SUPPLY AND DEMAND : HOW MARKETS WORK

Chapter 4 : The Market Forces of Supply and Demand

•Supply and demand are the two words that economists use most often.
•Supply and demand are the forces that make market economies work.
•Modern microeconomics is about supply, demand, and market equilibrium.

MARKETS AND COMPETITION

A market is a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or service.
•The terms supply and demand refer to the behavior of people . . . as they interact with
one another in markets.
Buyers determine demand
Sellers determine supply

Competitive Markets
•A competitive market is a market in which there are many buyers and sellers so that each
has a negligible impact on the market price.
•Perfect Competition
•Products are the same
•Numerous buyers and sellers so that each has no influence over price
•Buyers and Sellers are price takers
•Monopoly
•One seller, and seller controls price
•Oligopoly
•Few sellers
•Not always aggressive competition
•Monopolistic Competition
•Many sellers
•Slightly differentiated products
•Each seller may set price for its own product

DEMAND
•Quantity demanded is the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase.
Law of Demand
•The law of demand states that, other things equal, the quantity demanded of a good falls
when the price of the good rises.

The Demand Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity

Demanded
•Demand Schedule
•The demand schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of the good
and the quantity demanded.

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 Catherine’s Demand Schedule

The Demand Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity

Demanded
•Demand Curve
•The demand curve is a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the
quantity demanded.

Market Demand versus Individual Demand

•Market demand refers to the sum of all individual demands for a particular good or
service.
•Graphically, individual demand curves are summed horizontally to obtain the market
demand curve.

Price of Ice-Cream Cone

$3.00

2.50

1. A decrease
2.00
in price ...

1.50

1.00

0.50

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones
2. .. increases quantity
of cones demanded.
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 Shifts in the Demand Curve
•Change in Quantity Demanded
•Movement along the demand curve.
•Caused by a change in the price of the product.

Changes in Quantity Demanded

Price of Ice-Cream
Cones

B
$2.00

1.00 A
D

0 4 8
Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones
Price of Ice cream
Cone

Increase
in demand

Decrease
in demand
Demand
curve, D
Demand
2
curve, D
Demand curve, D
1
3
0 Quantity of ice-cream cone

3
 Shifts in the Demand Curve
•Consumer income
•Prices of related goods
•Tastes
•Expectations
•Number of buyers

Price of Ice-
Cream Cone
$3.00 An increase in
income...
2.50
Increase Consumer Income:
2.00 in demand Normal Good

1.50

1.00

0.50 D2
D1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Quantity of Ice-Cream
Price of Ice-Cream Cones
Cone
$3.00 An increase in
income...
2.50

2.00 Decrease Consumer Income:

in demand Inferior Good
1.50

1.00

0.50
D2
D1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of Ice-Cream
Cones

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•Change in Demand
•A shift in the demand curve, either to the left or right.
•Caused by any change that alters the quantity demanded at every price.
•Consumer Income
•As income increases the demand for a normal good will increase.
•As income increases the demand for an inferior good will decrease.

•Prices of Related Goods

•When a fall in the price of one good reduces the demand for another good, the two
goods are called substitutes.
•When a fall in the price of one good increases the demand for another good, the two
goods are called complements.

Table 1 Variables That Influence Buyers

SUPPLY
•Quantity supplied is the amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sell.
•Law of Supply
•The law of supply states that, other things equal, the quantity supplied of a good rises
when the price of the good rises.

The Supply Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity Supplied
•Supply Schedule
•The supply schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of the good
and the quantity supplied.
Ben’s Supply Schedule

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 •Supply Curve
•The supply curve is the graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the
quantity supplied.

Market Supply versus Individual Supply

•Market supply refers to the sum of all individual supplies for all sellers of a particular
good or service.
•Graphically, individual supply curves are summed horizontally to obtain the market
supply curve.

Shifts in the Supply Curve

•Input prices
•Technology
•Expectations
•Number of sellers
•Change in Quantity Supplied
•Movement along the supply curve.
•Caused by a change in anything that alters the quantity supplied at each price.

Price of ice-cream
cone

$3.00

2.50
1
increase
in price 2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Quantity of Ice-Cream
Cones
2. increases quantity of cones supplied.

•Change in Supply
•A shift in the supply curve, either to the left or right.
•Caused by a change in a determinant other than price.

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 Price of Ice- S
Cream Cone
C
$3.00
A rise in the price
of ice cream cones
results in a
movement along
A the supply curve.
1.00

Quantity of Ice-
Cream Cones
0 1 5

Price of Ice-
Supply S Supply
Cream Cone 3 curve,S
1 Supply
Decrease curve,S2
in supply

Increase
in supply

0 Quantity of Ice-
Cream Cones

Table 2 Variables That Influence Sellers

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 SUPPLY AND DEMAND TOGETHER
•Equilibrium refers to a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity
supplied equals quantity demanded.
•Equilibrium Price•The price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demanded.
•On a graph, it is the price at which the supply and demand curves intersect.
•Equilibrium Quantity•The quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the
equilibrium price.
•On a graph it is the quantity at which the supply and demand curves intersect.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND TOGETHER

Demand Schedule Supply Schedule

At $2.00, the quantity demanded is equal to

the quantity supplied
Equilibrium
•Surplus•When price > equilibrium price, then quantity supplied > quantity demanded.
•There is excess supply or a surplus.
•Suppliers will lower the price to increase sales, thereby moving toward equilibrium.
•Shortage•When price < equilibrium price, then quantity demanded > the quantity
supplied.
•There is excess demand or a shortage.
• Suppliers will raise the price due to too many buyers chasing too few goods, thereby
moving toward equilibrium.
•Law of supply and demand•The claim that the price of any good adjusts to bring the
quantity supplied and the quantity demanded for that good into balance.

Three Steps to Analyzing Changes in Equilibrium

•Decide whether the event shifts the supply or demand curve (or both).
•Decide whether the curve(s) shift(s) to the left or to the right.
•Use the supply-and-demand diagram to see how the shift affects equilibrium price and
quantity.

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Price of Ice-
Cream Cone
surplus
Supply

Equilibrium price Equilibrium

$2.00

shortage
Equilibrium Demand
quantity

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones
Price of Ice-
Cream Cone 1. Hot weather increases
the demand for ice cream . . .

Supply

$2.50 New equilibrium

2.00
2. . . . Initial
in a higher
equilibrium
price . . .
D

0 7 10 Quantity of Ice-Cream
3. . . .and a higher Cones
quantity sold.
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 •Shifts in Curves versus Movements along Curves
•A shift in the supply curve is called a change in supply.
•A movement along a fixed supply curve is called a change in quantity supplied.
•A shift in the demand curve is called a change in demand.
•A movement along a fixed demand curve is called a change in quantity demanded.

Price of Ice-
1. An increase in the
Cream Cone
price of sugar reduces
the supply of ice cream. . .
S
S

New
$2.50 equilibrium

Initial equilibrium
2.00

2. . . .
in a higher
price of ice
cream . . . Demand

0 4 7 Quantity of Ice-
3.. . and
. a lower Cream Cones
quantity sold.

Table 4 What Happens to Price and Quantity When Supply or Demand

Shifts?

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Summary
•Economists use the model of supply and demand to analyze competitive markets.
•In a competitive market, there are many buyers and sellers, each of whom has little or no
influence on the market price.
•The demand curve shows how the quantity of a good depends upon the price.
•According to the law of demand, as the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded
rises. Therefore, the demand curve slopes downward.
•In addition to price, other determinants of how much consumers want to buy include
income, the prices of complements and substitutes, tastes, expectations, and the number
of buyers.
•If one of these factors changes, the demand curve shifts.
•The supply curve shows how the quantity of a good supplied depends upon the price.
•According to the law of supply, as the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied rises.
Therefore, the supply curve slopes upward.
•In addition to price, other determinants of how much producers want to sell include
input prices, technology, expectations, and the number of sellers.
•If one of these factors changes, the supply curve shifts.
•Market equilibrium is determined by the intersection of the supply and demand curves.
•At the equilibrium price, the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.
•The behavior of buyers and sellers naturally drives markets toward their equilibrium.
•To analyze how any event influences a market, we use the supply-and-demand diagram
to examine how the even affects the equilibrium price and quantity.
•In market economies, prices are the signals that guide economic decisions and thereby
allocate resources.

Chapter 5: Elasticity and Its Applications

Elasticity . . .
• … allows us to analyze supply and demand with greater precision.
••… is a measure of how much buyers and sellers respond to changes in market
conditions

THE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

•Price elasticity of demand is a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good
responds to a change in the price of that good.
•Price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in quantity demanded given a
percent change in the price.

The Price Elasticity of Demand and Its Determinants

•Availability of Close Substitutes
•Necessities versus Luxuries
•Definition of the Market
•Time Horizon
•Demand tends to be more elastic :
•the larger the number of close substitutes.
•if the good is a luxury.

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•the more narrowly defined the market.
•the longer the time period.

Computing the Price Elasticity of Demand

•The price elasticity of demand is computed as the percentage change in the quantity
demanded divided by the percentage change in price.
Percentage change in quantity demanded
Price elasticity of demand =
Percentage change in price

•Example: If the price of an ice cream cone increases from $2.00 to $2.20 and the amount
you buy falls from 10 to 8 cones, then your elasticity of demand would be calculated as:

(10 − 8)
× 100 20%
10 = =2
(2.20 − 2.00) 10%
× 100
2.00
The Midpoint Method: A Better Way to Calculate Percentage Changes and
Elasticities
•The midpoint formula is preferable when calculating the price elasticity of demand
because it gives the same answer regardless of the direction of the change.
(Q 2 − Q1 ) / [(Q 2 + Q1 ) / 2]
Price elasticity of demand =
(P2 − P1 ) / [(P2 + P1 ) / 2]

•Example: If the price of an ice cream cone increases from $2.00 to $2.20 and the amount
you buy falls from 10 to 8 cones, then your elasticity of demand, using the midpoint
formula, would be calculated as:

(10 − 8)
(10 + 8) / 2 22%
= = 2.32
(2.20 − 2.00) 9.5%
(2.00 + 2.20) / 2

The Variety of Demand Curves

•Inelastic Demand
•Quantity demanded does not respond strongly to price changes.
•Price elasticity of demand is less than one.
•Elastic Demand
•Quantity demanded responds strongly to changes in price.
•Price elasticity of demand is greater than one.

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 Computing the Price Elasticity of Demand
(100 - 50)
(100 + 50)/2
ED =
Price (4.00 - 5.00)
(4.00 + 5.00)/2
$5
67 percent
4 = = -3
- 22 percent
Demand

Demand is price elastic

0 50 100 Quantity

•Perfectly Inelastic
•Quantity demanded does not respond to price changes.
•Perfectly Elastic
•Quantity demanded changes infinitely with any change in price.
•Unit Elastic
•Quantity demanded changes by the same percentage as the price.
•Because the price elasticity of demand measures how much quantity demanded responds
to the price, it is closely related to the slope of the demand curve.

(a) Perfectly Inelastic Demand: Elasticity Equals 0

Price
Demand

$5

1. An increase in price

100 Quantity
0
2. . . . leaves the quantity demanded unchanged.

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 (b) Inelastic Demand: Elasticity Is Less Than 1

Price

$5

4
1. A 22% Demand
increase
in price . . .

0 90 100 Quantity
2. . . . leads to an 11% decrease in quantity demanded.

(c) Unit Elastic Demand: Elasticity Equals

Price

$5

4
1. A
increase Demand
in price . .

0 80 100 Quantity

2. . . . leads to a 22% decrease in quantity

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 (d) Elastic Demand: Elasticity Is Greater Than 1

Price

$5

4 Demand
1. A 22%
increase
in price . . .

0 50 100 Quantity

2. . . . leads to a 67% decrease in quantity demanded.

(e) Perfectly Elastic Demand: Elasticity Equals Infinity

Price

1. At any price
above $4, quantity
demanded is zero.

$4 Demand

2. At exactly $4,
consumers will
buy any quantity.

0 Quantity
3. At a price below $4,
quantity demanded is infinite.

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 Total Revenue and the Price Elasticity of Demand
•Total revenue is the amount paid by buyers and received by sellers of a good.
•Computed as the price of the good times the quantity sold.
TR = P x Q

Price

$4

P×Q=
P
(revenue) Demand

100 Quantity
0
Q
Elasticity and Total Revenue along a Linear Demand Curve
•With an inelastic demand curve, an increase in price leads to a decrease in quantity that
is proportionately smaller. Thus, total revenue increases.

Figure 3 How Total Revenue Changes When Price Changes: Inelastic

Demand

Price Price
An Increase in price from $1 … leads to an Increase in total
to $3 … revenue from $100 to $240

$3

Revenue =
$1 $240
Revenue = $100 Demand Demand

0 100 Quantity 0 80 Quantity

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 Elasticity and Total Revenue along a Linear Demand Curve
•With an elastic demand curve, an increase in the price leads to a decrease in quantity
demanded that is proportionately larger. Thus, total revenue decreases.

Figure 4 How Total Revenue Changes When Price Changes: Elastic

Demand

Price Price

An Increase in price … leads to an decrease in

from $4 total revenue from $200 to
to $5 … $100

$5

$4
Demand
Demand

Revenue = Revenue =
$200 $100

0 50 Quantity 0 20 Quantity

Elasticity of a Linear Demand Curve

Income Elasticity of Demand

•Income elasticity of demand measures how much the quantity demanded of a good
responds to a change in consumers’ income.
•It is computed as the percentage change in the quantity demanded divided by the
percentage change in income.

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 Computing Income Elasticity

Percentage change
in quantity demanded
Income elasticity of demand =
Percentage change
in income

Income Elasticity
•Types of Goods
•Normal Goods
•Inferior Goods
•Higher income raises the quantity demanded for normal goods but lowers the quantity
demanded for inferior goods.
•Goods consumers regard as necessities tend to be income inelastic
•Examples include food, fuel, clothing, utilities, and medical services.
•Goods consumers regard as luxuries tend to be income elastic.
•Examples include sports cars, furs, and expensive foods.

THE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

•Price elasticity of supply is a measure of how much the quantity supplied of a good
responds to a change in the price of that good.
•Price elasticity of supply is the percentage change in quantity supplied resulting from a
percent change in price.
•

(a) Perfectly Inelastic Supply: Elasticity Equals 0

Price
Supply

$5

4
1. An
increase
in price . . .

0 100 Quantity

2. . . . leaves the quantity supplied unchanged.

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 (b) Inelastic Supply: Elasticity Is Less Than 1

Price

Supply

$5
1. A 22%
increase 4
in price . . .

100 110 Quantity

0
2. . . . leads to a 10% increase in quantity supplied.

(c) Unit Elastic Supply: Elasticity Equals 1

Price

Supply
$5

4
1. A 22%
increase
in price . . .

0 100 125 Quantity

2. . . . leads to a 22% increase in quantity supplied.

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 (d) Elastic Supply: Elasticity Is Greater Than 1
Price

Supply

$5

4
1. A 22%
increase
in price . . .

0 100 200 Quantity

2. . . . leads to a 67% increase in quantity supplied.

(e) Perfectly Elastic Supply: Elasticity Equals Infinity

Price

1. At any price
above $4, quantity
supplied is infinite.

$4 Supply

2. At exactly $4,
producers will
supply any quantity.

0 Quantity
3. At a price below $4,
quantity supplied is zero.

Determinants of Elasticity of Supply

•Ability of sellers to change the amount of the good they produce.
•Beach-front land is inelastic.
•Books, cars, or manufactured goods are elastic.
•Time period.
•Supply is more elastic in the long run.

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 Computing the Price Elasticity of Supply
•The price elasticity of supply is computed as the percentage change in the quantity
supplied divided by the percentage change in price.

Percentage change
in quantity supplied
Price elasticity of supply =
Percentage change in price

THREE APPLICATIONS OF SUPPLY, DEMAND, AND ELASTICITY

•Can good news for farming be bad news for farmers?
•What happens to wheat farmers and the market for wheat when university agronomists
discover a new wheat hybrid that is more productive than existing varieties?
•Examine whether the supply or demand curve shifts.
•Determine the direction of the shift of the curve.
•Use the supply-and-demand diagram to see how the market equilibrium changes.

Figure 8 An Increase in Supply in the Market for Wheat

Price of
Wheat 1. When demand is inelastic,
2. . . . leads an increase in supply ...
to a large fall S1
in price . . . S2

$3

Demand

100 110 Quantity of

0
Wheat
3. . . . and a proportionately smaller
increase in quantity sold. As a result,
revenue falls from $300 to $220.

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Compute the Price Elasticity of Supply
100 − 110
(100 + 110) / 2
ED =
3.00 − 2.00
( 3.00 + 2.00) / 2

=
−0.095
≈ −0.24 Supply is inelastic
0.4

Summary
•Price elasticity of demand measures how much the quantity demanded responds to
changes in the price.
•Price elasticity of demand is calculated as the percentage change in quantity demanded
divided by the percentage change in price.
•If a demand curve is elastic, total revenue falls when the price rises.
•If it is inelastic, total revenue rises as the price rises.
•The income elasticity of demand measures how much the quantity demanded responds
to changes in consumers’ income.
•The cross-price elasticity of demand measures how much the quantity demanded of one
good responds to the price of another good.
•The price elasticity of supply measures how much the quantity supplied responds to
changes in the price. .
•In most markets, supply is more elastic in the long run than in the short run.
•The price elasticity of supply is calculated as the percentage change in quantity supplied
divided by the percentage change in price.
•The tools of supply and demand can be applied in many different types of markets.

Supply, Demand, and Government Policies

Supply, Demand, and Government Policies

•In a free, unregulated market system, market forces establish equilibrium prices and
exchange quantities.
•While equilibrium conditions may be efficient, it may be true that not everyone is
satisfied.
•One of the roles of economists is to use their theories to assist in the development of
policies.

CONTROLS ON PRICES
•Are usually enacted when policymakers believe the market price is unfair to buyers or
sellers.
•Result in government-created price ceilings and floors.
•Price Ceiling •A legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold. •Price
Floor•A legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold.

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How Price Ceilings Affect Market Outcomes
•Two outcomes are possible when the government imposes a price ceiling:
•The price ceiling is not binding if set above the equilibrium price.
•The price ceiling is binding if set below the equilibrium price, leading to a shortage.

Figure 1 A Market with a Price Ceiling

(a) A Price Ceiling That Is Not Binding

Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone
Supply

$4 Price
ceiling
3
Equilibrium
price

Demand

0 100 Quantity of
Equilibrium Ice-Cream
quantity Cones
Figure 1 A Market with a Price Ceiling

(b) A Price Ceiling That Is Binding

Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone
Supply

Equilibrium
price

$3

2 Price
Shortage ceiling

Demand

0 75 125 Quantity of
Quantity Quantity Ice-Cream
supplied demanded Cones
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How Price Ceilings Affect Market Outcomes
•Effects of Price Ceilings
•A binding price ceiling creates
• shortages because QD > QS.
•Example: Gasoline shortage of the 1970s
• nonprice rationing
•Examples: Long lines, discrimination by sellers

How Price Floors Affect Market Outcomes

•When the government imposes a price floor, two outcomes are possible.
•The price floor is not binding if set below the equilibrium price.
•The price floor is binding if set above the equilibrium price, leading to a surplus.

Figure 4 A Market with a Price Floor

(a) A Price Floor That Is Not Binding

Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone Supply

Equilibrium
price

$3
Price
floor
2

Demand

0 100 Quantity of
Equilibrium Ice-Cream
quantity Cones

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Figure 4 A Market with a Price Floor

(b) A Price Floor That Is Binding

Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone Supply

Surplus
$4
Price
floor
3

Equilibrium
price

Demand

0 80 120 Quantity of
Quantity Quantity Ice-Cream
demanded supplied Cones

How Price Floors Affect Market Outcomes

•A price floor prevents supply and demand from moving toward the equilibrium price
and quantity.
•When the market price hits the floor, it can fall no further, and the market price equals
the floor price.
•A binding price floor causes . . .
• a surplus because QS > QD.
• nonprice rationing is an alternative mechanism for rationing the good, using
discrimination criteria.
•Examples: The minimum wage, agricultural price supports

The Minimum Wage

•An important example of a price floor is the minimum wage. Minimum wage laws
dictate the lowest price possible for labor that any employer may pay.

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 Figure 5 How the Minimum Wage Affects the Labor Market
Wage

Labor
Supply

Equilibrium
wage

Labor
demand
0 Equilibrium Quantity of
employment Labor

Figure 5 How the Minimum Wage Affects the Labor Market

Wage

Labor
Supply
Labor surplus
(unemployment)
Minimum
wage

Labor
demand
0 Quantity Quantity Quantity of
demanded supplied Labor

TAXES
•Governments levy taxes to raise revenue for public projects.

How Taxes on Buyers (and Sellers) Affect Market Outcomes

•Taxes discourage market activity.

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•When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller.
•Buyers and sellers share the tax burden.

Summary
•Price controls include price ceilings and price floors.
• A price ceiling is a legal maximum on the price of a good or service. An example is
rent control.
•A price floor is a legal minimum on the price of a good or a service. An example is the
minimum wage.
•Taxes are used to raise revenue for public purposes.
•When the government levies a tax on a good, the equilibrium quantity of the good falls

SUMBER RUJUKAN

N. Gregory Mankiw. 2007. Principle of Economics, 4th Edition, Thomson South-

Western

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