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The principles of Mechanics for students of product design

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The principles of Mechanics for students
of product design
Eddie Norman
Loughborough University oj1echn%gy

Those engaged in product design need to this new examination syllabus is with schools and teachers gave little
combine creative talent and sensitivity discussed later in this article. reason to believe that either is
with intellectual ability. The Carter Product design has always provided happening. A recent discussion paper2
report on Industrial Design Education students with opportunities to apply the by two HMls is not much more
in the United Kingdom! identified the principles of mechanics whether the optimistic. The recent CNAA/SCUE
ideal 'A~levelsubject combinations as force systems are static or dynamic or report of 'A~levelDesign and
'traditional academic subjects, such as the resisting materials more solid than Technology3 - 'The Identification of a
Maths, Physics or English, in addition fluid. Static force systems, their Core Syllabus' saw little virtue in
to the more specialised design subjects' equilibrium and stability with external reviewing the historical routes by which
- a position which the Design and disturbances, are important to every we have reached the present position,
Technology department at furniture designer, boat builder and seeing the current syllabuses as an
Loughborough University of frame constructor; the concepts of an expression of the views of the
Technology (LUT) would object's degrees of freedom and restraint individuals and groups who have acted
wholeheartedly support. This article are central issues in the design of all as pioneers. 'Rather it is far more
concerns the application of the clamping devices and mechanisms. An important to establish the opportunities
principles of mechanics by students of understanding of dynamic force created by the subject and to keep these
product design, but could probably systems, the concepts of work, energy clearly in mind as the detail of a core
equally well have been written about and power, is crucial to the analysis of experience is fashioned into published
electronics, materials science, any machine - from the power examination syllabuses'. As an
ergonomics, or communication transmission system of a bicycle to a assessment of priorities this view is
techniques. Without the full integration computer controlled lathe. In plainly accurate, but tends rather
of these disciplines product design transmitting and resisting forces, towards the 'all history is bunk'
becomes an undemanding activity and if materials are influenced by them philosophy which provides a very
Craft, Design and Technology (COT) in resulting in elongations and deflections, positive prescription for progress whilst
our secondary schools does not promote pressure and volume changes and ignoring the lessons which time has
such integration then the subject loses potentially immediate or long-term revealed, albeit in different
its credibility. The new General system failures. Understanding and circumstances. As these lessons are
Certifis;ate of Secondary Education controlling the response of materials to central to understanding the strange
(GCSE) National Criteria have allowed forces in the working environment is the position of mechanics within COT I
three categories 'COT: Design and essence of designing products to be safe shall indulge in a little bunk!
Realisation', 'COT: Technology' and and reliable, and provides the basis for Conceptually there seems to have
'COT: Design and Communication', and sound material selection in the light of been little advance in thinking with
although they are all headed 'COT' and manufacturing requirements. regard to technology in schools since the
no doubt reflect the available human Table I indicates a range of products late sixties. All the key elements of the
and physical resources in schools this together with questions the designer recent SCUE report on 'AclevelDesign
appears to be an unfortunate should ask and be able to answer. The and Technology can be found in
expediency. It is regrettable that the designer might well think the answers to Malcolm Deere's article published in
opportunity to radically review the COT other questions to be more important, 1969 - 'A!level Technology, a liberal
examination structure and promote a for example in the case of a hydrometer approach.4The proposed syllabus in
unified subject area to provide a sound the question of what type of scale is fit 'Technological Studies' he suggests has
foundation for growth has not been for its purpose might be considered to be three sections. Section I classifies the
fully grasped. There is a clear invitation the dominant issue and not the precise knowledge base under 'Materials',
to emphasise 'Design and Realisation', relationship between the scale divisions 'Energy' and 'Systems', which still seems
'Technology' or 'Design and and the fluid density, but fitness-for- to me a better classification than
Communication' at the expense purpose is hardly likely to be 'Materials and Components', 'Energy',
presumably of the others. The Northern satisfactorily resolved if the designer 'Control' and 'Technology and Society'
Examining Association (NEA) have does not understand the fundamental as proposed in the SCUE document.
clearly risen above the disorder which relationship. The design process is seen as a 'system
has been facilitated by the GCSE under human control' which seems
National Criteria and aggravated by the Mechanics within COT plainly superior to the CNAA/SCUE
Schools Council Modular Technology Product design is the central element of version, where it is classified as a skill or
resources to produce a 'COT: CDT - one of the fastest growing technique. As Malcolm Deere stated
Technology' syllabus which I can do subjects in the secondary school social and industrial systems can be
nothing but praise.! have yet to see any curriculum. It might therefore be studied alongside thermodynamic,
other syllabuses showing the same expected fo find evidence of growing electrical, biological and mechanical
enlightened approach and in the long links between CDT and Mathematics systems and the 'Technology and
term I can only hope tht this provides and Physics departments and the Society' category seems somewhat
the model for all GCSE CDT syllabuses application of the principles of redundant. Section II contains the
in schools. The approach adopted for mechanics, wherever learnt, to be essential ingredient of analysing existing
evident in CDT projects. My contacts products and the influences upon them
 and Section III suggested all open-
- when will the clamp slip? ended group project of the schools' own
- which dimensions are critical? choice. The lessons of the last seventeen
- how great will the frame deflection be?
years are not those concerning framing a
syllabus or classifying knowledge, but
the experience of attempts at
'realisation'. Ignoring them makes about
as much sense as designing Mark II
- what loads must be supported? without a full analysis of the limitations
- how will they be transmitted through the structure? of Mark I.
- how great will deflections be?
Apart from the general status
- how can the likelihood of failure be adequately
reduced? problem of engineering, industry and
workshops school technology has
tended to founder on the political
problems associated with having the
means for the realisation of designs
centred in the CDT department whilst
- will the shear legs buckle? the analytical processes necessary are
- is the wire strong enough?
- could the feet slip? seen as the province of the Mathema'tics
- will one person be able to lift the engine? and Science departments. My
experience of school departments is
limited, but they appear to be run as
'empires' and are very territorial- it is
only the bold and determined
departmental head who ventures past
Cupboard - what age child can open the catch?
their traditional subject boundaries. To
safety catch - what is the best cross-section? illustrate the significance of these
- will the material fail under repeated flexing? difficulties consider the chequered
history of one of the oldest Wlevel
syllabuses in this area, in fact dating
from 1966 - the University of
Cambridge Local Examination
Syndicate, Elements of Engineering
Design. From the mechanics point of
view this syllabus is far more demanding
than its more esteemed potential
- what kind of scale divisions would represent fluid
density? sucessor - the 'Materials' and
- will the hydrometer overturn too easily or oscillate 'Structures' modules from Cambridge
excessively? Technology. In the older syllabus
- will the instrument be sufficiently sensitive? students had to consider mechanisms
and the analysis of dynamic systems
under 'Mechanics' as well as structures,
and under 'Related Technology'
materials science investigations and
engineering components as well as the
Electric bicycle ~ - what are the implications of various motor structure, properties and processing of
placements?

U~ - what are the relative advantages of Moulton and

diamond frames?
- do the cross-sectional shapes affect wind resistance?
materials. The 'Testing of Structures'
and 'Industrial Manufacturing' sections
of the Cambridge modules would
- what size motor is necessary to assist a senior however have been welcome
citizen up a I in 20 incline? improvements to the older syllabus. The
Elements of Engineering Design
syllabus has been successfully
implemented in many schools, but has
- what size pump do I need?
- what difference does the pipe diameter make? never really grown beyond a hundred or
- how many radiators are necessary and what size so candidates or achieved proper
boiler? recognition outside schools. SCUE did
include this syllabus in the list of those
'AQevelsincorporating elements of
design which should be given full
recognition for the purposes of the 'Aqevel without 'friction' and the for the sound teaching of mechanics in
general entrance requirements (1979)5 teaching of the mechanics can be school workshops is ignored. Whatever
and it did gain recognition from the tailored to follow the theoretical their intentions those who try to draw
Northern Universities Professors in coverage given in the Mathematics and the study of mechanics from the
Mechanical Engineering (1979),6 but Science departments. The syllabus fits workshop to the laboratory in the search
appears to have fallen foul of the the traditional school structure at the for academic credibility are reinforcing
committee which judged it against the cost of a certain narrowness which is no the 'English Disease'.
Keith-Lucas criteria published by the doubt the reason for its rejection by the Malcolm Deere indicated the way
Design Council in 19807 - criteria Design Council despite its academic forward in 1969 and the recent
which Cambridge Technology credibility. A workshop based 'A"level is CNAA/SCUE report and the
apparently meets. also certain to carry a 'dirty hands' sympathetic changes to the London,
The reasons for this peculiar state of image which is why the current Design and Technology 'A~levelare
affairs can be found in the departmental proponents of 'Aqevel Technology have following the same lines. No real
structure of secondary schools. The tended to prefer 'laboratories' with the progress will be made however until the
Elements of Engineering Design 'A~level inevitable emphasis on electronic and aversion of schools and part of our
is generally taught within CDT pneumatic systems. The 'Structures' and society to industry and commerce and,
(Technical Studies) departments and is 'Mechanisms' modules are introduced in this case to the tools of production is
essentially workshop based. It therefore into the laboratory as a kind of token shown up for what it is - a kind of
fits quite naturally alongside such gesture to the mechanical world whilst small-minded elitism.
subjects as Mathematics and Physics at the weatlh of opportunity abounding
The Content of Undergraduate and In-
Service Courses
It has always been apparent that product
designers need a clear understanding of
the principles of mechanics if they are to
Design effectively exploit technological know-
and Society Design &
Technology how. Fig. I shows the structure of the
Design and Technology 3 year BA
Degree and all students in Year I study
the 'Physical Basis of Technology'
Design which has two components -
Practice
mechanics and electronics. The
mechanics syllabus includes an
introduction to the study of statics and
dynamics for both solids and fluids. The
development of an understanding of
technological systems is incorporated
Materials and for all students in Year 2 as 'Minor
Processes Materials and Technology' and hence all students
Processes whether they opt to major in
Design 'Technology' or 'Product Analysis' have
Engineering
Mechanics
the necessary foundation for 'Design
Electronics Electronics Practice', the designing and making
Graphic Mechanics component of the course.
Communication (Major) In-service courses however present
Product much greater difficulties. Two
Product Design &
Analysis
approaches to the introduction of
Analysis
(Major) technology into the school curriculum
have gained significance acceptance,
Physical Basis namely its teaching as a 'single-subject'
Product Analysis
of Technology
(Minor) and the enrichment of existing courses, 8
Technology in and modular resources have been
Design (Minor) developed to promote both. At primary
schools, children meet all aspects of
mechanics through kites, boats, rockets
Design
(made from plastic bottles) and vehicles
in Plastics
of all descriptions. Interestingly as the
children get older, and certainly as
external exams appear the concepts
covered narrow. At CSE and '0' level
'Structures' and 'Mechanisms' modules follow the schools and for the major very little lost. The suggestion made in
exist ('Aeronautics' was one of the course component to be 'Structures' and the Mechanisms module that the
earliest proposed and was eventually to to cover 'Mechanisms' to a much lower Structures module, or at least the
be published in 1986) and for level. As the teaching of technology is concepts, should be covered first is
Cambridge W level Technology only predominantly in the 14-16age range perhaps unncessary. The popularity and
'Structures'. Many GCSE syllabuses do and not in the foundation years the early dominance of 'Structures' is really
not appear to have significantly altered emphasis has also been placed on work more associated with the ease of
this position, but the NEA GCSE 'COT: for C.S.E. and '0' level and now graphical methods like Bow's notation
Technology' certainly has. This syllabus G.C.S.E .. Table 2 shows the structure in comparison with say the method of
has divided the subject content into two adopted at LUT for the third One-Term instantaneous centres for mechanisms
areas, 'skills' and 'knowledge'. The skills In-Service course, 'OTIS 3' in Design and the available know-how of the
section is further subdivided into design and Technology, but this has now been teachers from earlier Technical Drawing
and problem solving, product revised for the forthcoming 'OTIS 4'. syllabuses. For comparison and to
realisation and communication and the For those teachers able to cope with illustrate what we believe we have learnt
knowledge section is divided into the necessary mathematics this course with the help of the teachers taking the
systems, energy considerations structure seems to have worked OTIS courses, Table 3 shows the
applicable to a particular system and the satisfactorily, but for many, '0' level anticipated structure of 'OTIS 4'
selection of materials and components mathematics was somewhat distant and mechanics. A formal support class has
for systems. Knowledge of mechanisms rarely had been utilised. Consequently been programmed, although much of
and structures is incorporated naturally even the elementary work on this took place informally during OTIS
at the appropriate places. Such a 'Structures' - resolving and adding 1-3, and the course is now in
systems approach is wholely sound and forces - was a source of some 'chronological' rather than 'conceptual'
detailed criticisms of the particular difficulty. Some teachers have suggested order. We have also been able to
choice of components would always be moving the 'Primary school introduce Pneumatics as the MSC via
possible but is unnecessary. The mechanisms' forward from Week 6 and British School Technology have recently
conceptual levels of difficulty for raising brushing-up the necessary mathematics, made some capital money available to
a load and a conveyor are excellent as is which will be done in future, but it is the University for in-service courses. It
the list of possible projects. Here we clear how little mathematics is currently is hoped that this will provide a suitable
have a full integration of technology used in the CDT world. Studying statics introduction for teachers embarking on
into product design -lucky students! before dynamics, or structures before the new GCSE syllabus.
'Mechanisms' has re-emerged linked to mechanisms, provides a more logical
'Energy' as an option in the London, ordering of concepts, but as the A Fundamental Review
Design and Technology W level approach adopted is one of It was encouraging to see the SCUE
syllabus, with a basic coverage of these understanding and classifying recommendations for a core syllabus in
and structures in the core. In view of this mechanisms through 'hands-on' W level Design and Technology using
emphasis it had been felt necessary to experience of construction kits, there is the word mechanics alongisde

Mechanics in the school curriculum and 'Modular

technology' .

Mathematical modelling - friction theory and Testing the theory using inclined planes and applying it to carver
modelling the performance of friction devices. cramps.

Structures - finding reactions. Bow's notation and

analytical methods.

Primary school mechanisms - 'uphill', 'downhill' Fischertechnik and Lego Technic investigations of gearing and the
and 'wheels and gears'. meaning of torque.

Model hill-climb vehicle - integrating the concepts

of statics and dynamics.
ergonimics and materials etc. The transmission, steering and braking examination system has reduced such a
subdivisions of mechanisms and systems, dynamic loads and the wealth of opportunity and challenge to
structures are unhelpful within the structural design of the chassis provide the tamed and inhibited analysis of
context of product design, although in all the scope any teacher could require. 'Structures'. The NEA GCSE 'CDT:
providing supporting resources they are Oval bicycle frame tubes, solid wheels, Technology' syllabus by adopting a
no doubt useful titles. The 'Structures' racing suits and helmets even provide systems approach to product design is
module begins by asking some rather opportunities for the examination of leading the way back in our schools.
superficial questions concerning the fluid flow. The abandonment of fluids The fundamental requirement is for
types of forces in a bicycle frame, but the by secondary schools is particularly the application of the principles of
joints are hardly 'pins' and the members regrettable in view of the excellent work mechanics in the design and realisation
contain combined loadings - for most which has been done - the testing of of products - in the workshop. Any
of the questions almost any answer will model hovercraft was amongst the attempt to move the subject away from
do! It moves on from here to the analysis earliest projects conducted under the its roots should be resisted and the
of roof trusses and Warren girder technology umbrella and the academic snobbery which makes this
bridges, and although children may have construction of single seater racing movement seem reasonable should be
used or can be given spring balances to hovercrafts has provided excellent exposed. In CDT departments the
measure small forces very few have any constructional projects in schools with application of the principles of
concept of IOkN wind loads. What both original designs and the mechanics should be concerned with
makes this kind of approach even less professionally developed Cyclone, but two areas - firstly, the proper
appealing is that the analysis of any even this has produced a multitude of understanding of the tools of
vehicle, bicycle or otherwise, performed customised versions.9 Project production and their effective use, and
in depth provides the opportunity for Technology produced two books in this secondly, in the design analysis and
the exploitation of almost every area in the early seventies 'Simple Fluid development of safe reliable products
principle of mechanics. Energy Flow' and 'The Ship and Her meeting the defined need. This seems to
requirements, power and its Environment'. What a tragedy that the be true whatever level of education is

Mechanics in the school curriculum Primary school mechanisms Lego Technic Assumed knowledge for the
- its place in the new GCSE and Fischertechnik assignments. technology modules.
syllabuses. Choosing and using a calculator,
symbols and units, indices, scientific
notation.

Mechanisms - the approach for the Mechanisms for 14-16 yr. olds. Lego
14-16 age range. Technic and Fischertechnik assignments on
levers, gearboxes and steering.

Forces and the 'Structures module' Measurement of static and dynamic Application of trigonometry to
approach. friction. The effects of lubrication. The mechanics. Vector representation of
application of friction and the jamming forces.
principle.

Frameworks and external Graphical statics

equilibrium Building a statically loaded framework.

Internal forces and evaluation 'CSE' Control Technology - linear motion Gradient and enclosed area of
techniques. using solenoids and pneumatic cylinders. graphs e.g. load vs deflection.

Beams - designing for stiffness and Pneumatics module I - cylinder control Substitution and transposition of
strength. devices. formulae.

Materials testing and structural Pneumatics module II - automatic Acceleration, velocity and distance
design. circuits. curves and equations.

Strain energy of an elastic band and two

bands in series and in parallel. Conversion
of strain energy.

Quantitive approach to Mechanics

II.

Alternative sources and the 'Energy

module'.
 chosen and was probably often being
quite effectively done under the 'Craft'
label in schools and colleges before the
current technology bandwagon started
rolling. There can however be no excuse
for living in the past, computers are
radically in fluencing both the design
and manufacturing processes and every
possible opportunity to introduce
CADCAM into CDT departments must
be taken. Computers are not however an
excuse for disguising the workshops of
the schools to look like laboratories-
what can such attitudes do for the
workshops and factories of the nation.

Two Case Studies

Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 show two
comparatively simple products which
exemplify the wealth of opportunities
which exist - a helical flower pot stand
designed by a second year
Loughborough student, Alison Bate,
and a rain detector designed by a first
year undergraduate, Suzanne Kettle.

Helical flower pot stand

FIG. 2 Helical flower pot stand The consideration of the stability of
FIG. 3 Rain detector static forms is not as elementary an
exercise as many might imagine and
requires considerable clarity of thought.
There are really three clear phases:
(i) the determination of critical
loadings and disturbances i.e. how many
flower pots should be considered to be in
position and in which direction would
an applied force have the most
unsettling effect.
(ii) the estimation of the magnitude of
the critical disturbing force necessary to
overcome the restraints and the
investigation of the events which might
occur following the disturbance from
equilibrium of the proposed design i.e. if
'tipped' would it topple?
(iii) feedback to the design process.
Considering critical loadings requires
the analysis of the movements of the
centre of gravity. If flower pots are
added above the original centre of
gravity then it will move upwards and
similarly if flower pots are added below
it will move downwards. In whatever
position the flower pots are added the
magnitude of the force at a given height
necessary to cause toppling will increase
assuming all of tpe weights are acting
within the base area, but the angle at
which toppling occurs will be dependent
on the position of the centre of gravity.
When fully loaded the stand might be '30~50N at a height of one metre would of forms. If the designer has estimated a
harder to move initially, but more likely cause rotation, and that the angle at force of around 30N and a toppling
to topple once movement has started which toppling will occur is between 20° angle of 20° and is in doubt there are
and it will cause more damage. The and 40° depending on the loading. The many possible approaches to finding a
stand will clearly be most likely to topple problems for the designer are choosing a solution:
when the centre of gravity is at its reasonable value for the height of the - the base may be loaded with a
highest i.e. when some of the upper pots force - the shoulder height of a ten- heavy mass. This strategy has the
have been added (working out how year old? - the magnitude of the force advantage of maintaining the aesthetic
many is not straight forward) but easiest - the dynamic or static loads imposed form if the mass is concealed beneath
to move initially when empty. Fig. 4 by a ten-year old? - and deciding what the base, but the obvious disadvantage
illustrates the problem of the centre of an acceptable magnitude of the force is. of making the stand heavy, with the
gravity and Fig. 5 the location of the The stand is clearly going to topple some associated transport and safety
forces. time, but with product liability and no problems.
Estimating the magnitude of the British Standards to fall back on the - the base diameter could be
disturbing force necessary to overcome designers must make rational and increased or the overall height reduced,
the restraints imposed by the weights responsible decisions. but compromises would then need to be
rests on the idea of taking moments and Feedback to the design process from made concerning the aesthetic form of
it is easily estimated that a force of such decision-making can take a variety the product.
- holes could be provided instead of
platforms for the pots, to prevent large
pots being pu t towards the top 0 f the
stand.
- the 'beams' supporting the pots
could be designed to deflect markedly if
subjected to a force of more than, say,

/) ION, thus providing a visual warning of

danger.

\/ </ toppling There are no doubt other possibilities,

but the designer could only reach an
acceptable solution by resolving the
Yf/ angle potentially conflictisng pressures
between aesthetic form, stability, safety
original centre and product abuse.
of gravity Rain detector
The rain detector - designed to hang on
a washing line and give an audible
warning - becomes really interesting
from a mechanics viewpoint when the
problem of getting it to clip over the line
is considered. The interaction of the
constraints imposed by the mechanical
OJ2m properties of plastics, manufacturing
requirements and performance create a
1~ I very significant pressure on the product

-J form for the designer to resolve. In this

case performance is represented by the
achievement of sufficient deflection to
I clear the line with a comparatively small
applied force and significant resistance
I C: to fatigue failure. Fig. 6 shows the
(
I ., <;....
.'

:
"""_:.---
f ~ desired layout of the product.
Polypropylene is really the best
F») c! material because it has a good memory

l (.(
AI
, ., E '-.
~I ~I and resistence to creep and can be easily
injection moulded. The difficulties arise
___ ....
_:~
:l Y because it is comparatively stiff in
I~
I
comparison to say polythene and nylon.
O.6m I
There is also a further complication in
that this section of the product must
 p.es. DETECTOR
PLATE

CLI P
SECTION

vJALL REMOVED FOR

PASSAGE OF SOUND

,
A-i

carry the wires from the detector to the to play and must not be allowed to be References
electronics and the sections must reduced to structures and mechanisms 1. Industrial Design Education in the United
therefore be hol1ow further increasing modules and construction kits. Kingdom (The Carter Report) Design
the stiffness. Calculation wil1show that Designers must call up the necessary Council,1977.
2. Craft, Design and Technology and
it is extremely difficult to get the concepts in order to inform their
Mathematics: A discussion paper? D.A.
required deflection with a 'beam' length decision making and there can be little Hale and P.E. Weston, July 1985.
of less than about 40mm and this doubt that the advent of powerful 3. 'A:Level Design and Technology - The
constraint in f1uences the entire form computer databases and modelling Identification of a Core Syllabus-
and aesthetics of the product. techniques wil1 facilitate this process. CNAA/SCUE Report by P.M. Threlfall,
February 1985.
Incidental1y to arrive at such a 4. 'A: LevelTechnology, a liberal approach,
conclusion experimental1y would take Malcolm Deere, Project Technology
many hours whereas applying very well Bulletin, June 1969.
known mechanics allows this position to 5. Standing Conference on University
be reached in minutes. Entrance (SCUE) recommendations on
design syllabuses at 'A'Level, 1977.
6. 'A' Levels in Engineering/Design for
Concluding Remarks University Entrance Qualification - a
There is no doubt in my mind that letter to Headteachers from the Northern
Design and Technology with an Universities Professors in Mechanical
Engineering, 1979.
emphasis on product design provides a 7. Design Education at Secondary Level,
very demanding and challenging subject (The Keith-Lucas Report) Design Council,
area at any level of education if 1980.
approached rigourously. A pseudo- 8. Technology and the School Curriculum -
scientific image in the end will be self- Teachers Master Manual for Modular
Courses in Technology, NCST, Oliver and
defeating and the forces trying to move Boyd, 1981.
the subject area in this direction should 9. Newsletter No.4, Schools Council Project
be resisted, along with those die-hard in Applied Science and Technology, April
'industrial designers' trying to avoid 1967.·
technology at all costs and those
engineers who concentrate solely on
performance and leave the generation of
fully integrated products to someone
else. Mechanics, along with all the other
technological disciplines, has a vital role

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