can, by using eqs. (4.5)
and (4.6), be written as
X X
Ik = Ykk Ek + Ykm Em = Ykm Em (4.7)
m∈Ωk m∈K

where K is the set of buses adjacent to bus k, including bus k, and Ωk is

the set of buses adjacent to bus k, excluding bus k. Now considering that
Ykm = Gkm + jBkm and Em = Um ejθm , eq. (4.7) can be rewritten as
X
Ik = (Gkm + jBkm )(Um ejθm ) (4.8)
m∈K

The complex power injection at bus k is

Sk = Pk + jQk = Ek Ik∗ (4.9)

 29

and by applying eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) this gives

X
Sk = Uk ejθk (Gkm − jBkm )(Um e−jθm ) (4.10)
m∈K

The expressions for active and reactive power injections are obtained by
identifying the real and imaginary parts of eq. (4.10), yielding
X
Pk = Uk Um (Gkm cos θkm + Bkm sin θkm) (4.11)
m∈K
X
Qk = Uk Um (Gkm sin θkm − Bkm cos θkm ) (4.12)
m∈K
30 4. Nodal Formulation of the Network Equations
5
Basic Power Flow Problem

In this chapter the basic power flow problem is formulated and the basic
bus types are defined. Also, the conditions for solvability of the problem are
discussed

T HE POWER FLOW PROBLEM can be formulated as a set of non-

linear algebraic equality/inequality constraints. These constraints rep-
resent both Kirchhoff’s laws and network operation limits. In the basic
formulation of the power flow problem, four variables are associated to each
bus (network node) k:

• Uk : voltage magnitude

• θk : voltage angle

• Pk : net active power (algebraic sum of generation and load)

• Qk : net reactive power (algebraic sum of generation and load)

5.1 Basic Bus Types

Depending on which of the above four variables are known (given) and which
ones are unknown (to be calculated), two basic types of buses can be defined:

• PQ bus: Pk and Qk are specified; Uk and θk are calculated

• PU bus: Pk and Uk are specified; Qk and θk are calculated

PQ buses are normally used to represent load buses without voltage control,
and PU buses are used to represent generation buses with voltage control
in power flow calculations1 . Synchronous compensators2 are also treated as
PU buses. A third bus is also needed:
1
Synchronous machines are often equipped with Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs),
which controls the excitation of the machine so that the terminal voltage, or some other
voltage close to the machine, is kept at the set value.
2
Synchronous compensators, sometimes also called synchronous condensers, are syn-
chronous machines without any active power generation or load (except for losses) used
for reactive power and voltage control.

31
32 5. Basic Power Flow Problem

• Uθ bus: Uk and θk are specified; Pk and Qk are calculated

The Uθ bus, also called reference bus or slack bus, has double functions in
the basic formulation of the power flow problem:

1. It serves as the voltage angle reference

2. Since the active power losses are unknown in advance, the active power
generation of the Uθ bus is used to balance generation, load, and losses

In “normal” power systems PQ-buses or load buses are the far most common,
typically comprising more than 80% of all buses.
Other possible bus types are P, U, and PQU, with obvious definitions.
The use of multiple Uθ buses may also be required for certain applications.
In more general cases, the given values are not limited to the specific set of
buses (P, Q, U, θ), and branch related variables can also be specified.

Example 5.1. Figure 5.1 shows a 5-bus network with four transmission
lines and two transformers. Generators, with voltage control, are connected
at buses 1, 3, and 5, and loads are connected at buses 4 and 5, and at bus 4
a shunt is also connected. Classify the buses according to the bus types PU,
PQ and Uθ.

Solution Buses 1, 3, and 5 are all candidates for PU or Uθ bus types. Since
only one could be Uθ bus, we select (arbitrarily) bus 5 as Uθ. In a practical
system usually a generator, or generator station, that could produce power
within a large range is selected as reference or slack bus. It should be noted
that even if a load is connected to bus 5 it can only be a PU or Uθ bus, since
voltage control is available at the bus. The reference angle is set at bus 5,
usually to 0. Bus 2 is a transition bus in which both P and Q are equal to
zero, and this bus is consequently of type PQ. Bus 4 is a load bus to which
is also connected a shunt susceptance: since shunts are modelled as part of
the network, see next section, the bus is also classified as a PQ bus. 

5.2 Equality and Inequality Constraints

Eqs. (4.11) and (4.12) can be rewritten as follows
X
Pk = Pkm (Uk , Um , θk , θm ) (5.1)
m∈Ωk
X
Qk + Qsh
k (Uk ) = Qkm (Uk , Um , θk , θm ) (5.2)
m∈Ωk

where
 km

(b)

Pkm = (qk - q m ) x
km

5.2. Equality and Inequality Constraints 33

PU PQ PU
1 2 3

Uq PQ

5 4

Figure 5.1. 5-bus system

• k = 1, . . . , N (N is the number of buses in the network)

• Ωk : set of buses adjacent to k

• Uk , Um : voltage magnitudes at the terminal buses of branch k – m

• θk , θm : voltage angles at the terminal buses of branch k – m

• Pkm : active power flow from bus k to bus m

• Qkm : reactive power flow from bus k to bus m

• Qsh
k : component of reactive power injection due to the shunt element
at bus k (Qsh sh 2 sh
k = bk Um ), where bk is the shunt susceptance.
3

A set of inequality constraints imposes operating limits on variables such

as the reactive power injections at PU buses (generator buses), see section
2.5, and voltage magnitudes at PQ buses:

Qmin
k ≤ Qk ≤ Qmax
k (5.3)

Ukmin ≤ Uk ≤ Ukmax (5.4)

3
It is assumed here that all shunts are reactive without losses. If shunts with resistive
components should be included, then eq. (5.1) must be modified accordingly.
34 5. Basic Power Flow Problem

When no inequality constraints are violated, nothing is affected in the

power flow equations, but if a limit is violated, the bus status is changed
and it is enforced as an equality constraint at the limiting value. This
normally requires a change in bus type: if, for example, a Q limit of a PU
bus is violated, the bus is transformed into an PQ bus (Q is specified and
the U becomes a problem unknown). A similar procedure is adopted for
backing-off when ever appropriate. What is crucial is that bus type changes
must not affect solvability. Various other types of limits are also considered
in practical implementations, including branch current flows, branch power
flows, active power generation levels, transformer taps, phase shifter angles,
and area interchanges.

5.3 Problem Solvability

One problem in the definition of bus type (bus classification) is to guarantee

that the resulting set of power flow equations contains the same number of
equations as unknowns, as are normally necessary for solvability, although
not always sufficient. Consider a system with N buses, where NP U are of
type PU, NP Q are of type PQ, and one is of type Uθ. To fully specify
the state of the system we need to know the voltage magnitudes and volt-
age angles of all buses, i.e. in total 2N quantities. But the voltage angle
and voltage magnitude of the slack bus are given together with the voltage
magnitudes of NP U buses. Unknown are thus the voltage magnitudes of
the PQ buses, and the voltage angles of the PU and the PQ buses, giving
a total of NP U + 2NP Q unknown states. From the PU buses we get NP U
balance equations regarding active power injections, and from the PQ buses
2NP Q equations regarding active and reactive power injections, thus in total
NP U + 2NP Q equations, and hence equal to the number of unknowns, and
the necessary condition for solvability has been fulfilled.
Similar necessary conditions for solvability can be established when other
types of buses, such as P, U, and PQU buses, are used in the formulation of
the power flow problem.

Example 5.2. Consider again the 5-bus in Figure 5.1. Formulate the equal-
ity constraints of the system and the inequality constraints for the generator
buses.

Solution In this case N = 5, NP Q = 2, NP U = 2, and of course NU θ = 1.

The number of equations are thus: NP U + 2NP Q = 2 + 2 · 2 = 6, and these
5.3. Problem Solvability 35

are:

P1 = P12 + P15
P2 = P21 + P23 + P25
Q2 = Q21 + Q23 + Q25
P3 = P32 + P34
P4 = P43 + P45
Q4 + Qsh
4 = Q43 + Q45

In the above equations P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , Q2 , and Q4 are given. All the other

quantities are functions of the bus voltage magnitudes and phase angles, of
which U1 , U3 , and U5 and θ5 are given. The other six, i.e. U2 , U4 , θ1 , θ2 , θ3 ,
θ4 , in total 6 unknowns, can be solved from the above equations, and from
these all power flows and injections can be calculated.
The inequality constraints of the generator buses are:

Qmin
1 ≤ Q1 ≤ Qmax
1
Qmin
3 ≤ Q3 ≤ Qmax
3
Qmin
5 ≤ Q5 ≤ Qmax
5

The reactive limits above are derived from the generator capability curves as
explained in section 2.5. For the slack bus it must also be checked that the
injected active and reactive powers are within the range of the generator. If
not, the power generation of the other generators must be changed or the
voltage settings of these. 
36 5. Basic Power Flow Problem
6
Solution of the Power Flow Problem

In this chapter the basic methods to solve the non-linear power flow equations
are reviewed. Solution methods based on the observation that active and
reactive power flows are not so strongly coupled are introduced.

I N ALL REALISTIC CASES the power flow problem cannot be solved an-
alytically, and hence iterative solutions implemented in computers must
be used. In this chapter we will review two solutions methods, Gauss iter-
ation with a variant called Gauss-Seidel iterative method, and the Newton-
Raphson method.

6.1 Solution by Gauss-Seidel Iteration

Consider the power flow equations (5.1) and (5.2) which could be written in
complex form as
X
∗ ∗
Sk = Ek Ykm Em , k = 1, 2, . . . , N (6.1)
m∈K

which is a the same as eq. (4.10). The set K is the set of buses adjacent
(connected) to bus k, including bus k, and hence shunt admittances are
included in the summation. Furthermore Ek = Uk ejθk . This equation can
be rewritten as
" #
1 Sk X
Ek∗ = ∗ − ∗ ∗
Ykm Em , k = 1, 2, . . . , N (6.2)
Ykk Ek
m∈Ωk

where Ωk is the set of all buses connected to bus k excluding bus k. Taking
the complex conjugate of eq. (6.2) yields
" #
1 Sk∗ X
Ek = − Ykm Em , k = 1, 2, . . . , N (6.3)
Ykk Ek∗
m∈Ωk

37
38 6. Solution of the Power Flow Problem

Thus we get N − 1 algebraic (complex) equations in the complex variables

Ek in the form
E2 = h2 (E1 , E2 , . . . , EN )
E3 = h3 (E1 , E2 , . . . , EN ) (6.4)
..
.
EN = hN (E1 , E2 , . . . , EN )
where the functions hi are given by eq. (6.3). It is assumed here that bus
number 1 is the U θ bus, and hence E1 is given and we have no equation for
node 1. For PQ buses both the magnitude and angle of Ek are unknown,
while for PU buses only the angle is unknown. For PQ buses Sk is known,
while for PU buses only Pk is known. This will be discussed below in more
detail. In vector form eq. (6.4) can be written as
x = h(x) (6.5)
and based on this equation the following iterative scheme is proposed
xν+1 = h(xν ) , ν = 0, 1, . . . (6.6)
where the superscript indicates the iteration number. Thus starting with an
initial value x0 , the sequence
x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . (6.7)
is generated. If the sequence converges, i.e. xν → x∗ , then
x∗ = h(x∗ ) (6.8)
and x∗ is a solution of eq. (6.5).
The iteration is stopped when the norm of xν − h(xν ) is less than a
pre-determined value ε.
To start the iteration a first guess of x is needed. Usually, if no a priori
knowledge of the solution is known, one selects all unknown voltage magni-
tudes and phase angles equal to the ones of the reference bus, usually around
1 p.u. and phase angle = 0. This initial solution is often called a flat start.
The difference between Gauss and Gauss-Seidel iteration can be ex-
plained by considering eq. (6.6) with all components written out explicitly1
xν+1
2 = h2 (x1 , xν2 , . . . , xνN )
xν+1
3 = h3 (x1 , xν2 , . . . , xνN ) (6.9)
..
.
xν+1
N = hN (x1 , xν2 , . . . , xνN )
1
In this particular formulation x1 is the value of the complex voltage of the slack
bus and consequently known. For completeness we have included it as a variable in the
equations above, but it is actually known
6.2. Newton-Raphson Method 39

In carrying out the computation (normally by computer) we process the

equations from top to bottom. We now observe that when we solve for xν+1 3
we already know xν+1
2 . Since x2
ν+1
is presumably a better estimate than xν2 ,
it seems reasonable to use the updated value. Similarly when we solve for
xν+1
4 we can use the values of xν+1
2 and xν+1
3 . This is the line of reasoning
called the Gauss-Seidel iteration:

xν+1
2 = h2 (x1 , xν2 , . . . , xνN )
xν+1
3 = h3 (x1 , xν+1 ν
2 , . . . , xN ) (6.10)
..
.
xν+1
N = hN (x1 , xν+1 ν+1 ν
2 , . . . , xN −1 , xN )

It is clear that the convergence of the Gauss-Seidel iteration is faster than

the Gauss iteration scheme.
For PQ buses the complex power Sk is completely known and the cal-
culation of the right hand side of eq. (6.3) is well defined. For PU buses
however, Q is not defined but is determined so that the voltage magnitude
is kept at the specified value. In this case we have to estimate the reactive
power injection and an obvious choice is
" #
X
Qνk = ℑ Ekν ∗
Ykm (Em∗ ν
) (6.11)
m∈K

In the Gauss-Seidel iteration scheme one should use the latest calculated
values of Em . It should be clear that also for PU buses the above iteration
scheme gives a solution if it converges.
A problem with the Gauss and Gauss-Seidel iteration schemes is that
convergence can be very slow, and sometimes even the iteration does not
converge despite that a solution exists. Furthermore, no general results are
known concerning the the convergence characteristics and criteria. There-
fore more efficient solution methods are needed, and one such method that
is widely used in power flow computations is discussed in the subsequent
sections.

6.2 Newton-Raphson Method

Before applying this method to the power flow problem we review the iter-
ation scheme and some of its properties.
A system of nonlinear algebraic equations can be written as

f (x) = 0 (6.12)

where x is an n-vector of unknowns and f is an n-vector function of x. Given

an appropriate starting value x0 , the Newton-Raphson method solves this
 Qkm

40 6. Solution of the Power Flow Problem

f (x)

f ( x0)

f ( x1)

x
x2 x1 x0

Figure 6.1. Newton-Raphson method in one-dimensional case

f (x)

vector equation by generating the following sequence:

f ( x0)
J(xν )∆xν = −f (xν )
(6.13)
ν+1 ν ν
x = x + ∆x
1
where J(xν ) =f ∂f
( x(x)/∂x
) is the Jacobian matrix with elements

∂fi x
Jij = (6.14)
∂xj
x2 x1 x0
6.2.1 One-dimensional case
To get a better feeling for the method we first study the one-dimensional
case, and eq. (6.12) becomes
f (x) = 0 (6.15)

where x is the unknown and f (x) is a scalar function. Figure 6.1 illustrates
a simple case in which there is a single solution to eq. (6.15). Under these
circumstances, the following algorithm can be used to find the solution of
eq. (6.15):

1. Set ν = 0 and choose an appropriate starting value x0 ;

2. Compute f (xν );