J G9268 Fs DOu TSWMKKWH K

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
STANDARD TEN
SOCIAL SCIENCE
Vol- I
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2019
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II

Table of Contents
History
Unit 1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01
Unit 2 The World between two World Wars 19
Unit 3 World war II 34
Unit 4 The World after World War II 49
Unit 5 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century 67
Geography
Unit 1 India - Location, Relief and Drainage 82
Unit 2 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 98
Unit 3 Components of Agriculture 112
Unit 4 Resources and Industries 132
Unit 5 India - Population, Transport, Communication and Trade 150
Civics
Unit 1 Indian Constitution 169
Unit 2 Central Government 180
Unit 3 State Government 195
Economics
Unit 1 Gross Domestic Product and its Growth: an Introduction 210
Unit 2 Globalization and Trade 224
III

HOW TO USE THE BOOK
Learning Objectives
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Introduction
The subject to be discussed in the lesson is Introduced
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video aids for getting experiential learning
Do You Know?
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subject in boxes to stir up the curiosity of students
Infographs
Visual representations intended to make the complex simple and
make the students grasp difﬁcult concepts easily
Fun with History

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Summary
Describes the main points brieﬂy in bullets for recapitulation
Exercise
For self-study and self evaluation
Glossary
Key words and technical terms
explained at the end of the lesson for clarity
Reference
List of books and net sources for further reading
ICT Corner
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IV

Unit - 1
Outbreak of
World War I and
Its Aftermath
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with
The race for colonies leading to rivalry and clashes among the great powers of Europe
Emergence of Japan as the strongest and most aggressive power in East Asia
Colonialism's impact on Africa
Causes, course and results of the First World War
Treaty of Versailles and its provisions
Causes, course and outcome of the Russian Revolution
Foundation, functioning and failure of the League of Nations
Introduction 1.1 Scramble for Colonies

1914 is a turning point in world history. The Capitalist Countries’ Race for
political and social processes that began in 1789 Markets
culminated in the First World War that broke
The aim of capitalistic industry was
out in that year and decisively shaped the course
to produce more and more. The surplus
of the twentieth century. Historians therefore
wealth thus produced was used to build more
call this as ‘the long nineteenth century’. This
factories, railways, steamships and other such
was the first industrial war that drew on the
undertakings. Revolution in the means of
economic resources of the entire world, and also
communication and transportation in the latter
affected large sections of the civilian population.
half of the nineteenth century facilitated the
The political map of the world was redrawn.
process of European expansion in Africa and
Three major empires lay shattered by the end
other places.
of the War: Germany, Austria–Hungary, and
the Ottomans. The biggest outcome of the War Capitalism produced huge contrasts. The
was the Russian Revolution. It was a unique contrasts were: extreme poverty and extreme
event as well as the first revolution of its kind wealth, slum and skyscraper, empire-state and
in world history. For the first time, countries dependent exploited colony. A striking feature
tried to bring about world peace through the of nineteenth century was that Europe emerged
League of Nations. In this lesson, we discuss the as the dominant power while Asia and Africa
circumstances leading to the outbreak of the were colonized and exploited. Within Europe,
First World War and its repercussions, including England held a pre-eminent position as the
the Russian Revolution and the formation of an world leader of capitalism. An ever-growing
international peace organisation, namely the demand for markets and raw materials made
League of Nations.
1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

the capitalist powers race around the world for been colonised. Only Africa was left. The
expanding their empire for exploitation. occupation, division and colonisation of Africa
took place from 1881 to 1914. The industrial
Rise of Monopoly Capitalism achievements of Germany in the latter half of
After 1870, the alliance of industry and the nineteenth century gave her a dominating
finance seeking profits in markets for goods and position in Europe. But when Germany came
capital, which was an essential characteristic of on the scene the avenues of exploitation were
imperialism, became evident in the latter half limited, as the world was largely occupied by
of the nineteenth century. The old ideas of free the other imperialist powers. As there was
trade collapsed. There were trusts in the USA and nowhere else to expand, the imperialist powers
cartels in Germany. These powerful combines and tried to grab other’s possession. After 1870,
corporations dominated governments. England, France, Belgium, Italy and Germany
joined in the scramble for colonies.
A trust is an industrial organisation
engaged in the production or distribution Clashes amongst Great Powers
of any commodity. The trust would possess Despite the lead in industrial growth and
adequate control over the supply and price the control of a vast empire England was not
of that commodity to its own advantage. satisfied. England was in competition with
The term cartel refers to an association Germany and the United States, which were
based upon a contractual agreement producing cheaper manufactured goods and
between enterprisers in the same field of thus capturing England’s markets. National
business. The objective was to exercise a rivalry led to frequent clashes between these
monopolistic influence on the market. great powers in Asia and Africa and Europe.
Imperialism and its Essential The imperialist urge of the period is

Characteristics best illustrated by the following statement
of Cecil Rhodes, Imperialist Prime Minister
Capitalism inevitably led to imperialism. of South Africa, ‘The world is nearly all
According to Lenin, imperialism is the highest parcelled out, and what there is left of it is
stage of capitalism. Besides being a market being divided up, conquered, and colonised.
for surplus goods, colonies served another To think of these stars that you see overhead
purpose. Large-scale mass production at night, these vast worlds which we can
needed vast supplies of raw materials. never reach. I would annexe the planets if I
Rubber, oil, nitrates, sugar, cotton, tropical could; I often think of that. It makes me sad
foodstuffs, mineral, etc., were raw materials to see them so clear and yet so far.’
which were necessary to monopoly capitalists
everywhere. The need to control the sources
Asia: The Rise of Japan
of raw materials inevitably led to imperialism.
Imperialism was not just about colonies. It In Asia, Japan during this period
became a total system, the logic of which was (Meiji era from 1867 to 1912), imitating
total militarisation and total war. Western nations had become their equal in
many respects. Though the outlook of the
1.2 Rivalry of Great Powers rulers still remained feudal, Japan took to
Western education and machinery. With a
Europe modern army and navy, Japan had emerged
In the nineteenth century, European as an advanced industrialised power. In
powers had colonised many other countries. imperialistic aggressions also Japan followed
By1880, most of the Asian countries had the Europe. In 1894 she forced a war on
Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 2

China. The crushing defeat of China by little Strong-arm Diplomacy of Japan
Japan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
After 1905 Japan took control of Korean
surprised the world. Despite the warning
domestic and foreign policy. The assassination
of the three great powers Russia, Germany
of a prominent Japanese diplomat provided
and France – Japan annexed the Liaotung
the excuse in 1910 for Japan’s annexation
peninsula with Port Arthur. By this action
of Korea. The confusion in China following
Japan proved that it was the strongest nation
the downfall of the Manchu dynasty in 1912
of the East Asia.
provided Japan an opportunity for further
Japan, however, in view of the pressure expansion. Japan now demanded not only
mounted by European Powers, soon gave the transfer of German rights in Shantung to
up its claim over Port Arthur. Russia took Japan and the recognition of Japanese hold
advantage of this and sent a large army to over Manchuria, but the appointment of
Manchuria. Japan entered into an alliance Japanese advisers to the Chinese government.
with England in 1902 and demanded that This strong-arm diplomacy aroused the
Russia withdraw troops from Manchuria. hostility of both China and the European
Russia underestimated Japan. In 1904 the Powers.
war began between the two countries. In this
Russo-Japanese War, Japan defeated Russia Colonisation and its Fallout
and got back Port Arthur. After this War In 1876 barely 10 percent of Africa was
Japan entered the “charmed circle of the great under European rule. By 1900 practically
Powers”. the whole of Africa was colonised. Britain,
France and Belgium had divided the
THE WORLD WAR I W

N
E
S
AUSTRIA - HUNGARY
BELGIUM
RUSSIA
GREAT BRITAIN
CANADA
GERMANY
BOSNIA
FRANCE
SERBIA
ITALY TURKEY JAPAN
MOROCCO GREECE
LEGEND INDIA
TRIPLE ENTENTE AFRICA
BRITISH EMPIRE
FRENCH EMPIRE
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
TRIPLE ALLIANCE AUSTRALIA
GERMAN EMPIRE
ITALIAN EMPIRE
NEW ZEALAND
AUSTRO -
HUNGARIAN EMPIRE
OTHERS Not to Scale

continent between them, leaving a few areas Afghanistan and Tibet. Thus was formed the
for Germany and Italy. Britain, France, Russia Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia.
and Germany also established “spheres of
influence” in China. Japan took over Korea Violent Forms of Nationalism
and Taiwan. France conquered Indo-China. With the growth of nationalism, the
The US took the Philippines from Spain, and attitude of “my country right or wrong I
Britain and Russia agreed to partition Iran. support it” developed. The love for one
The first European attempts to carve out country demanded hatred for another country.
colonies in Africa resulted in bloody battles. England’s jingoism, France’s chauvinism and
The French had to fight a long and bitter war Germany’s Kultur were militant forms of
to conquer Algeria and Senegal. The British nationalism, contributing decisively to the
lost to the Zulus (1879) and to the Sudanese outbreak of War.
Army (1884). The Italian army suffered a
Aggressive Attitude of German
devastating defeat at the hands of an Ethiopian
Emperor
army at Adowa (1896).
Emperor Kaiser
Causes, Course and Wilhelm II of Germany
1.3 was ruthlessly assertive
Results of World War I
and aggressive. The
(a) Causes Kaiser proclaimed that
Germany would be the
European Alliances and
leader of the world.
Counter-Alliances
The German navy was
In 1900 five of the European Great expanded. The sea being Kaiser Wilhelm II
Powers were divided into two armed camps. considered a preserve of England ever
One camp consisted of the Central Powers- since Napoleon’s defeat at Trafalgar (1805),
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Under Germany’s aggressive diplomacy and rapid
the guidance of Bismarck, they had formed the building of naval bases convinced Britain that
Triple Alliance in 1882. The understanding a German navy could be directed only against
was that Germany and Austria would help her. Therefore, Britain embarked on a naval
each other. The other camp consisted of race, which heightened the tension between
France and Russia. Their alliance was formed the two powers.
in 1894 with the promise of mutual help if
Germany attacked either of them. An isolated Hostility of France towards
Britain wanted to break her isolation and Germany
approached Germany twice but in vain. As France and Germany were old rivals.
Japan was increasingly hostile towards Russia, Bitter memories of the defeat of 1871 and loss
as France was the ally of Russia, it preferred to of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany rankled in
ally with Britain (1902). The Anglo-Japanese the minds of the French. German interference
Alliance prompted France to seek an alliance in Morocco added to the bitterness. The
with Britain to resolve colonial disputes over British agreement with France over Morocco
Morocco and Egypt. This resulted in the was not consented by Germany. So Kaiser
Entente Cordiale (1904). In return for letting Wilhelm II intentionally recognised the
the French have a free hand in Morocco, independence of the Sultan and demanded
France agreed to recognize the British an international conference to decide on the
occupation of Egypt. Britain subsequently future of Morocco.
reached an agreement with Russia over Persia,

Imperial Power Politics in the second half of the eighteenth century, Greeks
Balkans followed by others began to secede, one after
another, from Turkish control. Macedonia
The Young Turk Revolution of 1908,
had a mixed population. There were rivalries
an attempt at creating a strong and modern
among Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria and later
government in Turkey, provided both Austria
Montenegro for the control of it. In March
and Russia with the opportunity to resume their
1912 they formed the Balkan League. The
activities in the Balkans. Austria and Russia met
League attacked and defeated Turkish forces
and agreed that Austria should annexe Bosnia and
in the first Balkan War (1912–13). According
Herzegovina, while Russia should have freedom
to the Treaty of London signed in May 1913
to move her warships, through the Dardanelles
the new state of Albania was created and the
and the Bosporus, to the Mediterranean. Soon
other Balkan states divided up Macedonia
after this, Austria announced the annexation of
between them. Turkey was reduced to the
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austria’s action aroused
area around Constantinople.
intense opposition from Serbia. Germany gave
Austria firm support. Germany went to the extent
of promising that if Austria invaded Serbia and
in consequence Russia helped Serbia, Germany
would come to Austria’s assistance. The enmity
between Austria and Serbia led to the outbreak
of war in 1914.
The Balkan Wars

Turkey was a powerful country in the Treaty of Bucharest
south west of Europe in the first half of
eighteenth century. The Ottoman empire The division of Macedonia, however, did
extended over the Balkans and across not satisfy Bulgaria. Bulgaria attacked Serbia
Hungary to Poland. The Empire contained and Greece. But Bulgaria was easily defeated.
many non-Turkish people in the Balkans. The Second Balkan War ended with the signing
Both the Turks and their subjects of different of the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.
nationalities in the Balkans indulged in the
most frightful massacres and atrocities. The Immediate Cause
Armenian genocide is a frightful example. The climax
to these events
in the Balkans
occurred in
Sarajevo in
Bosnia. On 28
June 1914 the
Archduke Franz
Ferdinand,
nephew and heir Franz Ferdinand
to Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary,
was assassinated by Princip, a Bosnian Serb.
Austria saw in this an opportunity to eliminate
Taking advantage of the political and economic Serbia as an independent state. Germany
instability of the Turkish Empire from the thought that it should strike first. It declared

war on Russia on 1 August. Germany had no War in Western or French Front
quarrel with France, but because of the Franco-
Germany steamrolled and smashed the
Russian Alliance, the German army which was
resistance of the people of Belgium. On the
planning a war against both France and Russia
side of the Allies, the burden of the fighting
wanted to use the occasion to its advantage. The
fell on the French army. Within a month Paris
German violation of Belgian neutrality forced
seemed almost doomed.
Britain to enter War.
Battles of Tannenberg and Marne
(b) Course of the War
Meanwhile
Two Warring Camps
Russian forces
Central Powers
i n v a d e d
The warring nations were divided into East Prussia.
two. The Central powers consisted of Germany, G e r m a n y
Austria–Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. Italy defeated them
which was earlier with Germany and Austria decisively. In Battle of Tannenberg
had left, as her attempt to recover Trentino in the battle of Tannenberg Russia suffered heavy
north east Italy, where Italians lived in majority losses. Yet this caused distraction and helped
but remained as part and parcel of Austria- to relieve the pressure on the western front
Hungary, was not supported by Germany. Italy The French army made all out efforts to drive
remained a neutral country when the War broke away the invading Germans. At the Battle of
out. But it decided to enter the War hoping to the Marne (early September 1914), the French
gain the territory in the north - east. Britain, succeeded in pushing back the Germans.
France and Italy signed the secret Treaty of Paris was thus saved. The battle of Marne is a
London in April 1915, by which Italy agreed memorable for trench warfare.
to enter the War against the Central Powers in
return for this territory after the War.
Tr e n c h
Allies Wa r f a r e :
Trenches or
Nine states that opposed the Central
ditches dug by
powers were: Russia, France, Britain, Italy,
troops enabled
the United States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania
soldiers to
and Greece. Romania and Greece declared
safely stand and
war on the Central Powers in 1916 and 1917
protect themselves from enemy fire. The typical
respectively but played little part in the war.
trench system in World War consisted of two
Most Americans wanted their country to
to four trench lines running parallel to each
remain neutral and so in the first three years
other. Each trench was dug in a type of zigzag
the United States gave only moral support and
so that no enemy, standing at one end, could
valuable material aid to Britain and France.
fire for more than a few yards down its length.
Tsar’s Abortive Attempts The main lines of trenches were connected to
for Peace each other and to the rear by a series of linking
trenches through which food, ammunition,
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia suggested to fresh troops, mail, and orders were delivered.
the Powers that they meet together to bring The sheer quantity of bullets and shells flying
about an era of universal peace. In response, through the air in the battle conditions of First
two Peace Conferences were held at The World War compelled soldiers to burrow into
Hague in Holland in 1899 and 1907 but in the soil to obtain shelter and survive.
vain. Russia fought on the side of the Allies.

Battle of Verdun Shantung. There was no war in the Far East.
Japan made use of the occasion to threaten
Between February and July 1916, the
China into ceding valuable concessions and
Germans attacked Verdun, the famous
privileges.
fortress in the French line. In the five-month
Battle of Verdun two million men took part In the Balkans
and half of them were killed. The British The Austro-German army in coordination
offensive against Germans occurred near the with Bulgaria crushed Serbia. Serbia came
River Somme. In this four-month Battle of under German rule. Rumania watched the
Somme Britain lost 20,000 men on the first course of the War and in August 1916 joined
day. The battle of Verdun, however, decided the Allies. Rumania also passed under Austro-
the fortunes of the War in favour of the Allies. German occupation.
War in Eastern or Russian front Fate of Colonies of Germany in Africa
In the eastern front, Russian troops The German colonies in western and
repeatedly defeated the Austrians. But the eastern Africa were also attacked by the Allies.
Russians were in turn defeated by the Germans. As these colonies were quite far from Germany
Russia had the worst trained and equipped army they could not receive any immediate help,
and therefore Russian losses were the greatest. and therefore surrendered to the Allies.
In 1917, the Tsarist regime in Russia was
Italy falls to Austrian onslaught
overthrown in a revolution. Russia wanted peace
and consequently it signed the Treaty of Brest- Italy formally joined the Allies in the
Litovsk (3 March 1918) with Germany. After war in May 1916. Italians were fighting with
this, the position of Germany became strong. the Austrians and continued to sustain their
It appeared as if the Allies were going to lose. resistance. But when the Germans came to
However, USA came to their rescue and played Austria’s help, the Italians collapsed.
the final decisive role in crushing Germany. Central Powers’ Victories
Minor Theatres of War The Central Powers successfully occupied
In the Middle East Belgium and a part of France in the north-
east, Poland, Serbia and Romania.
Turkey also fought on the side of the
central powers.Though Turkey met with The epicentre of the struggle was the
initial success and the Allies suffered western front and the seas. As the Allies
reverses, particularly in Mesopotamia and controlled the sea-routes, they cut off the
Gallipoli, ultimately Turkey was defeated.The supply of food and other material reaching
Turks tried to attack Suez Canal, but were the Central Powers. In Germany and Austria
repulsed. Britain attacked Turkey in Iraq, and women and children suffered from hunger
later in Palestine and Syria. In Arabia, taking and privation. Germany attacked England
advantage of the growing Arab nationalism by air. Bombs were thrown on London and
a revolt was engineered by a British Agent. places where there were major factories. Later
Britain attacked Turkey directly and tried to aeroplanes were used for targeting civilian
capture Constantinople. But the Turks put up population. The Germans introduced poison
a brave fight. gas and soon both sides resorted to its use.
Naval Battles and America’s
In the Far East
Entry into the War
China also joined the allies. Japan was
In 1916 a naval battle (Battle of Jutland)
able to capture the province of Kiauchau given
had taken place in the North Sea. The British
by the Germans to China in the province of

won the battle. Thereafter Germany started The Peace
their submarine warfare and their cruisers Conference opened
went roaming about, interfering with the in Paris in January
shipping of the Allies. One of these was the 1919, two months
famous Emden, which bombarded Madras. As after the signing
a counter measure to the blockade the Germans of the armistice.
proclaimed in January 1917 that they would Woodrow Wilson
sink even neutral ships in certain waters. This (USA), L loyd
meant that all ships in British waters, whether George (Prime
owned by countries involved in the War or Minister of England)
not, would be targets for German submarines. and Clemenceau
Lusitania, an American ship, was torpedoed (Prime Minister of A News paper
by a German submarine. There was a lot of France) played a Report
resentment in the USA and President Wilson very important part in the deliberations.
declared war against Germany in April 1917. Faced with a threat of a renewed war, the
America’s entry with its enormous resources German government was forced to agree to
made Allied victory a foregone conclusion. the terms. On 28 June, 1919 the peace treaty
was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
Provisions of the Treaty

1. Germany was found guilty of starting the War
and therefore was to pay reparations for the
Emden Sinking of Lusitania losses suffered. The Reparation Commission
G e r m a n set up for deciding the compensation
submarines were decided on 6,600 million pounds to be paid
extremely effective. in instalments. All Central Powers were
During March and directed to pay war indemnity.
April 1917 about six German Submarine 2. The German army was to be limited to
hundred merchant ships were sunk. 100,000 men. A small navy was allowed,
but there were to be no submarines and
(c) The Armistice and Treaty of no air force.
Versailles 3. The union of Austria and Germany was
forbidden and Germany was to acknowledge
Germany ultimately surrendered in
and respect the Independence of Austria.
November 1918. The armistice took effect
from 11 November 1918. Germany was forced 4. Germany was forced to give up all
to accept harsh terms by the political situation the rights and titles over her overseas
at home with the abdication of the Kaiser. possessions to the allies. All German
colonies became mandated territories
Peace Conference in Paris under the League of Nations.
5. Germany was forced to revoke the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (with Russia) and
Bucharest (Bulgaria).
6. Alsace–Lorraine was returned to France.
7. The former Russian territories of Finland,
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were to be
Paris Peace Conference independent

8. Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark 6. Italy was much disappointed at the peace
and some small districts to Belgium. settlement. Despite suffering heavily she
9. Poland was recreated with a corridor to was given merely small places such as
the Baltic containing the German port of Trieste, Istria and the south Tyrol.
Danzig which was to be a free city under 7. The population of Europe was so mixed that
the auspices of League of Nations. it was impossible to draw up clear national
10. The Rhineland was to be occupied by the frontiers with ethnic homogeneity. Finally,
Allies. The area on the east bank of the the settlement created many national
Rhine was to be demilitarized. minorities within states. Countries gave
promises to respect the rights of minorities.
President Wilson laid down his Fourteen
But often relations turned bitter.
Points, which were to be followed by the Allies.
The most important one he highlighted was Separate treaties were drawn up and
the need for ‘a general association of nations signed by the Allies with Austria, Hungary,
for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees Bulgaria and Turkey. The Treaty with Turkey
of political independence and territorial (Treaty of Sevres), though accepted by the
integrity to great and small states like’. One of Sultan, failed because of the resistance of
his interesting points was an opportunity to Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his followers.
Russia ‘for the independent determination of
Fallout of the First World War
her own political development and national
policy, and assistance also of every kind that The First World War left a deep impact
she may need or desire.’ on European society and polity. Through
conscription, and through air raids, the War
Criticism of the Peace Settlement had involved and affected far more of the
1. The defeated powers were absent from population than in the past. In the whole of
negotiations. The peace settlement, a the previous century, from the Napoleonic
dictated one, was based on the principle, Wars to the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913,
‘to the victor belongs the spoils and the Europe had lost fewer than 4.5 million men.
allies are the victors’. Now, at least 8 million had died in four years,
2. Self-determination was the principle, which while more than twice as many were wounded,
was one of the fourteen points of Woodrow and many crippled for life. Millions more
Wilson for restoring peace, applied to all had succumbed to the worldwide influenza
the peoples except the German. of 1918. The outcome, in all countries, was
3. The reparation of 6,600 million pounds imbalance between the sexes—a shortage
was beyond Germany’s capacity to pay. of men. Soldiers came to be placed above
4. Germany was weakened, politically and civilians. Aggressive war propaganda and
economically. But instead of having the large national honour occupied centre stage in the
Russian and Austro–Hungarian empires on public sphere. Popular support grew in favour
her eastern frontier, she was now bordered of dictatorship in state governance.
by small weak and new states. The War and its aftermath turned out to be
5. Wilson betrayed the Germans and a stirring period of history. The most striking of
Austrians to whom he had made all was the rise and consolidation of the Soviet
promises. In 1920 the United States took Union, the U.S.S.R or the Union of Socialist and
to a policy of isolation, when the Senate Soviet Republics, as it was called. The United
refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. States of America escaping all the troubles
Only a greatly weakened France, with the the Western Europe had to suffer prospered
qualified support of Britain, was left to
exceedingly in the post-War years. America
face Germany’s potential strength.

entered the War as a debtor country but it too had their impact on India, such as the
emerged as the money-lender to the world in revolution in Russia. The defeat of Turkey in
the aftermath of the War. World War I and the severe terms of the Treaty
Another outstanding event of this period of Sevres signed thereafter undermined the
was the awakening of the colonies and their position of Sultan of Turkey as Khalifa. Out of
inspired attempts to gain freedom. In Asia and the resentment was born the Khilafat Movement.
Africa powerful movements and in some places India and Indians had taken an active part
even rebellions against Western imperialism in the War believing that Britain would reward
became order of the day. India's loyalty. But only disappointment was
Turkey’s rebirth as a nation thanks to in store.Thus the War had multiple effects on
the role played by Mustafa Kemal Pasha was Indian society, economy and polity.
remarkable. Kemal Pasha modernised Turkey
and changed it out of all recognition. He put Russian Revolution
1.4
an end to the Sultanate and the Caliphate. The and its Impact
support of the Soviet Union was of great help
to him. Introduction
All the struggles for freedom in Asia and The biggest outcome
Africa illustrated how the new spirit abroad of the War, the Russian
was affecting the minds of men and women in revolution, was unique in
distant countries of the East simultaneously. world history. The socio-
The War gave a great fillip to the women’s political and economic
movement in the West and the East. conditions prevailing in
Russia were brought to a
Impact on India head by the vast losses and sufferings caused
The First World War had a significant by the War. There were really two revolutions
impact on India. Even though Europe was the in the year 1917, one in March and the other
main theatre of the War, fighting took place in in November. On the abdication of the Tsar
others parts of the world as well. The British the bourgeois government which followed,
recruited a vast contingent of Indians to serve in wanted to continue the war. But the people
Europe, Africa and West Asia. After the War, the were against it. So there was a second great
soldiers came back with new ideas which had an uprising under the guidance their leader
impact on the Indian society. India contributed Lenin, who seized power and established a
£ 230 million in cash and over £ 125 million in communist government in Russia.
loans towards war expenses. India also sent war
materials to the value £ 250 million. This caused Causes of the Revolution
enormous economic distress. There were grain Social Causes
riots as poor people looted shops. Towards the
In Russia Peter the Great and Catherine
end of the War India too suffered under the
II attempted westernisation without changing
world-wide epidemic of influenza. (£ - symbol
the social conditions. The Russian peasants
of Pound sterling)
were serfs tied to lands owned by wealthy
The War conditions led to the rise of Home Russians. After Russia’s defeat in the Crimean
Rule Movement in India. The Congress was War, some reforms were introduced. In 1861
reunited during the war. Western revolutionary Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom and
ideas influenced the radical nationalists and so the emancipated the serfs. But they were not
British tried to suppress the national movement given enough land to subsist. These peasants
by passing repressive acts. International events became the powder keg for the revolution.

The labourers and workers whose number and violence in which the governor-general of
had increased on account of industrialisation Moscow, an uncle of the Tsar, was killed by a
were aggrieved as they got very low wages. bomb. Nicholas was forced to grant a constitution
and establish a parliament, the Duma. This was
Role of Revolutionaries no longer satisfactory to the left-wing parties that
The spread of revolutionary ideas among formed a Soviet (council) of worker's delegates in
the intelligentsia and their repression by the St Petersburg, led by Trotsky. Similar Soviets were
Tsar’s government made the socialistically set up in other cities. The Duma gave the middle
inclined students to carry their propaganda to classes, a voice in government. So the moderates
the peasantry. In course of time these students were supportive of the government’s policy, while
disillusioned with the outcome of their work the left wing continued their opposition.
with the peasants, took to “terrorism”. Yet the
revolutionary forces swelled, with the joining Opposition to Tsar and
of the many minority groups like Jews and Dissolution of Duma
Poles. Soon, based on the Marxist philosophy, The outbreak of the First World War had
new ideas began to take shape and a Social and temporarily strengthened the monarchy, as
Democratic Labour Party was formed. The Russia allied to France and Britain. As there
Marxists declared themselves against acts of was rumour of a palace revolution. Nicholas
terrorism. They believed that the working class made himself the Commander-in-Chief of
had to be roused to action, and only by such the army. At the end of 1916, Rasputin, who
mass action could they achieve their goal. had a domineering influence over the Tsar
and the Tsarina, was murdered by a member
Autocracy of the Tsar of the Tsar’s family. The members of the St.
Tsar Nicholas II Petersburg Soviet were arrested. Whenever
of Romanov dynasty the Duma opposed the Tsar’s move, it was
had little experience of dissolved and fresh elections held. Without
government. His wife change of government policy, the fourth
Tsarina Alexandra was Duma ended with the revolution of 1917.
a dominant personality
and Nicholas was under Popular Uprisings
her strong influence.
Nicholas mistrusted
most of his ministers Tsar Nicholas II
and he was surrounded by flatterers. Determined
that Russia should not be left out in the scramble
for colonial possessions, Nicholas encouraged
Russian expansion in Manchuria. This provoked
a war with Japan in 1904. The resulting Russian
defeat led to strikes and riots. On 23 January
1902 Father Gapon, a priest, organised a march
of men, women and children on the Tsar’s Revolution of 1917
Winter Palace in St. Petersburg demanding a
Even on 23 February 1917, when the
representative national assembly and agrarian
socialists celebrated International Working
and industrial reforms. But police and soldiers
Women’s Day on that day, the Tsar seemed
fired on the procession. Hundreds were killed and
unchallengeable. But he had to abdicate on
many thousands wounded. The events of this day
the morning of 2 March. Though none called
(known as Bloody Sunday) led to riots, strikes
for strikes fearing that the time was not

ripe for militant action, the bread shortages in a workers’ council, or Soviet. The workers’
among women textile workers, many with delegates in the Soviet were influenced by the
husbands in the army, forced them to go underground left-wingers. Those in the Duma
on strike anyway and march through the were able to form a provincial government
factory areas of Petrograd, the capital of the with the consent of the Soviets. The Soviet was
Russian Empire. Masses of women workers dominated by Mensheviks and the minority
demanding “Bread for workers” waved their Bolsheviks were timid and undecided. The
arms towards factory workers and shouted situation changed with the arrival of Lenin.
“Come out!” “Stop work!” The city’s 400,000
workers joined the movement the next day Lenin was born in
(24 February). 1870 near the Middle
Volga to educated parents.
Abdication of Tsar
Influenced by the ideas of
The government used the troops to break Karl Marx, Lenin believed
the strike. But soon mutinies broke out in the that the way for freedom
barracks. The Tsar ordered a declaration of was through mass action. Lenin
martial law. But his order was not broadcast He spent his time taking classes for study
in the city, as there was no one to do this job. groups of factory workers in St Petersburg
The Tsar then tried to return to Petrograd. on Marxism. He was arrested in 1895 and
The railway workers stopped his train. The kept in Siberia. The Social Democratic Party,
generals at the front and some leaders in split on the issue of organisation and strategy.
Petrograd, frightened by these developments Lenin gained the support of a small majority
pleaded with the Tsar to abdicate. On 15 (bolshinstvo), known as Bolsheviks, which
March, Nicholas II abdicated. became the Bolshevik Party. His opponents,
The revolutionary Tamil poet in minority (menshinstvo), were called
Bharathiyar cheerfully welcomed the Mensheviks.
revolution in Russia by penning these
poetic lines….. Failure of Provisional Government
The Mother Great, the Power supreme, Lenin was in Switzerland when the
Turned her glance benign towards Russia, revolution broke out. Lenin wanted continued
The Revolution of the Age, revolution. His slogan of ‘All power to the Soviets’
soon won over the workers’ leaders. Devastated
Behold the wonder, rises high
by war time shortages, the people were attracted
The tyrant howling falls down limp, by the slogan of ‘Bread, Peace and Land.’ But
The shoulders of the heavenly gods, the Provisional government made two grave
Are swelling now with joy and pride, mistakes. First, it postponed a decision on the
Eyes hot with unshed tears, the demons, demand for the redistribution of land and the
Perish. O people of the world, other was government decided to continue with
the war. Frustrated peasant soldiers deserted
Behold this mighty change!
their posts and joined those who had resorted
to land grabbing. This intensified the rising in
Provisional Government
Petrograd led by Bolsheviks. The government
There were two parallel bodies to take banned Pravda and arrested all Bolsheviks.
on government functions. One was of the Trotsky was also arrested. Kerensky became
bourgeois politicians of the old state Duma, Prime Minister leading a new coalition of
comprising propertied classes. On the other liberals and moderate Socialists. Faced with an
there were workers’ delegates drawn together

attempted coup Kerensky tried in September to Pravda is a Russian word meaning “Truth”.
dismiss both the government and the Soviet. It was the official newspaper of the
Takeover by the Bolshevik Party Communist Party of the Soviet Union from
under Lenin’s leadership 1918 to 1991.
In October Lenin persuaded the
Bolshevik Central Committee to decide on 1.5 League of Nations
immediate revolution. Trotsky prepared
a detailed plan. On 7 November the key Structure and Composition
government buildings, including the Winter The Covenant of the League was worked
Palace, the Prime Minister’s headquarters, out at the Paris Peace Conference and included
were seized by armed factory workers and in each of the treaties that were signed after
revolutionary troops. On 8 November 1917 the First World War. It was largely due to
a new Communist government was in office the pressure from President Wilson that this
in Russia. Its head this time was Lenin. The task was accomplished. In drawing up the
Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian constitution of this organization, the ideas of
Communist Party. Britain and America prevailed.
Outcome of the Revolution The League consisted of five bodies:
the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat,
The Russian Communist Party
the Permanent Court of Justice, and the
eliminated illiteracy and poverty in Russia
International Labour Organisation. Each
within a record time. Russian industry and
member-country was represented in the
agriculture developed remarkably. Women
Assembly. It discussed general policy and
were given equal rights, including rights to
any decision taken in the Assembly had to be
vote. Industries and banks were nationalised.
unanimous. The Council was the executive of
Land was announced as social property.
the League. Britain, France, Italy, Japan and
Land was distributed to poor peasants. Lenin
the United States were originally declared
thought the most important factor for the
permanent members of the Council. Each
fall of Provisional government was its failure
member had one vote and since all decisions
to withdraw from World War. So Lenin
had to be unanimous, even the small nations
immediately appealed for peace. Unmindful
possessed the right of veto.
of the harsh terms dictated by the Central
Powers, Lenin opted for withdrawing from The secretariat of the League of Nations
the War to concentrate on the formation of was located at Geneva. Its first Secretary
new government. In March 1918 the Treaty of General was Sir Eric Drummond from Britain.
Brest– Litovsk was signed. The staff of the secretariat was appointed by
the Secretary General in consultation with
Global Influence of the Russian the Council. The International Court of
Revolution Justice was set up in The Hague. The court
The revolution fired people’s imagination was made of fifteen judges. The International
across the world. In many countries, communist Labour Organisation comprised a secretariat
parties were formed. The Russian communist and general conference which included four
government encouraged the colonies to fight representatives from each country.
for their freedom. Debates over key issues,
land reforms, social welfare, workers’ rights,
and gender equality started taking place in a
global context.

Objectives of the League disarmament. In 1925 the Council of the League
set up a commission to hold a Disarmament
The two-fold objective of the League of
Conference to sort out the problem. But the
Nations was to avoid war and maintain peace
proposed conference materialised only in
in the world and to promote international
February 1932. In this Conference, Germany’s
cooperation in economic and social affairs.
demand of equality of arms with France was
The League intended to act as conciliator
rejected. In October Hitler withdrew Germany
and arbitrator and thereby resolve a dispute
from the Conference and the League.
in its early stages. If wars should break out
despite arbitration, the members should apply Japan attacked Manchuria in September
sanctions to the aggressor first economic and 1931 and the League condemned Japan. So
then military. Japan also followed the example of Germany
and resigned from the League. In the context
The difficulty in achieving the objectives
of Italy’s attack on Ethiopia, the League applied
was increased from the beginning by the
sanctions. As the sanctions came into effect, Italy
absence of three Great Powers namely USA (did
resigned from the League in 1937. Thereafter
not become a member), Germany (a defeated
the League was a passive witness to events,
nation) and Russia. The latter two joined in
taking no part in the crises over the Rhineland,
1926 and 1934. While Germany resigned in
Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. The last
1933, Russia was expelled in 1939.
decisive action it took was in December 1939
Activities of the League when Russia was expelled for her attack on
Finland. The Assembly did not meet again and
The League was called in to settle a number the League of Nations was finally dissolved in
of disputes between 1920 and 1925. The League 1946.
was successful in three issues. In 1920 a dispute
arose between Sweden and Finland over the Causes of Failure
sovereignty of the Aaland Islands. The League The League appeared to be an organisation
ruled that the islands should go to Finland. In the of those who were victorious in the First World
following year the League was asked to settle the War. Though it had a world-wide membership,
frontier between Poland and Germany in Upper it became very much the centre of European
Silesia, which was successfully resolved by the diplomacy.
League. The third dispute was between Greece
The unanimity of members was required for
and Bulgaria in 1925. Greece invaded Bulgaria,
all its decisions on political issues. Since it lacked
and the League ordered a ceasefire. After
the military power of its own, it could not enforce
investigation it blamed Greece and decided that
its decisions.
Greece was to pay reparations. Thus the League
The founders of this peace organisation
had been successful until signing of the Locarno
underestimated the power of nationalism. The
Treaty in 1925. By this treaty, Germany, France,
principle of “collective security’ could not be
Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy mutually
applied in actual practice.
guaranteed peace in Western Europe. Thereafter
Germany joined the League and was given a When Italy, Japan and Germany, headed
permanent seat on the Council. After two years by dictators, refused to be bound by the orders
the US and Russia began to participate in the of the League, Britain and France were the only
non-political activities of the League. major powers to act decisively. But they were not
enthusiastic supporters of the League, as it was
Violations the brainchild of Wilson who could not even
One of the major problems confronting convince his country to join the League.
the European powers was how to achieve

SUMMARY
Capitalistic countries’ ever growing demand for markets and raw materials leading to scramble
for colonies and the resultant clashes amongst great powers in Europe are discussed.
Rise of Japan as an Imperial Power in Asia is highlighted
Division of Europe into two warring camps and the resultant alliances and counter-alliances
are detailed.
Important factors responsible for the outbreak of World War I such as growth of violent forms
of Nationalism, aggressive attitude of Germany, France’s hostility towards Germany for the loss
of its territories, Alsace and Lorrain, power politics in Balkans are explained.
Conduct of War in Western, Eastern Fronts and in minor theatres of War is described.
America’s entry into the War in the context of launch of submarine battles by Germany and the
decisive victory won by the Allies are outlined.
Paris Peace Conference and the provisions of Versailles Treaty are analysed.
Fallout of the First World War, with focus on Russian Revolution causes, course and impact are
elaborated.
First world peace organisation the League of Nations and its role in preventing wars and
promoting peace are critically examined.
GLOSSARY
skyscraper tall building of many stories பலமாடிகள் க�ொண்ட உயரமான கட்டிடம்
monopoly exclusive possession or control முற்றுரிமை
devastating highly destructive or damage பேரழிவு
jingoism blind patriotism, especially in the pursuit கண்மூடித்தனமான நாட்டுப்பற்று

of aggressive foreign policy
chauvinism extreme patriotism அதிதீவிரப்பற்று
kultur thinking highly of German civilization ஜெர்மானியக் கலாச்சாரத்தை மிக

and culture உயர்வாக நினைப்பது
trench a long narrow ditch பதுங்குக் குழி
repulse drive back எதிரியை விரட்டிஅடித்தல்
torpedo attack or sink (a ship) with a torpedo மூழ்கடி
reparation compensation இழப்பீடு
homogeneity the quality or state of being homogenous ஓரினத்தன்மை

bourgeois characteristic of the middle class, typically முதலாளித்துவ
with reference to its perceived materialistic
values or conventional attitudes
intelligentsia intellectuals or highly educated people அறிவுஜீவிகள், நுண்ணறிவாளர்கள்
as a group, especially when regarded as
possessing culture and political influence
persuade cause (someone) to do s omething வற்புறுத்து
through reasoning or argument

2. The new state of Albania was created
according to the Treaty of _____________
EXERCISE signed in May 1913.
3. Japan entered into an alliance with
I. Choose the England in the year _____________.
correct answer 4. In the Balkans _____________ had mixed
1. What were the three major empires shattered population.
by the end of First World War? 5. In the battle of Tannenberg _____________
a) Germany, Austria Hungary, and the suffered heavy losses.
Ottomans 6. _____________ as Prime Minister
b) Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia represented France in Paris Peace
c) Spain, Portugal and Italy Conference.
d) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy 7. _____________ became Prime Minister
2. Where did the Ethiopian army defeat the leading a new coalition of liberals
Italian army? and moderate Socialists before Lenin
a) Delville b) Orange State established the Bolshevik government.
c) Adowa d) Algiers 8. Locarno Treaty was signed in the year
3. Which country emerged as the strongest in _____________.
East Asia towards the close of nineteenth
III. Choose the correct statement
century?
a) China b) Japan 1. i) Italy remained a neutral country when
c) Korea d) Mongolia the World War broke out.
4. Who said “imperialism is the highest ii) Italy was much disappointed over the
stage of capitalism”? peace settlement at Versailles.
a) Lenin b) Marx iii) The Treaty of Sevres was signed with Italy.
c) Sun Yat-sen d) Mao Tsetung iv) Italy was denied even small places such
5. What is the Battle of Marne remembered for? as Trieste, Istria and the south Tyrol.
a) air warfare b) trench warfare a) i) and ii) are correct
c) submarine warfare d) ship warfare b) iii) is correct
c) iv) is correct
6. Which country after the World War I took
d) i), iii) and iv) are correct
to a policy of isolation?
a) Britain b) France 2. i) The Turkish Empire contained many
c) Germany d) USA non-Turkish people in the Balkans.
ii) Turkey fought on the side of the central
7. To which country did the first Secretary
powers
General of League of Nations belongs?
iii) Britain attacked Turkey and captured
a) Britain b) France
Constantinople
c) Dutch d) USA
iv) Turkey’s attempt to attack Suez Canal but
8. Which country was expelled from the were repulsed.
League of Nations for attacking Finland? a) i) and ii) are correct
a) Germany b) Russia b) i) and iii) are correct
c) Italy d) France c) iv) is correct
II. Fill in the blanks d) i), ii) and iv) are correct
1. Japan forced a war on China in the year 3. Assertion: Germany and the United States
_____________. were producing cheaper manufactured
goods and capturing England’s markets.

Reason: Both the countries produced 2. German Emperor
required raw material for their industries. a) What was the nature of Emperor Kaiser
a) Both A and R are correct Wilhelm II of Germany?
b) A is right but R is not the correct reason b) What was the violent form of Germany
c) Both A and R are wrong called?
d) R is right but it has no relevance to A. c) Why did Kaiser Wilhelm intervene in
4. Assertion: The first European attempts the Morocco affair?
to carve out colonies in Africa resulted in d) What happened to Germany’s colonies
bloody battles. in Africa?
Reason: There was stiff resistance from the 3. Balkan Wars
native population. a) Why was Balkan League formed?
a) Both A and R are correct b) What was the outcome of the first
b) A is right but R is not the correct reason Balkan War?
c) Both A and R are wrong c) Who were defeated in this war?
d) R is right but it has no relevance to A. d) What was the name of the Treaty signed
IV. Match the following at the end of this second Balkan War?
1 Treaty of Brest- Litovsk - Versailles VII. Answer the following in detail
2 Jingoism - Turkey
Russia with 1. Discuss the main causes of the First World War.
3 Kemal Pasha -
Germany 2. Highlight the provisions of the Treaty of
4 Emden - England Versailles relating to Germany.
5 Hall of Mirrors - Madras 3. Explain the course of the Russian
V. Answer briefly Revolution under the leadership of Lenin.
1. How do you assess the importance of 4. Estimate the work done by the League of
Sino-Japanese War? Nations, pointing out the reasons for its failure?
2. Name the countries in the Triple Entente. VIII. Activity
3. What were the three militant forms of
nationalism in Europe? 1. Students can be taught to mark the places
4. What do you know of trench warfare? of battles and the capital cities of the
5. What was the role of Mustafa Kemal countries that were engaged in the War.
Pasha? 2. An assignment or a project work on the role of
6. Highlight the global influence of Russian Indian soldiers in different battle fields across
Revolution? the globe and the casualties they suffered
7. List out any two causes for the failure of during the War be attempted by the students.
the League of Nations. IX. Map Work
VI. Answer all the questions
Mark the following countries on the world
given under each caption
map.
1. Imperialism 1. Great Britain 2. Germany
a) What do you know of monopoly 3. France 4. Italy
capitalism? 5. Morocco 6. Turkey
b) How did Japan emerge as an imperial 7. Serbia 8. Bosnia
power? 9. Greece 10. Austria-Hungary
c) Why did the industrial countries need 11. Bulgaria 12. Rumania
colonies in the nineteenth century?
d) What were the contrasts capitalism
produced?

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. R.D. Cormvell, World History in the Twentieth Century, London: Longman, 1972
2. David Thomson, Europe since Napoleon, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990
3. Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of extremes, 1914 – 1991, London: Abacus, 1994.
4. Hew Strachan, The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2014).
Timeline
• 1914 - Outbreak of World War I
• 1917 - Russian Revolution
• 1918 - End of the World War I
• 1919 - Treaty of Versailles
• 1920 - Establishment of League of Nation
ICT CORNER
Through this activity you will learn

about Time Line Events of World
War -I
Steps
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
• Click on ‘Learn’ in menu and Select ‘Interactive Timeline’
• Drag the Time line bar and click to see the events
Website URL:
https://www.theworldwar.org/

Unit - 2
The World
between Two
World Wars
Learning Objectives
 T he post-World War I developments leading to the Great Depression,
and its impact on politics across the world.
 T he unjust provisions of Treaty of Versailles and the rise of fascist
governments led by Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany.
 A nti-colonial struggles and the decolonisation process in the colonized world: Case
Studies of Indo-French in South-East Asia and India in South Asia.
 E uropean Colonisation in Africa – The case of Britain in South Africa.
 I ndependence struggles and political developments in South America
Introduction But they had to soon confront their protector

turned exploiter, the USA.
The First World War shattered the
global capitalist system based on European As we saw in the last chapter, the crisis in
imperialism. The European powers were the Western world had led to the outbreak of
gravely weakened by the War, financially World War I. We now turn to the social and
and politically. The trade and financial political developments in the world after the
imbalances left by the war and the harsh peace end of the War.
that followed created instabilities throughout
the 1920s. The conflict between the workers 2 The Great Depression
and the ruling classes that controlled the
Developments in the
government became intense. As a result of 2.1
this Fascism emerged in Italy and Germany. post-World War I
Anti-colonial struggles got intensified as the The First World War led to the expansion
colonial powers were weakened by the War. of certain industries in the hope that the war-
The Soviet Union’s role in extending solidarity time boom would continue. However, when
to the struggling nationalist movements also the War came to an end, the industries that
went a long way in accelerating the process of grew to meet war-time requirements had to be
decolonisation in Asia. It was the high noon abandoned or modified. Huge stocks had to be
of imperialism in Africa during the inter-war disposed off and large numbers of workers had
period. In contrast, the independence to the to be sacked. This bred dissatisfaction among
Latin American countries had occurred even the working classes. The situation was made
before the first half of nineteenth century. worse by the political complications caused
19 The World between Two World Wars

by the Treaty of Versailles. A new wave of Breakdown of the International
economic nationalism which expressed itself System of Exchange
in protectionism or in tariff barriers affected
Despite emergency measures such
world trade. The war also placed a heavy
as cutbacks in expenditure and increased
burden of debt on every European country.
taxation, the situation did not improve in
Withdrawal of American Capital England. So England decided to leave the
Gold Standard. Immediately a great number
At the end of the World War I, America of countries left the gold standard. Each
was financially in a sound position. As the nation adopted a policy of protectionism and
moneylender to the world America encouraged devaluation of currency. Devaluation forced
the flow of capital into Europe, which helped the creditors to stop lending. This led to a world-
European debtor countries. The capital outflow wide credit contraction. Thus the defensive
also found outlet in new investments. But these measures adopted by various nations to
investments yielded profits only after a period. In safeguard their economic interests led to an
the meantime, a slump in the U.S. economy forced unprecedented decline in world economic
the government to impose restrictions on the activity. As its effect was deep and prolonged
export of capital. This resulted in a steep decline in economists and historians call it the Great
the volume and value of exports all over the world. Depression.
Stock Market Crash in the US Repercussion in Politics
The withdrawal of American capital was The Depression changed the political
aggravated by the US market crash in 1929. The conditions in several countries. In England,
first huge crash occurred on 24 October 1929. the Labour Party was defeated in the general
This discouraged investors and consumers to elections of 1931. In the USA, the Republican
such an extent that more and more people began Party was rejected by the people in successive
to sell their shares and dispose of their stocks. elections for about twenty years after the
But there were no buyers. This was followed by Depression.
the failure of American banks. The American
financiers were forced to recall their own funds Gold Standard is a monetary system where a
invested abroad. The stoppage of loans to country’s currency or paper money carried
Germany by America led to the failure of two a value directly linked to gold. Countries in
large German banks. The Bank of England also the Gold Standard agreed to convert paper
found itself in bankruptcy. money into a fixed amount of gold.
Rise of Fascism and

2.2
Nazism
(a) The Impact of War in Italy
The first of the nations of Western Europe
to turn against the old ruling regime was Italy.
During World War I the primary task of Italy was
to keep the Austrians occupied on the Southern
Front, while the British, French and Americans
cornered Germany into submission along the
New York Stock Market Crash, 1929-30 battle lines in Flanders. The financial cost of the
participation in the War was huge. Moreover,
after the War, in the sharing of the spoils, Italy
The World between Two World Wars 20

got less than she expected. The country suffered was murdered. The
heavy losses in a war that was unpopular with opposition parties
both socialists and pro-Austrian Catholics. boycotted the
The nationalists were equally unhappy with the Parliament in protest.
marginal gain in territory from the Treaty of Mussolini reacted by
Versailles. The War resulted in inflation. There banning opposition
were frequent protests and strikes. People held parties and censoring
the rulers responsible for the humiliation at the press. Opposition
Versailles. leaders were killed
Mussolini
Emergence of Mussolini or imprisoned.
Assuming the title of Il Duce (the leader),
In the elections held November 1919 in in 1926 he became a dictator with power to
the aftermath of the Treaty of Versailles, Italian legislate. He passed a law forbidding strikes
socialists, proclaiming that they were following and lockouts. Unions and employers were
Bolshevism (Communism in Soviet Russia), organized into corporations which would
won about a third of the seats. Mussolini, son settle wages and working conditions. In 1938
of a blacksmith and qualified as an elementary Parliament was abolished and was replaced by
school master, in the end became a journalist with a body representing the Fascist Party and the
socialist views. A forceful speaker, Mussolini corporations. This new arrangement bolstered
began to support the use of violence and broke Mussolini’s dictatorial control of the economy,
with the socialists when they opposed Italy’s as well as enabling him to wield enormous
entry into the War. When the Fascist Party was power as head of the administration and the
founded in 1919 Mussolini immediately joined armed forces.
it. As Fascists stood for authority, strength and
discipline, support came from industrialists, Mussolini’s Pact with Pope
nationalists, ex-soldiers, the middle classes and In order to give respectability to the Fascist
discontented youth. The Fascists resorted to Party, Mussolini won over the Roman Catholic
violence freely. In October 1922, in the context Church by recognising the Vatican City as
of a long ministerial crisis, Mussolini organised an independent state. In return the Church
the Fascist March on Rome. Impressed by recognised the Kingdom of Italy. The Roman
the show of force, the King invited Mussolini Catholic faith was made the religion of Italy
to form a government. The inability of the and compulsory religious teaching in school
Democratic Party leaders to combine and act was ordered. The Lateran Treaty incorporating
with resolution facilitated Mussolini’s triumph. the said provisions was signed in 1929.
Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian Italy during the Great Depression
ultra-nationalism, characterised by
dictatorial power, forcible suppression of During the years of the Great Depression
opposition and strong regimentation of the much publicised public works of building
society and of the economy, which came to new bridges, roads and canals, hospitals
prominence in early 20th-century Europe. and schools did not provide solution to the
–Wikipedia. unemployment problem. In 1935, Mussolini
invaded Ethiopia. This was useful to divert
Fascists under Mussolini attention of the people away from the economic
troubles. Mussolini drew admiration from
In the 1924 elections, after intimidation of
ruling classes elsewhere in Europe. Among
the electors, 65 per cent of the votes were cast
them was a rising figure among nationalist,
for the Fascists. Matteotti, a socialist leader,
anti-Semitic circles in Munich was Adolf Hitler.
who questioned the fairness of the elections

(b) Germany in the post-War
From 1918 to 1993 Germany was a
republic. The factors which led to the eventual
triumph of Fascism in Germany were many.
Between 1871 and 1914 Germany had risen to
dizzy heights of economic, political and cultural
accomplishments. Germany’s universities, its
science, philosophy and music were known
all over the world. Germany had surpassed Hitler
even Britain and the US in several fields of
industrial production. As we saw in the earlier The Nazi State of Hitler
chapter this was at the root of the outbreak of Republican government fell, as the
the First World War. Then came the crushing Communists refused to collaborate with the
defeat in the First World War. The German Social Democrats. Thereupon industrialists,
people were demoralized. The reparations and bankers and Junkers prevailed upon President
other clauses in the Treaty of Versailles caused Von Hindenburg to designate Hitler as
acute discontent and hardship. This was utilized Chancellor in 1933. The Nazi state of Hitler,
by reactionary forces to spread the idea that known as Third Reich, brought an end to the
Socialists and Jews had let down the nation, and parliamentary democracy.
had even caused the Germany’s defeat.
Hitler replaced the flag of the Weimar
Germany’s defeat and humiliation at the republic by the swastika banners of National
end of World War I caused a deep shock to the of Socialism. Germany was converted into a
German people. The Great Depression further highly centralised state. All political parties
deepened their frustration and prompted them except the Nazi party were declared illegal. The
to turn against the Republican government. army of brown-shirted and jack-booted storm-
Evolution of German Fascism troopers was expanded. The Hitler Youth was
created, and the Labour Front set up. Trade
The origin of German fascism goes back unions were abolished, their leaders arrested.
to 1919 when a group of seven men met in Strikes were made illegal, wages were fixed
Munich and founded the National Socialist by the government, and the Labour Front was
German Workers’ Party (abbreviated as Nazi used by the Nazis to control industry. Total state
Party). One of them was Adolf Hitler. Hitler had control was extended over the press, the theatre,
developed violent political biases against Jews. the cinema, radio and over education.
He associated Judaism with Marxism. During
World War I, he served in the Bavarian army. The Nazi Party’s propaganda was led
A gifted speaker, he could whip up the passion by Josef Goebbels, who manipulated public
of the audience. In 1923 Hitler attempted to opinion through planned propaganda. He once
capture power in Bavaria. His premature launch said, ‘any lie frequently repeated will ultimately
of the National Revolution on the outskirts of gain belief.’ The Gestapo or Secret State Police
Munich landed him in prison. During his time was formed and run by Himmler.
in prison wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle), an Nazi Policy towards Jews
autobiographical book containing his political
ideas. In the Presidential election of 1932, the Along with the repressive measures, Hitler’s
Communist Party polled about 6,000,000 votes. government followed a policy of repressing
Alarmed capitalists and property owners tilted Jewish people. The Jews were removed from
towards supporting fascism Hitler exploited government positions, excluded from the
this opportunity to usurp powers. universities and deprived of citizenship.

Jewish businesses were closed down, and their Anti-Colonial
establishments were attacked. After the outbreak Movements and
of World War II concentration camps, barracks 2.3
Decolonisation
surrounded by electrified fences and watch
towers, were built where Jews were interred and Processes in Asia
used as forced labour. Later they were turned into
extermination camps where industrial means of Decolonisation is a process through which
murder such as gas chambers were used to kill colonial powers transferred institutional
them. It is estimated that about 6 million Jews in and legal control over their colonies to the
Europe were killed in what the Nazis termed ‘The indigenous nationalist governments.
Final Solution’. The Nazi state also exterminated
gypsies, and other itinerant communities, and
(a) French Indo-China
the mentally challenged.
Rise of Anti-Colonialism
Himmler’s second in command was
Heydrich, who was responsible for the Indo-China (today’s Cambodia, Laos
concentration camps. and Vietnam) had shown its discontent right
from the beginning of the French occupation
Defiance of the Treaty of (1887). While the Indo-Chinese resisted
Versailles the imposition of French language and
In August 1934 Hindenburg died and culture, they learned from them the ideas of
Hitler, apart from being Chancellor, became revolution. During the First World War about
both President and Commander–in-Chief of 100,000 Indo-Chinese fought in France and
the armed forces. Hitler’s foreign policy aimed returned with first-hand knowledge of how
at restoring the armed strength of Germany the French had fought and suffered during
and annulling provisions of Versailles Treaty. the War. Communist ideas from mainland
His deliberate attempts to breach the Treaty of China were also a major influence. Many
Versailles (discussed in the next lesson) led to became convinced that the considerable
the outbreak of Second World War. wealth of Indo-China was benefiting only
Social Democratic Party was founded as the General German Workers Association on 23
May 1863 in Leipzig. Founder was Ferdinand Lassalle. German elites of the late 19th century
considered the very existence of a socialist party a threat to the security and stability of the newly
unified Reich, and so Bismark outlawed this party from 1878 to 1890.
Despite laws prohibiting the party from holding meetings and distributing literature,
the Social Democratic Party attracted growing support. Following World War I, the Social
Democratic Party played a central role in the formation of the Weimar Republic. But the failure
to win favourable terms from the Allies and the country’s severe economic problems led to a drop
in people's support.
Although its core support among blue-collar workers remained intact, it lost support
among white-collar workers and small businessmen, many of whom switched their loyalty to the
conservatives and later to the Nazi Party. The Social Democratic Party was outlawed soon after
the Nazis came to power. The leading Social Democrats were arrested and sent to concentration
camps. However, in 1945, with the fall of Hitler, the Social Democratic Party was revived. It was
the only surviving party from the Weimar period with a record of opposition to Hitler.

the colonial power. At the turn of the (b) Decolonisation in India
twentieth century growing nationalism led Dyarchy in Provinces
to sporadic violent outbursts. In 1916 there
was a major anti-colonial revolt which was The decolonization process
crushed brutally. There were also guerrilla started in India from the beginning of
activities in Tongking, the place from where the twentieth century with the launch
Ho Chi Minh was to arrive. of the Swadeshi Movement in 1905. The
outbreak of the First World War brought
The Emergence of Viet Minh
about rapid political as well as economic
The mainstream
changes. In 1919, the Government of India
political party in
Act introduced Dyarchy that provided
Indo-China was the
Vietnam Nationalist for elected provincial assemblies as well
Party. Formed in as for Indian ministers to hold certain
1927, it was composed portfolios under Transferred Subjects. The
of the wealthy and Montague declaration read: ‘Increasing
middle class sections association of Indians in every branch
of the population. In of the administration and the gradual
1929 the Vietnamese development of self-government in India
soldiers mutinied, Ho Chi Minh as an integral part of the British Empire.
and there was a failed attempt to assassinate the This measure of the British government
French Governor-General. This was followed by a was “to buy the political peace needed to
large scale peasant revolt led by the Communists. expand the tax base.” The Indian National
The revolt was crushed followed by what is called Congress rejected Dyarchy and decided to
“White Terror.” Thousands of rebels were killed.
boycott the legislature.
After the White Terror, Ho Chi Minh left
for Moscow and spent the 1930s in Moscow and Lack of Measures to Industrialise
China. When France was defeated by Germany India
in 1940, Ho Chi Minh and his lieutenants used Despite the discriminating protection
this turn of events to advance the Vietnamese given to certain select industries such as
cause. Crossing over the border into Vietnam in sugar, cement, and chemicals, there was
January 1941, they organized the League for the no change in the colonial economic policy.
Independence of Vietnam, or Viet Minh. This Incentives were provided for the British iron
gave renewed emphasis to a distinct Vietnamese and steel industry by guaranteeing purchasing
nationalism. contracts. But in the case of indigenous
Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) was born in Tongking. When Ho Chi Minh was twenty one, he
went to Europe. After working as a cook in a London hotel, he went to Paris. In the Paris
peace conference, he lobbied for the independence for Vietnam. His articles in newspapers
and especially the pamphlet, French Colonialism on Trial, made him well known as a Vietnam
nationalist. In 1921 he became a founder-member of the French Communist party. Two years
later he went to Moscow and learnt revolutionary techniques then. In 1925, he founded the
Revolutionary Youth Movement. After the peasant revolt he led was crushed in 1930, he went
to Moscow again. Inspired by Mao Tse Tung, he returned to Indo-China after the Japanese
invaded it organized the communists and carried on his anti-colonial struggle. He also played
an inspirational role leading the war against the USA.

industries, support was only in the form of Impact of Depression on Indian
providing “technical advice and education, Agriculture
and the establishment of pioneer factories in The ‘Great Depression’ also dealt a
new industries”. However, even this policy was death blow to Indian agriculture and the
soon abandoned as many British enterprises indigenous manufacturing sector. The value
were opposed to this . of farm produce, declined by half while the
land rent to be paid by the peasant remained
India in the days of Great
unchanged. In terms of prices of agricultural
Depression
commodities, the obligation of the farmers
The ‘Great Depression’ of 1929 had to the state doubled. Farmers and Indian
a disastrous impact on British trade and manufacturers therefore had to sell their
business. Foreign investment declined, gold and silver reserves to subsist. The great
particularly in the heavy industry sector like fall in prices prompted Indian nationalists
railway building. For the colonial government to demand protection for the internal
the expansion of trade was the only ideal economy. The 1930s saw the emergence of the
mode of economy, as it guaranteed easy Indian National Congress as a militant mass
access to indirect tax revenue (for example: movement. The call given by the Congress
custom duties) and foreign currency. Britain for a Civil Disobedience Movement, evoked
transmitted the effects of Depression to its tremendous response in rural India. Left
colonies. Bilateral trade treaties between radicalism was also very much in evidence.
Britain and the member states of the British
Empire were signed at an economic summit
in Ottawa in 1932, in which the participants
(including India) agreed to give preference to
imperial (British) over non-imperial goods.
Gandhi’s Dandi Yatra

Government of India Act, 1935
The British had to appease the Indian
Delegates in Ottawa Conference 1932 nationalists and the outcome was the passage
of the Government of India Act, 1935. This
India was forced to adhere to the policy
provided for greater power to the local
of balancing the budget. The government
governments and the introduction of direct
of British India also raised revenue tariffs
elections. In the 1937 elections the Congress
mainly to gain foreign currency. Britain’s
won a resounding victory in most of the
need for gold in the crisis years was met from
provinces. However the decision of Britain to
the export of gold from India. By overvaluing
involve India in the Second World War, without
Indian currency, the British made imports
consulting the popular Congress ministries,
cheaper. The currency exchange policy fuelled
forced the latter to resign from office.
tensions between the colonial government
and its subjects, and intensified the political
agitation against British rule.

The Boer War lasted for three years,
Anti-Colonial
2.4 1899-1902. Initially, the Boers were
Movements in Africa successful. But by the first half of 1900,
Colonisation of Africa the Boer army was defeated. Pretoria was
The African coastline had been explored occupied. The Boers took to guerrilla
in the sixteenth century and a few European fighting. This continued for about two years.
settlements had come about. But the interior In retaliation the British destroyed farms
of Africa was unknown to the outside world and crops. They set up internment camps for
until the last quarter of nineteenth century. Boer women and children. Shortage of food,
European colonisation began after about medical and sanitary facilities caused the
1875. The Berlin Colonial Conference of death of 26,000 people. The British annexed
1884–85 resolved that Africa should be the two Boer states. Boers were however
divided into spheres of influence of various promised self-government in due course. In
colonial powers. The war between the British 1907 full responsible government was given
and Boers in South Africa, however, was in to the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.
defiance of this resolution. The four states formed into a union and
the South Africa Act passed by the British
Boer Wars parliament in 1909 provided for a Union
Parliament at Cape Town. The Union of
South Africa came into being in May 1910.
The descendents of original Dutch settlers of

South Africa, also known as Afrikaners, were
called Boers. Their language is Afrikaans.
Nationalist Politics in South Africa

There were two main political parties:
the Unionist Party which was mainly British,
and the South Africa Party which had largely
Boer War Afrikaners (Boers). The first Prime Minister,
Botha belonged to the South Africa Party
The relations between the two British
ruled in cooperation with the British. But
colonies of Natal and Cape Colony and the
a militant section of the South Africa Party
two independent Boer states of the Transvaal
formed the National Party under Herzog.
and the Orange Free State had long been
Herzog wanted a twin policy of supremacy
unfriendly. The discovery of gold in Transvaal,
of Whites over Blacks and Afrikaners over
in 1886, led to large numbers of British
British. In the 1920 elections the National
miners settling in and around Johannesburg.
Party gained forty-four seats. The South
The Boers hated these people whom they
Africa Party, now led by Smuts, secured
referred to as Uitlanders (foreigners). The
forty-one seats. At this juncture the British-
Boers taxed them heavily apart from denying
dominated Unionist Party merged with
political rights. So the question was whether
the South Africa Party. This gave Smuts
the British or the Boers were to be supreme
a majority over the militant Afrikaner-
in South Africa. Fearing attacks from the
controlled National Party.
British, the Boers armed themselves and
decided to attack.

Racist Policy against the Blacks Dominion Status for South Africa
The Afrikaners South Africa had gained Dominion
pursued a harsher, Status, and thus had full control over foreign
racist policy towards policy. The world economic depression
the blacks and the brought unemployment and bankruptcy.
minority Indians. In Labour withdrew its support given to
the National Party. Smuts believed that a
1923 an Act was passed
coalition government was required to solve
to confine the native Smuts the country’s economic problems. Therefore
residents to certain
the South Africa Party and the National
parts of towns. Already an Act of 1913 had
segregated black and white farmers, which
Dominion Status: Prior to 1939, each of the
made it impossible for the blacks to acquire later day British Commonwealth countries
land in most parts of the country. The 1924 such as Canada, New Zealand, the Union of
elections were won by the National Party South Africa, Ireland (Eire), were accorded
with the support of the Labour movement, dominion status. The Imperial Conference
composed mainly of white miners. The of 1926 described Great Britain and the
Act passed in 1924 prevented blacks from dominions as ‘autonomous communities
striking work and from joining trade unions. within the British Empire, equal in status,
In the Cape Province the voting right to in no way subordinate one to another in any
blacks was abolished. Native Blacks suffered aspect of their domestic or external affairs,
in all spheres: social, economic and politics. though united by a common allegiance to the
Crown’.
Apartheid in South Africa

Apartheid, which means separateness, became the racial policy of the Nationalist
Party in 1947. From 1950 onwards a series of laws came to be enforced. The whole
country was divided into separate areas for the different races. Marriage between white
and non-white was forbidden. Nearly all schools were brought under government
control so that education different from that of the Whites could be implemented
for Africans. University education was also segregated. Apartheid is based on the
belief that the political equality of White and Black in South Africa would mean
Black rule. Since this would imperil the European interests, it was decided to keep the Africans in
permanent subjection through force. Verwoerd, who was prime minister of South Africa from 1958 to
1966 was the brain behind the apartheid policy. The African National Congress (ANC) founded in 1912
fought the practice of racism. Repression was let loose against the leaders of the Congress. The ANC
was banned and its leader Nelson Mandela was put behind bars. Mounting pressure at the global level
helped to end the racist regime in South Africa. In 1990 the ban on ANC was lifted and Mandela freed
after 27 years. In the elections held subsequently the Africans were allowed to vote and ANC won the
election and Mandela became
the first black president of
South Africa. Even though
apartheid was dismantled the
Whites completely dominate
the economic sphere.
Practice of Apartheid Nelson Mandela

Party united in 1934 to form the United European Colonisation and its
South Africa National Party or United Party Impact
for short. In spite of misunderstandings and
disagreements, the Smuts–Herzog alliance
lasted until 1939.
South Africa during World War

and in its Aftermath
When the World War II broke out,
the United Party split on the issue of South
African support for Britain in the war against
Germany. Smuts opposed Nazism and wanted
South Africa to help Britain. Herzog was
sympathetic towards Hitler, and favoured a
policy of neutrality. The Parliament, however,
decided in favour of war, and Herzog resigned.
Smuts continued to function as the Prime Latin America
Minister until 1948, With the passing away of
Herzog, many in the Party led by him joined In the sixteenth century (around 1519)
the Nationalists. The 1948 election gave the when the Aztecs were at the height of their power,
the whole empire collapsed before a handful of
Reunified National Party a majority over the
adventurers led by a Spaniard named Hernan
truncated United Party.
Cortes. Mexican civilisation collapsed. With
it the great city of Tenochtitlan also perished.
Political Developments This is one of the world's worst genocides. The
2.5
in South America other famous Conquistador (conqueror) was
also a Spaniard by name Francisco Pizarro. who
Mayas and Aztecs
led the conquest of the Incan Empire. Later the
Before the European discovery of Spaniards made Peru a part of their dominions.
America three centres of civilisations existed
The Aztecs were a military nation. They
there in Mexico in Central America and
had military colonies and garrisons, and
in Peru in South America. The Maya, the
a network of military roads. There was
Inca and the Aztec Civilizations were highly
outward security and peace in the empire,
advanced. There were several states in each
but people were ruthlessly oppressed and
of these areas of civilisation. Well organised
exploited.
and strong governments existed. Around
the eleventh century, large cities formed By the late 18th century, demand for political
into a league of Mayapan (centre of Maya freedom, administrative autonomy and economic
civilisation of Native Americans American self-determination was articulated throughout
Indians). For over hundred years the League Latin America. There were bloody conflicts
of Mayapan lasted. Though Mayapan was between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the
destroyed towards the close of twelth British and the French colonizers. These struggles
century, other cities continued. Aztecs from led by Toussaint L'Ouverture during 1791-1804
Mexico conquered the Maya country in the ended in the Haitian people’s independence from
fourteenth century and founded their capital the colonial control of France. Haiti thus became
city of Tenochtitlan. For nearly two hundred the first Caribbean country to throw off slavery
years the Aztecs ruled their empire. and French colonial control.

I renouncing the claim to the Portuguese throne
declared independence of Brazil.
The Monroe Doctrine
The fight for independence intensified
when Napoleon fell in 1815. Some of the
European kings wanted to help the king of
Spain to crush the revolutionaries in the South
American colonies. But Monroe, the President
of the USA, came up with his famous Monroe
Hernan Cortes conquering Mexico doctrine, which declared that if Europeans
interfered anywhere in America, north or
south, it would amount to waging a war against
the United States. This threat frightened the
European powers. By 1830 the whole of South
America was free from European domination.
Thus the U.S. protected the South American
republics from Europe; but there was no one
to protect them from the Protector, the United
States.
Disunity among Latin American

Nationalists
Latin American nationalists fought not
Pizarro only Spain and Portugal but also each other. In
1821 Central America seceded from Mexico.
Impact of Napoleonic Invasion of
Later (1839) Central America itself split
Spain and Portugal
into five republics (Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua).
Uruguay split from Brazil in 1828. In 1830
Venezuela and Ecuador seceded from Gran
Columbia, the republic created by Bolivar.
US Imperial Interests
At the dawn
Simon Bolivar- Pedro I of the twentieth
El Liberator
century the United
The American and French Revolutions States had occupied
provided inspiration to the Latin Americans. The Cuba and Puerto
Napoleonic invasion of Spain and Portugal in 1808 Rico, after defeating
quickened the process of liberation Struggle in the Spanish in 1898.
South America. Already the spirit of independence From 1898 to 1902
was growing under the leadership of Simon Cuba was under US
Bolivar, called El Liberator, the liberator. In the military rule. When
case of Brazil, the Portuguese royal family in the the Americans finally
context of conquest of Portugal by Napoleon fled left they retained Theodore Roosevelt
from Lisbon and thereby assisted the transition of a naval station in
Brazil from colony to independent nation. Pedro

Cuba. The US also retained its right to intervene Latin America protested American
in Cuban internal affairs. President Theodore intervension and disliked their “dollar
Roosevelt’s attitude to Latin American countries imperialism”. The opposition to political
was summed up in the words: ‘Speak softly and intervention produced a change in US policy
carry a big stick.’ The Monroe Doctrine had after 1933. Franklin Roosevelt in his “Good
barred European interference in the affairs of the Neighbour” policy agreed that the US would not
American continent. Roosevelt made an important intervene in the internal affairs of any state, and
amendment to the doctrine in 1904. It authorised would give economic and technical assistance
US intervention in Latin America ‘in order to to Latin America.
maintain order.’ After effecting this amendment,
the US became the dominant influence not only Dollar Imperialism, the term used
politically but also in economics. to describe the policy of the USA in
maintaining and dominating over distant
Emergence of Middle Class and lands through economic aid.
Working Class
The independence movement facilitated SUMMARY
transfer of political authority. But it engendered  Intensification of anti-colonial struggles
no social or economic change. With the masses commenced from the end of the First
excluded from the decision-making process, World War
politics became the preserve of oligarchic  Th
e harsh decisions in the Paris Peace
families and military cliques. From the middle Conference against the defeated
of the nineteenth century, oligarchic republics countries destabilised the ruling
based on alliances of regional elites began to regimes and created a climate for the
operate. Brazil remained an exception, until the rise of fascism especially in Italy and
monarch fell in 1889. With political stability Germany.
and economic opportunity the country received  Th
e economic slump originating in the
large numbers of migrants from southern US in 1929 and subsequently affecting
Europe. Economic growth, urbanization and all capitalist countries in the world
industrial growth in countries like Argentina, resulted in changes in polity and society.
Chile, Brazil and Mexico helped consolidate  Anti-colonial struggles gained strength
the hold of the middle class and the emergence despite repressive measures in French
of militant working class organisations. At the Indo-China.
same time American power and wealth came to  Decolonisation process was quickened
dominate Central and South America. during the inter-war period in India.
 Foundation and consolidation of
Great Depression in South European rule in Africa after the Berlin
America Colonial Conference of 1884-85.
The situation created by the Great Depression  British subdued Afrikaners and set up a
made it impossible for oligarchic regimes to union of South Africa, which was racist
accommodate the rising expectations of several in nature.
assertive groups. In Mexico, there was violent  T
he Munroe Doctrine prevented
social protest involving dissatisfied segments colonisation of Latin American countries
of the oligarchy, middle-class intellectuals, and by European powers and thereby ensured
peasant communities. Elsewhere electoral early sovereign status to them. Later this
reform enabled newer social groups to obtain was regarded by Latin Americans as a cover
political power through the ballot box. for American intervention and exploitation
of the resources of their countries.

GLOSSARY
solidarity a bond of unity, support for a common cause ஒற்றுமை உணர்வு,

ப�ொதுக்காரியத்திற்கான ஆதரவு
slump a sudden severe or prolonged fall in the price விலைவீழ்ச்சி, சரிவு
bankruptcy insolvency, financial ruin திவால், கடன் தீர்க்க முடியா நிலை
devaluation a decrease in the value of a country's currency பணமதிப்புக் குறைதல்
a general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing
inflation
power of money பணவீக்கம்
intimidation threat, the act of making fearful மிரட்டல், அச்சுறுத்தல்
bolstered strengthened வலுப்படுத்தினர்
demoralized having lost confidence or hope, disheartened மனத்தளர்ச்சி அடைதல், நம்பிக்கை
இழத்தல்
manipulate
control or influence a person or situation cleverly, கெட்டிக்காரத்தனமாய் அல்லது
unfairly to achieve a specific purpose சூழ்ச்சியாய் கையாளு
annulling declaring invalid or null and void செல்லாதாக்கல், ரத்துசெய்தல்
tremendous huge, extremely large பிரம்மாண்டமான
articulate expressing an idea or feeling clearly தெளிவாகப் பேசுதல்
oligarchy a small group of people having control of a country குழு ஆட்சி
6. Who was the brain behind the apartheid

EXERCISE policy in South Africa?
a) Verwoerd b) Smut
c) Herzog d) Botha
I. C
hoose the correct
answer 7. Which quickened the process of liberation
in South America?
1. With whom of the a) Support of US
following was the Lateran Treaty signed b) Napoleonic Invasion
by Italy? c) Simon Bolivar’s involvement
a) Germany b) Russia d) French Revolution
c) Pope d) Spain 8. Name the President who made amendment
2. With whose conquest did the Mexican to Munro doctrine to justify American
civilization collapse? intervention in the affairs of Latin America
a) Hernan Cortes b) Francisco Pizarro a) Theodore Roosevelt b) Truman
c) Toussaint Louverture d) Pedro I c) Eisenhower d) Woodrow Wilson
3. Who made Peru as part of their dominions?
II. Fill in the blanks
a) English b) Spaniards
c) Russians d) French 1. The founder of the Social Democratic
4. Which President of the USA pursued Party was _____________.
“Good Neighbour” policy towards Latin 2. The Nazi Party’s propaganda was led by
America _____________.
a) Roosevelt b) Truman 3. The Vietnam Nationalist Party was formed
c) Woodrow Wilson d) Eisenhower in _____________.
5. Which part of the world disliked dollar 4. The Secret State Police in Nazi Germany
imperialism? was known as _____________.
a) Europe b) Latin America 5. The Union of South Africa came into
c) India d) China being in May _____________.
6. The ANC leader Nelson Mandela was put
behind the bars for ________ years

7. _____________ were a military nation. V Answer briefly
8. Boers were also known as 1. What do you know of the White Terror in
_____________. Indo-China?
III. Choose the correct statement 2. Discuss the importance of Ottawa
Economic Summit.
1. i) During World War I the primary task of 3. Explain the Monroe Doctrine.
Italy was to keep the Austrians occupied 4. What was the result of Mussolini’s march
on the Southern Front on Rome?
ii) G ermany took to Fascism much later 5. Point out the essence of the Berlin Colonial
than Italy. Conference, 1884-85.
iii) The first huge market crash in the US 6. How did Great Depression impact on the
occurred on 24 October 1929. Indian agriculture?
iv) The ban on African National Congress 7. Explain the reason for the Smuts–Herzog
was lifted in 1966. alliance
a) i) and ii) are correct 8. Define “Dollar Imperialism.”
b) iii) is correct
VI. A nswer the questions given
c) iii) and iv) are correct
under each caption
d) i), ii) and iii) are correct
1. Anti-Colonial Struggle in Indo-China
2. Assertion: A new wave of economic a) Define the concept of decolonisation
nationalism which expressed itself in b) What were the three States that formed
protectionism affected the world trade. Indo-China
Reason: This was because the USA was c) How did Communist ideas help in
not willing to provide economic aid to the developing the spirit of anti-colonialism.
debtor countries. d) Which was the mainstream political party
a) Both A and R are correct in Indo-China?
b) A is right but R is not the correct
2. Ho Chi Minh
explanation
a) Where was Ho Chi Minh born?
c) Both A and R are wrong
b) How did Ho Chi Minh become a popular
d) R is right but it has no relevance to A
Vietnam Nationalist?
3. Assertion: The Berlin Colonial c) What do you know of Ho Chi Minh's
Conference of 1884–85 had resolved that Revolutionary Youth Movement?
Africa should be divided into spheres of d) How was the League for Independence
influence of various colonial powers. called in Indo-China?
Reason: The war between the British and
3. Political developments in South America?
Boers in South Africa, however, was in
a) By which year did the whole of South
defiance of this resolution.
America become free from European
a) Both A and R are right
domination?
b) A is right but R is not the right reason
b) How many republics came into being
c) Both A and R are wrong
from the Central America?
d) A is wrong and R has no relevance to A
c) In which year was Cuba occupied by the
IV. Match the Following USA?
1. Transvaal - Germany d) What made oligarchic regimes
2. Tongking - Hitler unpopular in South America
3. Hindenburg - Italy VII. Answer in detail
4. Third Reich - gold
1. Trace the circumstances that led to the
5. Matteotti - guerilla activities
rise of Hitler in Germany.

2. Attempt a narrative account of how the REFERENCE BOOKS
process of decolonization happened in India
during the inter-war period (1919-39). 1. Richard Overy (ed.) Complete History of
3. Describe the rise and growth of nationalist the World (London: HarperCollins, 2007)
politics in South Africa. 2. Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
World (New Delhi: Orient Longman,
VIII. Activity
2007).
1. Each student may be asked to write an
3. R.D. Cornwell, World History in the
assignment on how each sector and each
Twentieth Century (London: Longman,
section of population in the USA came to be
1972).
affected by the Stock Market Crash in 1929.
2. A group project work on Vietnam War is 4. E.H. Gombrich, A Little History of the
desirable. An album or pictures, portraying World (London: Yale University Press,
the air attacks of the US on Vietnam and the 2008).
brave resistance put up by the Vietnamese 5. Jawaharlal Nehru, Glimpses of World
may be prepared. History (New Delhi: Penguin Books,
2004).
Timeline
• 1922 - Mussolini’s March on Rome
• 1927 - Formation of Vietnam Nationalist Party
• 1929 - The Great Depression
• 1933 - Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany
• 1935 - Mussolini invaded Ethiopia

Unit - 3
World War II
Learning Objectives

� To acquaint ourselves about the political and economic developments
after World War I which ultimately led to World War II
� To understand the course of the War, in general; in particular, to learn
the main events which were turning points in the War
� To know the effects of World War II
Rise of the United States and the USSR as the two superpowers
Beginning of the age of nuclear weapons and high defence spending
Establishment of international agencies to promote peace and development in all
countries
� To understand the “holocaust”, and the mass killing of Jews in Nazi
Germany leading to the creation of the state of Israel as the homeland of Jews
� To acquire knowledge about the international organisations established after the
War to create a new international order:
United Nations and the associated international organisations.
World Bank and its agencies.
International Monetary Fund and its objectives.
� To understand the “welfare state”; welfare states of Western Europe after World War II.
Introduction The total number of deaths in World

War I is estimated to be 20 million (of whom
The first half of the twentieth century 9.7 million were soldiers), and 21 million
witnessed two wars which devastated the wounded. In World War II, the total death
world. World War I was fought from 1914 toll was 24 million military personnel and
to 1918 and World War II began in 1939 and nearly 50 million civilians. In both wars, the
ended in 1945. While the world at large had combined forces of Great Britain, France,
experienced many wars, these two wars are Russia and the United States fought against a
referred to as “World” wars because of the war alliance led by Germany. Germany’s allies
extended areas of the conflict and the very were Italy and Japan in World War II.
high death toll of civilians as well as armed
combatants. Both wars were fought on several In addition to the terrible human
fronts across Europe, Asia and Africa. cost, the financial cost of the War II was
World War II 34

also huge. It was five times higher than the were calculated at $10 billion dollars by Britain,
figure for World War I. World War II also and $15 billion dollars by the United States.
witnessed unprecedented levels of brutality However, France and Belgium were able to insist
against non-combatant civilian populations, on war reparations of $33 billion dollars, which
gross violation of international protocols on Germany protested saying it was beyond its
the treatment of prisoners of war, many of capacity to pay. The Germans offered to pay 100
whom were tortured and killed. Innumerable billion gold marks (approximately $ 25 billion).
atrocities were committed against the people
living in conquered regions. Failure of League of Nations
The end of World War II signalled a The Treaty also set up the League of
change in the world order and political Nations, as we have seen in Lesson 1, on the
configurations among the major powers. initiative of President Woodrow Wilson of
In addition, an era of large-scale social and the United States. The League was expected
economic change across the world was to mediate between countries and take action
ushered in. against countries which indulged in military
aggression. However, the United States was
Causes, Course and not interested in playing a global role or
3.1 any role in European politics. The popular
Effects of World War II
mood favoured the traditional isolationist
(a) Causes approach, and therefore the United States
The devastation caused by World War I did not become a member of the League. The
was of such magnitude that it was referred to as other Allied nations were also determined to
The Great War, or The War to End All Wars. The maintain a non-interventionist attitude and,
belligerent nations, especially the Allies, had no in consequence, the League remained an
desire for a second prolonged conflict, and this ineffectual international body.
was the main driving force behind their actions
Post-War Crisis and Germany
after the end of World War I. The immediate
and primary cause of World War II was the As mentioned above the three main
aggressive military offensive undertaken by a clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, especially the
resurgent Germany and a fast developing Japan. imposition of penal reparations caused great
However, the root causes of the War are more discontent in Germany. The interwar period
complex. Let us try to understand them in was a time of severe economic downturn in
detail. Western Europe as well as the United States.
Britain was facing massive unemployment
Germany and Treaty of Versailles,
and its economy was nearly crippled by the
1919
General Strike of 1926. The United States was
The Treaty of Versailles ending World War I faced with the Great Depression after 1929.
was signed in June 1919. Among the many clauses The problems which many countries faced in
of the Treaty, three in particular caused great the post-World War I decades led to the rise
resentment among the Germans. (i) Germany of extreme right wing dictatorships in Italy
was forced to give up territories to the west, north (Mussolini), Germany (Hitler) and Spain
and east of the German border; (ii) Germany had (Franco).
to disarm and was allowed to retain only a very
Germany experienced both high
restricted armed force (army, navy and air force);
unemployment and severe inflation after
(iii) as reparations for the War, Germany was
the War, and its currency became practically
expected to pay for the military and civilian cost
worthless. There are several pictures of the
of the War to the Allied nations. War reparations
1920s when ordinary people had to carry
35 World War II

money in wheelbarrows to buy bread. This Hitler’s claim was that the German speaking
was blamed on the war reparations which people should be united in to one nation.
Germany was forced to pay, though in the final
analysis, the demands for war reparations Allies and Non-Intervention
were moderated over several rounds of There were also acts of aggression by
negotiations. Italy and Japan. Italy invaded Ethiopia in
1935 and Albania in 1939. Emperor Haile
Selassie of Ethiopia appealed to the League of
Nations, but got no help. In the East, Japan was
pursuing its policy of military expansion. In
1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, and in 1937
it invaded China and seized Beijing. All these
Huge worthless money for bread were ignored by the Allies and the League of
Nations was unable to take any action.
The Rise of Adolf Hitler
In spite of all these manifestations of
Adolf Hitler was able to exploit the military activity by Germany, Italy and Japan,
general discontent among the Germans. Britain and France continued to be non-
Gifted with great oratorical skills, he was interventionist. The mood in Britain was not in
able to sway the people by his impassioned favour of starting another war. Prime Ministers
speeches, promising a return to the glorious Baldwin and Chamberlain did not feel justified
military past of Germany. He founded the in intervening in a region which was not officially
National Socialist party, generally known as in their sphere of interest. The United States was
“the Nazis”. The fundamental platform on totally indifferent to the outside world, and was
which Hitler built his support was the notion concerned with the revival of the economy after
of the racial superiority of the Germans as a the Great Depression.
pure, ‘Aryan’ race and a deep-seated hatred of
the Jews. Hitler came to power in 1933 and Munich Pact
ruled Germany till 1945.
A further factor was that the western
In direct contravention of the clauses of
powers and the Soviet Union distrusted each
the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler began to re-
other. In 1938, Prime Minister Chamberlain
arm Germany. The recruitment for the armed
concluded the Munich Pact with Germany,
forces and the manufacture of armaments and
which was a shameful acceptance of
machinery for the army, navy and air force
Germany’s invasion of Czechoslovakia to
with large amounts of government spending
annex German-speaking Sudetenland. In 1939
resulted in an economic revival and solved
the Soviet Union independently concluded
the problem of unemployment in Germany.
a non-aggression pact with Germany. The
Italy’s break with Britain and France in continued passivity of the Allies and the
the wake of Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia reluctance to start building up their armies
resulted in better relationship between Italy were also contributory causes of the extended
and Germany. In 1936, before Germany scale of World War II.
invaded the Rhineland, which was supposed
Though Hitler gave an assurance in
to be a demilitarised zone, Rome - Berlin
the Munich Pact that Germany would
Axis had come into being. Later, with Japan
not attack any other country, this was
joining this alliance, it became Rome-
broken immediately. In 1939 he invaded
Berlin-Tokyo Axis. In 1938, Hitler invaded
Czechoslovakia. Poland was attacked next,
Austria and Czechoslovakia. Sudetenland in
and this was the final act which resulted in
Czechoslovakia was German speaking, and
World War II 36

the declaration of war by Britain and France Europe, the war was fought by the Allies
against Germany. In Britain, Prime Minister against Germany and Italy. In the Asia Pacific,
Chamberlain resigned in 1940 and Winston the Allies fought Japan. The two theatres of
Churchill, who had always warned about war will be discussed separately. The war in
Hitler and his military ambitions, became Europe also extended to North Africa which
Prime Minister. had been occupied by Germany.
World War II was a modern war fought
with heavy military equipment such as tanks,
submarines, battleships, aircraft carriers,
fighter planes and bomber planes. This
involved a very large resource base, since all
this equipment needed to be manufactured.
There had to be raw materials, manufacturing
capacity and technical inputs to improve the
military hardware. This was an expensive and
prolonged war of attrition. Almost every foot
of territory was fought for step by step, so that
Munich Pact the final capitulation of the Axis powers came
(b) Course of World War II more than a year after the Allies invaded
Nature of the War mainland Europe in June 1944.
World War II was fought on two distinct
fronts - Europe and the Asia Pacific. In
N
WORLD WAR II AXIS VS ALLIED POWERS ARCTIC OCEAN W E

S
UNITED
STATES U S S R
UNITED NORWAY
DENMARK
CANADA KINGDOM POLAND
MOSCOW
NETHERLANDS GERMANY
BELGIUM HUNGARY
UNITED NORTH FRANCE ROMANIA
SAN STATES ATLANTIC
NORTH FRANSICO BULGARIA
OCEAN CHINA JAPAN
PACIFIC ITALY GREECE
OCEAN
HAWAI
ISLAND
INDIAN
BRAZIL OCEAN
SOUTH SOUTH AUSTRALIA

PACIFIC ATLANTIC
OCEAN OCEAN
NEW
Axis Power Countries ZEALAND
Allied Power Countries SOUTHERN OCEAN
Not to Scale
ANTARCTIC OCEAN
37 World War II

Outbreak of War formed the nucleus of the Free French army
under General de Gaulle. Britain would have
Britain and France declared war on
found it difficult to regroup if so many of her
Germany in September 1939. In June 1940,
soldiers had been lost at Dunkirk.
Italy joined Germany, and in September 1940,
Japan also joined the Axis powers. Battle of Britain– By July 1940, it was
feared that the Germans were planning to
There was little
invade Britain. Hitler wanted to force Britain
action immediately
to accept his proposals for peace by a
after the declaration
prolonged air-borne bombing campaign. The
of war. Britain had
German air force began to attack specific
already begun to
targets, especially the ports, airfields and
build up its military
industrial installations. In September 1940,
capabilities, and all Blitzkrieg London was bombed mercilessly, an action
young men were
known as The Blitz. By October 1940, night
conscripted for military duty. The first years
bombing raids on London and other industrial
of the War were a time of spectacular successes
cities began.
of the Germany army which occupied
Denmark and Norway and later France. By This campaign
1941, all of mainland Europe till the Russian failed because with
frontier was under the Axis powers. The the aid of a newly
German army followed a tactic of ‘lightning developed and top
strike’ (Blitzkrieg) to storm into various secret device ‘radar’
countries and overrun them. for detecting aircraft
while still at a Hurricanes -
The British Royal
distance, the fighter Royal Air Force
Navy continued to be the
planes of the Royal
most powerful among
Air Force (Spitfires
the European naval
and Hurricanes) were
forces and ensured that
able to inflict severe
a sea-borne invasion of
losses on the German
Britain was not possible. British Royal Navy
bombers. The raids
However, Britain depended on large scale imports
stopped after October
of food, raw materials and industrial goods by Spitfires -
1940. Saluting the
sea from its Empire and the US. To attack this, Royal Air Force
bravery of the Royal
Germany developed a fleet of submarines which
Air Force Churchill said in a speech, that
caused havoc, especially in the Atlantic Ocean
“Never was so much owed by so many to so
area, by sinking a large number of civilian ships
few”. The Germans dropped their plans to
carrying supplies to Britain.
invade Britain because of the failure of the air
Important Events battle.
Dunkirk – In May 1940 more than “We shall defend our island, whatever the
300,000 British and French soldiers were cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches.
forced back to the beaches in Dunkirk. We shall fight in the fields and in the
Though they were under heavy fire, there was streets. … We shall never surrender.” This
no all-out attack by the Germans and 338,000 inspirational speech by Winston Churchill
men were rescued by the British by calling on in June 1940 boosted the morale of the
all men who had boats or small ships which British people when there were real fears of
could be put to use. The French soldiers an invasion by Germany.
World War II 38

Lend Lease 1941–1945 war planners hoped to achieve that end
with Fall Blau (“Operation Blue”). On June
President Roosevelt realized that the
28, 1942, operations began with significant
United States had to change its policy of
German victories.
isolation, but could not intervene directly
in the War in Europe, because it was not Russian people suffered not only from bad
politically feasible. So he started a programme working and living conditions, but also from
of “Lend Lease” in March 1941. Arms, food, ill-treatment at German hands in the occupied
military equipment and other supplies were areas. There were about 15 million civilian
sent to Britain, disguised as a “loan”, which deaths during the war, and about 10 million
would be returned after use. This augmented members of the armed forces were killed. All
the resources of Britain to a great extent. together over one-tenth of Russia’s population
Between 1941 and 1945, the total aid under died. Yet the people remained loyal to the
Lend Lease amounted to $46.5 billion. government, despite Hitler’s hopes of an anti-
Stalin revolution. They successfully defended
Invasion of Russia 1941-1942
the city of Stalingrad. It stopped the German
In June 1941 the German army invaded advance into the Soviet Union and marked
Russia. The long-term objectives of this the turning of the tide of war in favour of
move were to seize prime land for settling the Allies. Russians consider it to be one of the
Germans, to destroy the communist greatest battles of their Great Patriotic War.
regime, and also exploit Russia’s natural
resources, especially oil. The German Battle of El Alamein 1942
strategy of lightning strikes was initially In the early
successful and the army penetrated 1000 years of the War,
miles into Russian territory very soon. The German forces
German army then marched on Moscow. under General
But ultimately, the resistance by the Soviet Rommel were
army, and the fierce Russian winter defeated remarkably
the German army. successful in Battle of El Alamein
occupying North Africa rapidly, leaving the
Battle of Stalingrad (17 July
British with only Egypt. The Allied forces under
1942 to 2 February 1943)
General Montgomery counter-attacked and
In August defeated the German and Italian forces at El
1942, the Germans Alamein in North Africa. The German army was
attacked Stalingrad. chased across the desert, out of North Africa.
Stretching about This provided the base for the Allied forces to
30 miles (50 km) invade Italy.
along the banks
of the Volga Battle of Stalingrad Surrender of Italy 1943
River, Stalingrad was a large industrial city Mussolini
producing armaments and tractors. Capturing had been thrown
the city would cut Soviet transport links with out and the new
southern Russia, and Stalingrad would then government of Italy
enable the invading Germans to have access surrendered to
Surrender of Italy
to the oil fields of the Caucasus. In addition, the Allies in 1943.
seizing the city that bore the name of Soviet However, the Germans set Mussolini up in
leader Stalin would serve as a great personal a puppet regime in the north. Mussolini was
and propaganda victory for Hitler. German killed in April 1945, by Italian partisans.
39 World War II

End of Hitler while Japan was a
modern nation with
The Allied forces under the command of
moral values similar
General Eisenhower invaded Normandy in
to western ideas.
France. Slowly, the German army was forced
back. But the Germans fought back and the War Pearl Harbour
continued for nearly another year, and finally 1941
ended in May 1945. Hitler committed suicide in Pearl Harbour attack
April 1945. On December
1941, Japan attacked American naval
From 1944, the installations in Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, without
Russian army began to warning. The idea was to cripple America’s
attack Germany from Pacific fleet so that Japan would not face any
the East and captured opposition in its offensive against South-
much of Eastern Europe Surrender of east Asian countries. Many battleships and
and Poland. In 1945, German Forces
numerous fighter planes were destroyed.
they occupied parts of Berlin, so that Germany The United States declared war on Japan,
was divided into two sections after the War. with Britain and China also joining in. This
War in the Asia-Pacific Region brought together both the Asia Pacific and the
European war into one common cause. Most
Japan had entertained visions of a glorious
importantly, it brought the United States with
empire, very much on the same lines as Hitler.
its enormous resources into the war as a part
The Japanese army invaded Manchuria in
of the Allies.
1931.Though China appealed to the League of
Nations, this act of aggression did not attract Japanese Aggression in
the attention of the United States or Britain. In South-east Asia
1937, Japan invaded China, and seized Beijing
The Japanese had spectacular success in
(Peking, as it was then known) which had
their plan to extend their empire throughout
traditionally been the capital of China. The
South-east Asia. Guam, the Philippines, Hong
region around Shanghai was also captured, and
Kong, Singapore, Malaya, the Dutch East
Nanjing (Nanking), the capital was captured at
Indies (Indonesia) and Burma, all fell to the
the end of the year. The Japanese army indulged
Japanese. The Allies faced many reverses in
in the biggest slaughter ever known in history in
the Pacific region because of their inadequate
Nanjing. Civilians were killed en masse for sport,
preparation. The colonial rulers, especially
and all females – from children to old women –
the British, withdrew from their territories,
were raped, and many were tortured and killed
leaving the local people to face the atrocities of
after being raped. Guangzhou (Canton) and
the Japanese. Burma, Malaya, Singapore and
many other parts of China were overrun. The
the Dutch East Indies also had a considerable
Chinese army, under Chiang Kai-shek retreated
population of Indians and Chinese. Many
to the west to the hilly country from where they
Indians walked all the way from Burma to the
continued to fight the Japanese.
Indian border, facing many hardships. Many
China appealed to the League of Nations, died of disease and exhaustion. Those who
but this was in vain since the western powers remained suffered under the Japanese.
were not interested in being involved in a
region so far from their sphere of interest. The Battle of Midway and Battle of
western nations, particularly Britain, also had Guadalcanal 1942
an in-built bias, in that China was viewed as The US navy defeated the Japanese navy
a morally decadent, worn-out, feudal society in the Battle of Midway, which turned the tide
World War II 40

in favour of the 15 August 1945 and formally signed 2
Allies. The Battle of September 1945 bringing an end to World
Guadalcanal in the War II.
Solomon Islands was The horrendous long-term effects on the
a combined offensive local population of the radiation from the
involving the army atomic bombs were not clearly understood at
Battle of Guadalcanal
and the navy, and the time.
lasted for several months. Both were crushing
defeats for the Japanese. (c) Effects of the War
After this, the American forces were able to New geo-political power alignment:
re-take the Philippines. Gradually the Japanese World War II changed the world in
were thrown out of most of their conquered fundamental ways. The world was polarized
territories. In 1944, the combined British into two main blocs led by superpowers, one
and Indian armies were able to push back the led by the United States with a pronounced
Japanese who attempted to invade the north- anti-Communist ideology, and the other by
east of India. Then, along with the Chinese, they Soviet Russia. Europe was divided into two:
pushed the Japanese out of Burma, and liberated Communist and non-Communist.
Malaya and Singapore.
Nuclear proliferation: The United States
Hiroshima and Nagasaki,August and the Soviet Union entered into a race to
1945 have more nuclear powered weapons. They
built a large stockpile of such weapons. Britain
As a top secret
and France also developed their own nuclear
project, using the latest
weapons. Countries began to devote large
scientific advances, the
amount of resources in developing more and
US developed an atomic
more powerful weapons of great destructive
bomb immensely more
power, and defence spending sky-rocketed in
powerful than conventional
many countries.
explosives. The Japanese
generals refused to surrender and finally the International agencies: The mistakes of
US dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. a weak and ineffectual League of Nations were
As the Japanese still refused to surrender, not repeated. Many international agencies,
another atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. in particular the United Nations, the World
Japan ultimately announced surrender on Bank and the International Monetary Fund
came into existence providing a forum for
N countries large and small.
ATOM BOMB BLAST AT JAPAN 1945 W E
CHINA S In addition to these major changes, other

IA
SS
important social and economic changes also

RU
took place in the post-War world. Colonial

JAPAN powers were forced to give independence to
NORTH PACIFIC former colonies in a process of decolonization.
KOREA OCEAN
India was the first to achieve independence.
SOUTH In subsequent years, these newly independent
KOREA
HIROSHIMA TOKYO nations began to make their voices heard in the
international arena. Women started entering
the labour force in greater numbers. Societal
NAGASAKI Not to Scale
notions of stable social relations (marriage,
41 World War II

family) changed as more and more women
became economically independent. The word ‘holocaust’ is used to describe the
genocide of nearly six million Jews by the
Holocaust and Germans during World War II. Annihilating
3.2 the Jews was one of the main items on the
Its Fallout political agenda of Hitler and the Nazis. Hitler
After Hitler came to power, the Jews were was able to play on the anti-Jewish feelings
persecuted in many ways. They were deprived (anti-Semitism) which were common in
of their civil rights, their properties were Germany and, in fact, throughout Europe. Jews
confiscated and many were confined to ghettos. were scattered all across Europe and many had
Eventually, the Nazis came up with the notion of become prominent in business, in performing
the Final Solution, which was to exterminate the arts and professional fields. Money-lending
Jews completely. Jews in Germany and in all the was a major business activity among Jews and
countries overrun by the Nazis were rounded up this strengthened the prejudice against them.
and transported in cattle cars to concentration Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice
camps. Here they were subjected to inhuman clearly depicts the dislike and distrust of Jews
living conditions, torture, horrible medical among the people. The character of Shylock is
experiments supposedly in the name of science. a stereotype. The movie, Fiddler on the Roof,
Finally they were killed in gas chambers. Nearly is about the anti-Jewish pogrom in nineteenth
six million European Jews were killed in these century Russia when an entire village of Jews
extermination camps. The killing continued till is forced to move out by an order of the Tsar.
the end of the war, when the surviving inmates
of different concentration camps were rescued rights in 30 articles. The UN adopted this
by the invading Allied armies. Other ethnic historic Charter on 10 December 1948. This
groups, especially the Romani gypsies were also day (10 December) is observed globally as
killed in the concentration camps. Human Rights Day. Provisions of some
ninety national constitutions since 1948,
Universal Declaration of Human according to the Franklin and Eleanor
Rights Roosevelt Institute in New York, can be
In the aftermath of the Holocaust the traced to this Declaration.
UNO in its Charter, pledged to promote
universal respect for and observance of Birth of Israel
human rights and fundamental freedoms for A major outcome of the Holocaust
all without distinction to race, sex, language was the creation of the state of Israel
and religion. The UN efforts to protect as a homeland for the Jews. While this
human rights on a global basis resulted in the was historically the original home of the
constitution of UN Commission on Human Jews during Roman times, the Jews had
Rights. A committee constituted under dispersed across Europe, and the region was
its auspices was chaired by the widow of predominantly populated by Muslims by
President Franklin Roosevelt. The members the twentieth century. Carving out a Jewish
of the Commission included Charles Malik state in this region has created continuous
of Lebanon, P.C. Chang of Nationalist tensions in west Asia. There is a continuous
China, John Humphrey of Canada, and Rene state of hostility between the Arab states
Cassin of France. The Universal Declaration and Israel. Israel has occupied large parts
of Human Rights was its important of Palestinian homelands. Israel derives
contribution. The Universal Declaration of vast support from the United States.
Human Rights set forth fundamental human
World War II 42

New International each one - big or small - has
3.3 an equal vote in the United
Order
Nations.
By 1941 the United States and Britain
began to give serious consideration to the need General Assembly
for international cooperation for achieving and Security
lasting peace among all nations. International Council
economic and financial stability were also
The United Nations UN Headquarters,
important objectives. All these would need
functions almost like any New York
international organizations with members of
government, through
the various nations across the world working
its principal organs which are similar to the
together for these common objectives. This
legislative, executive and judicial wings of a state.
ultimately resulted in the establishment of
In the General Assembly is the body in which
the United Nations, the World Bank and the
each member state is represented. It meets once
International Monetary Fund, with many
a year and issues of interest and points of conflict
associated organizations which deal with
are discussed in the Assembly. The Security
basic issues of importance for all societies and
Council has fifteen members. Five countries - the
countries.
United States, Britain, France, Russia and China
International agencies had been - are permanent members, and there are ten
established after World War I. But the temporary members who are elected in rotation.
League of Nations unfortunately proved to be These two bodies function like a legislature. Each
ineffectual. The International Labour Office of the permanent members has the right to veto
(ILO) located in Geneva in Switzerland, any decision by the other members of the Security
however, is still active and continues to work Council. This right has often been used to block
on issues relating to labour and employment. major decisions, especially by the superpowers,
the US and Russia. Major issues and conflicts are
United Nations discussed in the Security Council.
The first initiative for the United Nations
came from the United States and Britain in 1941 Administrative Structure
when they issued a joint declaration known The executive wing of the United
as the Atlantic Charter. This stated that after Nations is the UN Secretariat. It is headed by
the destruction of Nazi tyranny, there would the Secretary General, who is elected by the
be peace for all countries General Assembly on the recommendation of
so that all people could the Security Council. The Secretary General,
live their lives in freedom along with his cabinet and other officials,
from fear and want. This runs the United Nations. The International
Declaration of the United Court of Justice, headquartered at The Hague
Nations was accepted Symbol of UN in Holland, is the judicial wing of the United
by all the 26 countries Nations. The Economic and Social Council
which were fighting against the Axis powers (ECOSOC), the fifth organ of the United
(Germany, Italy and Japan) on New Year’s Day, Nations, is responsible for coordinating all
1942.The Charter of the United Nations was the economic and social work of the United
signed on June 26, 1945 by 51 nations. India Nations. The regional Economic Commissions
which was not an independent country then functioning for regional development across
also was a signatory to the Charter. Now the the various regions of the world (Asia Pacific,
United Nations has 193 member states and West Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America)
are organs of ECOSOC. They have been very
43 World War II

successful, and have been headed by eminent both established in 1945 after the Bretton
economists like Gunnar Myrdal. Woods Conference in 1944. Located in
Washington D.C. in the United States,
Other Important Organs of the UN
they have the same membership, since a
Associated organizations deal with areas
country cannot be a member of the Bank
of critical interest to the world at large like food,
without being a member of the Fund.
health and education, and culture. These are:
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), World
Health Organisation (WHO), UNESCO (UN
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation).
There are also special organizations funded
voluntarily by member countries. The two best
known among them are UNICEF (United Nations
Children’s Fund) which promotes child health and
welfare across the world, and the UNDP (United
Nations Development Programme), which
focuses on development.
Bretton Woods Conference
Activities of the UN The two main organs of the World Bank are
Over the decades, the United Nations the International Bank for Reconstruction
has expanded its activities in response to and Development (IBRD) and the
the changing problems facing the world. International Development Agency (IDA),
Thus, in the 1960s, decolonization was an Together they are often referred to as the
important issue. Human rights, the problems World Bank. The main responsibility of the
of refugees, climate change, gender equality IBRD in the initial years was to fund the
are all now within the ambit of the activities reconstruction activities under the Marshall
of the United Nations. A special mention Plan in the European countries devastated by
must be made of the UN Peacekeeping force, the war. The agenda later expanded to
which has acted in many areas of conflict all promote economic development in poorer
over the world. The Indian army has been an countries and the Bank lends money to
important part of the peacekeeping force and various countries for developmental projects.
has been deployed in many parts of the world. A further area of interest is poverty alleviation,
especially in the rural areas of developing
"We, the peoples of the United Nations, countries. The International Development
determined to save succeeding generations Agency (IDA) also lends money to
from scourge of war, which twice in our governments for developmental activities.
lifetime has brought untold sorrow to These loans are “soft” loans, and are given at
mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental very low rates of interest for a period of 50
human rights, in the dignity and worth of the years. The International Finance Corporation
human person, in the equal rights of men and (IFC) mainly functions with private
women, and of nations large and small …”. - enterprises in developing countries.
from The Preamble to the United Nations In recent years the Bank is actively
promoting the achievement of the Millennium
World Bank Development Goals which aim at improving
living standards, removing illiteracy,
The World Bank and the empowering women and improving maternal
International Monetary Fund, referred and child health, improving the environment
to as the “Bretton Woods Twins”, were and eradicating AIDS.
World War II 44

International Monetary Fund (IMF) unemployment which were experienced after
The International Monetary Fund was World War I. A comprehensive programme of
primarily the brainchild of Harry Dexter social welfare schemes in addition to ensuring
White and John Maynard Keynes, the famous that the people enjoyed civil and political rights
economist. It was formally organized in 1945 were therefore adopted. While non-democratic
with 29 member countries. It now has a governments (for example, Nazi Germany or
membership of 189 countries. Its primary communist states), also provide comprehensive
objective is to ensure financial stability and welfare services, the term welfare state is used
development across the world. The main only for states where the people also enjoy
agenda is to promote international monetary civil and political liberties. All the countries
cooperation, expansion of international trade in Western Europe are now welfare states,
and exchange stability. The Fund lends money where the citizens are provided free health
from its resources to countries facing balance and social services. However presently welfare
of payments problems (because they are unable states are experiencing great stress due to aging
to pay for their imports). It however imposes populations immigration, etc.
stringent conditions on the borrowing nations In 1942, the Report commonly known
to tighten their budgets, practice fiscal as the Beveridge Report was published in the
prudence and reduce their expenditure. This is United Kingdom which proposed a series
often unpopular, especially among the of measures which the government should
developing countries which may have to cut adopt to provide citizens with adequate
down on various programmes which provide income, health care, education, housing
subsidies to the people. and employment to overcome poverty and
disease which were the major impediments
The objectives of the IMF are: “to foster to general welfare.
global monetary cooperation, secure financial
After the War, the Labour party was
stability, facilitate international trade, promote
voted into power in Britain. It promised to
high employment and sustainable economic
undertake steps to look after the people “from
growth and reduce poverty around the world.”
the cradle to the grave”. Legislation was
enacted to provide comprehensive free health
Post-War Welfare coverage to the citizens through the National
3.4
States in Europe Health Service and monetary benefits like old
The term Welfare State refers to the concept page pensions and unemployment benefits,
that the government is responsible for the childcare services and family welfare services.
social and economic welfare of the people, thus These are in addition to universal, free school
expanding the role of the state beyond providing education to all children.
defence and maintaining law and order. The The benefits can either be achieved
state now intervenes in many ways to protect through cash transfers, like old age pensions
the welfare of the people, for instance, through and unemployment compensation, or
laws which protect workers in the workplace through free services. In addition, these
by prescribing the number of working hours, countries also try to minimize economic
minimum wages and safe working conditions disparities through progressive taxation by
and so on. Throughout Europe, after the War, taxing the higher income groups at relatively
governments and the people did not want high rates.
to return to the economic hardships and
45 World War II

SUMMARY
The War lasted from 1939 till 1945 and was fought in almost every part of the world, in Europe,
Africa and the Asia Pacific. The Allies, initially Britain and France, and subsequently the USSR
(Russia) and the United States, fought against the Axis powers - Germany, Italy and Japan.
Initially both the German army in Europe and Japan in the East were very successful. However, after
the United States with its enormous resources also joined the Allies, both Germany and Japan were
defeated after many prolonged fighting. The War ended in Europe in May 1945, but it ended in Asia
only in August 1945, after the Americans dropped atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The post-War world saw the rise of two superpowers, namely the United States and the USSR. Both
countries were in an arms race, especially to build their nuclear weapons.
During the War, the Nazis resorted to killing the Jews in concentration camps. Nearly six million
Jews were transported to these camps, tortured and killed.
GLOSSARY
devastation/ havoc total destruction பேரழிவு
belligerent one eager to fight / aggressive ப�ோர் நாட்டம்
resurgent rising again மீண்டெழுகிற
resentment a feeling of deep and bitter anger கடுங்கோபம்
reparations compensation exacted from a defeated nation இழப்பீடுகள்
by the victors
armaments weapons ப�ோர்த்தளவாடங்கள்
reluctance unwillingness தயக்கம்
conscripted compulsory military service கட்டாய இராணுவ
சேவைக்கு அழைக்கப்பட்ட
morale sense of confidenc மனத்திண்மை
slaughter kill a large number of people indiscriminately வதைத்துக் க�ொல்லுதல்
proliferation a rapid increase பல்கிப் பெருகுதல்
confiscated seized / took away பறிமுதல் செய்யப்பட்ட
ghettos slums குடிசைத்தொகுதி
veto a vote that blocks a decision / negative vote மறுப்பாணை / எதிர்வாக்கு
ambit range வரம்பு / எல்லை
scourge eternal suffering மீளாத்துயரம்
stringent tough கடுமையான
2. Who initiated the formation of League

EXERCISE of Nations?
a) Roosevelt b) Chamberlain
c) Woodrow Wilson d) Baldwin
I. C
hoose the 3. Where was the Japanese Navy defeated
correct answer by the US Navy?
1. When did the Japanese a) Battle of Guadalcanal
formally sign of their surrender? b) Battle of Midway
a) 2 September, 1945 b) 2 October, 1945 c) Battle of Leningrad
c) 15 August, 1945 d) 12 October, 1945 d) Battle of El Alamein
World War II 46

4. Where did the US drop its first atomic c) iii) and iv) are correct
bomb? d) (i ) is correct and ii), iii) and iv) are wrong
a) Kavashaki b) Innoshima 2. Assertion: President Roosevelt realised
c) Hiroshima d) Nagasaki that the United States had to change its
5. Who were mainly persecuted by Hitler? policy of isolation.
a) Russians b) Arabs Reason: He started a programme of
c) Turks d) Jews Lend Lease in 1941.
6. Which Prime Minister of England who a) Both A and R are correct
signed the Munich Pact with Germany ? b) A is right but R is not the correct reason
a) Chamberlain b) Winston Churchill c) Both A and R are wrong
c) Lloyd George d) Stanley Baldwin d) R is right but it has no relevance to A
7. When was the Charter of the UN signed? IV. Match the Following
a) June 26, 1942 b) June 26, 1945 1. Blitzkrieg - Roosevelt
c) January 1, 1942 d) January 1, 1945 2. Royal Navy - Stalingrad
8. Where is the headquarters of the 3. Lend Lease - Solomon Island
International Court of Justice located? 4. Volga - Britain
a) New York b) Chicago 5. Guadalcanal - lightning strike
c) London d) The Hague
V Answer the questions briefly
II Fill in the blanks
1. Mention the important clauses of the
1. Hitler attacked---------------- which was a Treaty of Versailles relating to Germany.
demilitarised zone. 2. Who were the three prominent dictators
2. The alliance between Italy, Germany and of the post World War I ?
Japan is known as -----------. 3. How did Hitler get the support from the
3. --------- started the Lend Lease programme. people of Germany?
4. Britain Prime Minister --------------- 4. Describe the Pearl Harbour incident.
resigned in 1940. 5. What do you know of Beveridge Report?.
5. Saluting the bravery of the ------------- 6. Name the Bretton Woods Twins.
------ Churchill said that “Never was so
7. What are the objectives of IMF?
much owed by so many to so few”.
VI.
Answer the questions given
6. ------------- is a device used to find out the
under each caption
enemy aircraft from a distance.
1. Battle of Stalingrad
7. The Universal Declaration of Human
a) When did Germany attack Stalingrad?
Rights set forth fundamental human b) What were the main manufactures of
rights in --------------articles. Stalingrad?
8. After the World War II ---------------- was c)
What was the name of the plan
voted into power in Great Britain. formulated by Hitler to attack Stalingrad?
III. Choose the correct statement d) What is the significance of the Battle of
1. i) B anking was a major business activity Stalingrad?
among Jews. 2. Japanese Aggression in South-east Asia
ii) Hitler persecuted the Jews. a) Name the South-east Asian countries
which fell to the Japanese.
iii) In the concentration camps Jews were
b) Account for the setback of Allies in
killed.
the Pacific region?
iv) The United Nations has currently 129
c) What is the significance of Battle of
member countries in it.
Midway?
a) i) and ii) are correct
d) What happened to the Indians living in
b) i) and iii) are correct Burma?
47 World War II

3. General Assembly and Security Council 3. Marking the Allies and Axis countries,
a) List the permanent member countries as well as important battlefields of World
of the Security Council. War II in a world map.
b) What is the Holocaust?
IX. Map Work
c) Who was the Chairperson of the UN
Commission on Human Rights? Mark the following on the world map.
d) What is meant by veto? 1. Axis Power Countries
2. Allied Power Countries
VII. Answer in detail
3. Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Hawai Island, Moscow,
1. Attempt an essay on the rise and fall of
San Fransico
Adolf Hitler.
2. Analyse the effects of the World War II.
REFERENCE BOOKS
3. Assess the structure and the activities of
the UN. 1. R.D. Cornwell, World History in the Twentieth
Century, London: Longman, 1972.
VIII. Students Activity
2. C.V. Narasimhan, The United Nations - An
1. Group project involving students to Inside View, New Delhi: Vikas, 1988.
prepare an album with pictures on 3. Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 23 (1962
different phases of the World War II. edition).
2. A debate in the class on the success or failure
4. Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
of the UN in preserving World Peace.
World (Delhi: Orient Longman, 2007)
Timeline
• 1939 - Outbreak of World War II
• 1940 - Battle of Britain
• 1941 - Pearl Harbour incident
• 1942 - Battle of Stalingrad
• 1945 - End of World War II
• 1945 - Formation of UNO
ICT CORNER
Steps
• Click on ‘map’ to see the events happened in the location
• Select any year from the bottom time line (Ex.1939) and select the
‘box’ to learn more about the World War II events.
Website URL:
https://www.abmc.gov/sites/default/files/interactive/interactive_files/WW2/
index.html
World War II 48

Unit - 4
The World After

World War II
Learning Objectives
Communist Revolution in China
Cold War and the Non-Aligned Movement
Korean War and the Cuban Missile Crisis
Arab–Israeli Wars and Vietnam War
European Economic Community and European Union
Fall of Berlin Wall and the End of Cold War Era
Introduction of US control, European countries started the

European movement in the form of Council
In the aftermath of Second World War of Europe. This developed into the European
a new era began. It was the beginning of the Common Market and finally into what is today
decline of European colonial empires and the the European Union. The Cold War period
independence of colonies in Asia and Africa. If ended with the fall of Berlin Wall.
the effects of World War I led to the communist
revolution of Russia, the Second World War
played a big part in the communist revolution in
4.1 Chinese Revolution
China. The emergence of the US and the USSR as (a) China in the Pre-War Period
super powers resulted in the division the world
into two antagonistic blocs. A cold war (see the In its long history, Chinese civilization
box item) situation triggered deadly conflicts in was more advanced than that of Europe.
Korea, Cuba, Vietnam and West Asia. But by the end of the nineteenth century, its
progress had halted. The Manchus, the ruling
Under the Marshall Plan for dynasty, had governed China since about
reconstruction of the war-ravaged Europe, the 1650. The entire administration system was in
US won the trust of the great powers in Europe. the hands of a bureaucracy of scholar-officials
Soviet Russia, by demonstrating solidarity with called mandarins who came from the landed
the liberation struggles of countries in Asia gentry. The mass of peasant population was
and Africa, earned the goodwill of the latter. poverty-stricken, and suffered from high
The Non-Aligned Movement played a rents, high taxes, and shortage of land. There
limited role in containing the conflict between was very little industry, though some railways
the two power blocs. In a bid to wriggle out and engineering works had been built.
49 The World After World War II

middle-class leaders. Dr. Sun Yat-sen was
one among them. On hearing the news of the
rising in a newspaper in the United States
Sun Yat-sen arrived in Shanghai and was
immediately elected provisional president of
the new Chinese Republic. But Yuan Shih-
kai, who had earlier served as a minister
Taiping Rebellion in the Manchu administration, had full
Discontent with the political and control of the modern army in the north. He
economic system resulted in a number of succeeded in persuading those responsible
peasant uprisings. The Taiping Rebellion for the ascension of the young Emperor to
(1850–64) was a major rebellion. The death toll prevail on him to abdicate. A republic was
was 20 million. At a time when the government also set up.
was becoming unpopular and weak, European Dr. Sun Yat-sen
pressure on China to open its doors to foreign (1866–1925)
trade was also increasing. In the two opium Born in a poor
wars of 1832 and 1848, China was defeated family near Canton, Dr.
and was compelled to open its ports to western Sun Yat-sen, the father
powers. The opening of China to western of modern china was
imperialism led to economic exploitation and educated in a mission
the impoverishment of the Chinese people. school and became a
The European presence produced a Christian. He was then
profound hatred of foreigners. This combined trained as a doctor of medicine in Hong
with military defeat, led to more pressing Kong. Evincing interest in politics he took
demands for reforms from the Western- part in a rising against the Manchus in 1895.
educated intellectuals. In 1898, the young As the rising failed, Sun Yat-sen spent the
Emperor, initiated a series of reforms known next sixteen years in exile. He used this
as the Hundred Days of Reform. But these time to spread his nationalist ideas amongst
reforms aroused tremendous opposition Chinese students and others living overseas.
from the powerful conservatives and the In 1905 he founded in Tokyo the political
Dowager-Empress Tzú Hsi. She imprisoned party which in 1912 became the Kuomintang
the Emperor and reversed the reforms. or the National People’s Party. Dr. Sun Yat-
sen’s three principles were Nationalism,
Despite its incompetence and weakness,
Democracy, and People’s livelihood with
the Manchu government lasted until two
Socialism as the ultimate object.
years before the First World War.
(b) The Chinese Revolution 1911 (c) Yuan Shih-kai and After
The disintegration of the Manchu The unity of China under Yuan Shih-kai
dynasty began with the death of the Dowager- lasted for four years. During this time it was
Empress in 1908. The new emperor was two- clear that Yuan was opposed to both democracy
years old and the provincial governors began and republicanism. The Kuomintang Party
to assert their independence. In October was crushed. Yuan lost prestige in the eyes
1911 the local army mutinied and the revolt of nationalism, when he agreed to the
spread. Provincial governors removed the demand of Japan to have economic control
Manchu garrisons and proclaimed their of Manchuria and Shantung. On his death in
independence. Already there were a few 1916 a new President was appointed for the
The World After World War II 50

next twelve years as a centralised mass
but the government party and helped to build
was central only in up a revolutionary army.
name. During this The Whampoa Military
period of anarchy in Academy was founded near
China, Marxist ideas Canton, with the assistance
were developing in of Russian officers. Its first
the north of China, director was Chiang Kai-
parallel to Sun-Yat- shek. On the staff in charge Chou En Lai
sen’s activities in of political activities was
the coastal cities Chou En Lai, as an alliance had been formed
between Shanghai Yuan Shih-kai between the Chinese Communist Party and
and Canton. the Kuomintang.
Mao Tse-tung Kuomintang and
(1893–1976) Chiang Kai Shek
Mao was born in
Hunan in south-east After the death of Sun
China. His father was a Yat Sen the Kuomintang
wealthy peasant, and a firm was organised on
supporter of the Manchus. communist lines, but it
Mao, who was very fond of reading, soon did not adopt communist
showed his ability and entered the Junior policies. The leader of
College at Changsha. This was the year the Kuomintang was
(1911) when the Revolution had broken Chiang Kai-shek. While
out in China. Mao joined the revolutionary the Communist Party Chiang Kai-shek
army but soon left and enrolled in the was under Mao Tse Tung and Chou En Lai.
Teachers’ Training College in Changsha. As an avowed critic of Communists, Chiang
He then moved to Peking and served as removed all of them from important positions
an assistant librarian in Peking University. in the party. The communists increased their
In the following year Mao began his full- influence among the workers and peasants
fledged political activities of Hunan and and obtained recruits for their army. The
emerged as a staunch Communist. Kuomintang represented the interests of the
landlords and capitalists.
(d) Communist Party of China Chiang Kai-shek started conquering
China. Starting from Canon, by the end of
With the Revolution and the breakup of the
1925, he had captured Hanko. In early 1927
old society, Confucian thought was generally
he successfully laid siege on Shanghai and
side-lined and after the Russian Revolution
Nanking. He removed all communists in the
of 1917, the ideas of Marx and Lenin became
Kuomintang Party. In 1928 he was successful
popular among intellectuals. In 1918 a Society
in capturing Peking. Once again there was a
for the Study of Marxism was formed in Peking
central government in China.
University. Among the students who attended
was Mao Tse-tung. Mao as Organizer of Peasants
In the meantime, Sun Yat-sen, sent Chiang Mao had understood that the Kuomintang
Kai-shek to Moscow to seek Russian support. grip on the towns was very strong. So he
The Russians in turn sent Michael Borodin concentrated his energies on organizing the
to China, who reorganised the Kuomintang peasantry. When the relationship between

Kuomintang and Communist Party broke developing Manchuria as a military base. Mao
a few hundred Communists led by Mao believed that Chiang Kai-shek was necessary
retreated into the wild mountains. Here they for some time to hold together Kuomintang
stayed for the next seven years. As the army of to fight the Japanese. As a consequence of
Mao was gradually growing, the Kuomintang this pragmatic policy, the attacks on the
was unable to penetrate the mountains. communists gradually stopped. At the same
The campaign against the communists was time a stronger line was adopted towards
distracted as Chiang Kai-shek had to deal with Japanese expansion. But the Japanese occupied
the constant threat from Japan and also the the whole of the eastern half of China, as the
attacks from war lords. Kuomintang armies were not strong enough.
The Long March 1934 Communist Victory

As Chiang Kai-shek had built a circle With the surrender of the Japanese (1945),
of fortified posts around the communist both the Kuomintang and the communists
positions, Mao wanted to move out of Hunan sought to occupy the Japanese areas. In this
for safer territory. By 1933 Mao had gained race the Kuomintang was successful. The cities
full control of the Chinese Communist party. and railways soon fell into their hands. Even
In 1934, the Communist army of about the area around Peking was soon controlled
100,000 set out on the Long March. This by Chiang Kai-shek’s forces, largely because
march has become legendary. The marchers of the military aid given by the USA.
were continually harassed by Kuomintang With the massive support provided by
forces, by local war lords and by unfriendly the USA Kuomintang government controlled
tribesmen. Of the 100000 who set out, only the administration, ports and communication
20,000 finally reached northern Sheni late system. But the soldiers, mainly drawn from the
in 1935, after crossing nearly 6000 miles. peasants, were disillusioned and discontented.
They were soon joined by other communist Mao was keen on obtaining the support of
armies. By 1937 Mao had become the leader the middle class. So he declared that what the
of over 10 million people. Mao organised communists wanted was the rule of the people,
workers and peasants’ councils in villages of not the dictatorship of the proletariat; the end of
Shensi and Kansu and established the base exploitation, not absolute equality.
for the eventual Communist takeover of
China. Mao continued the use of guerrilla
tactics, but also ordered large-scale military
movements. Cities fell one by one and Chiang
Kai-shek’s army began to disintegrate quickly.
In the summer of 1948, Communist control
had been established over most parts of China.
National People’s Congress

In September 1949, before fighting had
Mao’s Long March
ended in the south of China, the people’s
Japanese Aggression Political Consultative Conference met in
Peking. Consisting of over 650 delegates from
Japanese interest in taking control over the Communist Party and other left-wing
Korea led to aggression against China which organizations, the conference elected the
was weak and backward. Japan continued Central Governing Council with Mao as its
to occupy north Chinese provinces while Chairman.

The establishment of the People’s 2. Marshall Plan
Republic of China under the leadership of
The US conceived the Marshall Plan
Mao Tse Tung was a world-shaking event.
to bring the countries in western Europe
There were now two mighty Communist
under its influence. The plan sought to help
powers in the world —the Soviet Union and
the countries of Europe with American
People’s Republic of China.
dollars to facilitate their early recovery
Denial of UNO Membership from the destruction caused by the Second
World War.
The United-States refused to recognize the
People’s Republic of China for more than two The United States
decades. Instead, the government of Chiang was much concerned that
Kai-shek in Taiwan (Formosa) was given poverty, unemployment,
recognition due to the pressure of the US. and dislocation caused
by the post-World War
Cold War: Rivalry II period were increasing
4.2 between the US and the appeal of communist
the Soviet Union parties in western
Marshall
Europe. The Secretary
of State, George C. Marshall, advanced the
Cold War
idea of a European self-help programme to
The rivalry that developed after World
be financed by the United States. Sixteen
War II between the US and the USSR and
nations, became part of this programme.
their respective allies created tension which
Administrative and technical assistance
is referred to as Cold War. The two super
was offered through the Economic
powers were organised after the War into
Cooperation Administration (ECA) of the
rival military alliances. They did not take
United States. European nations received
recourse to weapons. Instead they waged
nearly $13 billion in aid with shipments
war on political, economic and ideological
of food, staples, fuel and machinery and
fronts. The term ‘Cold War’ was first coined
later in investment in industrial capacity
by the English writer George Orwell (1945).
in Europe. Marshall Plan funding ended in
1951.
1. Truman’s Policy of
Formation of Military
Containment of Communism 4.3
Alliances
In 1948 the Soviets had
established socialist governments (a) NATO
in the countries of eastern Europe
The United
that had been liberated from the
States and its
Nazis by the Soviet Army. The
European allies
Americans and the British feared
formed the North
the permanent Soviet domination Truman
Atlantic Treaty
of eastern Europe. Truman, the president of USA,
Organization
pursued a policy of containment of communism.
(NATO) to resist
The Soviets were however determined not
Soviet aggression in Europe (1949). It was
only to maintain control of eastern Europe,
an inter-state military alliance between the
but also keen on spreading Communism
countries of North America and Europe. The
world-wide.

major member countries included Canada, armed forces of the member countries with
Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, its headquarters in Moscow was setup. The
Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Norway, Warsaw Pact was dissolved in 1991 following
Portugal and the United Kingdom. Later the break-up of USSR.
Greece and Turkey joined the organization
(1952). Germany joined the NATO in (d) CENTO or the Baghdad Pact
1955. The chief objective of NATO was the
In 1955 Turkey, Iraq, Great Britain,
peace and security in the North Atlantic
Pakistan and Iran signed a pact known as
region. The members agreed that an armed
Baghdad Pact. In 1958 the United States joined
attack against any one of them would be
the organisation and thereafter it came to be
considered as an aggression against all the
known as the Central Treaty Organization.
members of NATO. However even after
This treaty was open to any Arab nation
the fall of the Soviet Union NATO has
desiring peace and security in the region.
continued to expand. It had 29 members in
CENTO was dissolved in 1979.
2017, including all seven non-Soviet former
Warsaw Pact nations.
(e) High Military Expenditure on
(b) SEATO or Manila Pact (1954) both sides
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization As a result of the military alliances,
(SEATO) was organized for the collective military expenditure on both sides kept
security of countries in Southeast Asia. increasing even in peace time. America
Following the signing of the Manila Pact had used the nuclear bomb against Japan to
(1954) by the US, France, England, New convey its destructive capability to the Soviet
Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, Thailand Union. In response the Soviet Union tested
and Pakistan. Member countries of SEATO the nuclear bomb in 1949. There was intense
were committed to prevent communism competition to develop more and more
from gaining ground in the region. Unlike destructive nuclear weapons.
the NATO alliance, SEATO had no joint
The conflict between the two sides led
commands with standing forces.
to many international crises after the end
(c) Warsaw Pact of World War II. The danger of the use of
nuclear weapons that could destroy the entire
As a counter to humankind was palpable. While both sides
the NATO, Soviet encouraged intellectuals to propagate their
Union organized views, intellectuals like Bertrand Russell
the Soviet-bloc called for nuclear disarmament. Peace
countries for a united movements and popular organizations such
military action, as Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament came
under the Warsaw into existence in Europe to warn the world of
Pact. In December the dangers of a nuclear war.
1954, a conference
of eight European
4.4 Korean War
nations namely,
Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, The Korean War made the Cold War
East Germany, Poland, Romania and Russia really hot. Since Korea was partitioned as
took place in Moscow. They concluded North and South (1945), each side sought
the treaty on May 14, 1955. This is known to win legitimacy by unifying the country.
as the Warsaw pact. A joint command of The President of North Korea Kim II

(People’s Republic Tito (Yugoslavia), Nasser (Egypt), Nehru
of Korea) decided (India), Nkrumah (Ghana) and Sukarno
to act before his (Indonesia). The basic principles of non-
southern rival, alignment, as listed in the statement issued
Syngman Rhee (the at the Belgrade (a Serbian city, then part of
Republic of Korea), Yugoslavia) Conference, were: peaceful co-
got the chance. He existence, commitment to peace and security,
launched an attack no military alliance with any super power,
in June 1950, with no permission for any super power to build
the tacit support its military base in its territories. With the
of Stalin. Both Kim collapse of Soviet Union, the idea of non-
and Stalin did not alignment lost relevance.
expect the US to Korean War
intervene. The war
lasted for three years. The human cost was
enormous. But the Korean people gained
nothing. The final demarcation line was the
same as at the beginning. This futile Korean
War sums up the Cold War.
Third World Countries

The capitalist countries led by the U.S.
were politically designated as the First World,
while the communist states led by the Soviet 4.6 The Cuban Revolution
Union came to be known as the Second
The United States had its satellite states
world. States outside these two were called
in Central America (Honduras, El Salvador,
Third World. When the term was originally
Nicaragua, Panama and Guatemala), the
introduced, the Third World principally
Caribbean (Cuba, the Dominion Republic and
consisted of the developing world, the former
Haiti) and east Asia (the Philippines, South
colonies of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
Korea, South Vietnam and Thailand). These
With the break-up of the Soviet Union in
states were governed by ruling groups made
1991, and the process of globalisation and
up of military personnel, landed gentry and
economic competitiveness, the term has lost
occasionally of local capitalists. This made
its relevance.
them dependent on US aid. At times the US
intervened for a change of government to
4.5 Non-Aligned Movement suit its economic and strategic interests. Its
The Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was used
emerged in the wake of decolonization that for this purpose. For example, in 1954, the
followed World War II. At the Bandung (a city CIA organized the overthrow of a reformist
in Indonesia) conference (1955), the newly government in Guatemala. Five years later the
independent countries of Asia and Africa gave US tried to prop up the corrupt and dictatorial
a call for abstaining from allying with any of Cuban regime of Batista against the seizure of
the two Super Powers. It also pledged to fight government by Fidel Castro and his colleague
all forms of colonialism and imperialism. Che Guevara.
The NAM held its first conference at
Belgrade in 1961 under the leadership of

After Castro since they had expected independence at
took power, the the end of World War I. Britain’s promise to
US-owned oil Zionist leaders that it would allocate one of the
refineries on the Arab lands, Palestine, to Jewish settlers from
island refused to Europe further embittered the Arabs. There
process Russian was growing Arab antagonism towards Zionist
oil. Castro Fidel Castro settlers, as they bought land from rich Arabs
nationalized and Che Guevara and evicted the local peasant families who had
them. The US been cultivating it for centuries.
retaliated by ending the arrangement by which At the end of October 1945, the Jewish
it bought the bulk of Cuba’s sugar. Castro underground organizations like Irgun Zvai
nationalized the US-owned sugar companies. Leumi (Zionist Para-military Organization) and
and ended the US monopolies in electricity the Stern Gang (Zionist Terrorist Organization)
and telephones. All these gravely threatened
American economic interests.
Zionist Movement
Cuban Missile Crisis
In Palestine, the ancient home of Jews, only
In April a few thousand Jews were living in 1900.
1961, while Some 15 million were scattered around
landing an Europe and North America. (This is referred
army of Cuban to as the Diaspora.) These Jews had been
exiles on the subjected to systematic persecution for
island of Bay centuries. But in the late nineteenth century
of Pigs, the the persecution in Russia (where two-
US bombed Cuban Missile Crisis thirds of the world’s Jews lived), France and
C u b a n Germany was intense. Some Jews emigrated
airfields with the objective of overthrowing to Palestine, while many more went to the
Castro’s regime. US warships surrounded United States and Britain. In 1896 Thodore
Cuba. The Kennedy government had received Herzel, a Viennese journalist, published a
intelligence that the USSR was secretly pamphlet called The Jewish State in which he
installing nuclear missiles in Cuba. Finally, called for the creation of a Jewish national
the Soviet President Khrushchev agreed to home. Next year (1897) the World Zionist
withdraw the missiles and thus the Missile Organisation was founded.
Crisis was defused.
Eventually the two sides reached an A r a b
agreement. The Soviet Union removed the Nationalism
missiles from Cuba on an understanding Since the dawn
that the US would never invade Cuba again. of the twentieth
In secret the US also had to agree to remove century Arab
their nuclear missiles from Turkey and Italy. nationalism was Arab League Summit
growing in Syria
4.7 Arab-Israeli War and Iraq. Subsequently nationalism became
intense in Egypt. In March 1945 The Arab
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) had
League was formed in Cairo. Its founder
provided for mandates in Turkish Arab Empire.
members were Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon,
France was given the mandate for Syria and
Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Yemen.
Lebanon, and Britain for Iraq, Palestine and
Jordan. This arrangement upset the Arabs

began to launch terror attacks on a large scale. allowed to occupy the canal zone to protect
Railways, bridges, airfields and government the canal. Egypt refused and on 31 October
offices were blown up. The British government, Britain and France bombed Egyptian airfields
presented the dispute to the UN for a decision. and other installations as well as the Suez
Succumbing to the pressure of great Canal area. However, under pressure of world
powers, the UN resolved to partition the opinion, Britain and France ended hostilities
British mandate of Palestine into a Jewish on 6 November. India represented by Nehru
state and an Arab state (29 November 1947). played a crucial role in resolving the crisis.
Clashes broke out almost immediately
between Jews and Arabs in Palestine.
The Israelis, won control of the main road
to Jerusalem and successfully repulsed repeated
Arab attacks. By early 1949 the Israelis managed
to occupy all of the Negev (a desert and semi-
desert region of southern Israel) up to the former
Egypt-Palestine frontier, except for the Gaza
Strip (a self-governing Palestinian territory). Suez Canal crisis
As a result of separate armistice agreements
between Israel and each of the Arab states, a Arab–Israeli War 1967
temporary frontier was fixed between Israel and
Ever since the formation of the Palestinian
its neighbours. In Israel, the war is remembered
Liberation Organization (PLO), Israel came
as its War of Independence. In the Arab world, it
to be attacked frequently by Palestinian
is treated as the Nakbah (“Catastrophe”) as a large
guerrilla groups based in Syria, Lebanon and
number of Arabs became refugees. Israel was
Jordan. Israeli resorted to violent reprisals. In
admitted into the UN immediately much against
November 1966 an Israeli strike on the village
the wishes of Arabs. Israel was established as a
powerful state of Al-Samū in the Jordanian West Bank, left 18
to assist dead and 54 wounded. Israel’s air battle with
We s t e r n Syria in April 1967 ended in the shooting down
interests – six Syrian MiG fighter jets.
particularly the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)-
US – in return It is an umbrella political organization
for arms and representing the world’s Palestinians –
financial aid. all Arabs and their descendants who lived
Declaration of the State of Israel
in mandated Palestine before the creation
Suez Canal Crisis (1956)
of the State of Israel in 1948. It was formed
In Egypt, in a coup in 1952, Colonel Nasser in 1964 to federate various Palestinian
became its President. In 1956 he nationalized groups that previously had operated
the Suez Canal, which undermined British as clandestine resistance movements. It
interests. With the failure of diplomacy, came into prominence after the Arab-Israeli
Britain and France decided to use force. Israel War of June 1967. The PLO was engaged in a
saw this as an opportunity to open the Gulf protracted guerrilla war against Israel during
of Aqaba to Israeli shipping and put a stop the 1960s, ’70s, and ’80s before entering into
to Egyptian border raids. On 29 October peace negotiations in the 1990s. Yasser Arafat
Israeli forces invaded Egypt. Britain used was its most prominent leader.
this opportunity to demand that its troops be

In his bid to demonstrate Egypt’s support for Yasser Arafat
Syria Nasser mobilized Egyptian forces in (1924–2004)
the Sinai, seeking the removal of UN emergency In 1969, Yasser
forces stationed there on May 18. On May 22 he Arafat became chairman
closed the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping. of the PLO’s executive
King Hussein of Jordan signed a mutual defence committee a position he
pact with Egypt. Accordingly, it was decided to held until his death in
place Jordanian forces under Egyptian 2004. Yasser Arafat was
command. Soon, Iraq too joined the alliance. appointed commander-in-chief of the all
Palestinian Arab guerilla forces in September
Israel’s Offensive
1970. At this time the PLO was driven out of
Following the mobilization of Arab Jordan after Palestine factions attempted to
states by Nasser, on June 5, Israel staged a overthrow the government of King Hussein.
sudden pre-emptive air strike that destroyed Arafat and the PLO eventually found their
more than 90 percent of Egypt’s air force on way to Beirut which remained the center of
the tarmac. A similar air assault incapacitated PLO operations against Israel until 1982.
the Syrian air force. Within three days the Wearing a Harley disguised pistol and
Israelis had achieved an overwhelming carrying an olive branch and dressed in a
victory on the ground, capturing the Gaza military uniform, his appearance raised
Strip and all of the Sinai Peninsula up to the world awareness of the Palestinian cause.
east bank of the Suez Canal. An eastern front Arafat was elected by the central council of
was also opened on June 5 when Jordanian the PLO as the first president of the state of
forces began shelling West Jerusalem. On Palestine on April 2, 1989.
June 7 Israeli forces drove Jordanian forces
out of East Jerusalem and most of the West The Arab losses in the war were heavy.
Bank. The defeat demoralized both the Arab public
and the political elite. The Six-Day War
also marked the start of a new phase in the
conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
The conflict created hundreds of thousands of
refugees and brought more than one million
Palestinians in the occupied territories under
Israeli rule.
Arab–Israeli War 1973

Egypt and
Syria under
King Hussein of Jordan and Egypt’s Nasser
Presidents Anwar
Sadat and Hafez al-
UN Intervention Assad respectively
The UN Security Council called for concluded a
a ceasefire. While Egypt, Jordon and Israel secret agreement
responded to the call favourably Syria in January 1973 Anwar Sadat and
continued to shell villages in northern Israel. to bring their Hafez al-Assad
On June 9 Israel launched an assault on the armies under one command. Assad was
fortified Golan Heights and capturing it. Syria keen on retrieving Golan Heights. Aware
accepted the ceasefire on June 10. that his country’s weapons were outdated,

Sadat offered the Israelis a peace deal, if recognized the Viet Minh government, while
they withdrew from Sinai. Israel rejected the the Western powers recognized the new
offer. Egypt and Syria launched a sudden and Vietnam government of Bao Dai.
surprise attack on the Yom Kippur religious While the French were receiving
holiday (6 October 1973). Though Israel considerable financial aid from America, the
suffered heavy casualties it finally pushed Viet Minh were helped by the new Chinese
back the Arab forces. But this time, due to communist government. The French troops
UN intervention, Israel was forced to return were eventually defeated. The Geneva
to its 1967 position. Arabs gained nothing Conference (1954) that met on Korea and
out of this war too. By way of mediation Indo China decided that Vietnam was to
the USsucceeded in asserting its hegemony be an independent state but temporarily
over the region and its oil. Its strategy of divided; the Viet Minh to control the north
encouraging hostility between states and and Bao Dai to head the government the
peoples resulted in a succession of wars – south. Cambodia and Laos were to be
civil war in Lebanon, and the war between independent.
Iraq and Iran in the 1980s, Israel’s invasion of
Lebanon in 1982 and the US-led war against With a population of 16 million
Iraq in 1991. North Vietnam became a Communist state
with Ho Chi Minh as President. South
Vietnam, approximately of the same size
4.8 Vietnam War and population, was ruled by Ngo Dinh
By the end of Second World War Viet Diem. Diem refused to hold the elections to
Minh controlled the northern half of Vietnam. decide on a united Vietnam. The US initially
Viet Minh formed a government led by Ho Chi supported the Diem regime as it hoped
Minh in Hanoi. This Viet Minh government of establishing a strong non-communist
quickly occupied the southern half of Vietnam. government in South Vietnam as a bulwark
However, the Allied Powers decided at Potsdam against the spread of communism in Asia.
that the British in the south and the Chinese in However, by 1962, it was clear that Diem was
the north should defend Indo-China from the incapable of controlling the situation. This
Japanese. But Ho Chi Minh had established his led to the posting of more US armed forces
control very firmly and so, early in 1946, the in the area.
British and Chinese troops had to withdraw,
leaving the French and Viet Minh to confront The government’s survival in South
each other. In March the two governments Vietnam depended on increasing amounts
(French and Viet Minh) reached an agreement of US support. In 1965 marines landed at
by which North Vietnam was to be a free state, Danang naval base, and there were 33,500 US
within an Indo-Chinese Federation. But the troops in the country within a month. The
new French constitution included all overseas number increased and there were 210,000
colonies in a French Union. by the end of year. The US bombed both
North and South in the hope that it could
In 1949 the French attempted to secure
force the liberation forces to abandon the
the support of the population by declaring
struggle. The fighters of North Vietnam,
Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia independent
trained in guerilla warfare, had grown out
within the French Union, retaining only
of spontaneous struggles against a repressive
foreign affairs and defence under French
regime. They sustained their resistance
control. However, the problem of Indo-China
without bowing to the US. The American
soon became involved in the Cold War. China,
troops also used bacteriological weapons.
Russia and the East European countries

Incendiary bombs such as napalm and Agent capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was liberated.
Orange (to defoliate the forest cover) were North and South Vietnam were formally united
used. Vast areas of Vietnam were devastated as one country in 1976. The city of Saigon was
and hundreds of thousands of people killed. renamed as Ho Chi-Minh City after the great
The American forces too suffered heavy leader of the Vietnamese people.
casualties. The emergence of Vietnam as a united
and independent nation was an historic event.
A small country had succeeded in winning
independence and unification in the face of
the armed opposition of the greatest power
in the world. The help given to Vietnam by
the socialist countries, the political support
extended by a large number of Asian and
African countries, and the solidarity expressed
by the peoples in all parts of the world, helped
American Bombing of North Vietnam in achieving this.
Escalation of the total military outlay
caused the US big business to protest. The 4.9 Towards European Union
youths rebelled against the conscription and
(a) Council of Europe
the horrors of war. Thousands of Americans
refused to be drafted in the US army and many One of the momentous decisions taken in
American soldiers deserted. Anti-Vietnam the post-War II era was to integrate the states
War protests rocked universities and colleges of Western Europe. In doing so the Europeans
across the US and in Europe, and became part wanted (1) to prevent further European wars
of the 1960s counterculture. No other single by ending the rivalry between France and
issue united millions of people all over the Germany. (2) to create a united Europe to resist
world as the war of Vietnam. However, the US any threat from Soviet Russia. (3) to form a
government continued the war even though it third force in the world to counter-balance the
was clear that it could not be won. strength of the US and USSR. (4) to make full
use of the economic and military resources of
Europe by organizing them on a continental
scale. In May 1949 ten countries met in London
and signed to form a Council of Europe.
The Council of Europe with headquarters at
Strasbourg was established with a committee
of foreign ministers of member countries and
a Consultative Assembly, drawn from the
parliaments of foreign countries.
Anti-Vietnam War Demonstations
(b) European Coal and Steel
Community (ECSC)
Early in 1975, the war took a decisive turn.
The armies of North Vietnam and of the National Since the Council of Europe had no real
Liberation Front of South Vietnam swept across power, a proposal to set up two European
the country routing the American supported organizations was made. Accordingly, the
troops of South Vietnam. By 30 April 1975, all European Defence Community (EDC) and
the American troops had withdrawn and the the European Coal and Steel Community

(ECSC) were established. Six countries (France, (e) European Union (EU)
West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland and
The Maastricht (Netherlands) Treaty signed
Luxemburg belonging to ECSC signed the
on February 7, 1992, created the European
treaty of Rome which established the European
Union. The monetary policy and a common
Economic Community (EEC) or the European
currency (euro) to replace national currencies
Common Market, with headquarters at Brussels.
managed by common monetary institutions
Britain did not join the EEC. Instead it floated a
were subsequently planned and implemented.
European Free Trade Association with Portugal,
Today the European Union has 28 member states,
Denmark,
and functions from its headquarters at Brussels,
Au s t r i a ,
Belgium. In 2017, Britain voted to exit the EU.
N o r w a y,
Sweden and
Switzerland as
Fall of Berlin Wall and
4.10
member states. End of Cold War Era
The division of
Ho Chin Minh City (Saigon) Germany into West (Federal
Republic of Germany) and
(c) E
uropean Economic East (German Democratic
Community (EEC) Republic) led to glaring
The EEC eliminated barriers to the differences in living
movement of goods, services, capital, and standards. West Berlin’s
labour. It also prohibited public policies or economy became prosperous thanks to the
private agreements that restricted market support received from the West under the
competition. A common agricultural policy Marshall Plan. In contrast the USSR had
(CAP) and a common external trade policy little interest in developing the economy of
were evolved. European Common market was East Berlin. Further, people in East Berlin
a remarkable success. Throughout the 1970s suffered from lack of democracy and freedom.
and ’80s the EEC kept expanding. In 1973 the Therefore, people of East Berlin tried to move
United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland were to West Berlin. In West Berlin, on the other
admitted, followed by Greece in 1981 and hand, there was a fear that the Soviets could
Portugal and Spain in 1986. use military force to take West Berlin. In this
context, East German began to construct a
(d) Single European Act (SEA)
wall in 1961 which virtually cut off West Berlin
The Single European Act came into force from East Berlin and the surrounding East
on July 1, 1987. It significantly expanded the German areas. It was heavily guarded with
EEC’s scope giving the meetings of the EPC watch towers and other lethal impediments to
a legal basis. It also called for more intensive stop people from the East. In the late 1980s, as
coordination of foreign policy among member USSR’s hold over Eastern European countries
countries. According to the SEA, each member was weakening, a mass of people assembled on
was given multiple votes, depending on the 9 November 1989 on both sides of the wall and
country’s population. Approval of legislation began to demolish it. Germany was officially
required roughly two-thirds of the votes of all reunited on 3 October 1990. The Berlin Wall
members. The new procedure also increased was more than just a physical barrier. It was a
the role of the European Parliament. symbolic boundary between communism and
capitalism. With the fall of the Berlin Wall,
followed by the collapse of the Soviet Union,
the Cold War era came to an end.

Helmut Kohl, Chancellor of West Germany the US, in the context of President Reagan’s
from 1982 to 1990, and played a crucial role in Star Wars programme, it became necessary
integrating East Germany into West Germany for the Soviet Union to allocate more funds to
in 1990. He thus became the first chancellor the military. The increase in military budget
of a unified Germany after forty five years further strained the Soviet economy.
of division. He was Chairman of Christian By the end of the decade the economic
Democratic union from 1973 to 1998. He was
stagnation the Soviet Union suffered aggravated
committed to the economic integration of
Europe and to French-German cooperation. ethnic tension and promoted regionalism and
With French president Mitterand, Kohl was nationalism. The year 1988 saw the first mass
the architect of the Maastricht Treaty, which protests –first in Armenia, and then in the
established the European Union (EU) and the Baltic States. Earlier Soviet regimes had used
euro currency. severe repression to quell such uprisings. But,
in the context of perestroika and a weakened
economy, Gorbachev could not take recourse to
such brutal measures. The Chernobyl Disaster,
a major accident in a nuclear plant in Ukraine,
in 1986, was another blow. Gorbachev made
moves to stabilise his position by reliance on
conservative forces in 1989 and 1991. But on
each occasion he was interrupted by massive
miners’ strike which came close to cripple the
country’s energy supplies.
Demolition of Berlin wall
Perestroika (‘restructuring’) refers to the
programme introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev
Disintegration of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s to restructure Soviet economic
In the 1970s and early 1980s the Soviet and political system. Along with the policy
of ‘Glasnost’ (‘openness), Perestroika was
Union continued to retain a strong and
intended to energize Soviet economy which
dominant position in international politics. was lagging behind the developed countries
However, its economy was suffering, and was of the capitalist world. Even though the
unable to match the productive capacity of the economy continued to be monitored centrally
first world. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev took elementary reforms oriented towards the
over as head of the USSR. After Brezhnev’s long market were introduced. However, it failed
tenure as General Secretary of the Communist and the contradictions in the economy got
Party and his death in 1982, his successors more intense. As such it failed to arrest the
had died in quick succession. After ‘the thaw’ downward slide of the Soviet economy.
during Nikita Khrushchev’s reign, under
Glasnost (‘openness’) was a policy of
Brezhnev’s rule Soviet Union had relapsed ideologically openness introduced by
into a closed society with little freedom. In Mikhail Gorbachev along with Perestroika
this context, Gorbachev spoke about the in the 1980s. After ‘the thaw’ under Nikita
need for openness (Glasnost) and reform Khrushchev, from the 1960s under Leonid
(perestroika). But his commitment to reform, Brezhnev, the ideological and cultural climate
apart from opposition within the ruling was stifling with dissent being crushed
communist party, did not match the resources ruthlessly. Under Glasnost there was more
available to USSR. In the middle of the 1980s openness, writers who had been censored
about one third of the total GDP was going to earlier were rehabilitated, and there was space
the military. In order to maintain a parity with for criticism of politics and government.

The East European communist states, In the meantime, three Baltic States had
under the Soviet umbrella, were also in a deep formally left the Soviet Union. They were admitted to
economic and social crisis. Gorbachev’s decision the U.N. as independent countries: Estonia, Latvia,
to loosen the Soviet control on the countries and Lithuania. In November 1991 eleven republics
of Eastern Europe created an independent, (Ukraine, Georgia, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan,
democratic momentum. A series of workers’ Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan,
strikes undermined the communist regimes Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) announced secession
first in Poland and then in Hungary. A wave from the Soviet Union. Instead, they declared they
of demonstrations that swept East Germany would establish a Commonwealth of Independent
led to demolition of the Berlin Wall in 1989. States. On 25 December Gorbachev announced
Subsequent to it, regimes in Czechoslovakia, his resignation. For six days the Soviet Union
followed by Bulgaria, fell. An attempt by continued to exist only in name and at midnight on
Romania’s Nicolae Ceaușescu to resist the wave of 31 December 1991, it was formally dissolved. The
change by shooting down demonstrators ended USSR was no more.
in his execution by a firing squad (December Yeltsin was first an ally of Gorbachev.
1989) under the command of his own generals. However, as Mayor of Moscow, Yeltsin won
The televised images of the shooting and the great popularity as a champion of political
fall of the Berlin Wall galvanized the process of and economic freedom. With Gorbachev’s
the breaking up of the communist world. In six introduction of democratic elections for the
months the political map of half of Europe had Soviet parliament, Yeltsin was returned to
been redrawn. power with overwhelming support of a Moscow
In this context, the various nationalities constituency in 1989. The following year he was
inside the various soviet republics of USSR elected President of Russia over Gorbachev’s
became increasingly assertive. The division objections. President Yeltsin advocated greater
within the ruling group was growing ever wider autonomy of the Russian Republic, with
and its control over society becoming more executive presidential system that would allow
difficult. Gorbachev made a last attempt to take him to govern independently of parliament.
a hard line against the disruptionist only to be
challenged by a second great miners’ strike in
1991and huge demonstrations in Moscow. In
response, conservative forces in his government
attempted to take a hard line without Gorbachev.
They used troops in Moscow to stage a coup,
and held Gorbachev under house arrest. But
other military units refused to back them and
as a result power fell into the hands of Boris
Yeltsin, a reformer backed by the West.
Yeltsin Gorbachev
SUMMARY
The history of China becoming a Communist country in the aftermath of Second War is narrated
with the portrayal of developments there after the revolution of 1911.
Rivalry between the US and the USSR, leading to the division of world into two military blocs
and the significance of NATO and Warsaw Pact, are highlighted.

Cold War developments are illustrated with cases of Korean War, Cuban Missile Crisis, Arab-
Israeli Wars and Vietnam War.
Launch of Non-Alignment Movement, representing the view-points of Third World countries, is
described.
Establishment of Council of Europe to act independently of the influence of USA that later
developed into European Common Market and into European Union today is explained.
GLOSSARY
antagonistic acting against or indicating பகையுணர்வு க�ொண்ட
wriggle out to avoid doing something நழுவுதல்
the act of rising to an important position or a higher
ascension
level, a movement upward வளர்ச்சி, உயர்வு
legendary celebrated பெருமை வாய்ந்த, புகழ்பெற்ற

disappointed on finding out something is not as
disillusioned
good as hoped அதிருப்தி
abstaining restrain oneself from doing something விலகியிருத்தல், ஒதுங்கியிருத்தல்

embitter cause to feel bitter – to make hateful வெறுப்புணர்ச்சி, கசப்புணர்வு
incapacitated lacking in or deprived of strength or power திறனற்றதாக்குதல், முடமாக்குதல்
bacteriological
weapons
the use of harmful bacteria as a weapon நுண்ணுயிரியல் ஆயுதங்கள்
c) September 1954
EXERCISE d) September 1949
4. The United States and European allies
I. C
hoose the formed _______________ to resist any
Soviet aggression in Europe.
correct answer
a) SEATO b) NATO
1. Who was the first director of Whampoa c) SENTO d) Warsaw Pact
Military Academy? 5. Who became the Chairman of the PLO’s
a) Sun Yat-Sen b) Chiang Kai-Shek Executive Committee in 1969?
c) Michael Borodin d) Chou En Lai a) Hafez al-Assad
2. Which American President followed the b) Yasser Arafat
policy of containment of Communism?. c) Nasser
a) Woodrow Wilson d) Saddam Hussein
b) Truman 6. When was North and South Vietnam
c) Theodore Roosevelt united?
d) Franklin Roosevelt a) 1975 b) 1976
3. When was People’s Political Consultative c) 1973 d) 1974
Conference held in China? 7. Where was Arab League formed?
a) September 1959 a) Cairo b) Jordan
b) September 1948 c) Lebanon d) Syria

8. When was the Warsaw Pact dissolved? 2. i) In 1948, the Soviets had established
a) 1979 b) 1989 left wing government in the countries of
c) 1990 d) 1991 Eastern Europe that had been liberated by
the Soviet Army.
II. Fill in the blanks ii) The chief objective of NATO was to
1. __________________ was known as preserve peace and security in the North
the “Father of modern China”. Atlantic region.
2. In 1918, the society for the study of iii) The member countries of SEATO were
Marxism was formed in ____________ committed to prevent democracy from
University. gaining ground in the region.
3. After the death of Dr. Sun Yat Sen, the iv) Britain used the atomic bomb against
leader of the Kuomintang party was Japan to convey its destructive capability
_________. to the USSR.
4. _____________ treaty is open to any a) (ii), (iii) and (iv) are correct
Arab nation desiring peace and security b) (i) and (ii) are correct
in the region. c) (iii) and (iv) are correct
5. The treaty of _____________ provided d) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct
for mandates in Turkish -Arab Empire. 3. Assertion (A): America’s Marshall Plan
6. Germany joined the NATO in was for reconstruction of the war-ravaged
_________________. Europe.
7. _____________ was the Headquarters of Reason (R): The US conceived the
the Council of Europe. Marshal Plan to bring the countries in the
8. _____________ treaty signed on February Western Europe under its influence.
7, 1992 created the European Union. a) B oth (A) and (R) are correct, but R is
not the correct explanation of A
III. Choose the correct b) B oth (A) and (R) are wrong
statement/statements c) B oth (A) and (R) are correct and R is
1. i) In China (1898) the young emperor, the correct explanation of A
under the influence of the educated d) (A) is wrong and (R) is correct
minority, initiated a series of reforms IV. Match the following
known as the 100 days of reforms.
ii) The Kuomintang Party represented the 1. Dr. Sun Yat-Sen - South Vietnam
interests of the workers and peasants. 2. Syngman Rhee - Kuomintung
iii) Yuan Shih-Kai had lost prestige in the 3. Anwar Sadat - South Korea
eyes of Nationalists, when he agreed to 4. Ho-Chi Minh - Egypt
the demand of Japan to have economic 5. Ngo Dinh Diem - North Vietnam
control of Manchuria and Shantung.
iv) Soviet Union refused to recognize the V. Answer briefly
People’s Republic of China for more than 1. Write any three causes for the Chinese
two decades. Revolution of 1911.
a) (i) and (ii) are correct 2. Explain how in 1928 Kuomintung and
b) (ii) and (iii) are correct Chiang-Kai Shek established Central
c) (i) and (iii) are correct Government in China.
d) (i) and (iv) are correct 3. Write a note on Mao’s Long March.

4. What do you know of Baghdad Pact? VII. Answer in detail
5. What was Marshall Plan?
1. Estimate the role of Mao Tse tung in
6. The Suez Canal crisis confirmed that making China a communist country.
Israel had been created to serve the cause
2. Attempt an essay on the Arab-Israeli wars
of western interests –Elaborate.
of 1967 and 1973.
7. Write a note on Third World Countries.
3. Narrate the history of transformation
8. How was the Cuban missile crisis defused? of Council of Europe into an European
VI. Answer all the questions Union.
under each caption VIII. Activity
1. Cold War 1. Divide the class into two groups. Let one
a) Name the two military blocs that group act as supporters of USA and the
emerged in the Post-World War II. other group act as supporters of Soviet
b) Who coined the term “Cold War” and Union, Organise a debate.
who used it first? 2. Involving the entire class, an album may
c) What was the response of Soviet Russia be prepared with pictures relating to
to the formation of NATO? Korean, Arab-Israeli and Vietnam Wars to
d) What was the context in which Warsaw highlight the human sufferings in terms
Pact was dissolved? of death and devastation.
2. Korean War
a) Who was the President of North Korea REFERENCE BOOKS
during the Korean War?
1. R.D. Cornvell, World History in the
b) Name the southern rival to the Twentieth Century (London: Longman,
President of North Korea. 1972)
c) How long did the Korean War last?
2. Richard Overy, Complete History of the
d) What was the human cost of the War? World (London: Harper Collins, 2006)
3. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) 3. Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
a) When and where was the first conference World (London: Orient Longman, 2007)
on Non-Aligned Movement held?
b) Who were the prominent personalities
present in the first conference?
c) What were the objectives of NAM? INTERNET RESOURCES
d) L ist out any two basic principles of
Non-Alignment Movement enunciated https://www.brittanica.com
in the Belgrade Conference.
Timeline
• 1934 - Long March
• 1949 - NATO
• 1954 - SEATO
• 1955 - Warsaw Pact
• 1956 - Suez Canal Crisis
• 1961 - Belgrade Conference

Unit - 5
Social and
Religious Reform
Movements in the
19th Century
Learning Objectives
The influence of Western ideas and Christianity in creating a new
awakening in 19th century British India
Contestation in the social and religious sphere – opposition to
practices like sati, slavery, untouchability, and child marriage
Opposition to idolatry, rituals and superstitious beliefs
Contribution of Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Theosophical
Society and Aligarh Movement to the regeneration of India
Role played by prominent personalities in bringing about this awakening amongst
Parsees and Sikhs
Social movement of Jyotiba Phule and reform movements in Kerala and Tamilnadu
Introduction Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj and the

Aligarh Movement; and the revivalist movements
English education, introduced with the
such as the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna
object of producing clerks, also produced a
Mission and the Deoband Movement. There were
new English-educated middle class. This class
also attempts to challenge the oppressive social
came under the influence of western ideas and
structure by Jyotiba Phule in Pune, Narayana
thoughts. Christianity also had its effect on the
Guru and Ayyankali in Kerala and Ramalinga
newly emerging middle class. Though small in
Adigal and Vaikunda Swamigal of Tamilanadu.
number, the educated middle class began to take
The two other notable social reformers of
a lead in political as well as in reform movements.
Tamilnadu Periyar E.V.R. and Iyothee Thassar
The Indian reformers were, however, quite
are dealt with comprehensively in Unit X.
hesitant to subject their old notions and habits
to critical scrutiny. Instead they attempted to
harmonize both Indian and Western cultures. Early Reform
Their ideas and their actions helped to mitigate 5.1
Movements in Bengal
social evils such as sati, female infanticide, and
child marriage and various superstitious beliefs. (a) Raja Rammohan Roy and
The reform movements of nineteenth Brahmo Samaj
century in the realm of religion fall under two Rammohan Roy (1772–1833) was one
broad categories: reformist movements like the of the earlier reformers influenced by the
67 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century

Western ideas to temple in Calcutta, where there was no image.
initiate reforms. He There he laid down that ‘no religion should be
was a great scholar, reviled or slightly or contemptuously spoken off
well-versed in Sanskrit, or alluded to.’ The Samaj forbade idol-worship
Arabic, Persian, and and condemned meaningless religious rites
English apart from and ceremonies. However, from the beginning,
his knowledge in the appeal of the Brahmo Samaj remained
his mother tongue, limited to the intellectuals and enlightened
Bengali. Rammohan Bengalis. Though the Samaj failed to attract the
Roy was opposed to people from the lower sections of society, its
meaningless religious Raja Rammohan Roy impact on the culture of modern Bengal and
ceremonies and all forms of pernicious social its middle class was quite significant.
customs. Yet he wanted to preserve continuity
with the past. In his religio–philosophical (b) Maharishi Debendranath Tagore
social outlook, he was deeply influenced by After the death
monotheism and anti-idolatry. Based on his of Rammohan Roy
interpretation of the Upanishads, he argued (1833), Maharishi
that all the ancient texts of the Hindus Debendranath Tagore
preached monotheism or worship of one God. (1817–1905), the poet
Deeply concerned with the prevailing Rabindranath Tagore’s
customs of sati, child marriage, and polygamy father, carried on the
he published tracts against them and work. He laid down
petitioned the government to legislate against four articles of faith:
them. He advocated the rights of widows to 1. In the beginning
remarry. He wanted polygamy to end. His there was nothing. Debendranath Tagore
opinions were resisted fiercely by orthodox The one Supreme Being alone existed who
Hindus. He appealed to reason and humanity created the Universe. 2. He alone is the God
and compassion of the people. He visited the of Truth, Infinite Wisdom, Goodness, and
crematorium of Calcutta to try and persuade Power, eternal, omnipresent, the One without
the relatives of widows to give up their plan of second. 3. Our salvation depends on belief
self-immolation. His campaign played a key in Him and in His worship in this world and
role in forcing the Governor-General William the next. 4. Belief consists in loving Him and
Bentinck’s legislation abolishing sati in 1829. doing His will.
Rammohan Roy condemned the (c ) Keshab Chandra Sen &

subjugation of women and opposed the Brahmo Samaj of India
prevailing ideas that women were inferior
Debendranath was
to men. He strongly advocated education
a moderate reformer.
for women. He gave his full support for the
But his younger
introduction of English language and western
colleagues in the Sabha
sciences in schools and colleges. Rammohan
were for rapid changes.
found in the Upanishads a new revelation of
The greatest of these,
one infinite, divine Being, the eternal Brahman,
Keshab Chandra Sen,
while Hinduism as he saw in the daily life
(1838–84) joined the
around him was a perversion of their teaching.
movement in 1857. He
Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo was greatly influenced
Samaj in 1828. On 20 August 1828 he opened a by Christianity, Keshab Chandra Sen
Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century 68

believing in its spirit but not in the person It was also to the credit of Vidyasagar
of its founder. But in 1866 a split occurred that the first age of consent Act was
in the ranks of Brahmo Samaj. Keshab left enacted in 1860. The age for marriage
the Samaj and founded a new organization. was fixed as ten years. It was raised to
Debendranath’s organization, thereafter, came twelve and thirteen years in 1891 and 1925
to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj. After respectively. Sadly, as reported in the Age
Keshab had his fourteen-year-old daughter of Consent Committee (1929), the law
married to an Indian prince, in contravention remained on paper and the knowledge of it
of the Samaj’s condemnation of child marriages, was confined to judges, lawyers and a few
the opponents of child marriage left the Brahmo educated men.
Samaj of India and started the Sadharan Samaj,
which developed anti-Christian tendencies.
steam. A movement similar to the Brahmo
(d) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Samaj, but founded in Bombay in 1867,
was Prarthana Samaj. Its founder was
Another Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang (1825–1898).
outstanding The two distinguished members of this
reformer in Samaj were R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice
Bengal was Mahadev Govind Ranade. They devoted
Ishwar Chandra themselves to activities such as inter-
Vidyasagar caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow
(1820–1891). remarriage and improvement of women
While Ram and depressed classes. Ranade (1842–1901)
Mohan Roy and was the founder of the Widow Marriage
others looked Association (1861), the Poona Sarvajanik
to western Sabha (1870) and the Deccan Education
rationalist ideas Society (1884).
to reform society, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar
Vidyasagar argued that the Hindu scriptures While the above reformers worked among
were progressive. He provided evidence from the upper castes, during the same time Jyotiba
scriptures that there was no sanction for Phule worked for the uplift of depressed
burning of widows or for the prohibition on castes and the cause of women. His book
the remarriage of widows. He wrote a number Gulamgiri (‘Slavery’) is an important work
of polemical tracts, and was the pioneer of that condemned the inequities of caste.
modern Bengali prose. He played a leading
role in promoting education of girls and
helped them in setting up a number of schools.
He dedicated his whole life for the betterment
of the child widows of the Hindu society. The
movement led by Vidyasagar, resulted in the
Widows’ Remarriage Reform Act of 1856.
This Act was intended to improve the lot of
child widows and save them from perpetual
widowhood.
(e) Prarthana Samaj

The Maharashtra region was another
region where reform activities gained Dr. Atma Ram M.G. Ranade
Pandurang

5.2 Hindu Revivalism In 1893 Arya Samaj split over the
question of doctrinal purity. Swami
(a) Swami Dayanand Saraswati Shraddhananda (1857–1926), a charismatic
and Arya Samaj, 1875 figure after Dayananda, accused the group
In the Punjab, running the DAV School of being too
the reform movement Westernized and thereby ignoring the
was spearheaded by founder’s ideology. From 1900 onward, he
the Arya Samaj. It was established his own network of schools, the
founded (1875) by a Gurukulas, which were outwardly modelled
wandering ascetic in after ancient Hindu seats of learning,
the western Gangetic emphasising the study of the Vedas.
plain, Swami Dayanand
Saraswati (1824–83).
Swami Dayanand later (b) Ramakrishna
settled in the Punjab to As we saw earlier, the Brahmo Samaj,
Swami Dayanand
preach his ideas. His book, Saraswati as a response to Christian and rationalist
Satyarthaprakash, enjoyed criticism had criticised idolatry and other
wide circulation. He declared the practices orthodox Hindu practices. The popularity
such as child marriage, the prohibition of that Ramakrishna (l836–86), a simple priest
widow remarriage, and the alleged polluting of Dakshineswar near Kolkata, gained in the
effects of foreign travel had no scriptural latter half of the nineteenth century was a
sanction. The positive principles enunciated response to this. He emphasised the spiritual
by Dayanand were: strict monotheism, union with god through ecstatic practices such
condemnation of idolatry, and rejection of as singing bhajans. An ardent worshipper of
Brahman domination of ritual and social goddess Kali, the sacred mother, he declared
practices. He also rejected superstitious that the manifestations of the divine mother
beliefs in Hinduism, especially Puranic were infinite. In his view, all religions contain
literature and his cry was “go back to Vedas.” the universal elements which, if practised,
Arya Samaj attempted to check the would lead to salvation. He said, “Jiva is Siva”
incidence of religious conversion in (all living beings are God). Why then talk
British India. One of its main objectives of showing mercy to them? Not mercy, but
was counter-conversion, prescribing a service, service for man, must be regarded as
purificatory ceremony called suddhi, God.’
directed at Hindus who had converted to
Islam and Christianity.
The late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries were a period of great turmoil
in undivided Punjab with intense debates
between Hinduism, Islam and Christianity.
The primary achievements of the Arya
Samaj were in the field of social reform and Ramakrishna Ramakrishna Mission,
spread of education. The Samaj started a Belur Math
number of Dayananda Anglo–Vedic schools Ramakrishna Mission
and colleges.
Ramakrishna’s primary achievement
was his ability to attract educated youth

who were dissatisfied with the rational involved in the militant nationalist struggle
orientation of religious reform organizations during the Swadeshi movement following
such as the Brahmo Samaj. After his death the Partition of Bengal were inspired by
in 1886, his disciples organised themselves Vivekananda.
as a religious community and undertook the
task of making his life and teaching known (d) Theosophical Movement
in India and abroad. The chief spirit behind During the nineteenth century, Hindu
this task was Vivekananda. Following religion and culture were being discredited
the organizational structure of Christian in the West, especially due to missionary
missionaries, Vivekananda established propaganda. However, some Western
the Ramakrishna Mission which did not intellectuals looked to the East for spiritual
restrict itself to religious activities but was salvation as a remedy to the materialistic
actively involved in social causes such as orientation of the West. The Theosophical
education, health care and relief in times Society, founded by Madame H.P. Blavatsky
of calamities. (1831–1891) and Colonel H.S Olcott (1832–
(c) Swami Vivekananda 1907) played a key role in this. Founded in
the USA in 1875, it later shifted to India at
Narendra Nath Datta (l863–1902), later
Adyar, Chennai in 1886.
known as Swami Vivekananda, was the prime
follower of Ramakrishna Paramahansa.
An educated youth, he was drawn to
Ramakrishna’s message. Dissatisfied with
conventional philosophical positions and
practices, he advocated the practical Vedanta
of service to humanity and attacked the
tendency to defend every institution simply
because it was connected with religion.
He emphasized a cultural nationalism and
made a call to Indian youth to regenerate
Hindu society. His ideas bred a sense of self- Madame Blavatsky Colonel H.S
confidence among Indians who felt inferior Olcott
in relation to the materialist achievements of
Theosophical Society stimulated a
the West. He became famous for his addresses
study of the Hindu classics, especially
on Hinduism at the 1893 World Congress
the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.
of Religions in Chicago. Despite his fame,
The Theosophical Society also played an
he was condemned by orthodox Hindus for
important role in the revival of Buddhism in
suggesting that the lower
India. Western interest in Hindu scriptures
castes should be allowed
gave educated Hindus great pride in their
to engage in the Hindu
tradition and culture.
rituals from which
they were traditionally Contribution of Annie Besant
excluded. Vivekananda’s
In India the movement became further
ac t ivist ide olog y
popular with the election of Annie Besant
rekindled the desire for
(1847–1933) as its president after the death of
political change among
Olcott. She played a role in Indian nationalist
many western-education
Swami politics, and formed the Home Rule League
young Bengalis. Many
Vivekananada demanding home rule to India on the lines
of the youths who were

of Ireland. Annie Besant (b) Narayana Guru
spread Theosophical ideas
Born to poor
through her newspapers
parents in Kerala,
called New India and
Narayana Guru (1854–
Commonweal.
1928) evolved into a
poet and scholar in
5.3 Anti-Caste Malayalam, Tamil and
Movements Sanskrit. In his days
Annie Besant the people of depressed
(a) Jyotiba Phule classes had no access Narayana Guru
Jyotiba Govindrao Phule was born in 1827 to temples, streets, public tanks and wells and
in Maharashtra. Phule is chiefly known educational institutions. Men and women
belonging to lower castes were not allowed
to wear the upper garments. Disturbed by
the terrible caste tyranny, that the lower caste
people suffered, he dedicated his whole life
for the betterment of the oppressed. He set up
the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam,
an organization to work for the uplift of the
“depressed classes”. He established a grand
temple at Aruvipuram and dedicated it to all. His
movement inspired a radical transformation of
Kerala society, especially among the Ezhavas.
Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule Thinkers and writers such as Kumaran Asan
and Dr Palpu were influenced by his ideas and
as the earliest leader of the non-Brahman carried forward the movement.
movement. He opened the first school for
“untouchables” in 1852 in Poona. He launched (c) Ayyankali
the Satyashodak Samaj (Truth-Seekers Nineteenth-
Society) in 1870 to stir the non-Brahman century Kerala region
masses to self-respect and ambition. Phule was plagued by caste
opposed child marriage and supported widow discriminations of
remarriage, which was prohibited particularly worst kind. Certain
among high-caste Hindus. Jyotiba and his social groups were
wife Savitribai Phule devoted their lives not only considered
for the uplift of the depressed classes and untouchable but also
women. Jotiba opened orphanages and homes un-seeable. However,
for widows. Unlike many contemporary the strident campaigns
nationalists he welcomed British rule and by thinkers such as Ayyankali
missionary activities on the ground that Narayana Guru and Ayyankali (1863–1941)
British rule enabled lower castes to challenge in the context of larger political and economic
the supremacy of Brahmins. His work, changes ushered in tremendous social
Gulamgiri (Slavery) is an important text that changes, especially in the caste structure.
summarized many of his radical ideas.
Ayyankali was born in 1863 at Venganoor
in Thiruvananthapuram then in the princely
state of Travancore. The discrimination he

faced as a child turned him into a leader of an founded a scientific society and translated
anti-caste movement and who later fought for many English books, especially science
basic rights including access to public spaces books into Urdu. He believed that the interest
and entry to schools. Ayyankali challenged of the Muslims would be best served if they
many caste conventions such as clothing bonded with the British Government rather
style; he wore clothes associated with upper than pitch in with the rising nationalist
castes that were prohibited for lower castes. movement. So he advised the Muslims to
He rode on an ox-cart challenging the ‘ban’ take to English education and to concentrate
on untouchables from accessing public roads on it.
used by caste Hindus.
Aligarh Movement
Inspired by Sree Narayana Guru,
Ayyankali founded the Sadhu Jana Paripalana S a y y i d
Sangam (Association for the Protection of the Ahmed Khan’s
Poor) in 1907 which campaigned and raised movement,
funds to educate the lower caste Pulaya people. the “Aligarh
m o v e m e n t ,”
5.4 Islamic Reforms is so called
because it was
After the suppression of great revolt
centred around
of 1857 Indian Muslims looked to Western
the Aligarh
culture with suspicion. The community feared
Mo h a m m e d a n
that Western education, Western culture and
Anglo-Oriental
Western ideas would endanger their religion.
college founded
Therefore only a small section of Muslims
by him in Aligarh Muslim University
accepted the new avenues for modern
1875, which is
education. Consequently, Indian Muslims as
a landmark in the history of Indian Muslim
a community lagged behind in comparison to
education. The college was raised to the status
the Hindu elite of various parts of India.
of a university in 1920. Aligarh produced a
Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan huge body of intelligentsia over successive
generations who played a key role in public life.
As Indian Muslims
steadily lost ground in Deoband Movement
education, in the public
services and in general Deoband was a revivalist movement
leadership in India, there organized by the orthodox Muslim Ulema
was a realization that there with the twin objectives of propagating the
was no alternative but to pure teachings of the Quran and the Hadith as
accept modern education well as encouraging the spirit of Jihad against
Sayyid Ahmed the foreign and un-Islamic elements. The
if the community was to Khan
go on the path of progress. Ulema under the leadership of Muhammad
The man who gave life and soul to it was Sir QasimWanotavi (1832-80) and Rashid Ahmad
Sayyid Ahmed Khan (1817–1898). Born in Gangotri (1828-1905) founded the school at
Delhi into a noble Muslim family, Sayyid Deoband in the Saharanpur district of the
Ahmed Khan thought that lack of education, U.P in 1866. The school curricula shut out
especially modern education, had harmed English education and western culture. The
the Muslims greatly and kept them backward. instruction imparted was in original Islamic
He exhorted the Muslims to accept Western religion and the aim was moral and religious
science and take up government services. He regeneration of the Muslim community. The

Deoband School did not prepare its students to reform. Baba Dayal Das, founder of the
for government jobs but for the preaching of Nirankari Movement, stressed the worship of
Islamic faith. god as Nirankar (formless). Rejection of idols,
In politics, the Deoband School welcomed rejection of rituals associated with idolatry,
the formation of the Indian National Congress reverence for the authority of Guru Nanak
in 1885. In 1888 the Deoband Ulema issued and of the Adi Granth formed the essence of
a religious decree (fatwa) against Syed his teachings. He reiterated the prohibition on
Ahmed Khan’s Organisation called “The meat-eating, and liquor consumption.
United Patriotic Association” and “The The Namdhari Movement, founded by
Muhammaden Anglo – Oriental Association.” Baba Ram Singh, was another socio-religious
It is said the Deoband Ulema were mainly movement among the Sikhs. The Namdharis
influenced by their determination to oppose insisted on wearing the symbols of Sikhism
Sir Syed Ahmed’s activities. except the kirpan (sword). Instead Baba Ram
Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hassan became the Singh wanted his followers to carry a lathi. It
new Deoband leader. The Jamait-Ul-Ulema considered both men and women equal and
(council of theologians) led by him gave a accepted widow remarriage. It prohibited the
concrete shape to Hassan’s ideas of protection dowry system and child marriage.
of the religious and political rights of the In the wake of the gathering influence of
Muslims in the overall context of Indian unity. Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries,
the Singh Sabha of Amritsar was established.
Its main objective was to restore the purity
5.5 Parsi Reform Movement
of Sikhism. With the support of British, it
In the middle of the nineteenth century established Khalsa College for the Sikhs in
the reform activities of the educated Parsis (the Amritsar. Singh Sabha was a forerunner of
Zoroastrians who had fled from Iran in the tenth Akali Movement.
century in the face of religious persecution)
began in Mumbai. Furdunji Naoroji founded S
ocial Reformers of
the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Parsis’ 5.7
Tamilnadu
Reform Society) in 1851. Rast Goftar (The Truth
Teller) was the main voice of the movement. (a) Ramalinga Swamigal
The leaders of the Sabha criticized elaborate
Popularly known
ceremonies at betrothals, marriages and
as Vallalar, Ramalinga
funerals. They opposed both infant marriage
Swamigal or Ramalinga
and the use of astrology. Behrramji Malabari
Adigal (1823–1874), was
organized a campaign for legislation against
born in Marudhur, a village
the practice of child marriage. The community
near Chidambaram. After
produced many leaders such as Pherozeshah
his father’s death, his family
Mehta and Dinshaw Wacha who played a big
moved to his brother’s house at Chennai. Despite
role in the early Congress.
having no formal education he gained immense
scholarship. Ramalinga emphasised the bonds
Sikh Reform Movement of responsibility and compassion between living
5.6 (Nirankaris and beings. He expressed the view that ‘those who
Namdharis) lack compassion for suffering beings are hard-
The wave of reform movements did not hearted, their wisdom clouded’. He showed
leave any community untouched. Among his compassion and mercy on all living beings
the Sikhs of Punjab too there were attempts including plants. This he called jeevakarunya.

He established the Samarasa Vedha Sanmarga had no opportunity to have any systematic school
Sangam in 1865 and it was renamed “Samarasa education but acquired knowledge of various
Suddha Sanmarga Satya Sanga” which means religious texts. He preached the ideas of equality
“Society for Pure Truth in Universal self-hood”. and advocated the rights of depressed class
Ramalinga also established a free feeding house people in the face of stiff opposition from upper
for everyone irrespective of caste at Vadalur castes as well as the princely state of Travancore.
(1867), in the wake of a terrible famine in
south India in 1866. His voluminous songs Vaikunda Swamikal criticised the
were compiled and published under the title rule of the British and the rule of Rajah of
Thiruvarutpa (Songs of Grace). His radical Travancore as the rule of White devils and
views deeply disturbed Saiva orthodoxy, who Black devils respectively.
condemned his writings as Marutpa (songs of
ignorance). He visited Tiruchendur temple and
experienced a new vision. Calling himself
Vaikundar, he requested the people to give up all
the irrelevant rites and rituals in their worship.
His preaching’s against the prevailing religious
order brought about a considerable change
in the attitude of the lower caste people. In
1833, Vaikundar commenced his meditation at
Ramalinga Vadalur Satya Gnana Sabha Samithoppu for the abolition of caste differences
Adigal and social integration of the society. During this
period, he led a life of a hermit.
Ramalinga bore witness to hunger and In south Travancore, there were many
poverty in the country: “I saw poor people, restrictions on lower caste people such as what
emaciated with hunger and terribly weary, they could wear and not wear. At a time when
going to every house, yet their hunger there was prohibition on certain sections on
was not removed, and my heart suffered wearing headgear he advocated the wearing of
intensely. Those who suffer with relentless a turban in protest. It gave a sense of honour
disease, I saw them in front of me and my to the oppressed people and offered a spirit of
heart trembled. I saw those people, poor self-respect. A new confidence was installed
and of unmatched honor, their hearts in the minds of his followers.
weary, and I grew weak.” Like the other contemporary reform
movements of India in the 19 th century, Vaikunda
(b) Vaikunda Swamikal Swamigal condemned the worship of idols. The
Vaikunda Swami low caste people had no temples for their gods,
(1809–1851), one of the they erected small pyramids of mud or bricks
earliest crusaders for in their honor, plastered and white-washed. He
social justice in south considered this kind of worship as an uncivilized
India was born at Sasthan custom. The people sacrificed goats, cocks and
Koil Vilai, the present hens. He condemned these religious customs
Samithoppu, a village and campaigned against animal sacrifice.
near Kanyakumari. Vaikunda Swamigal founded Samathuva
His original name Vaikunda Swamigal Samajam to unite all the people of various
Mudichudum Perumal was changed to castes. He organized inter-dining to accomplish
Muthukutty by his parents due to objection it. Even though he was imprisoned by the
raised by the upper caste Hindus. Muthukutti Maharajah of Travancore, he never gave up his

principles. His followers called him respectfully Pandithar Iyothee Thassar founded the
as Ayya (father). His cult was also known as Advaidananda Sabha to raise the voice for the
Ayya Vazhi (The Path of Ayya). His message temple entry of the “untouchables”. In 1882,
emancipated the people from the unjust social John Rathinam and Iyothee Thassar established
customs and superstitious beliefs. His ideas are a movement called, Dravida Kazhagam and
collected into a text called Akila Thirattu. launched a magazine called Dravida Pandian in
C. Iyothee Thassar 1885. He founded the Dravida Mahajana Sabha
in 1891and organised the First Conference of
Pandithar Iyothee the association at Nilgiris. He started a weekly
Thassar (1845–1914) journal, Oru Paisa Tamilan, in 1907 and
was a radical Tamil published it until his demise in 1914.
scholar, writer, siddha Pandithar Iyothee Thassar was disappointed
medicine practitioner, with the Hindu dharma, which served as the
journalist and socio- basis for propagating and validating caste in
political activist. Born Iyothithassar Hindu society. Influenced by the Theosophist
in Chennai, he was organizer, Colonel H.S. Olcott, he went to Sri
fluent in Tamil, English, Sanskrit and Pali Lanka in 1898 and converted to Buddhism. In
the same year, he founded the Sakya Buddhist
languages. He initiated a new knowledge
Society at Madras to construct the rational
practice by using journalism as a tool to
religious philosophy through Buddhist religion.
make inroads into the print public sphere, He argued that the so-called untouchables were
which, was hitherto an upper caste domain. originally Buddhists who were stigmatized
He campaigned for social justice and worked by Brahminism. He further constructed an
for the emancipation of the “untouchables” alternative history through the interpretation
from the caste clutches. He worked for the of Tamil literature and folk traditions of Tamil
construction of a casteless identity and from a Buddhist standpoint. In addition, he
stated that the revival of Buddhism could
castigated caste hegemony and untouchability.
liberate the people from the evil of caste that
He considered education as an important tool
afflicted the Hindu society. He called the
for empowerment and became the driving “untouchables” Sathi Petham Atra Dravidar
force behind the establishment of several (Casteless Dravidians) and urged them to
schools for the “untouchables” in Tamil Nadu. register as casteless Dravidians in the Census.
SUMMARY
A brief account of Raja Rammohan Roy’s initiatives for social and cultural reforms has been

provided.
The foundation of Brahmo Samaj by Ram mohan Roy and the role played by Maharishi

Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen in carrying forward the Brahmo Samaj activities
after Roy’s death are discussed.
The contribution of M.G. Ranade and Prarthana Samaj with which he was associated are examined.

The attempts made by Arya Samaj under the aegis of Swami Dayanad Saraswati to reform Hinduism

as well as to win converts to the Hindu fold are highlighted.
The radical reformer Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and his strivings for women’s cause are described.


The role of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and his disciple Swami Vivekananda in the transformation

of Hinduism is explained.
The work of Theosophical Society with Annie Besant as its president is explored along with Aligarh

Movement spearheaded by Sayyid Ahmad Khan.
Reform movements among Parsis and Sikhs are outlined.

The work done by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra and IyotheeThassar in Tamilnadu to obtain social

justice for the marginalized and the deprived sections of the population is reviewed.
The social protest movements in Kerala led by Narayana Guru and Ayyankali, and the reform

movements in Tamil Nadu involving Ramalinga Adigal and Ayya Vaikundar are sketched out.
GLOSSARY
Alleged stated but not proved ச�ொல்லப்படும்

Ecstatic in a state of extreme happiness பரவசமான
Voluminous bulky அதிகப் பரிமாணமுள்ள
Reiterated repeat a statement for emphasis வலியுறுத்துதல்
Idolatry the practice of worshipping idols உருவ வழிபாடு

Tract a small booklet சிறு நூல்
Revelation disclosure திருவெளிப்பாடு

Crematorium a place where a dead person’s body is இடுகாடு
burnt
Subjugation the act of bringing something under அடிமைப்படுத்துதல்
control
Scriptures the sacred writings திருமறை நூல்கள்
3. Whose campaign and work led to the

enactment of Widow Remarriage Reform
EXERCISE Act of 1856?
a) Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
b) Raja Rammohan Roy
I. C
hoose the
c) Annie Besant
correct answer
d) Jyotiba Phule
1. In which year was Sati abolished? 4. Whose voice was Rast Goftar?
a) 1827 b) 1829 a) Parsi Movement
c) 1826 d) 1927 b) Aligarh Movement
2. What was the name of the Samaj founded c) Ramakrishna Mission
by Dayanand Saraswati? d) Dravida Mahajana Sabha
a) Arya Samaj 5. Who was the founder of Namdhari
b) Brahmo Samaj Movement?
c) Prarthana Samaj a) Baba Dayal Das b) Baba Ramsingh
d) Adi Brahmo Samaj c) Gurunanak d) Jyotiba Phule

6. Who was Swami Shradhananda? iv) R aja Rammohan Roy was supported by
a) a disciple of Swami Vivekananda Governor General William Bentinck
b) one who caused a split in the Brahmo a) i) is correct
Samaj of India b) i) and ii) are correct
c) one who caused a split in the Arya Samaj c) i), ii) and iii) are correct
d) founder of Samathuva Samajam. d) i), iii) and iv) are correct
7. Who was the founder of Widow 2. i)
Prarthana Samaj was founded by
Remarriage Association? Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang
a) M.G. Ranade ii)
Prarthana Samaj encouraged inter-
b) Devendranath Tagore dining and inter-caste marriage
c ) Jyotiba Phule iii) Jyotiba Phule worked for the upliftment
d) Ayyankali of men.
8. Who was the author of the book iv) Prarthana Samaj had it’s origin in the
Satyarthaprakash ? Punjab.
a) Dayananda Saraswathi
a) i) is correct
b) Vaikunda Swamy
b) ii) is correct
c) Annie Besant
c) i) and ii) are correct
d) Swami Shradanatha
d) iii) and iv) are correct
II. Fill in the blanks
3. i)
R amakrishna Mission was actively
1. founded the Samarasa Vedha involved in social causes such as
Sanmarga Sangam. education, health care, relief in time of
2. The founder of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha calamities.
was . ii) R amakrishna emphasised the spiritual
3. Satyashodak Samaj was launched by union with god through ecstatic
. practices.
4. Gulumgir was written by . iii)
R amakrishna established the
5. Satyarthaprakash enumerates the positive Ramakrishna Mission
principles of iv) R amakrishna opposed the Partition of
6. Ramakrishna Mission was established by Bengal
. a) i) is correct b) i) and ii) are correct
7. was the forerunner of Akali c) iii) is correct d) iv) alone correct
Movement. 4. Assertion: Jyotiba Phule opened
8. brought tremendous changes orphanages and homes for widows
in the caste structure in Kerala. Reason: Jyotiba Phule opposed child
9. Oru paisa Tamilan was started by marriage and supported widow
. remarriage
III. Choose the correct statement a)Assertion is correct but reason is not apt
to the assertion
1. i)
R aja Rammohan Roy preached b) Assertion is correct and the reason is
monotheism
apt to the assertion
ii) He encouraged idolatry
c) B oth are wrong
iii)
He published tracts condemning
d) R eason is correct but assertion is
social evils
irrelevant

IV. Match the following iii) Point out the major contribution of
Widows Samarasa Vedha Sanmarga Sathya
1 Ayyavazhi - Remarriage Sangam?
Reform Act iv) Where did he establish his free feeding
2 Thiruvarutpa - Nirankari house?
Adi Bramo 3. Deoband Movement.
3 Baba Dayal Das -
Samaj i)
Who were the organizers of this
Iswarchandra Vaikunda Movement?
4 - ii) What were the two main objectives of
Vidyasagar Swamigal
the Movement?
5 Debendranath - Songs of Grace
iii) Who founded the school at Deoband?.
V) Answer briefly iv) Against whom the fatwa was issued by
Deoband Ulema?
1. Mention the four articles of faith laid down
by Maharishi Debendranath Tagore? VII) Answer in detail
2. Discuss Mahadev Govind Ranade’s 1. Compare and contrast the contributions
contribution to social reforms. of Revivalist Movements with that of
3. Assess the role of Ayyankali in fighting for Reform Movements.
the cause of “untouchables.” 2. Discuss the circumstances that led to the
4. Write a note on reforms of Ramalinga Reform movements of 19th century.
Adigal. 3. Evaluate the contributions of Ramakrishna
5. What was the impact of Swami Paramahamsa and Swami Vivekananda to
Vivekananda’s activist ideology? regenerate Indian society.
6. What are the differences between Reformist 4. Write an essay on the role played by the
Movements and Revival Movements? 19th century reformers towards the cause
7. List the social evils eradicated by Brahmo of Women.
Samaj. VIII) Activity
8. Highlight the work done by Jyotiba Phule for
1. Role-play by students on Reformers and
the welfare of the poor and the marginalized.
their Reforms of the 19th century India.
9. What was the impact of IyotheeThassar’s
2. Debate Social evils of 19th century with
visit to SriLanka.
those of present day.
VI) A
nswer all the questions 3. Students can write an assignment on the
given under each caption present state of the reform organizations
1. Aligarh Movement. discussed in the lesson.
i) What is the main aim of this Movement?
ii) Who is considered the soul of this REFERENCE BOOKS
Movement? 1. Kenneth W. Jones, Socio-Religious
iii) Why were English books translated Reform Movement in British India, New
into Urudu? Edition, Cambridge University Press,
iv) Name the college which was later 2006.
raised to the status of a University? 2. Manickam, S., “Depressed Class
2. Ramalinga Adigal. Movement in South India,” in
i) What is Jeevakarunya? Manikumar K.A. (ed.), History and
ii) What are the Songs of Grace? Society, Tirunelveli, 1996.

3. V. Geetha and S.V. Rajathurai, Towards
a Non-Brahmin Millennium from Iyothee INTERNET RESOURCES
Thass to Periyar, Calcutta, 1998.
4. Mohan, P. Sanal (2013), “Religion, Social https://www.deccanherald.com.
Space, and Identity: The Prathyaksha http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/timesofindia.
Raksha Daiva Sabha and the Making of com
Cultural Boundaries in Twentieth Century
Kerala”, in Joan Mencher(ed.), Life as a
Dalit: Views from the Bottom on Caste in
India, SAGE Publications.
ICT CORNER
Through this activity you will know

about world historic events through
Interactive timeline.
Steps
• Type ‘History of modern India’ in the search box
• Explore the Timeline Events with Pictorial Descriptions.
Website URL:
https://www.timetoast.com/categories

STANDARD TEN
GEOGRAPHY
TN_GOVT_X_Std_Geography_Ch01.indd 81 10-04-2019 09:45:16

Unit - 1
India – Location,
Relief and
Drainage
Learning Objectives
� To understand the strategic importance of India’s absolute and relative
location in the world
� To know the distinct characteristics of major physiographic divisions of India
� To compare the regions of Great Indian plains
� To understand the drainage system of India
� To differentiate the Himalayan and peninsular rivers
Introduction and Sri Lanka are separated by a narrow and

shallow sea called Palk Strait.
India is the seventh largest country in the
world and second largest country in Asia. It India and the World
forms a part of south Asia and is separated by The Indian land mass has a central location
the Himalayas from the rest of the continent. between, the East and the West Asia. India
India accounts for about 2.4 % of the total area and the southward extension of the Asian
of the world with an area of 32,87,263 sq.km. continent. The trans Indian ocean routes which
many of the India states are larger than several connect the countries of Europe in the west and
countries of the world. the countries of East Asia provide a strategic
India’s Land and Water Frontiers central location to India. Thus it helping India
to establish close contact with West Asia, Africa
India shares its 15,200 km long land and Europe from the western coast and with
frontier with Pakistan in the west, Afghanistan South East, east Asia from the eastern coast.
in the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan in
the north and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the India: A Subcontinent
east. India’s longest border is with Bangladesh India along with the countries of Myanmar,
(4156 km)while the shortest border is with Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and
Afghanistan.(106 km) Sri Lanka is called a subcontinent. This region
About 6,100 km long coastline of India is separated from the rest of Asia by a chain of
is washed on three sides of the country by the mountains in the northwest, north and northeast
Indian Ocean and its two arms namely the and by seas in the south. This region also
Arabian sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal possesses a distinct continental characteristics
in the east. The total length of the coast line of in physiography, climate, natural vegetation,
India including the islands is 7,516.6 km. India minerals, human resources etc. Hence India is
known as ‘subcontinent’.
India – Location, Relief and Drainage 82

INDIA LOCATION IN THE WORLD N
W E
S
ARCTIC OCEAN
GREENLAND
A S I A
NORTH
AMERICA EUROPE
PACIFIC ATLANTIC PACIFIC

OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN
INDIA
AFRICA
SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN

AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
SOUTHERN OCEAN
Not to Scale
ANTARCTICA
1.1 Location and Extent • The number of Union

India extends from 8°4 'N to 37°6 'N fi nd out Territories along western coast
latitudes and 68°7 'E to 97°25 'E longitudes. and eastern coast
Hence India is located of the north Eastern • Area wise which is the smallest and largest
hemisphere state?
The southernmost point of the country • The states which do not have an international
is Pygmalion Point or Indira Point (6°45'N border or lie on the largest state
latitude) located in the Andaman and Nicobar • Classify into four groups each
Islands. The southernmost point of main land having common frontiers with i) Pakistan
of India is Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari). ii) China iii) Myanmar and iv) Bangladesh
The north-south extent of India is 3,214 km
and it extends from Indira Col in Jammu and Amaravati is the new
Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the capital of Andhra Pradesh But
south. The east-west extension is 2933 km and according to Andhra Pradesh
it stretches from Rann of Kutch (Gujarat) in Reorganization Act, Hyderabad
the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. The will be the capital for both the
Tropic of Cancer (23°30' N) passes through the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telungana till
middle of the country dividing it into two halves 2024 (For 10 years from the act passed).
as northern temperate and southern tropical
lands. India has been politically divided into 29 1.1.1 Indian Standard Time (IST)
states and 7 union territories for administrative The longitudinal difference between Gujarat
convenience. in the west and Arunachal Pradesh in the east
83 India – Location, Relief and Drainage

INDIA
States and Union Territories
W E
S
LEGEND
Country Capital
State Capital
Inter naonal Border line
Thiruvanantha
State Border line
puram
Not to Scale
India - States and Union Territories

is about 30°. The Earth rotates through its axis difference in local time between these two
around 360° in 24 hours. Thus, a difference of places is 29°18' X 4' (minutes) = 1 hour
1° longitude will make a difference of 4 57 minutes 12 seconds (approximately
minutes in time. The difference in longitude 2 hours). Since Arunachal Pradesh is towards
between Gujarat (68°7 'E) and Arunachal east, it will have sunrise about two hours earlier
Pradesh (97°25 ' E) is 29°18'. Hence the than the sunrise at Gujarat which is in the west.

68E 72 76 80 84 88 92 94E 3. The Peninsular plateau
India Extent and Standard Meridian
36N 376’N 36N
4. The Indian Desert
N 5. The Coastal Plains
32 PAKISTAN
W
S
E
6. The Islands
32
CHINA
1.2.1 Himalayan
28 NE
PA
9725’E
Mountains
L
2933 K.m
BHUTAN
The Himalayan Mountains (Northern
t about
st to Wes
Mountains) consist of the youngest and the
Indian Standard Meridian - 8230’ E
687’E Ea
BANGLADESH
I N D I A
24
24 Tropic of Cancer loftiest mountain chains in the world because
North to south about 3214 K.m
20
20
they have been formed only few millions years
ARABIAN BAY OF
ago and also they were formed because of the
folding of the earth crust due to tectonic activity.
SEA BENGAL
16 16
It stretches for a distance of 2,500 km from
the Indus gorge in the west to Brahmaputra
12
12
gorge in the east. The width of the Northern
LAKSHADWEEP
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS Mountains varies from 500 km in Kashmir to
8N (INDIA)
8N 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. The Pamir Knot,
84’N SRI
72 76
LANKA 84 88 92
645’ popularly known as the “Roof of the World”
Not to Scale
I N D I A N O C E A N is the connecting link between the Himalayas
and the high ranges of Central Asia. From
the Pamir, Himalayas extend eastward in the
In order to avoid these differences, Indian form of an arc shape. The term “Himalaya” is
standard time is calculated. The local time of derived from Sanskrit. It means “The Abode of
the central meridian of India is the standard Snow”. The Northern Mountains that function
time of India. India’s central meridian as a great wall is grouped into three divisions.
is 82°30' E longitude. It passes through 1) The Trans-Himalayas, 2) Himalayas,
Mirzapur and roughly bisects the country 3) Eastern or Purvanchal hills.
in terms of longitude. The IST is 5.30 hrs
Aravalli range is the
ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
oldest fold mountain range in
India.
1.2 Major Physiographic
Divisions of India
The majestic Himalayan peaks in the
north, the beautiful beaches in the south,
the great Indian desert in the west and the
breathtaking natural heritage in the east make
India a geographically vibrant, colourful and
truly incredible country.
There is a varied nature of physiographic
divisions in India. Though the country has many
landforms based on the major differences, it is
divided into the following five physiographic Find the Hill stations which
divisions: fi nd out
are located in Himalayan
1. The Himalayan Mountains Mountains.
2. The Great Northern Plains

t
r Kno
ami
sh P
Ku
Hi
nd
u
INDIA - PHYSICAL DIVISIONS N
W E
S
Shimla
GE
Kai
Mussourie
N
hR
las
AN RA
an
Garwal ge
Ranikhet
SULAIM
Almora iver
Nainital Tsangpo R
Purvanchal
Darjeeling
Guru
shikhar Mount Abu
Dhupgarh
Paradip
Konka
n coa
Vishagapanam
am
tan
lipa
chi
st
Ma
Arma Konda
Palani Hills
Not to Scale
1. The Trans-Himalayas 225 km wide in its central part. They contain

It is also known as western Himalaya’s. the Tethys sediments. The rocks of this region
It lies to the north of the great Himalayan contain fossils bearing marine sediments which
range. It lies in Jammu and Kashmir and are underlain by ‘Tertiary granite’. It has partly
Tibetian plateau. As its areal extent is more in metamorphosed sediments and constitutes the
Tibet, it is also known as Tibetean Himalayas. core of the Himalayan axis. The prominent
The Trans-Himalayas are about 40 km wide in ranges of Trans Himalayas are Zaskar, Ladakh,
its eastern and western extremities and about Kailash, and Karakoram.

2. The Himalayas is less effective over the Greater Himalayas as
It constitutes the core part of northern compared to the other ranges. Almost all the
mountains. It is an young fold mountain. It was lofty peaks of Himalayas are located in this
formed by the movement of Angara land mass range. The notable ones are Mt. Everest (8,848
in the north and Gondwana land mass in the m) and Kanchenjunga (8,586 m). Mt.Everest is
south. The Tethys sea found between these two located in Nepal and Kanchenjunga is located
land masses was uplifted by the compression between Nepal and Sikkim. This range is the
and the resultant landform was the Himalayas. most continuous of all ranges. It is region of
It consists of many ranges. The main divisions permanent snow cover. So, it has many glaciers.
of the Himalayas are the (i) Greater Himalayas, Gangothri, Yamunothri and Siachen are some
(ii) the Lesser Himalayas and (iii)the Siwaliks of them.
Peak Country Height in (ii) T he Lesser Himalayas or The

metres Himachal
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848 It is the middle range of Himalayas. Height
Mt.K2 or Godwin India 8611 of this range varies from 3, 700 to 4,500 m. Its
Austen width varies upto 80 km. The major rocks of this
range are slate, limestone and quartzite. This
Kanchenjunga India 8598
region is subjected to extensive erosion due to
Makalu Nepal 8481 heavy rainfall, deforestation and urbanization.
Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172 Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar and Mahabharat are
the mountain ranges found in this part. Major
Nanga Parbat India 8126
hill stations of the Himalayas are located in this
Annapurna Nepal 8078 range. Shimla, Mussourie, Nainital, Almora,
Nanda Devi India 7817 Ranikhet and Darjeeling are the familiar ones.
Kamet India 7756
The major passes in the
Namcha Barwa India 7756 Himalayan are Karakoram pass
Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728 (Jammu and Kashmir), Zojila
pass, Shipkila pass (Himachal
Himalaya is the home of Pradesh), Bomdila pass
several high peaks. However, it (Arunachal Pradesh), Nathala pass (Sikkim)
holds the record of having the and Jhelepla pass (Sikkim). The Khyber pass
maximum number of highest which connects Pakistan and Afanisthan, and
peaks among any mountain Bolan pass in Pakistan are important passes
range in world. Out of 14 heights peaks in of the Indian subcontinent
this world, Himalayas holds 9.
(iii) T he Siwaliks or Outer
(i) The Greater Himalayas or the Himalayas
Himadri The Siwaliks extend from Jammu and
The Greater Himalayas rise abruptly like a Kashmir to Assam. It is partly made by the
wall north of the Lesser Himalayas. The Greater debris brought by the Himalayan rivers. The
Himalayas are about 25 km wide. Its average altitude varying between 900-1100 metres
height is about 6,000 m. The Greater Himalayas elevation of this range is 1300 m. The width of
receive lesser rainfall as compared to the Lesser Siwaliks vary from 10 km in the east to 50 km
Himalayas and the Siwaliks. Physical weathering in the west. It is the most discontinuous range.

The longitudinal valleys found between the
3. The Central-Nepal Himalayas- Located
Siwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas are called
between the rivers of Kali and Tista.
Duns in the west and Duars in the east. These
are the ideal sites for the development of 4. The Assam Eastern Himalayas- Located
settlements in this region. between rivers of Tista and Dihang.
3. Purvanchal Hills 1.2.2 The Great Northern Plains

These are the eastern off-shoot of Himalayas. The fertile land extending across seven
It extended in the north-eastern states of India. north Indian states forms the Great Northern
Most of these hills are located along the border Plains. This extensive plain lies to the south of
of India and Myanmar while others are inside the northern mountains. This plain is one of
India. Dafla Hills, Abor Hills, Mishmi Hills, the most extensive stretches of the alluvium in
Patkai Bum Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, the world and is deposited by the rivers Indus,
Mizo Hills, Tripura Hills, Mikir Hills, Garo Hills, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. The
Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills are the hills which length of the plain is about 2,400 km and the
are collectively known as purvanchal Hills. width varies from 240 to 320 km. Its width
increases from east to west. It covers an area of
Importance of Himalayas over 7 lakh sq.km.
• Himalayas blocks southwest monsoon
The Great Plains of India is remarkably a
winds and causes heavy rainfall to north
homogeneous surface with an imperceptible
India.
slope. They are formed mostly by the depositional
• It forms a natural barrier to the sub-
process of the Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers.
continent.
These rivers deposit enormous quantity of
• It is the source for many perennial rivers
sediments deposited along the foothills and
like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra etc.
flood plains. The important characteristics
• The Northern Mountains are described as
featuress of sediment deposition in the plains
the paradise of tourists due to its natural
areas as follows.
beauty.
• Many hill stations and pilgrim centres a) The Bhabar Plain
like Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath and This plain is made up of gravels and
Vaishnavidevi temples are situated here. unassorted sediments deposited by the
• It provides raw material for many forest Himalayan rivers. The porosity of this plain
based industries. is so high that most of the small streams flow
• It prevents the cold winds blowing from over this region disappear. It lies to the south
the central Asia and protects India from of the Siwalik from west to east (Jammu
severe cold. Division to Assam). Its width varies from
• Himalayas are renowned for the rich 8 to 15 km. It is wider in the western plains
biodiversity. (Jammu Division) than in the east (Assam).
This plain is not suitable for cultivation, only big
Longitudinal Divisions of trees with large roots thrive in this region.
Himalayas b) The Tarai Tract
1.
The Kashmir Punjab Himachal It is a zone of excessive dampness, thick
Himalayas- Located between the rivers forests and rich wild life. This tract lies to the
of Indus and Sutlej. south of Bhabar plains. The width of this belt
2.
The Kumaun Himalayas- Located is 15-30 km. The Tarai is wider in the eastern parts
between the rivers of Sutlej and Kali. of the Great Plains, especially in Brahmaputra

Valley due to heavy rainfall. In many states, the of old mud, new mud and marsh. In the delta
Tarai forests have been cleared for cultivation. region, the uplands are called ‘Chars’ while the
marshy areas are called ‘Bils’.
c) The Bhangar Plains
The Bhangar represent the upland alluvial 1.2.3 The Peninsular Plateaus
tracts of the Great Plains of India, formed by the The plateau region lies to the south of
older alluviums. The Bhangar land lies above the Great Northern Plains. This is the largest
the flood limits of the rivers. This soil is dark in physiographic division of our country.
colour, rich in humus content, well drained and It covers an area of about 16 lakh sq.km (about
useful for agriculture. half of the total area of the country). It is an old
d) The Khadar Plains rocky plateau region. The topography consists of
a series of plateaus and hill ranges interspersed
The new alluvium tracts along the courses with river valleys.
of the rivers are known as the ‘Khadar’ or ‘Bet’
Aravalli hills mark the north-western
lands. The Khadar tracts are enriched by fresh
boundary of the plateau region. Its northern
deposits of silt every year during rainy seasons.
and north-eastern boundaries are marked by
The Khadar land consists of sand, silt, clay and
the Bundelkhand upland, Kaimur and Rajmahal
mud. It is highly fertile soil.
hills. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
e) Delta Plains mark the western and eastern boundaries
The deltaic plain is an extension of the respectively. The altitude of a large portion of
Khadar land. It covers about 1.9 lakh sq.km in the plateau is more than 600 m from mean sea
the lower reaches of the Ganga River. It is an level. The peak of Anaimudi is the highest
area of deposition as the river flows in this tract point in the plateau. Its height is 2,695 m and
sluggishly. The deltaic plain consists mainly is located in Anaimalai. The general slope of
this plateau is towards east. The Great Plateau
On the basis of deposition of sediments by various rivers and topographical characteristics,

the Northern Plains of India is divided into the following four major regions:
a) Rajasthan Plains: It is located to the west of Aravalli range. It covers an area of about 1,75,000 sq.km.
Rajasthan plain is formed by the deposition of the river Luni and the long vanished river
Saraswathi. There are several salt lakes in Rajasthan. The Sambhar salt lake (Pushkar Lake) near
Jaipur is the prominent one.
b) Punjab - Haryana Plains: It lies to the north-east of the Great Indian Desert. This plain is
found over an area of about 1.75 lakh sq.km. The Punjab - Haryana plains are formed by the
deposition of the rivers Sutlej, Beas and Ravi. This plain acts as water - divide (doab). The two
major watershed it divides are Yamuna – Sutlej and Ganga – Yamuna.
c) Ganga Plains: It extends from the Yamuna River in the west to Bangladesh in the east. The total
area covered by this plain is about 3.75 sq.km. River Ganga and its tributaries such as Ghaghra,
Gandak, Kosi, Yamuna, Chambal, Betwa etc. constitute this plain by their sediments and make
a great plain in India. It is the largest plain of India. The general slope of the entire plain (upper,
middle and lower Ganga plains) is towards east and south-east.
d) Brahmaputra Plains: It is located mainly in the state of Assam. It is a low - level plain located in
the eastern part of the Great Plains of India and is formed by the deposits of river Brahmaputra.
It covers an area of about 56,275 sq.km. These plains create alluvial fans and marshy tracts.

is a part of the Gondwana (very ancient one) b) Deccan Plateau
land mass. Due to the old age, the rivers in this This physiographic division is the largest
region attained their base level and developed part of the plateau region of India. The shape
broad and shallow valleys. of this plateau is roughly triangular. One of
The river Narmada divides the plateau the sides of this triangle is marked by the line
region of India broadly into two parts. The joining Kanniyakumari with Rajmahal Hills
region lying to the north of the Narmada is and this line passes through the Eastern Ghats.
called the Central Highlands and the region The second arm is marked by the Satpura Range,
lying to the south of Narmada is called the Mahadeo Hills, Maikal Range and the Rajmahal
Deccan Plateau. All the major rivers (Mahanadi, Hills. The third arm is marked by the Western
Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.) lying to the Ghats. The area of this Plateau is about 7 lakh
south of the Vindhyas flow eastwards and fall square km and the height ranges from 500 to
into the Bay of Bengal. Narmada and Tapti 1000 m above sea level.
are the two rivers situated to the south of the The Western Ghats forms the western
Vindhyas flow westward. Their movement edge of the Peninsular Plateau. It runs parallel
towards west is due to the presence of to the Arabian Sea coast. The northern part
a rift valley in the region. of this range is called as Sahyadris. The height
of the Sahyadris increases from north to
a) Central Highlands
south. Anaimudi is a sort of tri-junction of
The Central Highlands extend between the the Anaimalai Range, the Cardamom Hills
river Narmada and the Northern Great Plains. and the Palani Hills. Kodaikanal is a beautiful
The Aravallis form the west and northwestern hill resort situated on the Palani Hills. Eastern
edge of the Central Highlands. These hills extend Ghats run from southwest to northeast form
from Gujarat, through Rajasthan to Delhi in the the eastern edge of this Plateau. This range
northwesterly direction for a distance of about is also called as Poorvadri. The Eastern
700 km. The height of these hills is about 1,500 m Ghats join the Western Ghats at the Nilgiri
in southwest while near Delhi the height is hills, bordering Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
hardly 400 m. Gurushikhar with 1,722 m is the The Eastern Ghats are not continuous like
highest peak of this range. the Western Ghats. The rivers of Mahanadi,
The Western part of the Central Highland Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Kaveri have
is known as the Malwa Plateau. It lies to the dissected this range at many places.
southeast of Aravallis and to the north of
Vindhyachal Range. The rivers Chambal, Betwa 1.2.4 The Indian Desert
and Ken drain the Malwa Plateau before they
The Thar desert, also known as the Great
join the river Yamuna. The part of the Central
Indian desert is a large arid region in the north
Highlands which extends to the east of Malwa
Plateau is known as Bundelkhand and its western part of the Indian subcontinent that
further extension is known as Bagelkhand. The covers an area of 2,00,000 km2 and forms a
eastern part of the Central High lands which natural boundary between India and pakisthan.
lies in the north-eastern part of the Indian It is the world 7th largest desert, and world 9th
Plateau is known as Chhota-Nagpur Plateau. largest sub tropical desert located in Western
It covers much of Jharkhand, adjacent parts of part of the India.
Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and Chhattisgarh.
This region is very rich in mineral resources The desert lies in the western part of the
particularly iron ore and coal. aravalli range and covers 2/3 of Rajasthan
state. There are two major divisions in the
Thar desert. They are known as the Actual

desert region (Marusthali) and the semi and Tamil Nadu. These plains are formed by
desert region (Bhangar). Many different types the alluvial fillings of the littoral zone by the
of sand dunes and salt lakes (Dhands) are east flowing rivers of India. The coastal plain
seen here. consists mainly of the recent alluvial deposits.
This coastal plain has a regular shoreline with
well-defined beaches. The coastal plain between
Mahanadi and Krishna river is known as the
Northern Circars and the southern part lies
between Krishna and Kaveri rivers is called
Coromandal coast. The Marina beach on this
coast in Chennai and it is the second longest
beach in the world. Among the back water lakes
of this coast, lake Chilka (Odisha) is the largest
Thar Desert
lake in India located to the southwest of the
1.2.5 The Coastal Plains Mahanadi delta, the Kolleru Lake which lies
The Peninsula Plateau of India is flanked between the deltas of Godavari and Krishna and
by narrow coastal plains of varied width from the Pulicat Lake lies in the border of Andhra
north to south, known as the Western Coastal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the well known
Plains and the Eastern Coastal Plains. They were lakes in the east coastal plain.
formed by the depositional action of the rivers
and the erosional and depositional actions of the 1.2.6 The Islands
sea-waves. The Indian coastal plains are divided India has two major island groups namely
into the following two divisions: 1) The Western Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. The
Coastal Plains and 2) The Eastern Coastal Plains. former group consists of 572 islands and are
located in Bay of Bengal, and the later one has
1. The Western Coastal Plain 27 islands and are located in Arabian Sea. The
It lies between the Western Ghats and the islands of Andaman and Nicobar are largely
Arabian Sea. It extends from Rann of kutch in tectonic and volcanic origin. India’s only active
the north to Kanniyakumari in the south and volcano is found on Barren Island in Andaman
its width varies from 10 to 80 km. It is mainly and Nicobar group of Islands, while the islands
characterised by sandy beaches, coastal sand of the Arabian Sea are mainly coral origin.
dunes, mud flats, lagoons, estuary, laterite
platforms and residual hills. The northern part a) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
of the West Coastal Plain is known as Konkan
Plain. The middle part of this plain is known
as Kanara. The southern part of the plain is
known as Malabar coast which is about 550
km long and 20-100 km wide. This part of the
coast is characterized by sand dunes. Along
the coast, there are numerous shallow lagoons
Andaman Islands
and backwaters called Kayals and Teris.
Vembanad is a famous back water lake found These islands are located in an elevated
in this region. portion of the submarine mountains. Since
2. The Eastern Coastal Plain these islands lie close to the equator, the climate
It lies between the Eastern Ghats and the remains hot and wet throughout the year and
Bay of Bengal and, stretches along the states has dense forests. The area of the island group is
of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh about 8,249 sq.km. The entire group of islands

is divided into two. They are Andaman in the 1.3.1 Himalayan Rivers
north and the Nicobar in the south. These These rivers are found in north India and
island groups are of great strategic importance originate from Himalayas. So, they are also called
for the country. Port Blair is the administrative as Himalayan rivers. These are perennial rivers.
capital of the Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Rivers
The Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman
from Nicobar group. The southernmost tip, the
Indira Point is a part of Nicobar Island. Himalayan
Rivers
Peninsular
Rivers
b) Lakshadweep Islands
This is a small group of coral islands located ¾¾ Indus ¾¾ Mahanadi ¾¾ Cauvery
¾¾ Ganga ¾¾ Godavari ¾¾ Narmada
off the west coast of India. It covers an area of
¾¾ Brahmaputra ¾¾ Krishna ¾¾ Tapti
32 sq. km. Kavaratti is its administrative capital.
Lakshadweep islands are separated from the
Maldive Islands by the Eight Degree Channel. a) The Indus River System
The uninhabited “Pitt Island” of this group has The Indus River is one of the largest rivers of
a bird sanctuary. Earlier, it had three divisions the world. It originates from the northern slope
namely Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi. It of the Kailash range in Tibet near Manasarovar
was named as Lakshadweep in 1973. Lake at an elevation of about 5,150 m. Its length
is about 2,880 km (Only 709 km is in India).
c) Offshore Islands
The river has a total drainage area extending
Besides the two group of islands, India has
11,65,500 sq km in which 321,289 sq km areas
a number of islands along the Western Coast,
are drained in India. The river flows through
Eastern Coast, in the delta region of Ganga and
the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges and creates deep
in the Gulf of Mannar. Many of these islands
are uninhabited and are administered by the gorges. The river runs through Jammu and
adjacent states. Kashmir, turns south near Chillar and enters
Pakistan. Its major tributaries are Jhelum,
1.3 Drainage System of Chenab (Largest tributary of Indus), Ravi, Beas
and Sutlej. It enters into with the Arabian Sea.
India
A drainage system is an integrated system b) The Ganga River System
of tributaries and a trunk stream which collects
and drains surface water into the sea, lake
or some other body of water. The total area
drained by a river and its tributaries is known
as a drainage basin. The drainage pattern of an
area is the result of the geological structure of
the respective areas. The river system provides Ganga River - Haridwar
irrigation, drinking water, navigation, power
The Ganga River system is the largest
as well as grant livelihoods for a large number
drainage system of India it extend over and area
of population. The drainage system of India is
broadly divided into two major groups on the of 8,61,404 sq km in India. The Ganga plain is
basis of their location. They are Himalayan the most densely populated place in India and
rivers and the Peninsular rivers. many towns are developed on the banks of this
river. The river Ganga originates as Bhagirathi
from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttar Khasi
District of Uttarkhand state, at an elevation of

7,010 m. The length of the river Ganga is about 1.3.3 East Flowing Rivers
2,525 km. Its major tributaries from the north a) Mahanadi
are Gomti, Gandak, Kosi and Ghaghra and from
The river Mahanadi originates near
south, Yamuna (largest tributary of Ganga),
Sihawa in Raipur district of Chattisgarh and
Son, Chambal etc. The river Ganga is known as flows through Odisha. Its length is 851 km.
the River Padma in Bangladesh. The combined Seonath, Telen, Sandur and Ib are its major
river of Ganga and Brahmaputra creates the tributaries. The main stream of Mahanadi gets
World’s largest delta known as Sundarbans in divided into several distributaries such as Paika,
Bangladesh before joining the Bay of Bengal. Birupa, Chitartala, Genguti and Nun. All these
distributaries form the Delta of Mahanadi
c) The Brahmaputra River System
which is one of the largest deltas in India. The
The river Brahmaputra originates from the Mahanadi empties its water in Bay of Bengal.
Chemayungdung Glacier of the Kailash range
b) Godavari
to the east of Lake Manasarovar in Tibet at an
elevation of about 5,150 m. The total area is Godavari is the longest river (1,465
about 5,80,000 sq km but the drainage area km) with an area of 3.13 lakh km2 among the
lying in India is 1,94,413 sq km This river Peninsular rivers. It is also called Vridha Ganga.
is known as Tsangpo (Purifier) in Tibet. The It originates in Nasik district of Maharashtra,
length of this river is about 2,900 km (900 km a portion of Western Ghats. It flows through
in India). It enters into India through a gorge in the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh namely Dihang. It has many before joining Bay of Bengal. Purna, Penganga,
tributaries. Tista, Manas, Barak, Subansiri are Pranitha, Indravati, Tal and Salami are its major
some of them. This river is called as Jamuna in tributaries. The river near Rajahmundry gets
Bangladesh. After it joins with the river Ganga divided into two Channels called Vasistha and
in Bangladesh, the river is called as Meghna. Gautami and forms one of the largest deltas in
India. Kolleru, a fresh water lake is located in
Characteristics of Himalayan Rivers the deltaic region of the Godavari.
• Originate from Himalayas c) Krishna
• Long and wide The river Krishna originates from a spring
• Perennial in nature at a place called Mahabaleshwar in the Western
• Unsuitable for hydro power generation Ghats of Maharashtra. Its length is 1,400 km
• Middle and lower courses are navigable and an area of 2.58 lakh sq km. It is the second
longest Peninsular river Bhima, Peddavagu,
1.3.2 Peninsular Rivers Musi, Koyna and Thungabhadra are the major
The rivers in south India are called the tributaries of this river. It also flows through
Peninsular rivers. Most of these rivers originate Andhra Pradesh and joins in Bay of Bengal, at
from the Western Ghats. These are seasonal Hamasaladeevi.
rivers (non–perennial). They have a large
d) Kaveri
seasonal fluctuation in volume of water as they
are solely fed by rain. These rivers flow in valleys The river Kaveri originates at Talakaveri,
with steep gradients. Based on the direction of Kudagu hills of Karnataka. Its length is 800
flow, the peninsular rivers are divided into the km. The river kaveri is called Dhakshin Ganga
West flowing and East flowing rivers. or Ganga of south Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini,
Bhavani, Arkavathy, Noyyal, Amaravathi etc
are the main tributaries of the river Kaveri. In
Karnataka the river bifurcates twice, forming

INDIA RIVERS
Ind N
us AND LAKES
Wular W E
Lake S
us lum
Jhe nab Beas
Ind
e
ChRavi
lej
Sut
Sambar salt Ya
l m Gh
agh a putra
Ga
Lake ba
Luni
un Brahm
Ga
am ara
ng
a
Kosi
h
nd
C
a
ak
n
So
Sa
ba
Hugli
M thi
rn
i
ah
ar
a
barm
Narmada Ma ek Sundarban
ha ha
Sa Tap na
thi
Pen
ga nga
Chilka
Lake
Go
da
va
Krishn
ri
a Kolleru
a
dr
Lake
a
bh
ga
Pennaru
n
Tu
Pulicat Lake LEGEND

River
Kavery Lake
Vembanad
Lake Vaigai
Not to Scale
the sacred islands of Srirangapatnam and 1.3.4 West Flowing Rivers

Sivasamudram. While entering Tamil Nadu, a) Narmada
the Kaveri continues through a series of twisted
This river rises in Amarkantak Plateau in
wild gorges until it reaches Hogenakkal Falls
Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of about 1057 m
and flows through a straight, narrow gorge
and flows for a distance of about 1,312 km
near Salem. The Kaveri breaks at Srirangam
it covers and area of 98,796 sq km and forms
Island with two channels, river Coleroon and
27 km long estuary before outfalling into the
Kaveri. At last, it empties into the Bay of Bengal
Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
at Poompuhar.
It is the largest among the west flowing rivers
of Peninsular India. Its principal tributaries are

Burhner, Halon, Heran, Banjar, Dudhi, Shakkar,
Tawa, Barna and Kolar. • The Indus River system, the Ganga
River system and the Brahmaputra
b) Tapti River system have made the agricultural
The Tapti is one of the major rivers of lands of north India as fertile land.
Peninsular India with the length of about 724 These rivers are perennial in nature.
km. It covers an area of 65,145 sq km. Tapti river • Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmathi
rises near Multai in the Betul district of Madhya rivers confluence with the Arabian Sea.
Pradesh at an elevation of about 752 m. It is
• Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
one of only the three rivers in Peninsular India
Cauvery are the major east flowing
that run from east to west - the others being the
rivers and drain into Bay of Bengal.
Narmada and the Mahi. The major tributaries
are Vaki, Gomai, Arunavati, Aner, Nesu, Buray,
Panjhra and Bori. It outfalls into the Arabian
Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
GLOSSARY
Back waters: The part of a river
which are stagnant and do not reach the
In which river the
fi nd out sea as they are pushed by the current.
Gerosappa (jog) fall is
found? Distributary: A branch or outlet
which leaves a main river and does not
rejoin it, carrying its water to the sea or
Recap a lake.
Doab: A land between the two
• India has been physiographically
converging rivers.
divided into five divisions. They are
Northern Mountains, Northern Great Estuary: Mouth of a river where it
Plains, The Plateau region, Coastal enters the sea through a single channel
Plains and Islands. with a hollow.
Perennial Rivers: The rivers
• Northern Mountains are classified into
which flow throughout the year and have
three divisions as Trans-Himalayas,
permanent source of water.
Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas.
Pass: A narrow gap through the
• Northern Great Plains are divided
mountains providing a route or passage
into four as Rajasthan Plains, Punjab-
way.
Haryana Plains, Gangetic Plains and
Brahmaputra Plains. Peninsula: The land area covered with
ocean on three sides. Subcontinent:
• The Plateau region of India has two A large area of a continent that stands
divisions namely the Central Highlands distinct from the rest of the continent and
and the Deccan Plateau. possesses almost all the characteristics
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands and of a continent.
Lakshadweep are the two major island Standard Time: The local time of
groups of India. central meridian of ones country.
• The Drainage System of India is classified Tributary: A river or stream which
into the north Indian (Himalayan) and contributes its water to main river.
Peninsular rivers.

8. The highest peak in South India is
EXERCISE a. Ooty b. Kodaikanal
c. Anaimudi d. Jindhagada
Characteristics of 9. _____________ Plains are formed by the
South Indian Rivers older alluviums.
• Originate from Western a. Bhabar b. Tarai
Ghats c. Bhangar d. Khadar
• Short and narrow
10. Pulicat Lake is located between the
• Non perennial in nature
states of
• Suitable for hydro power generation
a. West Bengal and Odisha
• Not useful for navigation
b. Karnataka and Kerala
c. Odisha and Andhra Pradesh
I. Choose the correct answer
d. Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
1. The north-south extent of India is
II. Match the following
a. 2,500 km b. 2,933 km
1. Tsangpo — Tributary of River
c. 3,214 km d. 2814 km
Ganga
2. The Southern most point of India is 2. Yamuna — Highest peak in India
a. Andaman b. Kanniyakumari 3. New alluvium — River Brahmaputra in
c. Indira Point d. Kavaratti Tibet
3. The extent of Himalayas in the east-west is 4. Mt. Godwin Southern part of East
about Austen (K2) — Coastal Plain
5. Coromandel
a. 2,500 km b. 2,400 km
Coast — Khadhar
c. 800 km d. 2,200 km
4. _________ River is known as ‘Sorrow of III. Give Reasons
Bihar’. 1. Himalayas are called young fold moutains
a. Narmada b. Godavari 2. North Indian Rivers are perennial
c. Kosi d. Damodar
3. Chottanagpur Plateau is rich in mineral
5.
Deccan Plateau covers an area of about resources
__________ sq.km. 4. The great Indian desert is called Marusthali
a. 8 lakh b. 6 lakh
5. The Eastern states are called seven sisters
c. 5 lakh d. 7 lakh
6. The river Gothavari is often referred as
6. A landmass bounded by sea on three sides is Vridha Ganga.
referred to as _________.
a. Coast b. Island IV. Distinguish between the
c. Peninsula d. Strait following
1. Himalayan rivers and Peninsular rivers.
7. The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separates
India from _______ 2. Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.
a. Goa b. West Bengal 3. Himadri and Himachal.
c. Sri Lanka d. Maldives 4. Western Coastal Plains and Eastern Coastal
Plains.

V. Answer in brief in India and findout it’s tributaries, origin,
1. Name the neighbouring countries of India. length and area.
2. Give the importance of IST.
REFERENCE BOOKS
3. Write a short note on Deccan Plateau.
4. State the west following rivers of India. 1. Husain, M. (2015). Geography of India (6th
5. Write a brief note on the island group of Edition). McGraw Hill Education, New
Lakshadweep Delhi.
2. Siddhartha, K. and Mukherjee, S. (2013).
VI. Answer in a paragraph
Geography through Maps (11th Edition).
1. Explain the divisions of Northern Mountains Kisalaya Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
and its importance to India.
3. Singh, G. (1976). A Geography of India.
2. Give an account on the major peninsular Atma Ram & Sons Publications, New Delhi.
rivers of India.
4. Singh, S. and Saroha, J. (2014). Geography
3. Give a detailed account on the basin of the of India (1st Edition). Access Publishing
Ganga. India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
VII. Map exercises INTERNET RESOURCES

Mark the following in the outline map of
1. http://www.nplindia.in/
India
1. Major mountain ranges – Karakoram, 2. http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/
Ladakh, Zaskar, Aravalli, Western Ghats, 3. http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/iess102.pdf
Eastern Ghats.
4. http://www.scert.kerala.gov.in/images/text_
2. Major rivers – Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, books/chapter%204.pdf
Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna & Kaveri.
3. Major plateaus – Malwa, Chotanagpur,
Deccan.
VIII. Activities
1.
Observe the Peninsular Plateau map of
India and mark the major plateau divisions
of India
2.
Prepare a table showing the major West
flowing and East flowing rivers of peninsular
India.
3. Assume that you are travelling from West
Bengal to Gujarat along the beautiful coasts
of India. Find out the states which you
would pass through?
4. Find out the states through which the river
Ganga flows.
5. Prepare a table showing the major rivers

Unit - 2
Climate
and Natural
Vegetation of
India
Learning Objectives
To describe the factors controlling the climate of India.

To understand the characteristics of different seasons in India.
To know about the rainfall distribution.
To study the different types of natural vegetation and wild life in India.
Introduction 2.1 The factors affecting the

We drink more water during summer climate
and do not drink the same amount of water Climate of India is affected by the factors
during winter. Why do we wear cotton or of latitude, distance from the seas, monsoon
lighter clothes during summer season and wind, relief features and jet stream.
heavy woollen clothes during cold weather
2.1.1 Latitude
season in north India? Why do not we wear
woollen clothes in south India? This is Latitudinally, India lies between 8°4'N
because of the prevalence of varying weather and 37°6'N latitudes. The Tropic of cancer
conditions between north and south India. In divides the country into two equal halves. The
the previous chapter, you have learnt about area located to the south of Tropic of cancer
the landforms and drainage of our country, experiences high temperature and no severe
which dealt with the natural environment. In cold season throughout the year whereas, the
this chapter, you will learn about the climate, areas to the north of this parallel enjoys sub-
rainfall distribution, natural vegetation and tropical climate. Here, summer temperature
wildlife of our country. may rise above 40°C and it is close to freezing
point during winter.
Equable climate is also called 2.1.2 Altitude
as the British climate, Which is When the altitude increases, The
neither too hot nor too cold. temperatures decreases. Temperature decreases
at the rate of 6.50C for every 1000 metres of
ascent. It is called normal lapse rate.
Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 98

Hence, places in the mountains are
cooler than the places on the plains. That • Weather refers to the state
is why the places located at higher altitudes of atmosphere of a place at a
even in south India have cool climate. Ooty given point of time.
and several other hill stations of south India • Climate is the accumulation
and of the Himalayan ranges like Mussourie, of daily and seasonal weather
Shimla etc., are much cooler than the places events of a given location over a period of
located on the Great Plains. 30-35 years.
Find out the temperature of onset of southwest monsoon brings down the
fi nd out
Ooty (2240m) if it is 350C in temperature of the entire India and causes
Chennai (6.7m) moderate to heavy rainfall in many parts of
the country. Similarly, the climate of southeast
2.1.3 Distance from the Sea India is also influenced by northeast monsoon.
Distance from the sea does not cause 2.1.5 Relief
only temperature and pressure variations but
Relief of India has a great bearing
also affects the amount of rainfall. A large area
on major elements of climate such as
of India, especially the peninsular region, is
temperature, atmospheric pressure, direction
not very far from the sea and this entire area
of winds and the amount of rainfall. The
has a clear maritime influence on climate.
Himalayas acts as a barrier to the freezing
This part of the country does not have a very
cold wind blows from central Asia and keep
clearly marked winter and the temperature
the Indian subcontinent warm. As such the
is equable almost throughout the year. Areas
north India experiences tropical climate even
of central and north India experience much
during winter. During southwest monsoon,
seasonal variation in temperature due to the
areas on the western slope of the Western
absence of influence of seas. Here, summers
Ghats receive heavy rainfall. On the contrary,
are hot and winters are cold. The annual
vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
temperature at Kochi does not exceed 30°C
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil nadu
as its location is on the coast while it is as
lie in rain shadow or leeward side of the
high as 40°C at Delhi, since it is located in
Western Ghats receive very little rainfall.
the interior part. Air near the coast has more
During this season, Mangalore, located on
moisture and greater potential to produce
the coast gets the rainfall of about 280 cm
precipitation. Due to this fact, the amount of
whereas the Bengaluru located on the leeward
rainfall at Kolkata located near the coast is
side receives only about 50 cm rainfall.
119 cm and it decreases to just 24 cm at
Bikaner which is located in the interior part.
2.1.6. Jet Streams
2.1.4 Monsoon Wind Jet streams are the fast moving winds
blowing in a narrow zone in the upper
The most dominant factor which affects
atmosphere. According to the Jet stream
the climate of India is the monsoon winds.
theory, the onset of southwest monsoon is
These are seasonal reversal winds and India
driven by the shift of the sub tropical westerly
remains in the influence of these winds for a
jet from the plains of India towards the
considerable part of a year. Though, the sun’s
Tibetan plateau. The easterly jet streams cause
rays are vertical over the central part of India
tropical depressions both during southwest
during the mid-June, the summer season ends
monsoon and retreating monsoon.
in India by the end of May. It is because the
99 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India

2.2 Monsoon 2.2.1 Seasons
The word ‘monsoon’ has been derived The meteorologists
from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means recognize the four distinct
‘season’. Originally, the word ‘monsoon’ was seasons in India. They are;
used by Arab navigators several centuries ago, 1. Winter or cold
to describe a system of seasonal reversal of weather season
winds along the shores of the Indian Ocean, (January - February).
especially over the Arabian Sea. It blows from 2. Pre Monsoon or summer or hot weather
the south-west to north-east during summer season (March - May).
and from the north-east to south-west during
winter. 3. Southwest monsoon or rainy season
(June - September).
Monsoons are a complex meteorological
phenomenon. Meteorologists have developed 4. Northeast monsoon season
a number of concepts about the origin (October - December).
of monsoons. According to the Dynamic
concept, Monsoon wind originates due to 1. Winter or cold weather season
the seasonal migration of planetary winds During this period, the vertical rays of
and pressure belts following the position of the sun falls over tropic of capricorn which
the sun. During summer solstice, the sun’s is far away from India. Hence, India receives
rays fall vertically over the Tropic of cancer. the slanting sun’s rays which results in low
Therefore, all the pressure and wind belts temperature. The cold weather season is
of the globe shift northwards. At this time, characterized by clear skies, fine weather,
Inter -Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) light northerly winds, low humidity and
also moves northward, and a major part of large day time variations of temperature.
Indian landmass comes under the influence During this season a high pressure develops
of southeast trade winds. While crossing over north India and a north-westerly wind
equator this wind gets deflected and takes the blows down the Indus and Ganges valleys.
direction of southwest and becomes south- In south India, the general direction of wind
west monsoon. During the winter season, is from east to west. The mean temperature
the pressure and wind belts shift southward, increases from north to south, the decrease
thereby establishing the north-east monsoon being sharp as one moves northwards in
(trade winds) over this region. Such systematic the north-western part of the country. The
change in the direction of planetary winds is mean daily minimum temperatures range
known as monsoon. from 22°C in the extreme south, to 10°C
in the northern plains and 6°C in Punjab.
The rain during this season generally
Atacama desert is the driest occurs over the Western Himalayas, Tamil
place on the earth. nadu and Kerala. Western disturbances and
associated trough in westerlies are main
rain bearing system in northern part of the
country. The jet stream plays a dominant
role in bringing these disturbances to
India. These disturbances cause rainfall in
Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh,
and snowfall in the hills of Jammu and
Kashmir. This rainfall is very useful for the
cultivation of winter wheat.

2. Pre Monsoon or summer or Konkan coast in early June and covers the
hot weather season whole country by 15th July. The monsoon
is influenced by global phenomenon like
During this season, the vertical rays of
ElNino.
the sun falls over the peninsular India. Hence,
there is a steady increase in temperature from Prior to the onset of the southwest
south to north. It is practically hot and dry monsoon, the temperature in north India
in the entire country in the initial part of reaches upto 46°C. The sudden approach
this season. Weather over the land areas of of monsoon wind over south India with
the country is influenced by thunderstorms lightning and thunder is termed as the
associated with rain and sometimes with ‘break’ or ‘burst of monsoon’. It lowers
hail mostly in the middle and later part. the temperature of India to a large extent.
During this season, temperature starts The monsoon wind strikes against the
increasing all over the country and by April, southern tip of Indian land mass and gets
the interior parts of south India record mean divided into two branches. One branch
daily temperatures of 30°C–35°C. Central starts from Arabian sea and the other from
Indian land mass becomes hot with day-time Bay of Bengal. The Arabian sea branch of
maximum temperature reaching about 40°C southwest monsoon gives heavy rainfall to
at many locations. Many stations in Gujarat, the west coast of India as it is located in the
North Maharashtra, Rajasthan and North windward side of the Western Ghats. The
Madhya Pradesh exhibit high day-time and other part which advances towards north
low night-time temperatures during this is obstructed by Himalayan Mountains
season. and results in heavy rainfall in north. As
Aravalli Mountain is located parallel to the
Because of the atmospheric pressure
wind direction, Rajasthan and western part
conditions, the winds blow from southwest
do not get much rainfall from this branch.
to northeast direction in Arabian Sea and Bay
The wind from Bay of Bengal branch moves
of Bengal. They bring pre monsoon showers
towards northeast India and Myanmar. This
to the west coast during the month of May.
wind is trapped by a chain of mountains
There are few thunder showers called “Mango
namely Garo, Khasi and Jaintia are mainly
Showers” which helps in quick ripening
responsible for the heaviest rainfall caused
of mangoes along the coast of Kerala and
at Mawsynram located in Meghalaya. Later
Karnataka. “Norwesters” or “Kalbaisakhis”
on, this wind travel towards west which
are the local severe storms or violent
results in decrease in rainfall from east to
thunderstorms associated with strong winds
west. Over all about 75% of Indian rainfall
and rain lasting for short durations. It occurs
is received from this monsoon. Tamil nadu
over the eastern and north eastern parts over
which is located in the leeward side receives
Bihar, West Bengal and Assam during April
only a meagre rainfall.
and May. They approach the stations from the
northwesterly direction.
4. Post monsoon or Retreating or
3. Southwest monsoon or Rainy Northeast monsoon season
Season The southwest monsoon begins to retreat
from north India by the end of September due
The southwest monsoon is the most
to the southward shifting pressure belts. The
significant feature of the Indian climate. The
southwest monsoon wind returns from Indian
onset of the southwest monsoon takes place
landmass and blows towards Bay of Bengal. The
normally over the southern tip of the country
coriolis force deflects this wind and makes it
by the first week of June, advances along the

South West Monsoon In India North East Monsoon In India
N N
W E W E
S S
I N D I A I N D I A
Arabian Bay of Arabian Bay of

Sea Bengal Sea Bengal
Not to Scale Not to Scale
Indian Ocean Indian Ocean

India Monsoons
to blow from northeast. Hence, it is known as
Northeast monsoon or Post-monsoon season. Hots
The season is associated with the establishment Why is Mawsynram, the wettest place
of the north-easterly wind system over the Indian in the world.
subcontinent. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil nadu,
Kerala and south interior Karnataka receive good
amount of rainfall accounted for 35% of their 2.3 Distribution of rainfall
annual total. Many parts of Tamil nadu and some The average annual rainfall of India is
parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka receive 118 cm. However, spatial distribution of
rainfall during this season due to the storms rainfall in the country is highly uneven. About
forming in the Bay of Bengal. Large scale losses to 11% area receives over 200 cm of annual
life and property occur due to heavy rainfall, strong rainfall, 21% area receives 125 to 200 cm,
winds and storm surge in the coastal regions. The 37% area receives 75 to 125 cm, 24% area gets
day time temperatures start falling sharply all over 35 to 75 cm and 7% area gets less than 35 cm.
the country. The mean temperature over north- The Western coast, Assam, South Meghalaya,
western parts of the country shows a decline from Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh are
about 38°C in October to 28°C in November. the heavy rainfall areas which get more than
200 cm rainfall. The whole of Rajasthan,
Mawsynram, the place Punjab, Haryana, Western and Southwestern
which receives highest rainfall parts of Uttar Pradesh, Western Madhya
(1141 cm) in the world. It is Pradesh, the entire Deccan Trap or Plateau
located in Meghalaya. region east of Western Ghats except for a
narrow strip along Tamil nadu coast receive a
low rainfall of less than 100 cm. The rest of the
areas receive a rainfall ranging between 100
and 200 cm.

N
W E
S
NATURAL VEGETATION
OF INDIA
Arabian
Sea
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLA

Bay of
Bengal
LASKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)
(INDIA)
Tropical Evergreen Forests

Coastal Forests
Tropical Dry Forests
Desert Forests
NDS
Tidal Forests
Not to Scale Eastern Himalaya Forests

Western Himalayan Forests
Indian Ocean Alpine Forests
Cold Desert Forests
2.4 Natural Vegetation are the important environmental controls of

natural vegetation.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community unaffected by man either directly On the basis of the above factors the
or indirectly. It has its existence in certain natural vegetation of India can be divided
natural environment. Natural vegetation into the following types.
includes all plant life forms such as trees, 2.4.1 Tropical Evergreen Forest
bushes, herbs and forbs etc, that grow These forests are found in areas with 200 cm
naturally in an area and have been left or more annual rainfall. The annual temperature
undisturbed by humans for a long time. is about more than 22°C and the average annual
Climate, soil and landform characteristics humidity exceeds 70 percent in this region.
Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka,

Kerala, Andaman-Nicobar Islands, Assam, north Gujarat and south-west Punjab. They
West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, are also found in the very dry parts of the
Manipur and Meghalaya states have this type Deccan plateau in Karnataka, Maharashtra
of forests. The most important trees are rubber, and Andhra Pradesh. Babul, kikar and wild
mahogany, ebony, rosewood, coconut, bamboo, palms are common trees found here.
cinchona, candes, palm, iron wood and cedar. 2.4.4 Mountain or Montane Forest
These have not been fully exploited due to lack
These forests are classified on the basis of
of transport facilities.
altitude and amount of rainfall. Accordingly two
2.4.2 Tropical Deciduous Forest different types of forests namely Eastern Himalayas
These are found in the areas with 100 to Forests and Western Himalayas Forests.
200cm. annual rainfall. These are called i. Eastern Himalayan Forest: These are
‘Monsoon Forests’. The mean annual found on the slopes of the mountains in
temperature of this region is about 27oC and north-east states. These forests receive
the average annual relative humidity is 60 to rainfall of more than 200 cm. The vegetation
70 percent. The trees of these forests drop their is of evergreen type. The Altitude between
leaves during the spring and early summer. (Sub 1200-2400 m found in this type of forest
Himalayan - Region from Punjab to Assam, sal, oak, laurel, amura, chestnut, cinnamon
Great Plains- Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, are the main trees from 1200 to 2400 m
Bihar, West Bengal, Central India - Jharkhand, altitude oak, birch, silver, fir, fine, spruce
Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, South India - and juniper are the major trees from 2400
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra to 3600 m height.
Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala states are
(ii) Western Himalayan Forest: The rainfall
notable for this type of natural vegetation.)
of this region is moderate. These forests are
Teak and sal are the most important trees.
found in the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Sandalwood, rosewood, kusum, mahua, palas,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Upto
haldu, amla, padauk, bamboo and tendu are
900 m altitude semi desert vegetation is
the other trees of economic importance. These
found and it is known for bushes and small
forests also provide fragrant oil, varnish,
trees. In altitude from 900 to 1800 m,
sandal oil and perfumes.
chir tree is the most common tree. The
2.4.3 Tropical Dry Forest other important trees of this region are
These are found in the areas with 50 to sal, semal, dhak, jamun and jujube. (height
100 cm. annual rainfall. They represent a High altitude zone of forests
transitional type of forests. These are found 9000
in east Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Western
8000
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Eastern
Maharashtra, Telangana, West Karnataka and 7000
East Tamilnadu. The important species are 6000
Eternal snows and glaciers
mahua, banyan, amaltas, palas, haldu, kikar, Alpine meadows

bamboo, babool, khair etc., 5000
Sub-alpine meadows
Desert and Semi-desert Vegetation: 4000
These are also called as ‘Tropical thorn Coniferous forests
3000
forests’. These are found in the areas having Deciduous broadleaf forests
annual rainfall of less than 50 cm. They have 2000
low humidity and high temperature. These 1000
Evergreen sub-tropical forests
forests are found in north-west India which Sub-equatorial rainforest

includes west Rajasthan, south-west Haryana, 0m

GREEN COVER IN INDIA
Total forest and tree cover 8,02,088 sq km TOP FIVE STATES WHERE
(% of geographical area: 24.39%) FOREST COVER DECREASED
Forest cover in sq km
Year Tree cover Arunachal
2017 93,815 Pradesh
sq km Meghalaya 190
Total forest cover
116
7,08,273
sq km (% of TOP FIVE STATES WHERE
Nagaland
geographical 450
area - 21.54%) MAXIMUM FOREST COVER
INCREASED in sq km
COMPARATIVE FIGURES Tripura Mizoram
Total forest cover (& of total geographical area) 164 531
Telangana
7.2
7.08 (21.54%) 565 Odisha FOREST FIRE
7.0 885
lakh sq km Karnataka
6.8 2012 40,528
6.6 6.40 1,101 2013 25,061
(19.49%) Andhra
6.4
Kerala Pradesh 2014 26,797
6.2 1,043 2,141 2015 22,465
6.0 2016 33,664
1987 1991 1995 1999 2003 2009 2013 2017
from 1800 to 3000 m is covered with semi trees. Both the eastern and western coasts
temperate coniferous forests.) Chir, deodar, have this type of forests. The coasts of Kerala
blue pine, poplar, birch and elder are the and Goa are known for this type.
main trees of this region. 2.4.8 Riverine Forest
2.4.5 Alpine Forest These forests are found along the rivers
It occurs all along the Himalayas with on Khadar areas. These are known for
above 2400 m altitude. These are purely having tamarisk and tamarind trees. The rivers of
coniferous trees. Oak, silver fir, pine and juniper Great Plains are more prominent for this type
are the main trees of these forests. The eastern of natural vegetation.
parts of Himalayas has large extent of these forests. 2.5 Wildlife
2.4.6 Tidal Forest The term ‘Wildlife’ includes animals
These forests occur in and around the of any habitat in nature. Wild animals are
deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal non-domesticated animals and include both
influences and as such are also known as delta vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds
or swamp forests. The delta of the Ganga- and mammals) and invertebrates (bees,
Brahmaputra has the largest tidal forest. The butterflies, moths etc.). India has a rich and
deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna diversified wildlife. The Indian fauna consists
rivers are also known for tidal forests. These of about 81,251 species of animals out of the
are also known as mangrove forest. world’s total of about 1.5 million species.
The faunal diversity of the country consists
2.4.7 Coastal Forest
of about 6500 invertebrates, 5000 molluscs,
These are littoral forests. Generally, 2546 fishes, 1228 birds, 458 mammals,
coastal areas have these types of forests. 446 reptiles, 204 amphibians, 4 panthers and
Casurina, palm and coconut are the dominant about 60,000 species of insects.

The Nilgiri
Tahr is facing
a major threat
in the Western
Ghats. Continuous
poaching activities and Eucalyptus
cultivation hampering its habitat,
the Nilgiri Tahr population is
continuously decreasing.
The Black Buck is

the state animal of
Andhra Pradesh,
Haryana and Punjab.
Our country is home to tigers, lions, of India enacted Wildlife (Protection) Act
leopards, snow leopards, pythons, wolves, in 1972 with the objective of effectively
foxes, bears, crocodiles, rhinoceroses, camels, protecting the wild life of the country and to
wild dogs, monkeys, snakes, antelope species, control poaching, smuggling and illegal trade
deer species, varieties of bison and the in wildlife and its diversities. United Nations
mighty Asian elephant. Hunting, poaching, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
deforestation and other anthropogenic in 1992 recognizes the sovereign rights of
interferences in the natural habitats have states to use their own Biological Resources.
caused extinction of some species and To preserve the country’s rich and diverse
many are facing the danger of extinction. wildlife a network of 102 National Parks and
In view of this and the role of wild life in about 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries across the
maintaining ecological balance, conservation country have been created.
and management of biodiversity of India is
necessary at present situation. 2.5 Biosphere Reserves
The Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) Biosphere reserves are protected areas of
was constituted in 1952 to suggest means of land coastal environments wherein people are an
protection, conservation and management of integral component of the system.
wildlife to the government. The Government

N
BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA W E
S
Jammu and Kashmir
Himachal Cold desert

Pradesh
Nanda Devi
Punjab U
Chandigarh ara
kh
an
Haryana d Dihand-Dibang
l
ha
Delhi ac esh
kanjanjunga u n
Ar Prad
Sikkim Dibru-Saikhowa
Rajasthan
Uar Pradesh Manas Nagaland
Assam
Bihar
Meghalaya
Nokrek Manipur
Rann of Kutch Panna Jharkhand

Tripura
West Bengal Mizoram
Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat Sunderban
Pachmarhi
Achanakmar-
Amarkantak
Diu
garh
Daman
Dadra and Nagar Odisha Simlipal
as
Haveli
Chh
Maharashtra
Telangana
Goa Bay of Bengal

Andra Pradesh
Arabian Sea Seshachalam
Karnataka LEGEND
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
World Network of Biosphere

Puducherry Reserves (UNESCO)
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves
(India)
Tamil Nadu
Lakshadweep Agasthyamalai
(India)
Gulf of
Mannar
Great Nicobar
Not to Scale
Indian Ocean
Eleven of the eighteen biosphere reserves

The Indian government has established 18
(Gulf of Mannar, Nandadevi, the Nilgiris,
Biosphere Reserves in India which protect larger
Nokrek, Pachmarhi, Simlipal, Sundarbans
areas of natural habitat and often include one or
Agasthiyamalai, Great Nicobar, Kanjanjunga
more National Parks preserves along with buffer
and Amarkantak) of India fall under the list of
zones that are open to some economic uses.
Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO.

S. Biosphere State Recap
No. Reserves
• Climate of India is labelled as “Tropical
Madhya Monsoon Type”.
Achanakmar-
1 Pradesh,
Amarkantak • There are four seasons in India. They are
Chattisgarh
winter season, hot weather, southwest
2 Agasthyamalai Kerala monsoon, and northeast monsoon.
3 Dibru Saikhowa Assam • Prior to the onset of the southwest
Arunachal monsoon, the temperature in north India
4 Dihang Dibang
Pradesh reaches upto 46°C. The sudden approach
Andaman and of monsoon wind over south India with
5 Great Nicobar lightning and thunder is termed as – ‘the
Nicobar Islands
6 Gulf of Mannar Tamil nadu break’ or ‘burst of monsoon’.
• Natural vegetation refers to a plant
7 Kachch Gujarat
community unaffected by man either
8 Kanchenjunga Sikkim directly or indirectly.
9 Manas Assam • Natural vegetation can be classified
10 Nanda Devi Uttarakhand as tropical evergreen forests, tropical
11 The Nilgiris Tamil nadu deciduous forests, tropical dry forests,
12 Nokrek Meghalaya desert and semi desert vegetation,
mountain forests, Alpine forests, Tidal
13 Pachmarhi Madhya Pradesh
forests, etc.,
14 Simlipal Odisha • Biosphere reserves are protected areas of
15 Sundarbans West Bengal land coastal environment whereby people
Himachal are an integral component of a system.
16 Cold desert
Pradesh
17 Sesahachalam hills Andhra Pradesh
GLOSSARY
18 Panna Madhya Pradesh
Climate: The weather conditions
prevailing in an area in general or over
Project Tiger was launched a long period.
in April 1973 with the aim Meteorology: The branch of science
to conserve tiger population concerned with the processes and
in specifically constituted phenomena of the atmosphere, especially
“Tiger Reserves” in India. as a means of forecasting the weather.
This project is benefited tremendously, Season: Each of the four divisions of
with an increase of over 60% - the 1979 the year (spring, summer, autumn, and
consensus put the population at 3,015 - winter) marked by particular weather
while other equally disturbed species like patterns and daylight hou.
the barasingha (swamp deer), rhino and Weather: The state of the atmosphere
elephants also fought back from the brink at a particular place and time as regards
of oblivion. heat, cloudiness, dryness, sunshine,
wind, rain, etc.
Wildlife: Wild animals collectively;
the native fauna (and sometimes flora)
of a region.

EXERCISE 8. _________ forests are found above 2400m
Himalayas.
a) Deciduous forests
I. Choose the
b) Alpine forests
correct answer.
c) Mangrove forests
1. Meteorology is the
science of _________. d) Tidal forests
a) Weather 9. Sesahachalam hills, a Biosphere reserve is
b) social situated in _________.
c) political a) Tamilnadu b) Andhra Pradesh
d) human c) Madhya Pradesh d) Karnataka
2. We wear cotton during _________. 10. _________ is a part of the world network
biosphere reserves of UNESCO
a) Summer b) Winter
A) Nilgiri b) Agasthiyamalai
c) Rainy d) Northeast monsoon
c) Great Nicobar d) Kachch
3. Western disturbances cause rainfall in
_________. II. Match the following.
a) Tamilnadu b) Kerala 1. Project Elephant — Desert and semi
c) Punjab d) Madhya Pradesh desert vegetation
2. Biodiversity — October-
4. _________ helps in quick ripening of
hotspot December
mangoes along the coast of Kerala and
Karnataka. 3. North east — Littoral forest
monsoon
a) Loo b) Norwester
4. Tropical thorn — Protect the
c) Mangoshowers d) Jetstream
forests elephants
5. _________ is a line joining the places of
5. Coastal forests — The Himalayas
equal rainfall.
a) Isohyets b) Isobar III. Consider the given
c) Isotherm d) Latitudes statements and choose the
correct option from the
6. Climate of India is labelled as _________.
given below ones.
a) Tropical humid
1. Assertion(A): Monsoons are a complex
b) Equatorial climate meteorological phenomenon
c) Tropical monsoon climate Reason(R):Meteorologists have developed
d) Temperate climate a number of concepts about the origin of
monsoons.
7. The monsoon forests are otherwise called as
_________. a) Both (A) and (B) are true: R explains A
a) Tropical evergreen forest b) Both (A) and (B) are true: R does not
b) Deciduous forest explain A
c) Mangrove forest c) (A) is correct (R) is false
d) Mountain forest d) (A) is false (R) is true

2. Assertion(A): The Himalayas acts as a VII. Give reasons for the
climatic barrier. following topics.
Reason(R): The Himalayas prevents cold 1. Western coastal plain is narrow.
winds from central Asia and keep the Indian
Sub-continent warm.(Give option for this 2. India has a tropical monsoon climate.
questions) 3. Mountains are cooler than the plains.
a) Both (A) and (B) are true: R explains A
b) Both (A) and (B) are true: R does not VIII. Write in detail.
explain A
1. Write about southwest monsoon.
c) (A) is correct (R) is false
2. Describe the forests of India.
d) (A) is false (R) is true
3. Write the names of biosphere reserves and
IV. Choose the inappropriate their location in India.
answer.
1. Tidal forests are found in and around____. IX. Map.
(a) Desert
Mark the following on the outline map of
(b) The deltas of Ganga and Brahmaputra
India.
(c) The delta of Godavari
(d) The delta of Mahanadhi 1. Direction of south west monsoon wind.
2. Climate of India is affected by__________. 2. Direction of north east monsoon wind.
(a) Latitudinal extent 3. Areas of heavy rainfall.
(b) Altitude 4. Mountain forests.
(c) Distance from the sea 5. Panna biosphere reserve
(d) Soil
6. Agasthiyamalai biosphere reserve
V. Answer briefly.
1. Define ‘Meteorology’. REFERENCE BOOKS
2. What is meant by ‘normal lapse rate’?
3. What are ‘jet streams’? 1. Attri, S.D. and A.Tyagi, 2010. “Climate
4. Write a short note on ‘Monsoon wind’. Profile of India”, India Meteorological
Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences,
5. Name the four distinct seasons of India.
Govt. of India, New Delhi.
6. What is ‘burst of monsoon’?
2. Singh, S. and J.Saroha, 2014. “Geography
7. Name the areas which receive heavy rainfall. of India”, Access Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.
8. State places of mangrove forest in India. New Delhi.
9. Name the trees of tropical evergreen forest. 3. Hussain, M. 2008. “Geography of India” Tata
10. Write any five biosphere reserves in India. McGraw-Hill Publishing House Company
11. What is ‘Project Tiger’? Ltd. New Delhi.
4. Govt. of India, 2014. “India’s fifth National
VI. Distinguish between. report to the Convention on Biological
1. Weather and climate Diversity” Ministry of Environment and
2. Tropical evergreen forest and deciduous Forests.
forest.
3. North east monsoon and South west monsoon.

ICT CORNER
Unit-2 CLIMATE AND NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA
Visit school Bhuvan?

School Bhuvan visualizes natural
resources, environment and
their sustainable development in
India.
Steps
• Scroll Down and click on ‘Explore’
• Click on ‘Climate’ in left side menuandSelect ‘Annual Rainfall’
Step -1 Step -2 Step -3
Website URL:
https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/mhrd_ncert/

Unit - 3
Components of
Agriculture
Learning Objectives
To understand the nature of India’s soil types and their distribution.
To know about the importance of irrigation and multi-purpose
projects in India.
To study about the agriculture, its types and importance.
To understand the livestock and fishing resources of India
To comprehend the problems of farming in India.
Introduction 3.1.1 Types of Soils

Soil is one of the most important natural The Indian Council of Agriculture
resources. India’s varied natural environments Research (ICAR) set up in 1953 divides the
resulted in a great variety of soils compared to soils of India into the following eight major
any other country of similar size in the world. The groups.
rich, deep and fertile soils support high density
of population through agricultural prosperity. Types of Soils in India
3.1 Soils Saline &

Alkaline Soil
Peaty &
Marshy Soil
Soil is the uppermost layer of the land Laterite Soil
1.29%
2.17%
Black Soil
surface, usually composed of minerals, 29.69%
2.62%
organic matter, living organisms, air and Arid & Desert Soil
6.13%
water. Grains in the soil are of three categories Red Soil Forest &
namely, clay, silt, and sand. Soils are generally 28% Mountain
formed by the weathering of rocks under Alluvial Soil Soil
22.16% 7.94%
different conditions. Some soils are formed
by the deposition of agents of denudation.
Soils can vary greatly from one region to the
other.
Components of Agriculture 112

Soil Type Characteristics Distribution Crops growing
Alluvial Khadar – light coloured, more siliceous. Ganga and Rice,
soil Bhangar – the older alluvium composed of Brahmaputra
Wheat,
lime nodules and has clayey composition. It is river valleys;
Plains of Sugarcane and
dark in colour.
Uttar Pradesh, Oilseeds
Formation - sediments deposited by streams
Uttaranchal,
and rivers when they slowly loose
Punjab,
Chemical properties - rich in potash,
Haryana, West
phosphoric acid, lime and carbon compounds
Bengal and
but poor in nitrogen
Bihar
Nature –Sandy-loam-silt-clay
profile shows no marked differentiation
Black soils Formation - Derived from basalts of Deccan Maharashtra Cotton, Millets,
trap. and Malwa Tobacco and
Colour - black colour, due to presence of plateaus, Sugarcane
titanium, iron. Kathiawar
Chemical properties - Consist of calcium and peninsula,
magnesium arbonates, high quantities of iron, Telangana and
aluminium, lime and magnesia. Rayalaseema
region of
Rich in potash lime, Aluminium calcium and
Andhra
magnesium poor in Nitrogen Phosphoric acid
Pradesh and
and humus
northern part of
Nature - Sticky when wet Karnataka
High degree of moisture retentivity
Red soils Formation - decomposition of ancient Eastern parts of Wheat, Rice,
crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and Deccan plateau, Cotton,
from rock type southern states Sugarcane and
Chemical properties - rich in minerals such as of Kerala, Tamil Pulses
iron and magnesium. Nadu, Karnataka
and Chota
Deficient in nitrogen, humus, phosphoric acid
Nagpur plateau
and lime.
(Jharkhand)
Nature - Light texture, porous friable presence
of limited soluble salts Clay fraction of the red
soils generally consists of Kaolinitic minerals.
Laterite Formation - formed in the regions where Assam hills, Coffee, Rubber,
soils alternate wet and hot dry conditions prevail. It hill summits Cashew nut and
is formed by the process of leaching of Kerala and Tapioca
Chemical properties - Composed mainly of Karnataka and
hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium, eastern Ghats
and region of
Nature - More acidic on higher areas poor in
Odisha
high level, cannot retain moisture while plains
they consist of heavy loam and clay and easily
retain moisture
113 Components of Agriculture

Soil Type Characteristics Distribution Crops growing
Forest and Differ from region to region depending on Coniferous Coffee, tea, rice,
mountain climate. forest belts maize, potato,
soils Formation - due to mechanical weathering of Jammu barley, tropical
caused by snow, rain, temperature variation and Kashmir, fruits and
Chemical properties - are deficient in potash, Himachal various types of
Phosphorus and lime. Pradesh, spices
Uttarakhand
Nature - light, sandy, thin and found with the
and Sikkim.
pieces of rock. Their character changes with
Eastern and
the parent rocks. Very rich in humus. slow
Western Ghats
decomposition makes it acidic
Arid and Formation - Due to prevalence of the dry Rajasthan, millets,
desert climate, hightemperature and accelerated Northern barley, cotton,
soils evaporation, the soil is dry, it also lacks humus Gujarat and maize and pulses
content due to the absence of vegetative cover southern Punjab
(with irrigation)
Chemical properties - Contain high
percentages of soluble salts, alkaline with
varying degree of calcium carbonate and
are poor in organic matter; rich enough in
phosphate though poor in nitrogen
Nature - light in colour, low humus,friable
structure, low in moisture
Saline and Formation - formed due to ill drainage Andhra Pradesh
alkaline which causes water logging, injurious salts are and Karnataka.
soils transferred from subsurface to the top soil by the In the drier
capillary action, it causes the salinisation of soils parts of Bihar,
Chemical properties - liberate sodium, Uttar Pradesh,
magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous Haryana,
acid Punjab,
Nature - Consists of un decomposed rock and Rajasthan and
mineral fragments which on weathering Maharashtra
Peaty and Formation - formed in humid regions from the Kottayam and Paddy, jute
marshy organic matter. It is found in the areas of heavy Alappuzha
soils rainfall and high humidity Peaty soils are black, districts of
heavyand highly acidic. Kerala; and
Chemical properties - deficient in potash coastal areas
and phosphate. Contain considerable amount of Odisha and
of soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic Tamil Nadu,
matter; and high proportion of vegetable Sundarbans of
matter. West Bengal,
in Bihar and
Nature - Contain considerable amount of
Almora district
Soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic
of Uttarakhand
matter; and high proportion of vegetable
matter.

Activity
Soil Texture (sand, silt, clay) influence on some properties of soils including water holding
capacity. Find out water holding capacity of soils which given above based on following table.
Property/behaviour sand silt clay
Water holding low Medium to high high
capacity
N
INDIA W E
MAJOR SOIL GROUPS
S
TYPES OF SOILS
Alluvial
Red
Black
Laterite
Forest and Mountain
Arid and Desert
Not to Scale Saline and Alkaline

Peaty and Marshy
115 Components of Agriculture

3.2.1 Sources of Irrigation
Soil degradation
In India, different sources of irrigation
Soil degradation is an acute problem
are used depending upon the topography,
in India. According to a 2015 report of the
soils, rainfall, availability of surface or
Indian institute of remote sensing (IIRS).
groundwater, nature of river (whether
The estimated the amount of soil .erosion
perennial or non-perennial), requirements of
that occurred in India was 147 million
crops etc. The main sources of irrigation used
hectares.
in different parts of the country are
The main problems of the Indian
soils are i) soil erosion (sheet erosion, • Canal irrigation
Rill erosion, Gully erosion, Ravine • Well irrigation and
and Badland) ii) Degradation of Soil, • Tank irrigation
iii) Water-logging, iv) Saline and Alkaline,
and v) Salt Flats, types of soils are different a) Canal Irrigation
erotion.
It is the second most important source
Methods of Conservation and of irrigation in our country. Percentage of
Management of Soil area under canal irrigation in our country is
24% (source:Statistical year book 2017 during
1. Afforestation
2013-2014)
2. Constructing Dams and Barrages
3. Prevention of Overgrazing Other
4. Improved methods of Agricultural Sources 11% Tanks 3%
practices Canals 24%
Other wells 16%
• Contour method
Tube wells 46%
• Rotation of crops
• Contour bunding
• Strip cropping
• Planting of shelter belts Area under Irrigation
• Adopting the techniques of
Canals are the effective source of
sustainable agriculture are different
irrigation in areas of low level relief, deep,
conservation methods for better
fertile soils, perennial source of water and
soil management.
extensive command area. The canals are of
two types:
1. Inundation Canals: In this, water
3.2 Irrigation is taken out directly from the rivers
Watering of agricultural plants through without making any kind of barrage
artificial means is called irrigation. Being or dam. Such canals are useful for the
a hot country with seasonal and irregular diversion of flood water from the rivers
rainfall, it always needs irrigation to carry and remain operational during rainy
out agricultural activities during dry season.
period. Beside erratic rainfall, prevalence 2. Perennial Canals: These are developed
of high temperature, cultivation of annual from perennial rivers by constructing
crops and hydrophytes, commercial barrage to regulate the flow of water.
farming and porous soil make irrigation In our country, most of the canals fall
an essential one for the agriculture of our under this category. These canals are
country. useful for irrigation.

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 1 10-04-2019 10:21:56

First Edition - 2019

(Published under New Syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 2 10-04-2019 10:21:56

Unit 1 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 01

Unit 2 The World between two World Wars 19

Unit 3 World war II 34

Unit 4 The World after World War II 49

Unit 5 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th Century 67

Unit 2 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India 98

Unit 3 Components of Agriculture 112

Unit 4 Resources and Industries 132

Unit 5 India - Population, Transport, Communication and Trade 150

Unit 2 Central Government 180

Unit 3 State Government 195

Unit 2 Globalization and Trade 224

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 3 10-04-2019 10:21:56

Fun with History

Let's use the QR code in the text books!

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 4 10-04-2019 10:21:56

Introduction 1.1 Scramble for Colonies

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 1 10-04-2019 10:21:57

Imperialism and its Essential The imperialist urge of the period is

Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 2

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 2 10-04-2019 10:21:57

THE WORLD WAR I W

TRIPLE ALLIANCE AUSTRALIA

OTHERS Not to Scale

3 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 3 10-04-2019 10:21:57

Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 4

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The Balkan Wars

5 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

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7 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

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Provisions of the Treaty

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9 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

10th_History_Unit_1.indd 9 10-04-2019 10:21:58

Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 10

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13 Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

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Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath 14

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monopoly exclusive possession or control முற்றுரிமை

devastating highly destructive or damage பேரழிவு

Rise of Fascism and