J Fail. Anal. and Preven.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11668-020-00877-y

TECHNICAL ARTICLE—PEER-REVIEWED

Static and Dynamic Analysis of Automotive Leaf Spring:

A Comparative Study of Various Materials Using ANSYS
Bevan Noronha . Sumith Yesudasan . Sibi Chacko

Submitted: 7 April 2020

Ó ASM International 2020

Abstract Leaf springs are widely used in the automobile therefore increasing ride quality, handling and mechanical
industry due to its high load bearing capacity and low efficiency of the vehicle.
manufacturing cost. The usage of composite materials has
gradually increased in the automobile industry due to its Keywords Leaf spring  Static structural 
light weight and high strength to weight ratio. This work Dynamic analysis  Frequency response  Fatigue life
investigates the feasibility of using a low cost and light
weight material for automobile leaf springs. We compare
conventional steel EN45 leaf spring with several composite Introduction
leaf springs such as carbon/glass epoxy, kevlar/epoxy and
isotropic aluminum 6061 based on their load carrying Leaf spring plays an important role in the vehicle suspen-
capacity, deformation and stresses, strain energy storing sion system. Due to its greater load bearing capacity and
capacity, natural frequencies, corrosion resistance, cost ability to absorb any vibration caused in the road, it is
effectiveness, fatigue life and weight reduction. Static and sought to be one of the greatest discoveries in the auto-
dynamic analysis has been performed to study the benefits mobile market and provides customers with smooth and
of using composite materials for leaf spring models, and comforting rides. Leaf spring consists of a series of semi-
our results show that kevlar/epoxy is the best among the elliptic leaves that are bonded together to contribute toward
selected materials for leaf spring as it induces lower greater strength. Depending on its application, leaf springs
stresses and has greater strain energy storage therefore are able to store a vast amount of strain energy on loading
leading to better ride quality. Carbon/glass epoxy and and release it slowly in order to prevent any rebound. The
kevlar/epoxy have higher natural frequencies due to its semi-elliptic leaf spring is mounted on the axle of the
lower mass and greater stiffness properties. The life cycle vehicle. The entire load of the vehicle has a static load on
of kevlar/epoxy is greater to all materials due to its superior the spring (Table 1). The front eye end of the leaf spring is
material properties. Use of kevlar/epoxy leads to 82.14% connected to the frame of the vehicle with the help of a
weight reduction in leaf spring when compared to EN45 simple pin joint. The rear eye end of the leaf spring is
steel; this in turn leads to decrease in the unsprung mass, connected to a flexible shackle link allowing translational
motion along x-axis. If both eye ends of the leaf spring are
connected to fixed ends, during loading the leaf spring
would not be able to adjust to the change in length of the
B. Noronha  S. Chacko (&)
Department of Engineering, School of Engineering and Physical leaves [1].
Sciences, Academic City, Heriot Watt University, Dubai, UAE The introduction of composites in the automobile
e-mail: [email protected] industry promoted greatly toward weight reduction in the
automobile therefore increasing efficiency and perfor-
S. Yesudasan (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of mance. Composite materials consist of two or more
Jamestown, Jamestown, ND, USA materials that are physically assembled, therefore result
e-mail: [email protected]

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Table 1 Design specifications leaf spring materials, i.e., E-glass/epoxy, S-glass/epoxy and
Parameters Values
carbon/epoxy. The leaf spring models are subjected to the
same static load. The authors concluded that the use of
Length of master leaf (2L) 1151 mm laminated composite leaf spring shows better results when
Radius of master leaf (R) 1398 mm compared to mono steel leaf spring [5]. The objective of
Number of graduated leaves (ng) 8 this research work was to compare the load bearing and
Number of full leaves (nf) 2 weight reduction capacity of a composite leaf spring to that
Leaf width (b) 50 mm of conventional steel leaf spring. Static load analysis of the
Leaf thickness (t) 6 mm leaf spring model is performed in ANSYS Workbench, and
Center bolt diameter 10 mm the results are documented. The authors of this work con-
cluded that composite leaf spring has 400% less weight
when compared to conventional steel leaf spring [6]. The
Table 2 Natural frequencies (Hz) for each material property up to six authors have described the design and analysis of a com-
modes posite leaf spring model in this paper. They have compared
Mode Mode Mode Mode the stresses and weight difference of composite leaf spring
Material Mode 1 Mode 2 3 4 5 6 to that of steel leaf spring. The authors concluded in their
research that use of E-glass/epoxy as a material for leaf
EN45 steel 65.479 79.548 182.93 357.79 464.88 499.05
spring shows lesser stresses to steel. Composites reduced
Carbon/glass 113.39 137.61 316.71 619.17 804.07 864.24
epoxy
the weight of the leaf spring by 81–92% when compared to
Aluminum 6061 63.276 76.34 176.83 344.11 445.86 482.04
steel [7]. The authors of this paper performed modal
analysis of a leaf spring used by medium utility vehicle.
Kevlar/epoxy 91.469 96.297 253.86 482.93 643.85 712.25
The authors compared the natural frequency values
obtained in ANSYS for both steel and composite materials
being a mixture of all mechanical properties. This leads to with theoretical calculations. The results show that there
a stronger and a more powerful component than just a was a slight difference the theoretical and numerical values
single material [2]. Use of composite leaf spring shows of frequency obtained [8]. The authors of this paper carried
greater strength and higher strain energy storing capacity out a research work on a multi leaf spring having five
when compared to steel leaf spring. Materials possessing leaves used by a commercial vehicle. They replaced the
lower values of elastic modulus and density have higher existing steel material for multi leaf spring with composite
strain energy storing capacity. This is beneficial, as during material. Four different composite materials were analyzed
loading the energy generated is stored between the leaves such as E-glass/epoxy, graphite/epoxy, carbon/epoxy and
of the leaf spring and released slowly. This specific strain kevlar/epoxy, and modal analysis was performed in
energy relationship of a material is given by: ANSYS Workbench for each of the material property.
Comparison was done between analytical obtained natural
r2
U¼ Units  mJ ðEq 1Þ frequencies and theoretical values (Table 3). The results
2qE concluded that the obtained ANSYS results almost coin-
where ‘r’ is the Elastic Strength, ‘q’ is the Density, and ‘E’ cide with the theoretical modal analysis values. Harmonic
is the Young’s modulus of the material [3]. analysis was also carried out to find out the resonance
A number of studies have been performed to replace frequency of each material. This work concluded that use
conventional steel leaf spring with composite leaf spring to of composite materials led to weight reduction in the leaf
optimize the load carrying capacity, provide smooth ride spring model [9].
quality and increase overall performance of the vehicle. In the present study, a semi-elliptic leaf spring is sub-
The author has modeled the leaf spring taking design jected to static and dynamic loading condition using
specification from Mahindra Commander Jeep 650 Di. The ANSYS Workbench. Four different materials are com-
leaf spring model is tested for dynamic loading conditions, pared, i.e., EN45 steel, carbon/glass epoxy, aluminum 6061
i.e., when the vehicle takes left or right turns (Table 2). The and kevlar/epoxy. Through the results, kevlar/epoxy shows
design specification of the leaf spring model is discussed in lower induced stresses and higher strain energy storing
this paper. The author analyzed the results for different capacity due to which ride quality is benefitted. The fatigue
loading condition [4]. The authors of this paper performed life of kevlar/epoxy is higher to other materials due to its
static analysis on a mono leaf spring model. This model material properties and can undergo greater cycles of
was taken from Maruti 800 passenger vehicle. The mono loading till failure. Kevlar/epoxy shows higher natural
steel leaf spring is compared to three different composite frequencies compared to EN45 steel and aluminum 6061
due to its mechanical properties. Use of kevlar/epoxy leads

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to superior weight reduction in the leaf spring which in turn Table 3 Maximum responses and corresponding frequencies
increases the ride quality and mechanical efficiency of the Material property Maximum response (mm) Frequency (Hz)
vehicle (Table 4).
EN45 steel 42.682 65
Carbon/glass epoxy 400.41 113.25
Methodology Aluminum 6061 158.42 63
Kevlar/epoxy 101.25 91

Table 4 Maximum von Mises stress and corresponding frequencies

Maximum von Mises stress Frequency
Material property (MPa) (Hz)

EN45 steel 27,812 65

Carbon/glass 166,780 113.25
epoxy
Aluminum 6061 46,025 63
Kevlar/epoxy 85,438 96

Table 5 Percentage difference in weight

Material Weight (kg) Difference (%)

Conventional steel EN45 20.119 

Carbon/glass epoxy 4.2852 78.7
Kevlar/epoxy 3.5932 82.14
Isotropic aluminum 6061 9.6971 51.8

Design Specifications

Leaf Spring Design Specifications

The leaf spring specifications are taken from the model

‘Mahindra Commander Jeep 650 Di’ and are specified
below [10].
There are four semi-elliptic leaf springs used in this
analysis, i.e., conventional steel EN45, carbon/glass epoxy,
isotropic aluminum 6061 and kevlar/epoxy. The mechani-
cal properties of each material are listed in the ‘Appendix’
section in Appendix Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9.

Specification of Mahindra Commander Jeep 650 Di

Weight of Vehicle = 1450 kg [11]
Additional weight allowed = 550 kg
Total weight = 2000 kg
Safety factor = 1.33 [12]

Force acting on all Four Leaf Spring; F ¼ m  g  FOS

¼ 2000  9:81  1:33 ¼ 26094:6 N

where ‘m’ is mass of the vehicle, ‘g’ is acceleration due to

gravity, and ‘FOS’ is the factor of safety.

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Since the vehicle is a four-wheeler, a single semi-elliptic splitting of the edges of elements into half elements. In the
leaf spring takes up to 4th of the total weight [13]. solution information under the adaptive mesh refinement
Force acting on one leaf spring ¼ 6523:65 N segment, the maximum refinement loop is taken as 3, while
a refinement depth of 2 is assigned [14]. Figure 2 shows the
Modeling meshed model of the semi-elliptic leaf spring. The front
eye end Fig. 3a of the leaf spring is constrained in all
The 3D modeling of the semi-elliptic leaf spring is carried directions as it is connected to a fixed end. The rear eye end
out in Solid works 2016 for the above specified design Fig. 3b is connected to a shackle link therefore allowing
parameters. Each of the parts has been modeled separately translational motion along x-axis, while all other DOFs are
and then assembled together using assembly mates. Mates constrained. This is done to simulate loading similar to
assign geometrical relationship between various compo- real-life conditions. Load is applied uniformly on the bot-
nents of the assembly. When mates are assigned, it defines tom most leaf toward positive y-axis Fig. 4.
the allowable direction of motion (translational or rota-
tional) of each component of the assembly. The leaf spring
assembly is then imported to ANSYS Workbench for static Theoretical Validation
and dynamic analysis (Fig. 1).
The first step is to find out whether the leaf spring is
Meshing and Boundary Condition operating under safe conditions; this is given by,
6FL
Mesh represents the geometry in the form of nodes and Maximum Allowable Stress : Units  MPa
nbt2
elements in the design modeler. For this geometry, rele-
ðEq 2Þ
vance is set to 100 leading to finer mesh. Advanced size
function is turned on with the maximum face size assigned where ‘F’ is the force applied to leaf spring, ‘L’ is length of
6 mm. The fixed advanced function does not refine the leaf the leaf spring, ‘n’ is the number of leaves, ‘b’ the width,
spring model on the basis of proximity and curvature but and ‘t’ thickness of leaf spring (Fig. 5).
refines the entire model as a single entity. A refinement The above equation provides a comparison between
command with a depth of 2 is assigned therefore leading to theoretical calculations and obtained ANSYS Results.
Loading is done from 6523.65 to 15,000 N, and the results
are as follows:
The stresses induced in EN45 steel, carbon/glass epoxy,
aluminum 6061 and kevlar/epoxy are lower than the
maximum allowable stress limit; from this, the conclu-
sion devises that the leaf spring is operating under safe
conditions.

Fig. 1 Assembly model of semi-elliptic leaf spring

Fig. 2 Meshed model of leaf

spring assembly

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Fig. 3 (a) Front eye end

constraints and (b) rear eye end
constraints

Results each material property [10]. The load acting on the leaf
spring equals 6523.65 N which is shown in Fig. 3. Results
Static Structural Analysis obtained for deformation, von Mises stress and strain
energy are shown below in Figs. 6, 7, and 8.
The vehicle is assumed to be stationary, and the leaf spring
undergoes static loading condition and analyze the von
Mises stress, total deformation and strain energy values for

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Fig. 4 Loading condition (force applied uniformly to the bottom surface of the 10th leaf in positive y-direction)

Fig. 5 Von Mises stress in each

material and maximum
allowable stress

Fig. 7 Von Mises stress (MPa) in each material

Fig. 6 Deformation (mm) in each material

natural frequency and mode shapes are the most important

Modal Analysis
design parameters for a model undergoing dynamic load-
ing. The obtained natural frequencies for each material
Modal analysis is used to determine the natural frequency
property should be higher than the frequency of road
and mode shapes of a structure under free vibrations. The

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irregularities, i.e., 12 Hz [15, 16]. In ANSYS Workbench, After modal analysis is performed and the mode shapes
the Lanczos algorithm is used for formulating the eigen- and natural frequencies are obtained for each material,
values (natural frequencies) and eigenvectors (mode harmonic response module in ANSYS Workbench is linked
shapes) (Fig. 9). to the solution cell of modal analysis domain; this is done
to obtain the maximum response and corresponding
frequencies.
A load of 6523.65 N is applied harmonically and fre-
quency is varied from (0 to ?), and the response is then
plotted. The resonating points obtained must be carefully
dealt with while designing the structure. The theory behind
harmonic response analysis is mode superposition theorem;
the dynamic response of a structure can be formulated by
superposition technique of small number of eigenvalues.
This in turn reduces the overall computation time. A pre-
requirement for mode superposition is to obtain the natural
frequencies and mode shapes [17]. ANSYS uses Rayleigh’s
damping to find out the response at each frequency. If no
Fig. 8 Strain energy (mJ) in each material damping is incorporated the response would shoot to ‘?.’
Rayleigh’s damping given by,
½C ¼ ½Ma þ ½Kb ðEq 3Þ
where [C], [M], [K] are the damping, mass and stiffness
matrix, a, b are constants of proportionality [18].
The frequency response of deformation and equivalent
von Mises stress is obtained for each material property.
Figures 10, 11, 12 and 13 represents the frequency
response of deformation for each material.
The frequency sweep for each material is taken in the
range lower than the first natural frequency up to the fourth
natural frequency. This is done to reduce the overall
memory allocation and processing time required by the
Fig. 9 Natural frequency (Hz) for each material up to 6 modes system.

Fig. 10 Frequency response of deformation EN45 steel

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Fig. 11 Frequency response of deformation carbon/glass epoxy

Fig. 12 Frequency response of deformation isotropic aluminum 6061

Using the same frequency range for each material limit, microscopic cracks occur in the structure which
property, the maximum von Mises stress is plotted in develops over time leading to permanent structure fracture
Figs. 14, 15, 16 and 17. (Figs. 18 and 19).
Using Hwang and Han Relation:
Fatigue Life Analysis  
N ¼ B ð1  rÞ1=c ðEq 4Þ
Fatigue life is the number of cycles that a structure sustains
where B = 10.33, c = 0.14012.
before failure. It is the weakening of a structure due to
rmax
repeated applied stresses also known as cyclic loads. It is r¼ ½15; 16 ðEq 5Þ
rUTS
the progressive damage caused due to these repeated cycles
of load. If the applied cycles of load are above a certain

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Fig. 13 Frequency response of deformation kevlar/epoxy

Fig. 14 Frequency response of

maximum von Mises stress
EN45 steel

Fig. 15 Frequency response of

maximum von Mises stress
carbon/glass epoxy

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Fig. 16 Frequency response of

maximum von Mises stress
aluminum 6061

Fig. 17 Frequency response of

maximum von Mises stress
kevlar/epoxy

A fully reversed constant amplitude load of 6523.65 N

is applied, when R (Stress ratio) =  1 and A (Amplitude
ratio) = ?
rmin
R¼ ðEq 6Þ
rmax
ralt
A¼ ðEq 7Þ
rmean
where ‘ralt’ alternating stress (MPa), ‘rmean’ mean stress
(MPa), and ‘rmax’ minimum stress.

Fig. 18 Fatigue life in each material Fatigue Sensitivity

where ‘N’ number of cycles to failure, ‘r’ applied stress Fatigue sensitivity represents the variation of fatigue
level, ‘rmax’ maximum stress, ‘rUTS’ ultimate tensile results as a function of loading at critical locations in the
strength. leaf spring [15]; this plot below shows the sensitivity plot
From this, the alternating stress mean stress diagram for for life for each material property when subjected to cyclic
each material is plotted and then imported to ANSYS loading (Fig. 22).
Workbench Engineering data. The alternating stress mean
stress diagram is available in the ‘Appendix’ section Comparison in Weight
(Figs. 20 and 21).
Weight reduction is crucial as it leads to greater mechan-
ical efficiency and better ride quality of the automobile. As

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Fig. 19 Fatigue sensitivity

EN45 steel

leaf spring accounts for the unsprung mass of the vehicle, aluminum 6061. This study is done to compare the defor-
reduction in the unsprung mass leads to lesser vertical mation, von Mises stresses, strain energy, natural
acceleration forces, while vehicle is in motion; this in turn frequencies, frequency response, fatigue life and %weight
increases ride quality and handling. reduction obtained for each material property.
Table 5 shows the percentage weight comparison in The conclusions are as follows:
semi-elliptic leaf spring [1]. This is performed by com-
1. During static analysis, deformation is seen higher in
paring EN45 steel leaf spring to carbon/glass epoxy,
kevlar/epoxy when compared to EN45 steel; this is due
kevlar/epoxy and isotropic aluminum 6061 leaf springs.
to lower modulus of elasticity in composite materials.
As the deformation is high, this leads to discomfort in
vehicle ride. It is observed that when load is applied to
Conclusions
each composite leaf spring the stresses induced are
lesser compared to EN45 steel leaf spring. This shows
In this research work, a comparative study has been made
that composite leaf springs can bear higher amounts of
between several composite leaf springs to conventional
load and induce lower stresses when compared to
steel EN45 leaf spring. The composites used in the research
EN45 steel.
are carbon/glass epoxy, kevlar/epoxy and isotropic

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Fig. 20 Fatigue sensitivity

carbon/glass epoxy

2. It is observed that composite leaf spring stores a huge natural frequency; this comparison is done for each
amount of strain energy during loading and release it material property. Each of the materials undergoes
slowly; this is due to composites having lower values structural damage. EN45 steel leaf spring shows the
of density and Young’s modulus. This in turn leads to lowest deformation as it is excited at a frequency lower
improved vehicle suspension system leading to better than that of carbon/glass epoxy and kevlar/epoxy leaf
ride quality and ride handling. Kevlar/epoxy and springs. Therefore, if the leaf spring is excited to its
aluminum 6061 have higher strain energy storing natural frequency, it will undergo structural damage
capacity and induce lower stresses in the leaf spring. and also affect vehicle ride quality
This is mainly due to its better mechanical properties. 5. Using harmonic response, the maximum von Mises
3. Through modal analysis, it is observed that car- stress was estimated, and it is seen that EN45 steel and
bon/glass epoxy and kevlar/epoxy show higher first aluminum 6061 leaf spring induce lower stresses when
natural frequencies due to its greater stiffness and low excited to its natural frequency when compared to the
mass properties. This is better as greater excitation carbon/glass epoxy and kevlar/epoxy.
frequency is required to cause structural damage to the 6. Kevlar/epoxy and EN45 steel leaf springs possess
carbon/glass epoxy and kevlar/epoxy Leaf spring. superior mechanical properties, therefore showing
4. Frequency response of deformation shows the defor- higher fatigue life compared to carbon/glass epoxy
mation caused when the leaf spring is excited to its and aluminum 6061 leaf springs. Therefore, kevlar/

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Fig. 21 Fatigue sensitivity

aluminum 6061

epoxy and EN45 steel can undergo greater cycles of epoxy leaf spring is lesser by 78.7% compared to steel
loading till failure. EN45 leaf spring. Using aluminum 6061 leaf spring
7. Through fatigue sensitivity for life, kevlar/epoxy leaf shows 51.8% lesser weight when compared to steel
spring showed better results as the maximum and EN45 leaf spring. This benefits the automobile as the
minimum life at the critical locations of the leaf spring mechanical efficiency and performance is improved.
is greater when compared to EN45 steel, carbon/glass Fuel consumption is lesser therefore overall fuel
epoxy and aluminum 6061 leaf springs. Kevlar/epoxy economy increases.
leaf spring is an optimum performer under cyclic
Through this study, a conclusion is made that kevlar/
loading.
epoxy is the most optimistic material for automotive leaf
8. Automakers have said that lower the unsprung mass of
spring. The deformation is high in the case of kevlar/epoxy
the vehicle, lower the vertical accelerations forces
leaf spring, which causes slight discomforts in the ride
caused when the vehicle is in motion. In Fig. 23, the
quality. Due to the weight reduction achieved in kevlar/
weight of kevlar/epoxy leaf spring is lesser by 82.14%
epoxy Leaf spring, the overall vehicle efficiency and per-
compared to steel EN45 leaf spring, carbon/glass
formance has been improved.

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Fig. 22 Fatigue sensitivity

kevlar/epoxy

Fig. 23 Percentage weight reduction in composite materials with EN45 steel

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Appendix References

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Design and numerical analysis of leaf spring using composite
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Material Values Unit 640 (2014)
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Density 7850 kg/m3 mar, Modeling and analysis of laminated composite leaf spring
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Poisson’s ratio 0.266  1879 (2012)
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Density 1402 kg/m3 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
Young’s modulus along X-direction 9.571E?10 N/m2 jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Young’s modulus along Y-direction 1.045E?10 N/m2
Young’s modulus along Z-direction 1.045E?10 N/m2
Poisson’s ratio along XY-direction 0.34 
Poisson’s ratio along YZ-direction 0.37 
Poisson’s ratio along ZX-direction 0.34 
Shear modulus along XY-direction 2.508E?10 N/m2
Shear modulus along YZ-direction 2.508E?10 N/m2
Shear modulus along ZX-direction 2.508E?10 N/m2

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