SHS

Inquiries, Investigation, and

Immersion
Quarter 1: Module 4 – Lesson 2
Understanding Data and Ways to
Collect Data (Population and
Sampling Method)
SHS Applied Subject: Inquiries, Investigation and Immersion (3I’s)
Quarter 1 Module 4 - Lesson 2: Understanding Data and Ways to Collect Data
(Population and Sampling Method)

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 Module
Understanding Data and Ways to Collect
Data
4 Lesson 2 – Population and Sampling
Procedure
Last week, you learned about the research designs such as qualitative and
quantitative researches. Along with this, you also learned about the different kinds of
qualitative and quantitative research methods that entail identification of population
and sampling techniques.
In this lesson, you will be enlightened on the Population and Sampling
Procedure.

Learning Target

The lesson, specifically aims to describe the population of the study and
determine sampling procedure.

Vocabulary List

Population - refers to a total number of people who serve as subjects or

respondents of the study.
Sampling Procedure – method in identifying part of the respondents of the
study.
Statistics – a branch of mathematics that deals with the analysis and
interpretation of numerical data in terms of samples and populations
Parameter – a measure that restricts how something is done or what can be
done.
Source: Microsoft Encarta 2009

1
 Warming Up
Prepare an acronym using the word SAMPLE by which each letter will represent
research characteristic in data gathering

S-
A-
M-
P-
L-
E-

Assuming that you are given a weekly allowance in the amount of P1,000.00. In a
pie graph, reflect how many percent/amount do you allot for food, clothing,
transportation, subject/school requirements, personal care products or groceries
and other needs. Can you find relationship/similarity between budgeting a weekly
allowance and determining the sample size of a study? Justify your answer.

Consider the following questions in choosing sample.

Which group of people (study population) are you interested in?
From which you want to draw a sample?
How many people do you need in your sample?
How will you select these people?

Instruction: Answer the following questions briefly according to what you already
know about it.

1. What is population of the study?

2. What is Sample population?
3. What is statistics?
4. When and how do you set parameters of the study?
5. How will you choose sampling strategy that will guarantee you relevant results?

Learning About It

Sampling is a process through which the researcher selects a portion or segment

from the population at the center of the researcher’s study. The population is a
group of persons or objects that possess some common characteristics that are of
interest to the researcher, and about which the researcher seeks to learn more.

2
 Two groups of population:

Target population is composed of the entire group of people or objects to

which the researcher wishes to generalize the findings of the study.
Accessible population is the portion of the population to which the
researcher has reasonable access.
Subjects are individuals or entities which serve as the focus of the study.
Respondents are individuals or groups of people who actively serve as
sources of information during data collection.
Elements refer to subjects of the study who are not people.

Source: AmadeoPangilinan Cristobal,Jr,EdD./ MauraConsolacion

De La Cruz,Ed.D.

A. What is Statistics? What is Parameter?

What is 'Statistics'?

Statistics is the science concerned with developing and studying methods for
collecting, analyzing, interpreting and presenting empirical data. Statistics is a
highly interdisciplinary field; research in statistics finds applicability in virtually all
scientific fields and research questions in the various scientific fields motivate the
development of new statistical methods and theory. In developing methods and
studying the theory that underlies the methods statisticians draw on a variety of
mathematical and computational tools.Statistics is a form of mathematical analysis
that uses quantified models, representations and synopses for a given set of
experimental data or real-life studies. Statistics studies methodologies to gather,
review, analyze and draw conclusions from data.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp#ixzz5LpLHBPRf

What is Parameter?

A constant or variable term in a function that determines the specific form of the
function but not its general nature; a variable entering into the mathematical form of
any distribution such that the possible values of the variable correspond to different
distributions

http://www.dictionary.com/browse/parameter

What is the Difference Between a Statistic and a Parameter?

A statistic and a parameter are very similar. They are both descriptions of groups, like
“50% of dog owners prefer X Brand dog food.” The difference between a statistic and
a parameter is that statistics describe a sample. A parameter describes an
entire population.

Source:https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp#ixzz5LpLHBPRf

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B. Factors in Determining Sample Size

Factors to consider in determining the sample size:

1) Homogeneity of the population. The higher the degree of homoginiety of
the population, the smaller the sample size that can be utilized.
2) Degree of precision desired by the researcher. The larger the sample
size, the higher the precision or accuracy of the results will be.
3) Types of sampling procedure. Probability sampling uses sample sizes
that non-probability sampling.

Various Approaches to determining the sample size:

1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that
sampling distribution of the mean will approximate the normal curve.
2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same
number may serve as the sample size. This called universal sampling.
3. Slovin’s formula is used to compute for sample size (Sevilla, 2003)
4. According to Gay 1976, the following are acceptable sizes for different
types of research
a. Descriptive research – 10% to 20% may be required
b. Comparative research – 15 subjects or groups

Source: AmadeoPangilinan Cristobal,Jr,EdD./ MauraConsolacion De La Cruz,Ed.D

Theory of Sampling

The theory of sampling is as follows:

1. Researchers want to gather information about a whole group of people

(the population).
2. Researchers can only observe a part of the population (the sample).
3. The findings from the sample are generalized, or extended, back to the
population.

Therefore, the key question in sampling is How representative is the sample of

the target population? This question is the foundation of population validity, the
degree to which the results of a study can be generalized from the sample to the target
population.

The analogy of a fruit market can be used when thinking about the population,
the sample, and the sampling technique. The first step in sampling is to identify the
unit of analysis. Let's say that you are conducting research related to a fruit market.
What will be studied in the fruit market? Is it a type of fruit or the fruit sellers
themselves? Let's say you identify citrus fruit as the unit of analysis, and your
population is all citrus fruit within the Bauchi Road fruit market. There are too many
pieces of citrus fruit for you to study in that market, so you must select only a sample
of the citrus fruit.

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 A common error in sampling is that the sample and population are not identical.
For example, the sample may be too narrow. If the population is all citrus fruit within
the Bauchi Road fruit market, then the sample cannot only consist of lemons because
your sample would be missing oranges, grapefruit, and limes. Therefore, you must
find a way of selecting a representative sample of citrus fruit from your population. To
apply to an educational study, perhaps one may say that the population is all university
students, but only university students in public schools are sampled.

Another common error is to make the population too broad. Some may say that the
population is all mangoes in the Bauchi Road fruit market, but they are really only
interested in green mangoes. If only green mangoes are of interest, then the
population should be green mangoes in the Bauchi Road fruit market. In educational
research, sometimes researchers are only interested in a population with a certain
characteristic, such as student who has not chosen a career (in the case of career
counseling). Thus, the population and sample must be the same.

Preliminary Considerations in Selecting a Sample

Before selecting a sampling procedure, first consider the following:

Select the unit of analysis. When selecting the sample, it is imperative that
the sampling technique selects cases based on this unit of analysis. In other
words, if the unit of analysis is students, then the sampling technique must
focus solely on how the students were selected. It would be an error to describe
the selection of schools as the sampling technique when the unit of analysis
is students.

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 Determine how many units need to be sampled. This step is a tricky
balancing act. On the one hand, larger samples tend to be more representative
of the target population and provide stronger statistical power. On the other
hand, larger samples can decrease the quality of the research study,
particularly for experimental and quasi-experimental designs. In experimental
designs, if many people participate in the treatment, then the quality of
treatment that each individual receives might suffer, resulting in inaccurate
conclusions. It is a truism that overpopulation in classrooms reduces the impact
of instruction; if there are too many students in the class, then the teaching will
not be as effective. Likewise, we should equally avoid the problem of
overpopulation in experiments: too many participants in a treatment group will
reduce the impact of the treatment. Therefore, smaller treatment groups are
generally preferable. In general, descriptive designs require at least 100
participants, correlational designs require at least 30 participants, and
experimental, quasi-experimental, and causal-comparative designs require at
least 15 participants per group. The size of the sample in experiments depend
on how effective the treatment is. If you have a very effective treatment, then
only a few participants are necessary. However, if the treatment is weak, then
a larger sample size is necessary to find a significant effect.

Sampling Procedures

There are many sampling procedures that have been developed to ensure that
a sample adequately represents the target population. A few of the most common are
described below.

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling, every individual in the target population has an

equal chance of being part of the sample. This requires two steps:

1. Obtain a complete list of the population.

2. Randomly select individuals from that list for the sample.

Recall that the sampling procedure must reflect the unit of analysis. In a study where
the unit of analysis is the student, the researcher must obtain a complete list of every
student in the target population to achieve simple random sampling. This is rarely
possible, so very few, if any, educational studies use simple random sampling.

Another factor to consider is the word random. Random is a technical term in social
science research that means that selection was made without aim, reason, or patterns.
If any study uses the word random, it means that specific scientific procedures were
used to ensure that the sample was selected purely by chance. Scientists have
developed a few procedures that must be followed for a study to achieve random, such
as the hat-and-draw method or a random number table. To be random, participants
cannot be chosen because of their intelligence, gender, social class, convenience, or
any other factor besides scientifically-agreed upon random procedures. Using the
word random when the unit of analysis was not selected by the hat-and-draw method
or a random number table is either irresponsible or flat-out untruthful.
6
Stratified Random Sampling

In stratified random sampling, the researcher first divides the population into
groups based on a relevant characteristic and then selects participants within those
groups. In educational research, stratified random sampling is typically used when the
researcher wants to ensure that specific subgroups of people are adequately
represented within the sample. For example, a research study examining the effect of
computerized instruction on maths achievement needs to adequately sample both
male and female pupils. Stratified random sampling will be used to ensure adequate
representation of both males and females. Stratified random sampling requires four
steps:

 Determine the strata that the population will be divided into. The strata are the
characteristics that the population is divided into, perhaps gender, age,
urban/rural, etc.
 Determine the number of participants necessary for each stratum. Perhaps the
researcher wants equal representation within the strata: half male, half female;
20 children age 5, 20 children age 6, and 20 age 7; etc. Other times (e.g., large
survey research), the researcher might want to use proportionate random
sampling. This requires that the researcher first knows the proportion of the
group in the entire population and then match that proportion within the sample.
For example, a researcher might find the most recent Nigerian census to
determine that females represent 53% of the population in Nigeria, so the
sample will then include 53% females.
 Split the units of analysis into the respective strata. In other words, if the target
population is students and the researcher wants to stratify based on gender,
then the researcher will need two lists of the target population: one list of the
male students and another list of the female students.
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  Randomly sample participants from within the group. Using either the hat-and-
draw method or a random number table, randomly select the requisite number
of males and do the same for the females.

Purposive Sampling

In purposive sampling, the researcher uses their expert judgment to select

participants that are representative of the population. To do this, the researcher should
consider factors that might influence the population: perhaps socio-economic status,
intelligence, access to education, etc. Then the researcher purposefully selects a
sample that adequately represents the target population on these variables.

Multi-Stage Sampling

More frequently, educational researchers use multi-stage sampling. In multi-

stage sampling, the sample is selected in multiple steps, or stages. For example, in
the first stage, geographical regions, such as local government areas, are selected. In
the second stage, perhaps schools may be selected. In the third stage, the unit of
analysis - perhaps teachers or students, are sampled. If the unit of analysis is not
selected in the first step, then the sampling procedure is multi-stage sampling. In multi-
stage sampling, other sampling techniques may be used at the different stages. For
example, the first stage may use random sampling, the second stage may use
purposive sampling, and the third stage may use stratified sampling.

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The steps in multi-stage sampling are as follows:

 Organize the sampling process into stages where the unit of analysis is
systematically grouped.
 Select a sampling technique for each stage.
 Systematically apply the sampling technique to each stage until the unit of
analysis has been selected.

Source: http://korbedpsych.com/R06Sample.html

How to choose your sampling strategy to guarantee relevant results

How do you make sure that the sample you use to gather your data is
representative of the population you are researching? By taking the time to choose a
sampling strategy. Choosing a sampling strategy is an essential step in the capture
phase of the data journey and will ensure that your data is reliable and reflects the
characteristics of your target group. In this blog, we'll take you step by step through
the process by outlining the ways in which primary data is collected using an example
in which a survey on characteristics (tax, education levels, etc) is collected on
residents in five towns. The towns are of different sizes and have a total of 3,200
households. These 3,200 households make up the target population for your survey.

9
Step one: Define your sample and target population
At times, your survey may require you to cover the entire target population, as
is the case in mapping or population studies. That’s usually referred to as a census
survey. However, target populations are generally large and expensive to survey. In
our example, it may not be feasible to visit all 3,200 households of the five towns.
Instead, you’d want to choose a smaller sample that would be representative of the
population and reflect its characteristics.

A survey that is done on a smaller number of the target population is referred

to as a sample survey. You can infer your findings for the entire population based on
this representative sample. In the following sections, we’ll describe the different
terminologies that are associated with sample surveys, such as sample size and
sampling technique. These concepts will enable you to determine the number of
surveys needed to accurately reflect the true characteristics of a population and to
choose the best method of selecting a sample from that population.

Step two: Define your sample size

The first step in your sampling exercise will be to decide on an appropriate sample
size. There are no strict rules for selecting a sample size. You can make a decision
based on the objectives of the project, time available, budget, and the necessary
degree of precision.

In order to select the appropriate sample size, you will need to determine the
degree of accuracy that you want to achieve. For this, you’ll need to establish the
confidence interval and confidence level of your sample.

The confidence interval, also called the margin of error, is a plus or minus figure.
It is the range within which the likelihood of a response occurs. The most commonly
used confidence interval is +/- 5. If you wish to increase the precision level of your
data, you would further reduce the error margin or confidence interval to a +/- 2. For
example, if your survey question is “does the household pay tax?” and 65% of your
sampled households say “yes,” then using a confidence interval of +/- 5, you can state
with confidence that if you had asked the question to all 3,200 households, between
60% (i.e. 65-5) and 70% (i.e. 65+5) would have also responded “yes.”

The confidence level tells you how sure you want to be and is expressed as a
percentage. It represents how often the responses from your selected sample reflect
the responses of the total population. Thus, a 95% confidence level means you can
be 95% certain. The lower the confidence level, the less certain you will be.

Most surveys use the 95% confidence level and a +/- 5 confidence interval.
When you put the confidence level and the confidence interval together, you can say
that you are 95% sure that, if you had surveyed all (3,200) households, between 60%
and 70% of the households of the target population would have answered “yes,” to the
question “does the household pay tax?”.

10
 The size of your sample may be determined using any standard sample size
calculator such as Survey Monkey or Raosoft. Using a standard sample size calculator
(as can be seen in table one below) for our example of 3,200 households in five towns,
we can examine the difference in sample sizes based on different confidence levels
and intervals.

Option A
If you decide on a 5% confidence interval and want to achieve a 95%
confidence level, the sample size will be 345 households.

Option B
If you wish to have higher accuracy and increase the confidence level to 99%,
the recommended sample size would be 551.

Option C
For an even higher accuracy you could choose a 2% confidence interval and
99% confidence level and arrive at a sample size of 1807.

If time and resources permit, you could opt for larger samples and choose
option C, to survey 1807 households. However, the quality of your findings are likely
to only be marginally better than with option A or B, as the rate of improvement of
accuracy gradually diminishes with the increase in sample size. The size of your
sample should therefore be decided by the objectives of the study and resources
available.

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Step three: Define your sampling technique

Once you’ve chosen the sample size for your survey, you’ll need to define which
sampling technique you’ll use to select your sample from the target population. The
sampling technique that’s right for you depends on the nature and objectives of your
project. Sampling techniques can be broadly divided into two types: random sampling
and non-random sampling.

Random sampling
As the name suggests, random sampling literally means selection of the
sample randomly from a population, without any specific conditions. This may be done
by selecting the sample from a list, such as a directory, or physically at the location of
the survey. If you want to ensure that a particular household does not get selected
more than once, you can remove it from the list. This type of sampling is called simple
random sampling without replacement. If you choose not to remove duplicate
households from the list, you would do a simple random sampling with replacement.

Systematic sampling is the most commonly used method of random sampling,

whereby you divide the total population by the sample size and arrive at a figure which
becomes the sampling interval for selection. For example, if you need to choose 20
samples from a total population of 100, your sampling interval would be five.
Systematic sampling works best when the population is homogeneous, i.e. most
people share the same characteristics. In our example, the sampling interval would be
nine (3200/345= 9 for a 95% confidence level and 5% confidence interval). You would
thus select every ninth household in a town.

However, populations are generally mixed and heterogeneous. To ensure

sufficient inclusion of all categories of the population, you will need to identify the
different strata or characteristics and their actual representation (i.e. proportion) in the
population. In such cases, you can use the stratified random sampling technique,
whereby you first calculate the proportion of each strata within the population and then
select the sample in the same proportion, randomly or systematically, from all the
strata.

If we take our earlier example of five towns, to calculate a stratified random

sample, you will need to calculate the proportion of each town within the sample size
of 345 as shown in table two below. Column three gives the proportion of each town
of the total population (3,200). In column four, the sample size (345) is proportionately
divided across the five towns. For example, town three, which is 25% of the total
population, will select 86 households with a sampling interval of nine (i.e. 800/86) in
the same manner as was done for systematic sampling.

12
 Non-random sampling
In non-random sampling, the sample selection follows a particular set of
conditions and is generally used in studies where the sample needs to be collected
based on a specific characteristic of the population. For example, you may need to
select only households which own a car, or have children under six years of age. For
this, you would consciously select only the 345 or 551 households that have those
characteristics. Also termed purposive or subjective sampling, non-random sampling
methods include convenience, judgment, quota and snowball sampling.
Step four: Minimize sampling error
It’s normal to make mistakes during sample selection. Your efforts should
therefore always be to reduce the sampling error and make your chosen sample as
representative of the population as possible. The robustness of your sample depends
on how you minimise the sampling error. The extent of errors during sampling vary
according to the technique or method you choose for sample selection.
For samples selected randomly from a target population, the results are
generally prefixed with the +/- sampling error, which is the degree to which the sample
differs from the population. If your study requires you to know the extent of sampling
error that is acceptable for the survey, you can select a random sampling technique.
In random sampling, you will be able to regulate the survey design to arrive at an
acceptable level of error. In a non-random sample selection, the sampling error
remains unknown.

Thus, when your sample survey needs to infer the proportion of a certain
characteristics of the target population, you can select a random sampling method.
But if you want to know the perceptions of residents regarding taxation laws or the
school curriculum, you would want to capture as many perceptions as possible, and
therefore select a non-random method in situations where sampling errors or sampling
for proportionality are not of concern. Non-random sampling techniques can be very
useful in situations when you need to reach a targeted sample with specified
characteristics very quickly.

If you don’t have a sampling strategy in place, you may collect data which is
biased or not representative, rendering your data invalid.

Source: https://datajourney.akvo.org/blog/how-to-choose-your-sampling-strategy-to-
guarantee-relevant-results?utm_term=research%20sample&utm_campaign=DataJourney

13
 Keeping You in Practice
Practice Task 1.

Identify population of
your study

Practice Task 2.

Decide and write on the

sample procedure/s and
sample of your study.

Practice Task 3.

As you write, consider the

factors, steps and various
approaches in
determining the sample
size of your study.

Rubrics : Creativity - 10%

Critical Thinking - 20%
Appropriateness - 20%
Content - 30%
Organization - 20%
Total - 100%

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Additional Tasks

Reflect your chosen research title/problem, then, decide for the appropriate
research design.
Task 1: Figure out the target sample population of your study.

Task 2: Describe and present the sample population in a tabular form.

I. Identification Cooling Down

Instruction: Write your answer on your notebook or a separate sheet of paper.
.
__________1. It is a process through which the researcher selects a portion or
segment from the population at the center of the researcher’s study.
__________2. It is a group of persons or objects that possess some common
characteristics that are of interest to the researcher, and about which
the researcher seeks to learn more.
__________3. It is composed of the entire group of people or objects to which the
researcher wishes to generalize the findings of the study.
__________4. It is the portion of the population to which the researcher has
reasonable access.
__________5. These are individuals or entities which serve as the focus of the study.
__________6. These are individuals or groups of people who actively serve as
sources of information during data collection.
__________7. It refers to subjects of the study who are not people.
__________8. It is the science concerned with developing and studying methods for
collecting, analyzing, interpreting and presenting empirical data.
__________9. It is a constant or variable in a function that determines the specific
form of the function but not its general nature.
__________10. It gives every individual in the target population an equal chance
of being part of the sample.
__________11. In this sampling, the researcher first divides the population into
groups based on a relevant characteristic and then selects
participants within those groups.
__________12. In this sampling, the researcher uses their expert judgment to select
participants that are representative of the population.
__________13. In this sampling, the sample is selected in multiple steps, or stages.
__________14. It is the most commonly used method of random sampling, whereby
you divide the total population by the sample size and arrive at a
figure which becomes the sampling interval for selection.
__________15. In this sampling, the sample selection follows a particular set of
conditions and is generally used in studies where the sample needs
to be collected based on a specific characteristic of the population.

15
 II. Enumeration
Instruction: Enumerate and write what are asked from you.
1-4 What are the sampling procedures?
5-8 What are the sampling strategies?

III. Essay.
Instruction: Answer the questions briefly and concisely.
1. Define sampling in your own words and describe its purpose.
2. Describe the situations where sampling can be applied
3. Define population and identify its types.
4. Define and compare target population and accessible population. Present
examples for the two types of population and let the students classify which
type of population is being referred to.
5. Define and compare subject and respondents.
6. State the differences/similarities of Statistics and Parameter.
7. Define and discuss each factor to consider in determining the sample size.
8. Discuss further how each factor applies to sampling process.
9. Present samples that provide further context to the application of each factor.
10. Discuss each approach and explain how they apply in the sampling process.

Learning Challenge

Task 1. Ways to gather data

What are the ways to gather data?

Task 2. Data Collection procedure

Study data collection procedure.

Points to Ponder
Recall that the key question in sampling is How representative is the sample
of the target population? Therefore, the researcher has the burden of
demonstrating in their report (primarily in the methods section) that their sample,
regardless of how it was chosen, represents the target population. Simple random
sampling or multi-stage sampling will typically answer this question the best.
However, as long as the researcher makes a convincing argument in their methods
section that their sample adequately represents the target population, the
researcher really can use any available sampling procedure. – Daniel J. Boudah

16
 Answer
WARMING UP Key

1. Population - refers to a total number of people who serve as subjects or

respondents of the study.
2. Sample population refers to a part of the entire group of persons or objects
that possess some common characteristics that are of interest to the
researcher, and about which the researcher seeks to learn more.
3. Statistics – a branch of mathematics that deals with the analysis and
interpretation of numerical data in terms of samples and populations
4. Answers may vary.
5. By following these steps: 1) Define the sample population, 2) Define the
sample size,3) Define sampling Teachnique, and 4) minimize sampling error.

Practice Tasks 1: Answer may vary.

Practice Tasks 2: Answer may vary.
Practice Tasks 3: Answer may vary.
Additional Tasks
Task 1: Answer may vary depending on their research problem.
Task 2. Answer may vary.
COOLING DOWN
I. Identification
1. Sampling 9. Parameter
2. Population 10. Simple random sampling
3. Target population 11. Stratified sampling
4. Accessible population 12. Purposive sampling
5. Subjects 13. Multi-stage sampling
6. Respondents 14. Systematic sampling
7. Elements 15. Non-random sampling
8. Statistics

II. Enumeration (in any order)

1. Simple random sampling 5. Define the sample
2. Stratified sampling population
3. Purposive sampling 6. Define the sample size
4. Multi-stage sampling 7. Define sampling
Teachnique
8. minimize sampling error

III. Essay – Varied answers

17
 References

Department of Education Curriculum Development

https://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/qualitative-vs-quantitative-research/

https://www.wallstreetmojo.com/quantitative-research/

https://measuringu.com/qual-methods/

http://korbedpsych.com/R06Sample.html

https://datajourney.akvo.org/blog/how-to-choose-your-sampling-strategy-to-
guarantee-relevant-
results?utm_term=research%20sample&utm_campaign=DataJourney