Influence of Tire Fiber Inclusions On Shear Strength of Sand
Influence of Tire Fiber Inclusions On Shear Strength of Sand
Influence of Tire Fiber Inclusions On Shear Strength of Sand
ABSTRACT: Reinforcement of soils with natural and synthetic fibers is a viable technique for
increasing the soil strength. The objective of this study is to reinforce sand with tire waste
inclusions. In this study, two different experimental programs were performed. In the first program,
sand, tire crumb and tire crumb–sand mixtures were tested in the standard direct shear test
equipment to observe the optimum content for modifying the shear strength properties of the sand.
In the second program, large-scale direct shear tests were performed to observe the shear strength
improvement imparted by tire waste inclusions. Two different processed tire wastes were used: tire
crumb (TC) and fiber-shaped tire buffings (TB). The tire buffings were divided into two parts for
representing different aspect ratios (TB1 and TB2). The following factors were studied to evaluate
the influence of TC, TB1 and TB2 inclusions on the shear strength: normal stress, tire waste type,
aspect ratio, and tire waste content. Three factors were found to significantly affect the shear
strength values: normal stress, aspect ratio, and tire waste content. Also, it is seen that increasing
the aspect ratio of the fibers increases the shear strength of the mixture.
KEYWORDS: Geosynthetics, Waste tire, Reinforcement, Shear strength, Tire buffings, Embankment
REFERENCE: Edinçliler, A. & and Ayhan, V. (2010). Influence of tire fiber inclusions on shear
strength of sand. Geosynthetics International, 17, No. 4, 183–192. [doi: 10.1680/gein.2010.17.4.183]
1. INTRODUCTION sions (Gray and Ohashi 1983; Gray and Al-Refeai 1986).
Soil reinforcement is an effective and reliable technique The increase in strength and stiffness is reported to be a
for improving soil strength. In conventional reinforced-soil function of sand characteristics, e.g. particle size, shape,
structures, the inclusions (bars, grids, fabrics, strips etc.) and gradation; of fiber characteristics, e.g. weight fraction,
are either oriented in a preferred direction (e.g. system- aspect ratio, skin friction, and modulus of elasticity; and
atically reinforced soils), or discrete elements of fibers are of test conditions, e.g. confining stress (Gray and Maher
mixed into the soil (i.e. randomly reinforced soils). The 1989; Maher and Gray 1990; Al-Refeai 1991). It is
discrete fibers are simply added and mixed randomly with reported that the strength of reinforced sand increases with
the soil, in much the same way as cement, lime or other increase in fiber content, aspect ratio, and soil fiber
additives. Thus, by using randomly distributed fibers, a surface friction.
greater strength isotropy and the absence of potential The improvement of the engineering properties due to
planes of weakness is maintained. the inclusion of discrete fibers has been determined to be
Experimental results reported by various researchers a function of a variety of parameters, including fiber type,
(McGown et al. 1978; Verma and Char 1978; Hoare 1979; fiber length, aspect ratio (length/diameter), fiber content,
Gray and Ohashi 1983; Gray and Al-Refeai 1986; Gray orientation, and soil properties. The discrete fibers are
and Maher 1989; Maher and Gray 1990; Al-Refeai 1991) mixed randomly with soil in certain weight proportions,
have shown that fiber reinforcement causes a significant and these randomly used fibers lead to important advan-
improvement in the strength and stiffness of sand. More tages. One of the primary advantages of randomly dis-
importantly, fiber-reinforced soil exhibits greater extensi- tributed fibers is the absence of potential planes of
bility and a small loss of post-peak strength (greater weakness, which can develop parallel to oriented rein-
ductility in the composite material), as compared with forcement. The peak strength (shear, compressive, tensile,
sand alone or sand reinforced with high-modulus inclu- etc.) increased with increasing fiber content and length up
1072-6349 # 2010 Thomas Telford Ltd 183
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184 Edinçliler and Ayhan
to a limiting amount of each, beyond which no additional using tire chips. These studies have shown that the
benefits were observed (Gray and Ohashi 1983; Gray and addition of tire chips increases the shear strength of sand,
Al-Refeai 1986; Arteaga 1989; Gray and Maher 1989; with friction angles as large as 658 being obtained for
Maher and Ho 1994; Ranjan et al. 1996; Webster and mixtures of dense sand containing 30% tire chips by
Santoni 1997). The inclusion of discrete fibers increased volume. The corresponding friction angle of sand alone
both the cohesion and the angle of internal friction of the was only 348.
specimens. The increase in cohesion of typically cohesion- Foose et al. (1996) investigated the feasibility of using
less materials due to the inclusion of discrete fibers was shredded waste tires to reinforce sand. Large-scale direct
termed the ‘apparent cohesion’ of the material (Arteaga shear tests were conducted on mixtures of dry sand and
1989; Liausu and Juran 1995; Stauffer and Holtz 1995). tire shreds. The authors investigated the effect of five
This paper focuses mainly on determining the possibi- factors affecting shear strength: normal stress, sand matrix
lity of using tire waste to reinforce sand. Processed tire unit weight, shred content, shred length, and shred orienta-
wastes—tire crumb (TC) and two different sizes of tire tion. They found that shred content and sand matrix unit
buffings (TB1 and TB2)—were used to assess the effect weight were the most significant characteristics affecting
of tire waste inclusions on the shear strength of the sand. the shear strength of the mixture.
Standard and large-scale direct shear tests were performed Attom (2006) conducted direct shear tests to study the
to observe the effect of normal stress, waste type, aspect shear strength behavior of mixtures of sand and shredded
ratio, and tire waste content in modifying the properties of tires under specific conditions. They reported that the
the sand. The test results are used to assess the suitability addition of shredded waste tires increased both the angle
of the composite materials for embankment construction. of internal friction and the shear strength of the sands.
Ghazavi and Sakhi (2005) studied the usefulness of
optimizing the size of waste tire shreds on the shear
2. BACKGROUND strength parameters of sand reinforced with shredded
The increasing stockpiles of tire waste have led to an waste tires. Different shred contents, shred widths and
interest in the development of new ways to reuse or aspect ratios were mixed with the sand at two different
recycle tire wastes. Tire wastes can be used with soil sand matrix unit weights and tested in a large shear box.
(ASTM D6270). Using tire wastes in embankment con- Thet found that shred content, shred width, shred aspect
struction is increasing as a result of the limited availability ratio for a given width, compaction, and normal stress are
of natural resources, and the increasing cost of disposal. influencing factors on the shear strength of the mixtures.
Because of their low unit weight, high strength and The shear strength of a mixture of tire shreds and soil is
widespread availability, tire wastes are finding increasing affected mainly by the confining stresses, the tire shred–
use as lightweight fill for embankment construction on soil ratio and the density of the mixture. In mixtures of
weak, compressible foundation soils (Bernal et al. 1997; tire shreds and sand, the tire shreds have a reinforcing
Humphrey 2007). Waste tires are processed to form tire effect (Edil and Bosscher 1992; Ahmed 1993; Foose 1993;
shreds, tire chips or tire crumbs. Another form of waste Edil and Bosscher 1994; Bernal et al. 1996; Hataf and
tire is tire buffings. These are the by-product of the tire Rahimi 2006).
retread process. Tire wastes are used as an additive to In the literature, there are some studies performed on
modify the properties of soil, rather than on their own as a tire shreds and tire chip–sand mixtures. The use of tire
fill material. buffings as a reinforcement element in sand is not a well-
Results of the literature studies of tire waste inclusions known technique, but there have been a few studies, by
in soil are summarized below. Edincliler et al. (2004) and Edincliler (2007).
Humphrey et al. (1993) sourced tire chips from three Edincliler et al. (2004) conducted large-scale direct
different companies, and conducted large-scale direct shear tests with tire buffings, sand, and sand–tire buffings
shear tests. Tire chip lengths smaller than 72 mm were mixtures with 10% tire buffings by weight. The tire
used in the tests. The authors reported friction angles buffings tested in their study had thicknesses ranging
ranging between 198 and 258 and cohesion of 7.7–8.6 kPa. between 1 and 4 mm and lengths ranging from 2 to
They stated that tire chips are useful in constructing 40 mm. They reported that the addition of 10% by weight
lightweight embankments over soft soils. of tire buffings to sand alters the deformation behavior of
Tatlisoz et al. (1998) conducted large-scale direct shear the mixture by stiffening the material at low strains, and
tests with tire chips, sand, sandy silt, and mixtures of sand softening it at large strains. Edincliler (2007) studied the
and tire chips, and sandy silt and tire chips. They reported use of waste tire–soil mixtures for embankment construc-
that the shear strength of the sand–tire mixtures increased tion. Large-scale direct shear tests were performed with
with increasing tire chip contents up to 30% by volume. sand, tire buffings, and mixtures with 5%, 10%, 20% and
In contrast, the friction angle of the sandy silt–chip 30% tire buffings by weight. The sand and tire buffings
mixtures was nearly independent of tire chip content. characteristics were the same as in the study by Edincliler
However, the shear strength of the sandy silt–tire chip et al. (2004). The laboratory test results showed that the
mixtures increased with increasing tire chip content, addition to sand of 10% of tire buffings by weight alters
primarily as the result of an increase in apparent cohesion. the deformation behavior of the mixture. Fiber-shaped tire
Ahmed (1993), Ahmed and Lovell (1993) and Edil and buffings stiffen the composite at low strains but soften it
Bosscher (1994) reported that sand can be reinforced at large strains. The initial stiffening of the shear stress–
Geosynthetics International, 2010, 17, No. 4
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Influence of tire fiber inclusions on shear strength of sand 185
100
displacement characteristic may be considered to be an 90 Sand
advantage under low-strain cyclic loading, such as traffic 80
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186 Edinçliler and Ayhan
stresses of 25, 50 and 100 kPa. All tests were performed shows a general decrease. However, if the combined shear
according to ASTM D 3080. strengths are compared, it is seen that the addition of tire
In the second experimental program, a large-scale direct waste to sand does improve its shear strength. The shear
shear test equipment (300 mm 3 300 mm) designed and strength reaches a maximum value within a certain range
manufactured at Bogazici University was used (Baykal of tire waste content. This optimum tire crumb content is
1997). Vertical pressure was applied by means of an air approximately 15% by weight. From the results, it is
compressor, pressure regulator and air bag. Load readings clearly seen that tire waste content and normal stresses
were taken with a moment-compensated load cell, and have a significant effect on the improvement of the sand
axial deflections were measured by means of displacement properties. Figure 3 shows the change of internal friction
transducers. The maximum and minimum relative densi- angle with tire crumb addition. From Table 1, the highest
ties for the various composites were determined. The value of internal friction angle is obtained for the tire
calculated average relative densities were used to prepare crumb–sand mixture with 15% tire crumb (STC15), and
the test specimens. The specimens were well mixed in this value is slightly higher than that of sand alone. The
order to obtain uniform mixtures. In the experiments, care shear strengths in Table 1 show a slight decreasing trend
was taken to distribute the tire buffings in the mixture as with increasing tire content beyond 30%. Thus an upper-
randomly as possible. This was controlled by visual bound tire content of 30% was chosen for testing in the
observation. Test specimens were compacted in three large-scale direct shear box.
layers using a standard Proctor drop rammer. Each layer
was compacted to reach a prescribed thickness determined 4.2. Results of large-scale direct shear tests
prior to starting a test. When the sample was prepared at a Figure 4 shows the curves of shear stress against horizon-
prescribed unit weight, the normal stress was applied, and tal displacement for sand only. The shear stress initially
then the sample was sheared. increases rapidly, but the curve flattens when the horizon-
The first experimental program was used to determine tal displacement reaches 10 mm. Similar cirves for the
an upper-bound tire content ratio for the tests to be three types of tire waste (TC, TB1 and TB2) are shown in
conducted in the second experimental program. In this Figure 5. For TC, the shear stress increases until the
second program, sand alone and 100% tire waste compo- horizontal displacement reaches 45 mm. For TB1, the
nents TC, TB1 and TB2 were tested in the large direct increase in shear stress values is similar for tests con-
shear box. Three groups of tests on mixtures of sand and ducted under different normal pressures. The shear stress
TC, TB1 and TB2 at mix ratios of 10%, 20% and 30% by values under 20 and 40 kPa pressure are nearly indentical
weight were also conducted in the same shear box. until 25 mm displacement. The observations for TB2 are
During the tests, 20 kPa, 40 kPa and 80 kPa of normal similar.
stress was applied to each material tested. The tests were The test results for TC10, TC20 and TC30 are given in
continued until a constant shear stress value was reached. Figure 6. The shear stress increases rapidly as the
35
Internal friction angle
30
4. RESULTS 25
(degrees)
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Influence of tire fiber inclusions on shear strength of sand 187
100 100
90 90
70 σn ⫽ 80 kPa
70
60 σn ⫽ 80 kPa 60
50 50
40 40 σn ⫽ 40 kPa
σn ⫽ 40 kPa 30
30 σn ⫽ 20 kPa
20
20 σn ⫽ 20 kPa
10
10
0
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Horizontal displacement (mm) Horizontal displacement (mm)
(a)
70 40 σn ⫽ 40 kPa
60 30
σn ⫽ 20 kPa
50 20
40 σn ⫽ 80 kPa 10
30 0
σn ⫽ 40 kPa 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
20
σn ⫽ 20 kPa Horizontal displacement (mm)
10
(b)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 100
Horizontal displacement (mm) 90
(a) 80
Shear stress (kPa)
100 70
90 60 σn ⫽ 80 kPa
80 50
σn ⫽ 40 kPa
Shear stress (kPa)
40
70
30 σn ⫽ 20 kPa
60
20
50
10
40
0
30 σn ⫽ 80 kPa 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
20 σn ⫽ 40 kPa Horizontal displacement (mm)
10 σn ⫽ 20 kPa (c)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Figure 6. Shear stress against horizontal displacement for:
Horizontal displacement (mm)
(b)
(a) TC10; (b) TC20; (c) TC30
100
90 displacement increases. For TB1-10, under 20 and 40 kPa
80
pressure, the shear stresses reach their maximum value at
Shear stress (kPa)
70
an average displacement of 17 mm, whereas the shear
60
50 stress under 80 kPa pressure reaches its maximum value at
40 a displacement of 35 mm. The behavior under the lower
30 σn ⫽ 80 kPa pressures indicates that the mixture is still dominated by
20 σn ⫽ 40 kPa the sand. For TB1-20, at an average displacement value of
10 σn ⫽ 20 kPa 15 mm, all the test results under normal stresses of 20, 40
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 and 80 kPa increase slightly. The strength increase con-
Horizontal displacement (mm) tinues up to displacements in excess of 40 mm. For TB1-
(c) 30, the mixtures tested under the two lower normal
stresses show similar behavior, with maximum shear
Figure 5. Shear stress against horizontal displacement for:
(a) TC; (b) TB1; (c) TB2
strength reached at about 20 mm displacement. The mix-
ture tested under 80 kPa normal stress continues to show
an increase in shear stress up to about 50 mm displace-
horizontal displacement increases, and all three composi- ment.
tions reach constant shear stress values at an average Figure 8 shows the results of direct shear tests with
displacement of 20 mm. TB2 inclusions. For TB2-10, the shear stress rapidly
The results for mixtures of sand and TB1 at different reaches maximum values at average horizontal displace-
ratios are given in Figure 7. For all three mixtures, the ments of 15 mm, 40 mm and 50 mm for tests conducted at
shear stress initially increases rapidly as the horizontal 20 kPa, 40 kPa and 80 kPa normal stress, respectively. For
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188 Edinçliler and Ayhan
100 100
90 90
80 σn ⫽ 80 kPa
70 σn ⫽ 80 kPa 70
60
60
50 σn ⫽ 40 kPa
50
σn ⫽ 40 kPa 40
40 30 σn ⫽ 20 kPa
30 σn ⫽ 20 kPa 20
20 10
10 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Horizontal displacement (mm)
Horizontal displacement (mm) (a)
(a) 100
100 90
80
80
70 σn ⫽ 80 kPa 60
60 50 σn ⫽ 40 kPa
50 40
σn ⫽ 40 kPa 30
40 σn ⫽ 20 kPa
30 σn ⫽ 20 kPa 20
20 10
10 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Horizontal displacement (mm)
(b)
Horizontal displacement (mm)
(b) 100
90
100
80
Shear stress (kPa)
90 70 σn ⫽ 80 kPa
80 60
Shear stress (kPa)
70 50 σn ⫽ 40 kPa
60 σn ⫽ 80 kPa 40
50 30 σn ⫽ 20 kPa
40 σn ⫽ 40 kPa 20
30 10
σn ⫽ 20 kPa 0
20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
10 Horizontal displacement (mm)
0 (c)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Horizontal displacement (mm)
Figure 8. Shear stress against horizontal displacement curves
(c)
for: (a) TB2-10; (b) TB2–20; (c) TB2–30
Figure 7. Shear stress against horizontal displacement for:
(a) TB1-10; (b) TB1–20; (c) TB1-30
Sand TB1 TB2 TC TB1-10 TB1-20 TB1-30 TB2-10 TB2-20 TB2-30 TC-10 TC-20 TC-30
Normal stress
(kPa)
0 22.90 11.60 14.40 10.20 28.40 25.90 29.90 25.50 21.50 24.70 23.10 20.00 22.00
40 27.90 15.90 18.60 18.90 38.80 40.40 32.40 43.90 42.00 41.00 34.30 35.40 36.40
80 53.10 23.90 22.50 28.40 62.50 64.40 56.70 72.00 80.60 62.00 69.60 55.50 54.80
Friction angle, 34.20 11.60 7.40 16.40 29.80 32.40 25.20 37.40 45.40 32.00 38.30 29.50 28.10
(degrees)
Cohesion, c 0.00 7.60 12.40 5.40 16.50 13.90 17.80 11.50 2.20 13.40 5.05 10.90 12.80
(kPa)
Unit weight, ª 14.00 3.50 3.50 5.50 13.50 12.00 10.00 13.50 12.00 10.00 13.50 13.40 12.00
(kN/m3 )
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Influence of tire fiber inclusions on shear strength of sand 189
60
20
TB1 percentages
TB1 percentages
Internal friction angle (degrees)
50 TB2 percentages 18
TB2 percentages
Crumb percentages 16
Crumb percentages
40 14
Cohesion (kPa)
12
30 10
8
20
6
4
10
2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Tire waste amount (%) Tire waste amount (%)
Figure 9. Internal friction angles against tire waste Figure 10. Cohesion against tire waste percentage for large-
percentage for large-scale direct shear tests scale direct shear tests
90
80 Sand
TB1
70
TB2
TC
60
Shear stress (kPa)
TB1-10
50 TB1-20
TB1-30
40 TB2-10
TB2-20
30
TB2-30
TC-10
20
TC-20
10 TC-30
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Normal stress (kPa)
Figure 11. Shear stress against normal stress for all tests
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190 Edinçliler and Ayhan
40 mm were eliminated. From the literature and this study, use of tire buffings with a higher aspect ratio (average
it is evident that fiber-shaped tire buffings can be used to 7.0) changed the deformation behavior of the mixture.
reinforce sand, and that the longer fibers used in this study Mixtures of tire buffings and sand may be useful as soil
are more efficient than those used in previous studies. The reinforcement in embankment construction, allowing the
Geosynthetics International, 2010, 17, No. 4
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Influence of tire fiber inclusions on shear strength of sand 191
embankment to resist larger strains without failure under Attom, M. F. (2006). The use of shredded waste tires to improve the
static loads than for sand alone. Because of the high length- geotechnical engineering properties of sands. Environmental
Geology, 49, No. 4, 497–503.
to-diameter ratio of the tire buffings, interface friction
Ayhan, V. (2007). Determination and Assessment of Shear Strength
between the tire waste and the sand is readily mobilized. Parameters of Sand with Tire Waste Inclusions, MSc thesis,
Even at low weight percentages, such as 20%, the deforma- Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey, 103 pp. (in English).
tion behavior of the mixture is altered considerably. Baykal, G. (1997). Development of a Model Unit for Pellet Aggregate
Production Using Fly Ash and Optimization of the Pelletization
Process, TUBİTAK Construction Technology Research Group
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Project No: INTAG 627.
Bernal, A., Lovell, C. W. & Salgado, R. (1996). Laboratory Study on the
The aspect ratio and amount of fibers have an important Use of Tire Shreds and Rubber-Sand in Backfills and Reinforced
effect on the shear strength of the reinforced soil, which Soil Applications’ FHWA/IN/JHRP-96/12, Purdue University, West
reaches its maximum value as the fiber content reaches an Lafayette, IN, USA.
optimum value. Increasing the aspect ratio of the fibers Bernal, A., Salgado, R., Swan, R. H. & Lovell, C. W. (1997). Interaction
between tire shreds, rubber-sand and geosynthetics. Geosynthetics
(TB2) also increases shear strength of the mixture: the International, 4, No. 6, 623–643.
longer fibers have a greater contact area with the soil Edil, T. B. & Bosscher, P. J. (1992). Development of Engineering Criteria
particles. for Shredded or Whole Tires in Highway Applications, Report No.
On the basis of the experimental results, the following WI 14-92, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
conclusions can be drawn.
Edil, T. B. & Bosscher, P. J. (1994). Engineering properties of tire chips
and soil mixtures. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 17, No. 4, 453–
• Increasing the aspect ratio of tire buffings (TB2) led 464.
to an increase on the overall shear strength, for the Edincliler, A. (2007). Using of waste tire-soil mixtures for embankment
range of aspect ratios considered in this study. This construction. International Workshop on Scrap Tire Derived
can be explained as being due to the increased Geomaterials: Opportunities and Challenges, Kanto branch of
Japanese Geotechnical Society, pp. 319–328.
contact area with the soil particles. Edincliler, A., Baykal, G. & Dengili, K. (2004). Determination of static
• The shear strength increases with increasing content and dynamic behavior of recycled materials for highways.
of tire buffings, up to a maximum value for buffings Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 42, No. 3, 223–237.
content in the vicinity of 20% (TB2-20). Any further Foose, G. J. (1993). Reinforcement of Sand by Tire Chips, MS thesis,
increase in the tire buffings content caused a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
decrease in strength. Foose, G. J., Benson, C. H. & Bosscher, P. J. (1996). Sand reinforced
• The shear strength improvement induced by the with shredded waste tires. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
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of applied normal stress. Gray, D. H. & Al-Refeai, T. (1986). Behavior of fabric versus fiber-
• Internal friction angles as large as 458 were obtained. reinforced sand. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 112,
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