Polynomials

Aditya Ghosh

First we shall do a quick recap of some theorems and results about polynomials. Suppose
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial (an 6= 0). an is called the leading
coefficient and n is called the degree of the polynomial (denoted by deg P ). The constant 0
is considered to be the zero polynomial. In this note we shall assume that the degree of zero
polynomial is undefined.
1. Division algorithm for Polynomials: Given any polynomial A(x) and a non-zero polyno-
mial B(x), there exist unique polynomials Q(x) and R(x) such that A(x) = B(x)Q(x)+
R(x) with deg R < deg B.
◦ If A(x), B(x) are polynomials with rational/real/complex coefficients, then so are Q(x)
and R(x). However, if A, B have integer coefficients then it is not neccesary that Q, R
have integer coefficients.
◦ If A, B have integer coefficients with leading coefficient of B being 1 or −1, then Q, R
must have integer coefficients.
2. Divisibility: A polynomial A(x) is divisible by a polynomial B(x) if there exists a non-
zero polynomial Q(x) such that A(x) = B(x)Q(x), and we denote it by B(x) | A(x).
(This notation looks same as the notation for divisibility of integers; but the meaning is
different: when we say (x − 1) | (x2 − 1), we mean that (x − 1) is a factor of (x2 − 1).
One should not interpret it as “the number (x − 1) divides the number (x2 − 1) for every
x ∈ R”.) One trivial but useful fact is that, if Q(x) | P (x) then deg Q ≤ deg P.
3. Remainder Theorem: If P (x) is divided by (x − a), the remainder will be P (a).
4. Factor Theorem: If P (a) = 0 then (x − a) divides P (x). In other words, (x − a) appears
as a factor in P (x). If P (a) = 0, We say that ‘x = a is a root of the equation P (x) = 0’
or that ‘x = a is a zero of the polynomial P (x).’
5. For any polynomial P (x), we have a − b | P (a) − P (b). This result is seen to be very
helpful when we are dealing with polynomials with integer coefficients.
6. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: Every polynomial P (x) of degree n with complex
coefficients has exactly n complex roots. It can be uniquely factorised as :
P (x) = a(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) . . . (x − rn ).

Note, the roots r1 , . . . , rn need not be distinct, they are counted with their multiplicities.
7. Vieta’s Formulas: Let P (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial with complex
coefficients (an 6= 0) and suppose r1 , . . . , rn are roots of P (x) = 0. Then
X an−1 X an−2
rk = r1 +· · ·+rn = − , rj rk = r1 r2 +r1 r3 +· · ·+rn−1 rn = etc.
1≤k≤n
an 1≤j<k≤n
an

In general, for each k = 1, 2, . . . , n,

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 8. If P (x) is a polynomial with integer coefficients such that P (0), P (1) are both odd
integers then P (x) = 0 does not have any integer root.
9. Rational Root Theorem: Suppose P (x) is a polynomial with integer coefficients such
that m/n is a rational root of the equation P (x) = 0. (m, n are coprime integers, n 6= 0.)
Then the leading coefficient of P (x) must be divisible by n and the constant term must
be divisible by m.
√
10. If P (x)
√ is a polynomial with rational coefficients and a +√ b is a root of P (x) = 0 then
a − b is also a root. Here a ∈ Z and b ∈ N such that b is irrational.
11. If P (x) is a polynomial with real coefficients and P (z) = 0 for some z ∈ C, then
P (z) = 0. (Recall, if z = a + ib (a, b ∈ R) then z = a − ib.)
12. Any polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients must have at least one real root.
Problems
1. For a, b, c ∈ R, prove that the equation (x−a)(x−b)+(x−b)(x−c)+(x−c)(x−a) = 0
always has real roots and the roots are equal if and only if a = b = c.
2. Solve the equation for x: 6x4 − 25x3 + 12x2 + 25x + 6 = 0.
3. Solve the equation for real x: (x2 + x − 2)3 + (2x2 − x − 1)3 = 27(x2 − 1)3 .
4. Suppose k is a real number such that the equations x2 − 4x + k = 0 and x2 + kx − 4 = 0
have exactly one common root. Find the value of k.
5. Let f (x) = x3 − 3x + b and g(x) = x2 + bx − 3, where b ∈ R. What is the sum of all
possible values of b such that f (x) = 0 and g(x) = 0 have a common root?
6. Suppose that the polynomial f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + ax + 15 has three roots, two of which
sum to 8. What is the value of (−a)?
7. Prove that ax2 + bx + c = 0 does not have any rational root if a, b, c are all odd integers.
8. Suppose a, b are integers and b 6= −1. Show that if x2 + ax + b + 1 = 0 has an integer
root then a2 + b2 must be composite.
9. If a 6= b, c 6= 0 and if the equations x2 + ax + bc = 0 and x2 + bx + ca = 0 have a
common root, then their other roots satisfy x2 + cx + ab = 0.
10. Suppose P (x) is a polynomial with P (2) = 2017 and P (5) = 2002. If it is given that
P (x) = 0 has exactly one integer root, find that root.
11. Suppose 1, 2, 3 are roots of x4 + ax2 + bx = c. Find value of c.
12. Suppose all roots of the equation x4 − 4x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 = 0 are positive real numbers.
Find the value of (a + b).
13. Suppose that f (x) = x4 +ax3 +bx2 +cx+d is a polynomial such that f (1) = 10, f (2) =
20, and f (3) = 30. Find the value of f (12) + f (−8).
14. Suppose that the roots of x2 + αx − a = 0 are β, γ, and the roots of x2 + βx − b = 0
are γ, α. If 2(a + b + c) = α2 + β 2 + γ 2 , show that the roots of x2 + γx − c = 0 must
be α, β.

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15. Let f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c and g(x) = x3 + bx2 + cx + a where a, b, c ∈ Z, c 6= 0.
Suppose f (1) = 0 and roots of g(x) = 0 are squares of the roots of f (x) = 0. Find the
value of a2019 + b2019 + c2019 .
16. Find all real roots of the equation

(x + 1)2017 + (x + 1)2016 (x − 1) + (x + 1)2015 (x − 1)2 + · · · + (x − 1)2017 = 0.

17. A polynomial P (x) with degree n satisfies P (k) = k/(k + 1) for k = 0, 1, . . . , n. Find
the value of P (n + 1).
18. Let P (x) = x3 +ax2 +b and Q(x) = x3 +bx+a, where a, b, c are non-zero real numbers.
Suppose roots of P (x) = 0 are reciprocals of the roots of Q(x) = 0. Prove that a, b
must be integers. Also, find the gcd of P (2019! + 1) and Q(2019! + 1).
19. Let P (x) be a nonzero polynomial such that (x − 1)P (x + 1) = (x + 2)P (x) holds for
every x ∈ R, and P (2)2 = P (3). Find P (x).
20. Find all polynomials P (x) that satisfies xP (x − 1) = (x − 7)P (x) for all x ∈ R.
21. Find all polynomials P (x) such that P (x + 1) = P (x) + 2x + 1 holds for all x ∈ R.
22. Find all polynomials p(x) such that (p(x))2 = 1 + xp(x + 1) holds for every x ∈ R.
23. Find all values of a ∈ R such that x4 − 2ax2 + x + a2 − a = 0 has only real roots.
24. Let n be any integer. Show that the equation x2 + 7x − 14(n2 + 1) = 0 does not have
any integer root.
25. Let P (x) = x2 + 12 x+b and Q(x) = x2 +cx+d be two polynomials with real coefficients
such that, P (x)Q(x) = Q(P (x)) for every x ∈ R. Find all real roots of P (Q(x)) = 0.
26. Let f (x) be a quadratic polynomial. Prove that there exists quadratic polynomials g(x)
and h(x) such that f (x)f (x + 1) = g(h(x)).
27. Show that for all real numbers x, y, z satisfying x + y + z = 0 and xy + yz + zx = −3,
the value of the expression x3 y + y 3 z + z 3 x is a constant.
28. Suppose m, n are integers such that x2 + mx − n = 0 and x2 − mx + n = 0 both have
integer roots. Show that n must be divisible by 6.
29. Let P (x) = a0 xn + · · · + an−1 x + an be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Suppose
the equation P (x) = 0 has n distinct integer roots which are pairwisely coprime. Then
prove that an−1 and an must be coprime.
30. Show that there can not exist polynomial P (x) with integer coefficients such that for
some a, b, c ∈ Z, P (a) = b, P (b) = c, P (c) = a.
31. Prove that there does not exist a non-constant polynomial P (x) with integer coefficients
such that P (n) is prime number for each non-negative integer n.
32. A Polynomial h(x) having integer coefficients is called ‘cute’ if it can be expressed as
h(x) = f (x)2 + g(x)2 where f, g are polynomials with integer coefficients. Suppose
P (x) is a cute polynomial with P (0) = 2000. Prove that P (x) + 2x can not be a cute
polynomial.