Tennessee Department of Education | Revised November 2018

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 Acknowledgements

The department recognizes and appreciates all of the listed educational professionals, higher
education faculty, parents, and advocates contributed to the development of the Speech or
Language Impairment Evaluation Guidance for their time and effort.

Susan Usery
Laria Richardson
Pamela Guess

Williamson County Schools

The ARC of Tennessee
University of Tennessee at

(Middle TN)
Chattanooga

Annie Kelley
Lisa Rodden-Perinka
Scott Indermuehle

Shelby County Schools

Wilson County Schools
Tennessee Department of

Education

Katie Kerley
Melanie Schuele
Nathan Travis

Bradley County Schools

Vanderbilt University
Tennessee Department of

Education

Ashley Clark
Toby Guinn
Theresa Nicholls

Clarksville Montgomery
Franklin County Schools
Tennessee Department of

County Schools
Education

Andrea Ditmore
Cathy Brooks
Joanna Bivins

Oak Ridge Schools

Disability Rights of
Tennessee Department of

Tennessee
Education

Robin Faircloth
Jenny Williams
Kristen McKeever

Houston County Schools

Tennessee Disability
Tennessee Department of

Coalition
Education

Leslie Jones
Ron Carlini

The ARC of Tennessee (West)

Knox County Schools

 Table of Contents

Introduction
Section I: Definition
Section II: Pre-referral and Referral Considerations
Section III: Comprehensive Evaluation
Section IV: Eligibility Considerations
Section V: Reevaluation Considerations
Appendix A: TN Assessment Instrument Selection Form
Appendix B: Resources and Links
Appendix C: Articulation Norms
Appendix D: Phonological Processing Norms
Appendix E: Language Milestones
Appendix F: General Classroom and Home Articulation Interventions
Appendix G: Articulation Impact in the Classroom
Appendix H: Disfluency/ Fluency Checklist
Appendix I: Language Skills Checklists
Appendix J: Teacher Pragmatics Checklists
Appendix K: Fluency Questionnaire for Parents/Caregivers
Appendix L: Voice Checklist
Appendix M: Vocal Habit Chart
Appendix N: Permission to Screen Language Skills
Appendix O: Examination of Oral Peripheral Mechanism
Appendix P: Language Severity Rating Scale
Appendix Q: Speech Sound Production Severity Rating Scale
Appendix R: Fluency Severity Rating Scale
Appendix S: Voice Severity Rating Scale
Appendix T: Evaluation Report Template

Introduction

This document is intended to provide school teams guidance when planning for student needs,
considering referrals for evaluations, and completing evaluations/re-evaluations for educational
disabilities. Disability definitions and required evaluation procedures and can be found
individually at the Tennessee Department of Education website (here).1

Every educational disability has a state definition, found in the TN Board of Education Rules and
Regulations Chapter 0520-01-09,2 and a federal definition included in the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). While states are allowed to further operationally define
definitions and establish criteria for disability categories, states are responsible to meet the
needs of students based on IDEA’s definition. Both definitions are provided for comparison and
to ensure teams are aware of federal regulations.

The student must be evaluated in accordance with IDEA Part B regulations, and such an
evaluation must consider the student’s individual needs, must be conducted by a
multidisciplinary team with at least one teacher or other specialist with knowledge in the area
of suspected disability, and must not rely upon a single procedure as the sole criterion for
determining the existence of a disability. Both nonacademic and academic interests must
comprise a multidisciplinary team determination, and while Tennessee criteria is used, the
team possess the ultimate authority to make determinations.3

IDEA Definition
Per 34 CFR §300.8(c)(11) A speech or language impairment means “a communication disorder,
such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance.”

Section I: Definition
Tennessee Definition of Speech or Language Impairment
A speech or language impairment (SLI) means a communication disorder, such as stuttering,
impaired articulation, a language impairment, or voice impairment that adversely affects a
child’s educational performance, which may be congenital or acquired. Identified speech and/or
language deficiencies cannot be attributed to characteristics of second language acquisition,
cognitive referencing, and/or dialectic differences.

1 https://www.tn.gov/education/student-support/special-education/special-education-evaluation-eligibility.html
2 https://publications.tnsosfiles.com/rules/0520/0520-01/0520-01-09.20171109.pdf
3 Office of Special Education Programming Letter to Pawlisch, 24 IDELR 959
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SLI includes demonstration of impairments in the following areas of language, articulation,

voice, or fluency.

(1) Language Impairment – A significant deficiency in comprehension and/or use of spoken

language that may also impair written and/or other symbol systems and is negatively
impacting the child’s ability to participate in the classroom environment. The
impairment may involve any or a combination of the following: the form of language
(phonology, morphology, and syntax), the content of language (semantics) and/or the
use of language in communication (pragmatics) that is adversely affecting the child’s
educational performance.
(2) Articulation (speech sound production) Impairment – A significant deficiency in the
ability to produce sounds in conversational speech not consistent with chronological
age. This includes a significant atypical production of speech sounds characterized by
substitutions, omissions, additions, or distortions that interfere with intelligibility in
conversational speech and obstructs learning and successful verbal communication in
the educational setting. Speech sound errors may be a result of impaired phonology,
oral motor or other issues.
(3) Voice Impairment – An excess or significant deficiency in pitch, intensity, resonance, or
quality resulting from pathological conditions or inappropriate use of the vocal
mechanism.
(4) Fluency Impairment – Abnormal interruption in the flow of speech characterized by an
atypical rate, or rhythm, and/or repetitions in sounds, syllables, words and phrases that
significantly reduces the speaker’s ability to participate within the learning environment.

What does this mean?

IDEA does not separate SLIs into separate categories; however, it addresses communication in
comprehensive terms. A student may have a speech impairment or a language impairment, or
both, and qualify under this disability category. When analyzing the definition of speech or
language impairment, the following terms typically requires further clarification:

Cognitive Referencing
Cognitive referencing refers to the practice of comparing language skills to cognitive ability and
the belief that language functioning will not grow beyond cognitive levels. This is not a
consistent belief system and is not a best practice associated with the American Speech­
Language-Hearing Association (ASHA). Nor is it consistent with IDEA, which does not place a
qualifier in regards to a specific level of cognitive ability or discrepancy in order to meet criteria
for a language impairment.

Adverse Impact on Educational Performance

In order to meet the definition of an educational disability, the disability must adversely impact
a student’s educational performance. The federal office of special education programming

(OSEP) has provided guidance to clarify that “educational performance” is not limited to
academic performance.4 Impact is determined by the IEP team on a case-by-case basis and is
decided by the specific needs of the student to ensure a free and appropriate education (FAPE).

Language Impairment
The term language impairment is defined as a deficiency in comprehension and/or spoken
language that may also impair written and/or other symbol systems, and negatively impacts the
child’s ability to participate in the educational environment. The impairment involves at least
one of the following components: the form of language (phonology, morphology, and syntax),
the content of language (semantics), and/or the use of language in communication (pragmatics)
that is adversely affecting the child’s educational performance.

A language impairment does not include:

 Children who are in the normal stages of second language acquisition/learning and whose
communication problems result from English being a secondary language unless it is also
determined that they have a speech impairment in their native/primary language.
 Children who have regional, dialectic, and/or cultural differences.
 Children who have auditory processing disorders not accompanied by language
impairment, as Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) is not an eligibility category,
nor diagnosed solely by an SLI.

When analyzing the definition of language impairment, the following areas typically require
clarification:

Phonology – the speech sound system of language, and the rules for how speech sounds are
combined.

Morphology – the rules that govern how morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of
language) are used in a language. A morpheme can be a single word or a word part, such as an
ending, that changes its meaning.
 Example: walk; walks, walking

Semantics – the meaning of words and combination of words, often broadly described as
“vocabulary.”

Syntax – rules in which words can be combined in language, often broadly referenced as
“grammar and sentence structure.”

4 Leter to Clarke, 107 LRP 13115 (OSEP 2007)

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Pragmatics – the rules that govern social communication—verbal and non-verbal—and the use
of language in various settings and people.

Adverse effect on educational performance – An adverse effect is determined if the student’s

speech or language disorders are directly impacting verbal or other symbolic communication,
social participation/relationships, academic performance, or vocational performance. The
federal office of special education’s identification of a communication difference or disorder
does not always adversely affect a student’s education to the degree that special education
intervention is warranted.

Speech Impairment
The term speech impairment is defined as a disability that can result from disorders in any of
the following three areas: articulation, fluency, and voice. While each disorder is evaluated and
treated differently, all three are recognized as a speech impairment.

Articulation: A significant deficiency in the ability to produce sounds in conversational speech

not consistent with chronological age. This includes a significant atypical production of
speech sounds characterized by substitutions, omissions, additions, distortions, phonological
processes, or motor planning and sequencing deficits that interfere with intelligibility in
conversational speech and obstructs learning and successful verbal communication in the
educational setting

Substitutions – replacing one sound with another sound

 Example: “wed”/red; “tat”/cat; “tun”/sun

Omissions – omit a sound in a word

 Example: – “to-“top; “uh-/up; “-nake”/snake

Additions – insert an extra sound within a word

 “balluh”/ball; “doguh”/dog

Distortions – produce a sound in an unfamiliar manner

 Imprecise sounds (“slushy” sounds, such as a lisp* - “thip”/sip)
 A frontal lisp is an error pattern in which the child produces the “S” and “Z” sounds
(sometimes “SH,” “CH,” and “J” as well) with their tongue between their teeth, instead
of behind their teeth, making the “S” sound more like a “TH” (“think”/sink). A frontal
lisp is a common error for preschoolers, and often resolves itself without direct
intervention.
 A lateral lisp is considered atypical and generally is not corrected without
intervention. A lateral lisp occurs when the student’s airflow is misdirected in the
mouth, which causes distortions and “slushy” imprecise productions of “S,” “Z,” and

 often “SH,” “CH,” and “J” sounds. For example, the airstream for the /s/ sound that is
normally directed through the center of the oral cavity over the midline of the
tongue is instead thrust down laterally around the sides of the tongue.

Motor planning – the ability to conceive, plan, and carry out a skilled oral motor act in the
correct sequence from beginning to end.

Sequencing deficits – difficulties articulating sequenced sounds needed for clear speech.

Intelligibility – refers to speech clarity, or the proportion of a speaker’s output that a listener
can readily understand.

Phonological Processes – Phonology is associated with the rules and patterns of the sound
system of language, not the movement of the articulators. The phonological system of a
language governs the ways in which sounds can be combined to form words. With phonological
processes, errors have logical and coherent principles underlying their use. The errors can be
grouped on some principle and thus form patterns (e.g., final consonant deletion: no/nose,
ba/ball, pe/pen, consonant cluster reduction: poon/spoon, top/stop). The student’s patterns
of “simplification” of sound usage severely affect intelligibility. The advantage of identifying
phonological error patterns is that those patterns can then be targeted for remediation,
thereby affecting more than one sound at a time. For example, if a student exhibits a final
consonant deletion pattern, you may choose to target final consonants in general rather than
focus on each and every sound that is omitted at the end of words.

The term articulation, or speech sound impairment, does not include:

 inconsistent or situational errors;

 communication problems primarily resulting from regional, dialectic, and/or cultural

differences;
 speech sound errors at or above age level according to established research-based
developmental norms or speech that is intelligible without documented evidence of
adverse impacts on educational performance;
 errors due to physical structures (e.g., missing teeth, unrepaired cleft lip and/or palate)
that are the primary cause of the speech sound impairment; or
 children who exhibit tongue thrust behavior without an associated speech sound
impairment.

Speech Impairment (Fluency) – Abnormal interruption in the flow of speech, such as stuttering
or cluttering, characterized by any of the following: atypical rate or rhythm; repetition of
sounds, syllables, words and/or phrases; prolongations of sounds; hesitations or blocks
interfering with the production of sounds/words; and secondary or covert behaviors, which
interfere with the speaker’s ability to communicate within the learning environment.

 Excessive tension, struggling behaviors, and secondary characteristics may accompany

fluency impairments. Secondary characteristics are defined as ritualistic behaviors or
movements that accompany disfluencies. Ritualistic behaviors may include avoidance of
specific sounds in words. Fluency impairment includes disorders such as stuttering and
cluttering. It does not include disfluencies evident in only one setting or reported by one
observer.

Speech Impairment (Voice) – A deficiency in pitch, intensity, resonance, or quality resulting

from pathological conditions or inappropriate use of the vocal mechanism, which reduces the
speaker’s ability to communicate within the learning environment.

A voice impairment does include disorders found to be the direct result of or symptom of a
medical condition unless the impairment impacts the child’s performance in the educational
environment and is amenable to improvement with therapeutic intervention.

The following terms in the voice speech impairment definition are further described below:
Pitch: high, typical, or low,

Loudness: loud, typical, or soft,

Quality: may include descriptive terms such as hoarse, harsh, breathy, strained, or weak,

Resonance: hyper-nasal (too much nasality) or hypo-nasal (not enough nasality).

The term voice/resonance impairment does not refer to:

 Anxiety disorders (e.g., selective mutism);

 Differences that are the direct result of regional, dialectic, and/or cultural differences; or

 Differences related to medical issues not directly related to the vocal mechanism (e.g.,

laryngitis, allergies, asthma, laryngopharyngeal reflux, acid reflux of the throat, colds,
abnormal tonsils or adenoids, short-term vocal abuse or misuse, neurological pathology).

Section II: Pre-referral and Referral

Considerations
The Special Education Framework provides general information related to pre-referral
considerations and multi- tiered interventions in component 2.2.

It is the responsibility of school districts to seek ways to meet the unique educational needs of
all children within the general education program prior to referring a child to special education.
By developing a systematic model within general education, districts can provide preventative,
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supplementary differentiated instruction and supports to students who are having trouble
reaching benchmarks.

Pre-referral Interventions
Students who have been identified as at risk will receive appropriate interventions in their
identified area(s) of deficit. These interventions are determined by school-based teams by
considering multiple sources of academic and behavioral data.

One way the Tennessee Department of Education (“department”) supports prevention and
early intervention is through multi-tiered systems of supports (MTSS). The MTSS framework is a
problem-solving system for providing students with the instruction, intervention, and supports
they need with the understanding there are complex links between students’ academic and
behavioral, social, and personal needs. The framework provides multiple tiers of interventions
with increasing intensity along a continuum. Interventions should be based on the identified
needs of the student using evidenced-based practices. Examples of tiered intervention models
include Response to Instruction and Intervention (RTI2), which focuses on academic instruction
and support, and Response to Instruction and Intervention for Behavior (RTI2-B). Within the RTI2
Framework and RTI2-B Framework, academic and behavioral interventions are provided
through Tier II and/or Tier III interventions (see MTSS Framework, RTI2 Manual, and RTI2-B
Manual).

These interventions are in addition to, and not in place of, on-grade-level instruction (i.e., Tier I).
It is important to recognize that ALL students should be receiving appropriate standards-based
differentiation, remediation, and reteaching, as needed in Tier I, and that Tiers II and III are
specifically skills-based interventions.

It is important to document data related to the intervention selection, interventions (including

the intensity, frequency, and duration of the intervention), progress monitoring, intervention
integrity and attendance information, and intervention changes to help teams determine the
need for more intensive supports. This also provides teams with information when determining
the least restrictive environment needed to meet a student’s needs.

Cultural Considerations
Interventions used for EL students must include evidence-based practices for ELs.

Speech or Language Intervention Considerations

ASHA indicates that the prevention of language impairments is one of the primary roles of the
profession of speech and language pathologists. Specific language impairment is one of the
most prevalent childhood disorders affecting approximately seven percent of children (ASHA,
2005). The child with a language impairment is likely to have difficulty with understanding and
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speaking to other children and adults in the classroom. An effective approach to intervention is
a multi-tiered educational framework aimed at early identification and support of students
whose learning needs are not being met. This type of system involves high-quality instruction
and interventions aligned with the student need, routine progress monitoring to inform
instruction, and using data-based decision making for referral and programming needs.

Speech language pathologists (SLP) are valuable resources as schools design and implement a
multi-tiered system of supports. Professional development provided by the SLP is vital in
helping educational staff understand the roles and responsibilities of their position, and how
they contribute to the whole child within the general education setting. Professional
development can include: (This list is not exhaustive.)
 developmental norms associated with language, articulation, phonological
processing, and fluency
 the role that language plays in curriculum, assessment, and instruction
 the identification of systemic patterns of student need with respect to language skills
 the interconnection between spoken and written language
 guidelines for a multi-tiered system of supports focused on students demonstrating
concerns in the areas of speech-language
 resources and intervention strategies for language, articulation, fluency, and voice
 initial referral procedures, assessment, eligibility, and placement
 re-evaluation process procedures

ASHA Position Statement (ASHA, 2002)

“The role of today’s school-based SLPs is complex and multifaceted. Rather than simplifying
that role to a single caseload number, the ASHA workload analysis approach advocates that
complex work is best planned, executed, and documented as a package of direct, indirect and
compliance activities.”

Collaboration:
Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) have an extensive history of working collaboratively with
families, teachers, administrators, and additional service providers. SLPs play a critical role in
collaboration around the speech-language MTSS process. Collaboration can include: (This list is
not exhaustive.)
 Assisting general education classroom teachers with universal screeners
 Participating in the development and implementation of progress monitoring systems
and the analysis of student outcomes
 Serving as members on the school-based intervention teams
 Consulting with teachers to meet the needs of students in identified tiers
 Interpreting screening and progress assessment results

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It is important to understand that students with speech or language impairments can often be
supported in the general education setting. In fact, attempts should be made to offer
interventions in the least restrictive way prior to considering a referral for special education. As
with other learning, children often make marked improvements in their speech and language
skills through focused instruction implemented in the general education setting. With progress,
the student’s needs can be met without the need for direct support from an SLP or intensive
specialized instruction provided through an Individualized Education Plan (IEP).

Speech and language impairments (SLIs) are considered educational disabilities. SLI categories
are reserved for students whose communication skills cannot be supported in the general
education setting, and whose speech or language skills are impeding learning, social
participation, and/or vocation. While a tiered intervention model is recommended prior to a
referral to special education, if at any point there is a suspicion that an educational
disability exists, the team should consider conducting a comprehensive evaluation to
determine the need for special education.

An effective approach to intervention is a multi-tiered educational framework aimed at early

identification and support of students whose learning needs are not being met. This type of
system involves “the practice of providing high-quality instruction and interventions matched to
student need, monitoring progress frequently to make decisions about changes in instruction
or goals, and applying child response data to important educating decisions” (Batsche et al.,
2005).

Characteristics or Risk Factors Associated With Speech and/or

Language Impairments
Language impairment characteristics:
A child’s language skills should be consistent with their overall development as these skills
greatly affect a child’s ability to achieve in school. Language deficits may occur as part of global
development and other disabilities (e.g., hearing impairment, autism, developmental delay,
etc.,) or may exist in an otherwise typical child. Sometimes the cause is known, but often there
is no identifiable cause for the impairment. According to ASHA, specific language impairment is
one of the most prevalent childhood disorders affecting approximately seven percent of
children (ASHA, 2005). A child with a language impairment is likely to have difficulty with
understanding and speaking to other children and adults in the classroom.

A child with a language impairment may exhibit the following:

 Does not babble (4–7 months)
 Makes only a few sounds or gestures, such as pointing (7–12 months)
 Difficulty understanding what others are saying
 Difficulty following directions
 Decreased vocabulary skills
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  Difficulty formulating sentences or questions

 Increased difficulty thinking of the right word to say
 Problems with reading and writing
 Poor eye contact, poor turn-taking skills, and inappropriate use of language for a
particular situation
 Unaware of social rules for communication

ASHA indicates the prevention of language impairments is one of the primary roles of the
profession. While the identification and treatment of language disorders remains a principal
focus, prevention is equally important. The U.S. Preventive Task Force identified the following
as risk factors for speech/language deficits: premature birth/low birth weight, being male, a
family history of speech/language problems, and lower education levels of parents.

The following are tips for parents and caregivers to prevent a language impairment:
 Have your child’s hearing checked and follow up with all doctor’s appointments
regarding your child’s ears (i.e., ear infections).
 Talk to your child from the time they are born.
 Read to your child from the time they are born.
 Sing to your child even when they are a baby.
 Respond to your child’s babbling.
 Play simple games like “peek-a-boo and patty-cake” with your baby.
 Describe for your child what they are doing, feeling, and hearing throughout the day.
 Answer your child’s questions (when they ask why, encourage their curiosity).
 During pregnancy, abstain from use of tobacco, alcohol and drugs.
 Make sure your child wears a helmet and seat belt regularly to prevent head injury.

See Appendix E for typical developmental milestones and Appendix I for a language checklist by
grade.

Speech Impairment: Articulation

Articulation refers to the movement of the speech mechanisms (tongue, lips, larynx, teeth, hard
palate, velum, jaw, nose, and mouth) to produce speech. Articulation errors and articulation
disorders may exist when any of these mechanisms are not working properly, are weak,
damaged, malformed, or out of sync with the rest. The cause of some speech sound problems
is known; for example, speech difficulties can be the result of motor speech disorders (e.g.,
dysarthria), structural differences (e.g., cleft palate), or sensory deficiencies (e.g., hearing
impairment). However, the cause of articulation and phonological speech sound disorders in
most children is unknown. Often, a child has completely normal, functioning articulators, but
simply has difficulty making particular sounds. In essence, an articulation disorder is a speech
disorder that affects the production of individual consonant and vowel sounds.

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Even so, a number of studies have identified risk and protective factors associated with speech
sound disorders in children. Risk factors include:
 being male;
 pre- and perinatal problems;
 oral sucking habits (e.g., excessive sucking of pacifiers or thumb);
 ear, nose, and throat problems;
 a more reactive temperament;
 family history of speech and language problems;
 low parental education; and
 lack of support for learning in the home.

See Appendix G for a teacher questionnaire regarding articulation errors.

Speech Impairment: Fluency

According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD),
approximately 3 million Americans stutter. Developmental stuttering occurs most often in
children between the ages of 2 and 6 as they are developing their language skills.
Approximately 5–10 percent of all children will stutter for some period of time in their life. In
her article “Developmental Stuttering: A Transition between Early Talking and Eloquent Speech,”
Kate Anderson describes developmental stuttering as a temporary break in the fluency of
speech that occurs when the child has a large growth spurt in language development but lacks
the motor coordination to keep up with increasingly complex verbal messages. Developmental
stuttering is characterized by effortless repetitions (e.g., 1–2 repetitions, such as ba-baby) or
prolongations of sounds. Some brief hesitancies or short interjections may also be observed. It
is typical for disfluent speech characteristics to come and go in the early years of development.
Boys are 2–3 times as likely to stutter as girls and as they get older this gender difference
increases; the number of boys who continue to stutter is 3–4 times larger than the number of
girls. Research suggests conservative estimates of 74 percent overall recovery and 26 percent
persistency rates in his research of early childhood stutters (Yairi, 1999).

As children who stutter get older, they may become adept at word and situational avoidances
that may result in a low frequency of overt stuttering. In addition, children with cluttering or
stuttering may only experience symptoms situationally, particularly during times of high
emotion, either positive or negative, or through seasons of significant change in the home or
school environment. However, despite the fact that some children may show little observable
disfluency, they may still be in need of treatment for a fluency disorder due to the negative
effect stuttering or cluttering is having on the development of social skills, quality of social
interactions, and/or ability to participate in oral classroom activities.

ASHA further explains that differentiating between typical disfluencies and stuttering is a critical
piece of assessment, particularly for preschool children. For school-age children, it is important

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to distinguish stuttering from other possible diagnoses (e.g., language formulation difficulties,
cluttering, and reading disorders) and to distinguish cluttering from language-related difficulties
(e.g., word finding and organization of discourse) and other disorders that have an impact on
speech intelligibility (e.g., apraxia of speech and other speech sound disorders). Keep in mind
that children may have fluency disorders as well as co-occurring conditions (ASHA).

Without proper intervention, children who exhibit signs of early stuttering are more at risk for
continued stuttering. The chart below describes some characteristics of "typical disfluency" and
"stuttering" (Adapted from Coleman, 2013).

The following characteristics are considered non-developmental red flags and warrant further
evaluation:
 Stuttering persists beyond six months
 Struggle behaviors, or secondary characteristics, associated with stuttering are observed
 Family history of stuttering or related communication disorders is documented
 Age of onset – if a child begins stuttering before age three and a half, s/he is more likely
to outgrow the stuttering
 Presence of other speech and/or language delays
 Avoidance of speaking situations or marked increase in frustration with speaking tasks

Chart: Risk Factors5

Risk Factor Elevated Risk Factor
Family history of stuttering A parent, sibling, or other family member
who stutters
Age at onset Age after three and a half

Time since onset Stuttering 6–12 months or longer

Gender Male

Other speech production concerns Speech sound error or trouble being

understood
Language Skills Advanced, delated, or disordered

5 http://www.stutteringhelp.org/risk-factors

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Chart: Disfluency versus Stuttering6

Typical Disfluency Stuttering

Speech Characteristics Speech Characteristics

 Multisyllabic whole-word  Sound or syllable repetitions
and phrase repetitions  Prolongations
 Interjections  Blocks
 Revisions

Other Behaviors Other Behaviors

 No physical tension or  Associated physical tension or struggle
struggle  Secondary behaviors (e.g., eye blinks, facial
 No secondary behaviors grimacing, changes in pitch or loudness)
 No negative reaction or  Negative reaction or frustration
frustration  Avoidance behaviors (e.g., reduced verbal
 No family history of output or word/situational avoidances)
stuttering  Family history of stuttering

For some students, early treatment may prevent developmental stuttering from turning into a
lifelong problem. A key point to consider is to try changing the speaking environment but not
the child. Creating positive and calm communication experiences is very impactful to the
student. It is important to assure the speaker that the listener cares more about the message
being communicated than the manner in which it is delivered.

The following are some strategies that can help children learn to improve their speech fluency
while developing positive attitudes toward communication:

1. Give the student your full attention; maintain consistent eye contact and positive

nonverbal messages, such as smiling.

2. Change your conversation style - comment more and asked fewer questions. Lots of
questions or interruptions may seem more confrontational and make the child feel
under pressure to speed things up. Comments encourage elaboration and show you are
listening (Anderson, 2011).
3. Use a slow rate of speech; model slow and easy speech; pause often and take an extra
pause before responding to the student.
4. Create a relaxed environment; set aside a specific time for the student to speak with
decreased social pressures and interruptions.

6 Coleman, C. (2013). How can you tell if childhood stuttering is the real deal? Available from
http://blog.asha.org/2013/09/26/how-can-you-tell-if-childhood-stuttering-is-the-real-deal/
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 5. Try not to become upset or annoyed with the student’s speech; avoid negative
nonverbal reactions, such as frowning, wincing, widening your eyes, looking away, or
tensing up.
6. Model fluent speech; do not try to define it to the student. For example, telling the
student to “slow down,” “take a deep breath,” or “think about what you are going to say,”
will only increase anxiety and generate negative attention to the stuttering behaviors.
7. Do not complete sentences for the student or try to “help” by filling in the blanks or
talking for him/her during disfluent moments.

When working with students who begin to exhibit disfluent speech, it is important to obtain an
objective analysis of their speech patterns, and then to educate parents, teachers, and others
around the student on typical versus atypical speech fluency as well as provide tips to create a
positive communication environment.

See Appendix H for a fluency checklist.

Speech Impairment: Voice

ASHA indicates voice disorders seen in children include functional laryngeal pathologies
(chronic hoarseness), vocal fold nodules, laryngitis, polyps, laryngomalacia, and stenosis. Other
disorders commonly related to the pediatric population are chronic hoarseness, papilloma,
gastroesophageal reflux disease, and congenital laryngeal web (ASHA, 2002).

Classification of voice disorders:

 Structural or organic diseases affecting the larynx/vocal folds
 Disorders of misuse/abuse
 Neurogenic diseases affect the parts of the central or peripheral nervous systems
involved in voice production
 Psychogenic – no observable cause of vocal problem

Socially, students with voice disorders:

 limit their participation in the classroom (decreased confidence, refusal to read aloud,
decreased questions).
 have difficulty communicating in loud school environments (bus, playground, cafeteria).

The Voice Foundation details preventative care for voice disorders

“Voice Health Through Vocal Hygiene – Not Just for Performing Artists

17

 Voice health as a part of good health is not just for voice professionals. Just as hygiene plays
a key role in general health issues and the prevention of diseases, vocal hygiene plays a key
role in voice preservation and the prevention of voice disorders.7

Components of vocal hygiene are:

 Healthy diet and lifestyle
 Voice warm-ups before use
 Voice training on proper technique to meet voice demands
 Voice exercise to improve endurance and power
 Proper voice use and avoidance of voice misuse and overuse

Remembering Steps for Vocal Hygiene

V Value your voice through healthy diet and lifestyle.

O Optimize your voice with vocal warm-ups before use.

I Invest in your voice with training in proper voice technique.

C Cherish your voice by avoiding voice misuse, overuse, and abuse.

E Exercise your voice to increase endurance and power”

For teachers:
 Children are with teachers for six hours a day during the school year. Many teachers
have an interest in the child's voice difficulty but may not know how to help.
 Suggestions for teachers include:
o Music/choir teacher: This instructor's training in use of the voice is a real bonus
to the treatment program. Vocal warm-ups have some similarities to vocal
function exercises as well as to resonant voice treatment. Consider requesting
that the child participate in the vocal warm-up section of the class and lip sync
the rest (ASHA, 2005).
o Science teacher: Offer to show a video of vocal fold vibration. If human anatomy
is the subject, request that the development of vocal fold nodules, as well as
good vocal hygiene, be discussed.
o Art teacher: Suggest an art project, such as banners to hang in classrooms to
dampen noise.
o All teachers: Discuss allowing child to bring a water bottle to class. Have a
prewritten letter supporting the need for increased hydration for the child.

See Appendix L and Appendix M for voice checklists and vocal monitoring.

7 http://voicefoundation.org/health-science/voice-disorders/overview-of-diagnosis-treatment-prevention/voice­
disorder-prevention/
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Background Considerations
 Developmental norms: Most young children produce sound errors as their speech and
language develops. For instance, typical sound errors than many young children
produce include substituting a "W" sound for an "R" sound, or an “F” sound for a “TH”
sound (e.g., "wabbit" for "rabbit"; “baf” for “bath”), or leaving off parts of words, such as
"nana" for "banana." These early speech behaviors are expected as children’s
articulatory (mouth movements) language (learning and understanding new words) and
phonology (understanding the way sounds are used within their language) systems
develop.

A speech sound disorder occurs when errors continue past a certain age. Sound errors
may include one sound or multiple sounds being substituted for another, sounds being
omitted from words, sounds being added to words, or sounds being distorted. Every
sound has a different range of ages at which the child should make the sound correctly.

See: Developmental sound chart:

 Medical: In many settings, once school‐based personnel identify a child as having a
“potential voice problem,” it is the school SLP who often becomes the primary advocate
for the child’s laryngeal examination. The justification for persistence in this
recommendation is clear‐cut. Moreover, an understanding of the primary pathology
may lead to better insight regarding the secondary laryngeal and respiratory
compensations that a child may exhibit (Sapienza & Ruddy, 2004). ASHA Preferred
Practice Patterns (2005) states, “All patients/clients with a voice disorder must be
examined by a physician, preferably in a discipline appropriate to the presenting
complaint. This examination may occur before or after the voice evaluation.”

 Cultural or Dialectal Factors: Not all sound substitutions and omissions are speech
errors. Instead, they may be related to a feature of a dialect or accent. For example,
speakers of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) may use a "d" sound for a "th"
sound (e.g., "dis" for "this"); and a student whose native or home language is Spanish
may produce the “R” sound differently than those who are native English speakers. In
many other languages, the sounds produced in Standard American English do not
occur; therefore in the case of a student whose primary language is any other than
English, it is expected that sound substitutions or omissions would occur. These
differences are not considered speech errors and do not warrant a referral.

 Language Acquisition: Before a student is referred for a formal language evaluation, the
person making the referral needs to provide sufficient background information for the
student and describe the types of difficulties the student is having. It is very important
for the person making the referral to understand that there is a difference between a
language impairment/disorder and language differences. A child who is learning English

19

 as a second language may display some of the characteristics of a child with a language
impairment. However, this is not a disability, and there should be a rule out that the
student’s difficulties are not due the fact that he or she does not understand or speak
English efficiently. A language impairment must exist in a child’s first language to be
considered a disability according to Clark and Kamhi (2009).

 Educational Impact: In the educational setting, the school team and SLP may identify
errors or differences in a child’s speech, but a student may not be found eligible with a
speech impairment unless the sound errors are not due to regional/dialectal
differences. The errors must persist beyond the age of typical development, impact
overall intelligibility (ability to be understood by others), and impact a student’s
academic, social, or vocational development.

 Vision/Hearing Issues: As with all evaluations, vision and hearing screenings are integral
pieces. Ensuring typical vision and hearing assists teams in focusing intervention and
determining possible causes of difficulty.

Pre-Referral Considerations and/or General Education

Accommodations
As school teams consider the appropriateness of referrals, the following information may assist
teams with making decisions:
 Rule out difference versus disorder. Respect cultural, regional, and native language
dialectal differences.
 Conduct a hearing screening. Children with frequent ear infections or Otitis-Media
(persistent fluid in the middle ear) may be at risk for potential hearing loss and
subsequent speech and language delays.
 Conduct an oral mechanism exam to ensure that there are no structural issues

contributing to the speech errors.

 Conduct and analyze results from a language screener. A screener can assist in
determining if a child is developing within the “average” compared to peers his or her
age.
 Collect developmental history of the child including family history of speech delays,
persistent thumb/finger sucking, feeding development, and motor/speech/language
development.
 Collect a sample of the student’s speech.

 Analyze voice, pitch, intensity, and quality.

 Observe in academic and nonacademic settings.

In addition to ruling out a second language as the primary cause of a child’s difficulty with
language, the referral source and SLP should ensure that the areas of concern are not the
result of language differences. Individuals who come from linguistically different cultural
20

backgrounds may have certain language patterns and dialects that are specific to that
population; the differences from standard English do not indicate a disability.

The following are important considerations for the team during pre-referral:
 linguistically and culturally appropriate screening measures;
 the home language survey;
 developmental history of the child;
 previous preschool experiences (Has the child been home with relatives up until
enrollment in school, or was there prior pre-school exposure?);

 family history of speech and language problems;

 a passed hearing and vision screening; and

 pertinent medical findings.

ASHA has established guidelines related to the role of the speech-language pathologist (SLP).
SLPs play a central role in the screening, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of persons with
speech sound disorders. The professional roles and activities in speech-language pathology
include clinical/educational services (diagnosis, assessment, planning, and treatment),
prevention and advocacy, and professional development. See ASHA's Scope of Practice in
Speech-Language Pathology (ASHA, 2016).

Appropriate roles for SLPs include:

 providing prevention information to individuals and groups known to be at risk for
speech sound disorders, as well as to individuals working with those at risk;
 educating other professionals on the needs of persons with speech sound disorders
and the role of SLPs in diagnosing and managing speech sound disorders;
 screening individuals who present with speech sound difficulties and determining the
need for further assessment and/or referral for other services;
 conducting a culturally and linguistically relevant comprehensive assessment of speech,
language, and communication;
 diagnosing the presence or absence of a speech sound disorder;
 referring to and collaborating with other professionals to rule out other conditions,
determine etiology, and facilitate access to comprehensive services;
 making decisions about the management of speech sound disorders;
 making decisions about eligibility for services, based on the presence of a speech sound
disorder;
 developing treatment plans, providing intervention and support services, documenting
progress, and determining appropriate service delivery approaches and dismissal
criteria;
 serving as an integral member of an interdisciplinary team working with individuals with
speech sound disorders and their families/caregivers;

21

  counseling persons with speech sound disorders and their families/caregivers regarding
communication-related issues and providing education aimed at preventing further
complications related to speech sound disorders;
 consulting and collaborating with professionals, family members, caregivers, and others
to facilitate program development and to provide supervision, evaluation, and/or expert
testimony;
 remaining informed of research in the area of speech sound disorders, helping advance
the knowledge base related to the nature and treatment of these disorders, and using
evidence-based research to guide intervention;
 advocating for individuals with speech sound disorders and their families at the local,
state, and national levels.
As indicated in the Code of Ethics (ASHA, 2016), SLPs who serve this population should be
specifically educated and appropriately trained to do so.

The School Team’s Role

A major goal of the school-based pre-referral intervention team is to adequately address
students’ academic and behavioral needs. The process recognizes many variables affecting
learning. Thus, rather than first assuming the difficulty lies within the child, team members and
the teacher should consider a variety of variables that may be at the root of the problem,
including the curriculum, instructional materials, instructional practices, and teacher
perceptions.

When school teams meet to determine intervention needs, there should be an outlined process
that includes:8
 documentation, using multiple sources of data, of difficulties and/or areas of concern;
 a problem-solving approach to address identified concerns
 documentation of interventions, accommodations, strategies to improve area(s) of
concern;

 intervention progress monitoring and fidelity;

 a team decision-making process for making intervention changes and referral

recommendations based on the student’s possible need for more intensive services
and/or accommodations; and

 examples of pre-referral interventions and accommodations.

Referral Information: Documenting Important Pieces of the Puzzle

When considering a referral for an evaluation, the team should review all information available
to help determine whether the evaluation is warranted and determine the assessment plan.
The following data from the general education intervention phase that can be used includes:

8 National Alliance of Black School Educators (2002). Addressing Over-Representation of African American
Students in Special, Education
22

1) reported areas of academic difficulty,

2) documentation of the problem,

3) evidence that the problem is chronic,

4) medical history and/or reports,

5) records or history of significant developmental delays across all learning domains,

6) record of accommodations and interventions attempted,

7) school attendance and school transfer information,

8) multi-sensory instructional alternatives, and

9) continued lack of progress

Referral
Pursuant to IDEA Regulations at 34 C.F.R. §300.301(b), a parent or the school district may refer a
child for an evaluation to determine if the child is a child with disability. If a student is suspected
of an educational disability at any time, s/he may be referred by the student's teacher, parent,
or outside sources for an initial comprehensive evaluation based on referral concerns. The use
of RTI2 strategies may not be used to delay or deny the provision of a full and individual
evaluation, pursuant to 34 CFR §§300.304-300.311, to a child suspected of having a
disability under 34 CFR §300.8. For more information on the rights to an initial evaluation,
refer to Memorandum 11-07 from the U.S. Department of Education Office of Special Education
and Rehabilitative Services.

School districts should establish and communicate clear written referral procedures to ensure
consistency throughout the district. Upon referral, all available information relative to the
suspected disability, including background information, parent and/or student input, summary
of interventions, current academic performance, vision and hearing screenings, relevant
medical information, and any other pertinent information should be collected and must be
considered by the referral team. The team, not an individual, then determines whether it is an
appropriate referral (i.e., the team has reason to suspect a disability) for an initial
comprehensive evaluation. The school team must obtain informed parental consent and
provide written notice of the evaluation.

Parent Request for Referral and Evaluation

If a parent refers/requests their child for an evaluation, the school district must meet within a
reasonable time to consider the request following the above procedures for referral.
 If the district agrees that an initial evaluation is needed, the district must evaluate the
child. The school team must then obtain informed parental consent of the assessment
plan in a timely manner and provide written notice of the evaluation.
 If the district does not agree that the student is suspected of a disability, they must
provide prior written notice to the parent of the refusal to evaluate. The notice must
include the basis for the determination and an explanation of the process followed to

23

 reach that decision. If the district refuses to evaluate or if the parent refuses to give
consent to evaluate, the opposing party may request a due process hearing.

TN Assessment Team Instrument Selection Form

In order to determine the most appropriate assessment tools, to provide the best estimate of
skill or ability, for screenings and evaluations, the team should complete the TN Assessment
Instrument Selection Form (TnAISF) (see Appendix A). The TnAISF provides needed information
to ensure the assessments chosen are sensitive to the student’s:
 cultural-linguistic differences;
 socio-economic factors; and
 test taking limitations, strengths, and range of abilities.

Section III: Comprehensive Evaluation

When a student is suspected of an educational disability and/or is not making progress with
appropriate pre-referral interventions that have increased in intensity based on student
progress, s/he may be referred for a psychoeducational evaluation. A referral may be made by
the student's teacher, parent, or outside sources at any time.

Referral information and input from the child’s team lead to the identification of specific areas to
be included in the evaluation. All areas of suspected disability must be evaluated. In addition to
determining the existence of a disability, the evaluation should also focus on the educational
needs of the student as they relate to a continuum of services. Comprehensive evaluations shall
be performed by a multidisciplinary team using a variety of sources of information that are
sensitive to cultural, linguistic, and environmental factors or sensory impairments. The required
evaluation participants for evaluations related to suspected disabilities are outlined in the
eligibility standards. Once written parental consent is obtained, the school district must conduct
all agreed upon components of the evaluation and determine eligibility within sixty (60) calendar
days of the district’s receipt of parental consent.

24

 Cultural Considerations: Culturally Sensitive Assessment Practices

IEP team members must understand the process of second language acquisition and the
characteristics exhibited by EL students at each stage of language development if they are to
distinguish between language differences and other impairments. The combination of data
obtained from a case history and interview information regarding the student’s primary or
home language (L1), the development of English language (L2) and ESL instruction, support at
home for the development of the first language, language sampling and informal
assessment, as well as standardized language proficiency measures should enable the IEP
team to make accurate diagnostic judgments. Assessment specialists must also consider
these variables in the selection of appropriate assessments. Consideration should be given to
the use of an interpreter, nonverbal assessments, and/or assessment in the student’s
primary language. Only after documenting problematic behaviors in the primary or home
language and in English, and eliminating extrinsic variables as causes of these problems,
should the possibility of the presence of a disability be considered.

English Learners
To determine whether a student who is an English learner has a disability it is crucial to
differentiate a disability from a cultural or language difference. In order to conclude that an
English learner has a specific disability, the assessor must rule out the effects of different
factors that may simulate language disabilities. One reason English learners are sometimes
referred for special education is a deficit in their primary or home language. No matter how
proficient a student is in his or her primary or home language, if cognitively challenging native
language instruction has not been continued, he or she is likely to demonstrate a regression in
primary or home language abilities. According to Rice and Ortiz (1994), students may exhibit a
decrease in primary language proficiency through:
 inability to understand and express academic concepts due to the lack of academic
instruction in the primary language,
 simplification of complex grammatical constructions,
 replacement of grammatical forms and word meanings in the primary language by
those in English, and
 the convergence of separate forms or meanings in the primary language and English.

These language differences may result in a referral to special education because they do not fit
the standard for either language, even though they are not the result of a disability. The
assessor also must keep in mind that the loss of primary or home language competency
negatively affects the student’s communicative development in English.

In addition to understanding the second language learning process and the impact that first
language competence and proficiency has on the second language, the assessor must be aware
of the type of alternative language program that the student is receiving.
25

The assessor should consider questions such as:

 In what ways has the effectiveness of the English as a second language (ESL) instruction
been documented?
 Was instruction delivered by the ESL teacher?
 Did core instruction take place in the general education classroom?
 Is the program meeting the student’s language development needs?
 Is there meaningful access to core subject areas in the general education classroom?
What are the documented results of the instruction?
 Were the instructional methods and curriculum implemented within a sufficient amount
of time to allow changes to occur in the student’s skill acquisition or level?

The answers to these questions will help the assessor determine if the language difficulty is due
to inadequate language instruction or the presence of a disability.

It is particularly important for a general education teacher and an ESL teacher/specialist to work
together in order to meet the linguistic needs of this student group. To ensure ELs are receiving
appropriate accommodations in the classroom and for assessment, school personnel should
consider the following when making decisions:
 Student characteristics such as:
o Oral English language proficiency level
o English language proficiency literacy level
o Formal education experiences
o Native language literacy skills
o Current language of instruction
 Instructional tasks expected of students to demonstrate proficiency in grade-level
content in state standards

 Appropriateness of accommodations for particular content areas

*For more specific guidance on English learners and immigrants, refer to the English as a
Second Language Program Guide (August 2016).

Best Practices
Evaluations for all disability categories require comprehensive assessment methods that
encompass multimodal, multisource, multidomain and multisetting documentation.

 Multimodal: In addition to an extensive review of existing records, teams should gather

information from anecdotal records, unstructured or structured interviews, rating scales
(more than one; narrow in focus versus broad scales that assess a wide range of
potential issues), observations (more than one setting; more than one activity), and
work samples/classroom performance products.

26

  Multisource: Information pertaining to the referral should be obtained from

parent(s)/caregiver(s), teachers, community agencies, medical/mental health
professionals, and the student. It is important when looking at each measurement of
assessment that input is gathered from all invested parties. For example, when
obtaining information from interviews and/or rating scales, consider all available
sources—parent(s), teachers, and the student—for each rating scale/interview.

 Multidomain: Teams should take care to consider all affected domains and provide a
strengths-based assessment in each area. Domains to consider include cognitive ability,
academic achievement, social relationships, adaptive functioning, response to
intervention, and medical/mental health information.

 Multisetting: Observations should occur in a variety of settings that provide an overall

description of the student’s functioning across environments (classroom, hallway,
cafeteria, recess), activities (whole group instruction, special area participation, free
movement), and time. Teams should have a 360 degree view of the student.

Speech and/or Language Evaluations

The purpose of a speech and/or language evaluation is to determine the possible presence of a
communication impairment, which is suspected to be impacting a student’s education. The
evaluation process results from a referral due to a suspicion of an educational disability. The
speech-language assessment shall be conducted in conjunction with a multidisciplinary team
due to concerns reaching beyond communication or speech and/or language skills. Articulation,
fluency, voice, and language disorders are each unique communication areas, and therefore
are evaluated differently by the SLP. The data collected during the evaluation are critical for the
purpose of determining whether a child is eligible for special education and to assist in the
development of the student’s IEP, if determined to be eligible. It is the responsibility of the SLP
to gather educationally relevant data in the areas of speech, voice, fluency, and language as
appropriate.

Evaluation Procedures (Standards)

A comprehensive evaluation performed by a multidisciplinary team using a variety of sources of
information that are sensitive to cultural, linguistic, and environmental factors or sensory
impairments to include the following:

(1) Language Impairment -significant deficiency in the student’s comprehension, form,

content or use of language shall be determined by:
(a) Hearing screening;
(b) A minimum of one comprehensive standardized measure of receptive and
expressive language (vocabulary, syntax, morphology, mean length of utterance,
syntax, semantics, morphology) that falls at least 1.5 standard deviations below
27

 the mean, with consideration to the assessment’s standard error of

measurement. This could be based on the test as a whole or the composite
receptive/expressive language scores. Individual subtest scores shall not be
used;
(c) An additional standardized measure to support identified areas of delay that fall
at least 1.5 standard deviations below the mean with consideration to the
assessment’s standard error of measure;
(d) Pragmatics (if identified as an area of concern);
(e) Auditory perception: selective attention, discrimination, memory, sequencing,
association, and integration;
(f) Teacher checklist;
(g) Parent Input; and
(h) Documentation, including observation and/or assessment (to include the
severity rating scale), of how the Language Impairment adversely affects the
child’s educational performance in his/her learning environment and the need
for specialized instruction and related services (i.e., to include academic and/or
nonacademic areas).

(2) Articulation (Speech Sound Production) Impairment – a significant deficiency in

articulation shall be determined by all of the following:
(a) Hearing screening;
(b) Articulation error(s) persisting at least 1 year behind expectancy compared to
current developmental norms (see state approved norms in guidance
document);
(c) An appropriate standardized instrument to include phonetic inventory (required)
and assessment of phonological processes (as appropriate). See state approved
norms in guidance document;
(d) Evidence that the child’s scores are at a moderate, severe, or profound rating
(i.e., severity rating scale);
(e) Teacher checklist/input;
(f) Parent input;
(g) Stimulability probes;
(h) Oral peripheral examination;
(i) Analysis of phoneme production in conversational speech; and
(j) Documentation, including observation and/or assessment, of how Articulation
Impairment adversely affects the child’s educational performance in his/her
learning environment and the need for specialized instruction and related
services (i.e., to include academic and/or nonacademic areas).

(3) Voice Impairment – evaluation of vocal characteristics shall include the following:
(a) Hearing screening;

28

 (b) Examination by an otolaryngologist;

(c) Oral peripheral examination; and
(d) Documentation, including observation and/or assessment, of how Voice
Impairment adversely affects his/her educational performance in his/her
learning environment and the need for specialized instruction and related
services (i.e., to include academic and/or nonacademic areas).

(4) Fluency Impairment – evaluation of fluency shall include the following:

(a) Hearing screening;
(b) Information obtained from parents, students, and teacher(s) regarding non-
fluent behaviors/attitudes across communication situations;
(c) Oral peripheral examination; and
(d) Documentation, including observations across multiple settings and/or
assessment, of how Fluency Impairment adversely affects the child’s educational
performance in his/her learning environment and the need for specialized
instruction and related services (i.e., to include academic and/or nonacademic
areas).

Evaluation Procedure Guidance

Standard 1 (a): Hearing screening
Loss of hearing must be ruled out as a cause of academic and/or social concerns. In addition,
hearing loss may influence performance on assessment measures and possibly invalidate
results. In cases where hearing screenings indicate a student is having difficulty hearing, the
assessment specialist and school team will need to take that into consideration in conjunction
with evaluation results when determining primary reasons for underperformance on
assessments and presenting concerns.

Standard 1 (b) Language Impairment: A minimum of one comprehensive standardized

measure of receptive and expressive language (vocabulary, syntax, morphology, mean length
of utterance, syntax, semantics, morphology) that falls at least 1.5 standard deviations below
the mean, with consideration to the assessment’s standard error of measurement. This could
be based on the test as a whole or the composite receptive/expressive language scores.
Individual subtest scores shall not be used.
Standard error of measure (SEM): The SEM estimates how repeated measures of a person on
the same instrument tend to be distributed around his or her “true” score. The true score is
always an unknown because no measure can be constructed that provides a perfect reflection
of the true score. SEM is directly related to the reliability of a test; that is, the larger the SEM, the
lower the reliability of the test and the less precision there is in the measures taken and scores
obtained. Since all measurement contains some error, it is highly unlikely that any test will yield
the same scores for a given person each time they are retested.

29

The SEM should be reported and considered when reviewing all sources of data collected as
part of the evaluation. Below is guidance on when to use the scores falling within the SEM:
 Only use on a case-by-case basis.
 Use is supported by the TnAISF and/or other supporting evidence that the other options
may be an under- or overestimate of the student’s ability.
 Assessment specialists that are trained in evaluation provide professional judgement
and documented reasons regarding why this may be used as the best estimate of ability

Standardized tests evaluate discrete skills in a decontextualized setting (i.e., away from natural
communicative environments). Norm-referenced tests do not document functional
performance in educational settings. In addition, not all children are suitable candidates for
standardized tests. A comprehensive language assessment should incorporate formal and
informal measures that adequately describe how a child is able to understand and use
language with adults and his or her peers. While individual subtest scores shall not be used to
determine eligibility for services, if there are significantly low scores on subtests or composites,
which are consistent with other sources of data, a variety of data sources should be used to get
a “true” picture of a student’s ability to use language in his or her environment.

After completing a standardized measure, the SLP should consider the results and performance
on all areas of the assessment in relation to referral concerns, other sources of data, the
normative sample, and other factors that may impact performance. If there is reason to
believe the results are an overestimate of the student’s current communication skills,
additional assessment (formal or informal) may be needed, while taking the standard
error of measure (paying attention to all composite confidence intervals) into
consideration.

One type of informal assessment that may especially helpful in such cases in the completion of
a language sample analysis. A language sample provides a great deal of information on a child’s
language abilities and overall conversational skills. Specific language areas include syntax
(grammar), semantics (word meanings), morphology (word parts, such as suffixes and prefixes),
and pragmatics (social skills). A language sample often consists of 50 to 100 utterances spoken
by the child, but it can have as many as 200 utterances. The SLP writes down exactly what the
child says, including errors in grammar. Errors in articulation or speech sounds are not
recorded.

Descriptive measures of functional or adaptive communication often provide a more realistic

picture of how a student uses his/her communication abilities in everyday situations and the
impact of a language impairment in these settings if one exists.

Examples of Additional Sources of Information

30

The selected assessment tools should be purposeful and be designed to explore and
investigate the area/s of concern, as well as provide useful information relative to the
suspected deficit.
 Norm-referenced Assessments - speech-language tests which measure communication
skills using formalized procedures. They are designed to compare a particular student’s
performance against the performance of a group of students with the same
demographic characteristics. One of the considerations made by the SLP in selecting
valid and reliable assessment tools is ensuring the normative population of any
instrument matches the student’s characteristics. This information is found in the
technical manual for the test.
 Checklists - a developed form or scale which allows a rater to consider various skills and
indicate a student’s use of a skill in a particular setting, or indicate potential absences of
the expected skills.
 Direct Observations - the SLP observes the student during everyday classroom activities
or across educational settings, and allows for a more natural opportunity to identify
communication strengths and weakness.
 Interviews - conversations with or questionnaires given to parents, caregivers, medical
professionals, or educators, which provide information related to a student’s
communication history and current functioning.
 Play-based Assessments - assessments, which provide an opportunity to observe and
evaluate a child in the natural context of play. Play-based assessments are an important
tool when evaluating preschool children and are often completed by a multidisciplinary
team so multiple areas of development can be considered.
 Dynamic Assessments - are a method of conducting a language assessment which seeks
to identify the skills that the student possesses as well as their learning potential. This
enables the examiner to determine what type and degree of assistance the student
requires in order to be successful. In short, dynamic assessments are a process of test,
teach, and retest. This type of assessment helps to identify the level of support or
teaching structure a student may need in order to learn a particular skill. Dynamic
assessments are not norm-referenced, but can be a valuable tool in understanding a
child’s potential response to various intervention styles.
 Speech and/or Language Sampling - a sample of a child’s spoken speech/language
during a particular task (conversation, retell, describing tasks, narratives) which helps
the SLP determine intelligibility, production of speech sounds in connected speech,
and/or the use of expected structures and components of language (sentence length
and complexity, variety of words, vocabulary use, grammatical components, etc.).

Important Tips to Remember:

 Best practice is not to report age-equivalency scores on a norm-referenced assessment
as they imply a false standard of performance.

31

  The IEP team should discuss and consider cultural and linguistic bias before determining
a student is eligible for a language impairment.
 Standard scores from norm-referenced tests should only be a SMALL part of the
assessment picture.
 The speech-language evaluation report should be written in an easily understood
language without extensive use of professional jargon.
 The SLP should document the presence or absence of a language impairment in the
speech-language evaluation report.
 The SLP should not make an eligibility determination or recommendations for or against
language therapy in the speech-language report. (The IEP team does this.)

Culturally and Linguistically Diverse students: When evaluation data reveals evidence of dialect
use or language differences, they should be documented as such and should not be counted as
errors. If language differences and/or dialects are incorrectly treated as errors, students may be
inappropriately identified as having a language impairment. When selecting the most
appropriate test to administer, the SLP should review the test manual to see if students who do
not speak Standard American English will be penalized for their language differences. Dynamic
assessment can be very useful when evaluating students from culturally and linguistically
diverse backgrounds. Dynamic assessment includes a test-teach-test approach to assist with
differential diagnosis of a language impairment as opposed to a language difference. When
provided with modeling and guided practice, the student who does not have a disability will
often show significant improvement when reassessed.

Special Populations: For some student populations, such as children with severe disabilities, the
provision of unbiased assessments can only be made with descriptive measures. The
Functional Communication Profile, the Functional Communication-Teacher Input, and the
Functional Communication Rating Scale can be utilized to assess the communication skills for
these students.

English Language Learners: When assessing children for whom English is not the primary
language, it is important to utilize evaluation tools that accurately reflect a child’s true language
abilities. Tests should be administered in the child’s native language. According to ASHA, if the
test utilized was not normed on children who speak the particular language being tested, it is
not appropriate to report standard scores.9 However, descriptive information obtained
during the administration of the test can be used to describe the child’s strengths and
weaknesses in the area of communication. When assessing the bilingual child, the SLP should
use an interpreter, conduct an interview with the parent/caregivers, and always utilize a
conversational sample.

9 http://www.asha.org/practice/multicultural/issues/assess/
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Standard 1 (c) Language Impairment: An additional standardized measure to support

identified areas of delay that fall at least 1.5 standard deviations below the mean with
consideration to the assessment’s standard error of measure.
The SLP will analyze formal comprehensive scores and informal measures to identify a possible
weakness, possibly a subtest from a language assessment or poor syntax in conversational
speech. Although subtest scores cannot be used alone to meet eligibility standards, they can
identify weaknesses that may not be reflected in the overall comprehensive, or receptive and
expressive scores. The standard error of measure should be considered when determining the
most appropriate score to use based on a specific weakness from a subtest or informal
assessment. The additional standardized measure(s) should be used to further examine and
collect data for a suspected weakness from the comprehensive assessment and informal
assessments.

Standard 1 (d) Language Impairment: Pragmatics

According to ASHA, Pragmatics involves three major communication skills:

Using language for different purposes, such as:

 greeting (e.g., hello, goodbye);
 informing (e.g., I'm going to get a cookie);
 demanding (e.g., Give me a cookie);
 promising (e.g., I'm going to get you a cookie); and
 requesting (e.g., I would like a cookie, please).

Changing language according to the needs of a listener or situation, such as:

 talking differently to a baby than to an adult;
 giving background information to an unfamiliar listener; and
 speaking differently in a classroom than on a playground.

Following rules for conversations and storytelling, such as:

 taking turns in conversation;
 introducing topics of conversation;
 staying on topic;
 rephrasing when misunderstood;
 how to use verbal and nonverbal signals;
 how close to stand to someone when speaking; and
 how to use facial expressions and eye contact.

These rules may vary across cultures and within cultures. It is important to understand the rules of
your communication partner.

An individual with pragmatic problems may:

33

  say inappropriate or unrelated things during conversations;

 tell stories in a disorganized way; and/or

 have little variety in language use.

It is not unusual for children to have pragmatic problems in only a few situations. However, if
problems in social language use occur often and seem inappropriate considering the child's
age, a pragmatic disorder may exist. Pragmatic disorders often coexist with other language
problems such as vocabulary development or grammar. Pragmatic problems can lower social
acceptance. Peers may avoid having conversations with an individual with a pragmatic disorder.

Standard 1 (e) Language Impairment: Auditory perception: selective attention, discrimination,

memory, sequencing, association, and integration
Auditory perception skills are identified and measured through a variety of formal and informal

assessments. Informal assessments can include checklists, skill inventories, observations, and

functional language samples. The areas of auditory processing are defined below.

Selective attention - a process whereby the brain selectively filters out large amounts of sensory

information in order to focus on just one message.

Discrimination - the brain's ability to organize and make sense of language sounds. Children

who have difficulties with this might have trouble understanding and developing language skills

because their brains either misinterpret language sounds or process them too slowly.

Memory - skills specific to retaining auditory information.

Sequencing - the ability to remember or reconstruct the order of items in a list, or the order of

sounds in a word or syllable.

Association - the ability to link spoken words in a meaningful manner.

Integration - the ability to combine information that is given in more than one medium. This

may translate as a problem when a child has to listen to directions and then perform a physical

task, such as in a physical education class.

Standard 1(f) Language Impairment: Teacher Checklist (Language)

Obtain information regarding differentiation strategies and accommodations used within the
specific core subjects, interventions, communication skills, and social interactions. Checklists
may provide additional information regarding progress in the general education curriculum.
The teacher can also provide documentation of grades, curriculum-based
measures/assessments, criterion-referenced tests (e.g., TNReady, TCAP, end-of-course tests),
progress in interventions, and attendance records.
 Curriculum-based measures/assessments - school-based assessments which can offer
insight into how a student performs on classroom tests which examine skills that have
been or will be taught in school.
 Criterion-referenced tests - a type of assessment that is designed to measure a student’s
performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards.

34

This information is important as the evaluators interpret results of the formal assessments in
order to gain perspective of the student’s performance and skills in typical environments and to
determine the impact and severity of possible impairments.

Standard 1 (g) Language Impairment: Parent Input (Language)

Parent information is crucial to the evaluation in order to obtain developmental history and
specific concerns related to daily functioning. A developmental history and profile should
include relevant information from the parents regarding concerns about communication skills,
developmental speech-language development, pertinent medical information, and family
history of speech-language impairments, etc.

Standard 1 (h) Documentation, including observation and/or assessment (to include the
severity rating scale), of how the language impairment adversely affects the child’s
educational performance in his/her learning environment and the need for specialized
instruction and related services (i.e., to include academic and/or nonacademic areas).
The school environment places a heavy demand on students to comprehend, interpret, and use
all aspects of verbal and nonverbal communication. Students must be able to communicate for
a variety of purposes and in different settings. They must be competent in listening, speaking,
reading, and writing as they learn the curriculum and interact with others. Therefore, it is
paramount that a child receives a comprehensive assessment that balances formal and
descriptive assessment instruments. A thorough case history is crucial to the selection of an
individualized test battery and valid interpretation of assessment results. A child’s
communicative attempts and abilities may vary depending on the setting he or she is in and
who the listener happens to be. Additional assessments, such as individual achievement tests,
may be needed for some students to help determine adverse impacts. Procedures that identify
areas of strength and weakness and examine how the student functions communicatively in
the environments in which he/she participates are needed to appropriately determine
eligibility.

Language Severity Rating Scale: The Language Severity Rating Scale is a tool used after a
complete assessment of the student’s communication abilities and after the SLP has
interpreted assessment results. This scale is designed to document the presence of assessment
findings according to the intensity of those findings and to facilitate a determination, based on
assessment results, if the student has a language impairment according to the definition in the
Tennessee Rules and Regulations. The severity rating scale is not a diagnostic instrument and
should not be used in the absence of assessment data. In order to be identified as a student
with a language impairment, the language difficulties must be determined to have an adverse
effect on educational performance. The rating scale serves three purposes:
1. to document the absence or presence of a language deviation and to what degree (mild,
moderate or severe);
2. to indicate the absence or presence of adverse effect on educational performance; and

35

 3. to determine whether or not the student meets eligibility standards for a language
impairment.

Articulation Impairment
Standard 2 (b) Articulation Impairment: Articulation error(s) persisting at least 1 year behind
expectancy compared to current developmental norms
Developmental norms are helpful for estimating approximately how well a student’s sounds are
developing. Although norms are extremely useful, there are limitations to over-relying on or
using them exclusively to identify a sound production impairment. Several factors limit their
value. An age norm is only an average age at which a behavior occurs. Most norms do not
reflect normal and acceptable developmental variability. Certain errors are developmentally
appropriate while others are not. Different norms are rarely in agreement with each other. The
differences are caused by many factors, including when the study was conducted, where the
study was conducted, the size and characteristics of the sample, the research design followed,
and the mastery criteria used.

It is important that the assessing SLP use articulation norms as designated by the school
district. Districts should designate specific norms to be used based on the area demographics.
The use of developmental norms, and the compared production of sound errors, is one
component of the overall scope of assessment for identifying a student with a speech
impairment.

Recommended norms that commonly used include (see Appendix C):

 Iowa-Nebraska Articulation Norms
 Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation-3
 Structured Photographic Articulation Test—featuring Dudsberry ® 3 (SPAT-3)
 Vowel Development Norms

Articulation tests usually elicit phonemes in only one phonetic context within a pre-selected
word. There may be other contexts and words in which the student can/cannot produce the
target sound correctly. Most tests elicit phonemes at the word level for the assessment of
initial, medial, and final position production. Conversational speech, however, is made up of
complex, co-articulated movements in which discrete initial, medial, and final sounds may not
occur. Thus, sound productions in single words may differ from those in spontaneous speech.
Keep in mind that normative data tell only part of the story when assessing for a speech sound
production impairment, and contextual samples are necessary to properly identify a speech
impairment.

When assessing articulation skills, the sound in question must be in error in at least two
positions (initial, medial, or final). Information gathered from the formal/informal assessment

36

instrument(s) regarding sound production errors is to be compared to the developmental

norms or charts.

Single-Word Testing—provides identifiable units of production and allows all sounds in

the language to be elicited in a number of contexts; however, it may or may not
accurately reflect production of the same sounds in connected speech.

Connected Speech Sampling—provides information about production of sounds in

connected speech using a variety of talking tasks (e.g., storytelling or retelling,
describing pictures, normal conversation about a topic of interest) and communication
partners (e.g., peers, siblings, parents, clinician).

Assessment procedures typically evaluate the child's speech sound system, including:
 sounds, sound combinations, and syllable shapes produced accurately, including:
o sounds in various word positions (e.g., initial, within word, and final word
position) and indifferent phonetic contexts,
o phoneme sequences (e.g., vowel combinations, consonant clusters, and blends),
and
o syllable shapes (e.g., simple CV to complex CCVCC);

 speech sound errors, including:

o error type(s) (e.g., deletions, omissions, substitutions, distortions, additions), and

o error distribution (e.g., position of sound in word);
 articulation errors—relatively consistent errors, with preserved phonemic contrasts
(e.g., /l/ and /r/ are consistently distorted, but clearly different from one another
(Bauman-Waengler, 2012);
 error patterns (i.e., phonological patterns)—systematic sound changes or simplifications
that affect a class of sounds (e.g., fricatives), sequences of sounds (e.g., consonant
clusters), or syllable structures (e.g., complex syllable structures or multisyllabic words).

Standard 2 (c) Articulation Impairment: An appropriate standardized instrument to include

phonetic inventory (required) and assessment of phonological processes (as appropriate). See
norms in Appendix D
The decision to administer an articulation test versus a phonological process analysis is based
on the examiner’s professional judgment. If the errors are non-organic (i.e., not due to
structural deviations or neuromotor control problems), the most discriminating factor to aid in
the decision is that of intelligibility— the more unintelligible the student’s speech, the greater
the need for phonological process analysis. When evaluating students whose intelligibility
factor is moderate to severe or profound, tests of phonological processes will prove more
diagnostically valuable than traditional articulation tests.

37

In some cases, the examiner may complete a process analysis after first administering an
articulation test. Some phonological processes can be detected from the results of traditional
articulation tests. For example, when most of the phonemes in the final position column of the
articulation test form show a deletion symbol, perceptive examiners can recognize the pattern
of final consonant deletion. Most substitution and deletion processes can be identified in this
manner, particularly if the examiner is familiar with phonological process terminology and
descriptions. For example, the student who produces /p/ for /f/, /b/ for /v/, /t/ for /s/, and /d/ for
/z/ is replacing a fricative with a stop, a process commonly known as Stopping. Other error
patterns, however, are not as easily identified from traditional articulation test results.
Depending upon the complexity of the student’s errors, a more in-depth phonological analysis
may be indicated in order to identify all processes used by the student. This in-depth analysis
becomes particularly important in determining the hierarchy of intervention targets.

It should be noted that an articulation assessment and phonological process analysis can be
derived without the use of a published standardized assessment instrument. Developmentally
appropriate errors and patterns are taken into consideration during assessment for speech
sound disorders in order to differentiate typical errors from those that are unusual or not age
appropriate.

See phonological processes (patterns) and age of customary consonant production [PDF].
CLASSIFICATION of CONSONANTS (Lowe, R.J. (2010)

Syllable Structure Substitution Assimilation

• Syllable deletion Stopping Labial assimilation

• Reduplication Stridency deletion Alveolar assimilation
• Epenthesis Fronting Velar assimilation
• Final consonant deletion Depalatization Nasal assimilation
• Initial consonant deletion Palatalization Prevocalic voicing
• Cluster deletion Affrication Postvocalic devoicing
• Cluster reduction/substitution Deaffrication Metathesis
Backing Coalescence
Alveolarization

Standard 2 (d) Articulation Impairment: Evidence that the child’s scores are at a moderate,
severe, or profound rating (i.e., severity rating scale)
The Speech Sound Production Severity Rating Scale is to be used as a tool after a complete
assessment of the student’s sound production performance to determine the overall impact
and severity of the child’s speech. The scale is designed to assist the examiner with
interpretation and documentation of the results of assessment findings in terms of severity or
intensity. This is not a diagnostic instrument and should not be used in the absence of
assessment data.

38

The rating scale serves three purposes:

1. to document the absence or presence of a speech sound production deviation and to
what degree (Mild, Moderate, or Severe);
2. to indicate the absence or presence of “adverse effect on educational performance;”
and
3. to determine whether or not the student meets eligibility standards for a speech

impairment in articulation.

Standard 2 (e) Articulation Impairment: Teacher checklist/input

Obtain information regarding strategies and interventions used, communication skills, and
social interactions. Checklists may provide additional information regarding progress in the
general education curriculum. The teacher can also provide documentation of grades,
curriculum-based measures/assessments, criterion-referenced tests (e.g., TNReady, TCAP, end­
of-course tests) progress in interventions, and attendance records.

This information is important as the evaluators interpret results of the formal assessments in
order to gain perspective of the student’s performance and skills in typical environments and to
determine the adverse impact and severity of possible impairments.

Standard 2 (f): Articulation Impairment: Parent input

Parent information is crucial to the evaluation in order to obtain developmental history and
specific concerns related to daily functioning. The developmental history and profile should
include relevant information from the parents regarding concerns about communication skills,
developmental speech-language development, pertinent medical information, and family
history of speech-language impairments, etc.

Standard 2 (g): Stimulability probes

Stimulability probes determine how well the student can imitate correct production of error
sounds. Stimulability refers to the student’s ability to produce a correct (or improved)
production of the erred sound given oral and visual modeling. Most articulation assessments
include stimulability probes in their measure. It is not necessary to assess stimulability for
sounds produced correctly, only those in error.

The assessment of stimulability provides important prognostic information. Moreover, those

behaviors that are most easily stimulated can provide excellent starting points for intervention.
They often lead to intervention success quicker than other, less stimulable behaviors.
Since the late 1990s the child phonology literature has encouraged clinicians to target non­
stimulable sounds, because if a non-stimulable sound is made stimulable to two-syllable
positions, using our unique clinical skills, it is likely to be added to the child’s inventory, even
without direct treatment (Miccio, Elbert & Forrest, 1999).

39

Directions for Assessing Stimulability

(a) Ask the student to watch, listen carefully, and say what you say. Do not give special
instructions on the correct production.
(b) Model the production of each selected phoneme in isolation and ask the student to
imitate. Begin modeling for consonant blends at the syllable level.
(c) If the student is successful, go on to the syllable level, modeling for each position (initial,
medial, and final).
(d) If the student is successful at the syllable level, proceed to the word level, modeling for
each position.
(e) If the student is successful at the word level, you may wish to proceed to the phrase/
sentence level, modeling for each position.
(f) If the student fails to imitate a stimulus correctly at any level (isolation, syllable, or
word), ask the student to watch and listen carefully to the following directions.
(1) Say the stimulus three times (multiple stimulations).
(2) Have the student try again.
(3) If the student repeats successfully, continue to the next level of complexity.
(4) If the student cannot imitate the stimulus correctly after multiple stimulations,
discontinue stimulation with that sound.

Standard 2 (h); 3(c); & 4 (c) Articulation/ Voice/ Fluency Impairments: Oral peripheral
examination
The SLP will examine the size, shape, and adequacy of the oral, lingual, resonatory, laryngeal,
and respiratory structures. The SLP will determine if the structures perform their function for
non-speech and speech-related purposes. Specific areas to examine include teeth and
occlusion, soft palate, hard palate, tongue, face, nose, mouth, neck, shoulders, body posture,
and respiration. See Appendix O for a sample Oral Peripheral Examination form.

Standard 2 (i) Articulation Impairment: Analysis of phoneme production in conversational

speech
Speech samples and error analysis are used to determine intelligibility of conversational speech
and consistency of error patterns using any or all of the following methods:
(a) Number of Errors – can be calculated as percentage of consonants correct (PCC) based
on conversational speech sample of at least 100 words. (Generally, the greater the
number of sound errors, the poorer the intelligibility.)

(b) Error Types – The types of errors identified by traditional articulation tests generally fall
into four major categories: (1) Substitutions, (2) Omissions, (3) Distortions, and (4)
Additions. Typically, the presence of omissions and additions affect intelligibility to a
greater degree than substitutions and distortions. In addition to providing descriptive
information as to the problem, analyzing error types also helps to select, prioritize, and
plan intervention targets.

40

(c) Form of Errors – error patterns within phonological process - An inventory of

phonological processes is most valuable when evaluating students who have poor
speech intelligibility due to multiple articulation errors. Phonological processes describe
what children do in the normal developmental process of speech to simplify standard
adult productions. When a student uses many different processes or uses processes
that are not typically present for his/her developmental age, intelligibility will be
affected. The following list of error patterns is arranged in descending order from most
to least effect on intelligibility.

Beginning of Word End of Word

Fronting Final Consonant Deletion
Initial Voicing Fronting
Stopping Word Final Devoicing
Cluster Reduction

(d) Consistency of Errors – the assessment data and/or speech sample should be analyzed
for consistency of errors between the speech sample and the articulation
test/phonological process assessment within the same speech sample and between
different speech samples. A student may be able to produce a designated sound
correctly at the single word level, yet correct productions may break down as the length
and complexity of utterances increase. Typically, more sound errors will be identified
during the connected speech sample.

(e) Frequency of Occurrence – Frequency of occurrence refers to the relative frequency or

percentage of occurrence of a sound in continuous speech. It should be noted that the
sounds n, t, s, r, d, and m cumulatively represent nearly one half of the total consonants
used. When misarticulated, these sounds will have a greater negative effect on speech
intelligibility than the less frequently occurring sounds such as /zh/, /ch/, /j/, and
voiceless /th/.

(f) Rate of Speech – Occasionally a student’s speech rate can directly affect articulation and
intelligibility. Speech rates vary tremendously among normal speakers, making it
difficult to assign a standard word-per-minute (WPM) index. Purcell and Runyan (1980)
measured the speaking rates of students in the first through fifth grades and found a
slight increase in their average rate at each grade level. The first graders averaged 125
words per minute, and the fifth graders averaged 142 words per minute. It is imperative
to recognize that some people who speak exceedingly fast or slow still have excellent
intelligibility and control of their speech, while others exhibit significant communication
problems due to their rate.

41

 The importance of measuring rate of speech does not lie in comparing it with pre­
established norms, which only indicate whether the speech rate is normal, faster than
normal, or slower than normal. The value of assessing rate of speech is that it allows
evaluation of its effect on the student’s communication abilities.

Questions to consider:
 Will the use of a faster or slower rate result in better communication?
 Can a better speech rate be elicited?
 Can it be maintained?

(g) Intelligibility – A guideline for expected conversational intelligibility levels of typically

developing children talking to unfamiliar listeners can be calculated by dividing the
child's age in years by four and converting that number into a percentage (Coplan &
Gleason, 1988; Flipsen, 2006):
1 year—25 percent intelligible

2 years—50 percent intelligible

3 years—75 percent intelligible

4 years—100 percent intelligible

Intelligibility, although a critical concept in the evaluation of articulation and phonological

process disorders, is notoriously difficult to measure objectively. In most cases there are
multiple factors that influence overall intelligibility. Keep the following tips in mind when
rating/determining intelligibility:
 Identify factors that affect intelligibility.
 View the intelligibility rating as being approximate, rather than absolute or
definitive. Report intelligibility in ranges (e.g., 65-75 percent), particularly when
intelligibility varies. A student may be 90-100 percent intelligible when speaking
in utterances of one to three syllables. The same student, however, may be only
50 percent intelligible in utterances of four or more syllables.
 Take more than one conversational sample and seek varied environments when
possible.

Standard 2 (j): Documentation, including observation and/or assessment, of how Articulation

Impairment adversely affects the child’s educational performance in his/her learning
environment and the need for specialized instruction and related services (i.e., to include
academic and/or nonacademic areas).
Educational performance refers to the student’s ability to participate in the educational process
and must include consideration of the student’s social, emotional, academic, and vocational
performance. Documentation should include work samples, teacher and SLP reporting based
on assessments, observations, consultation with teachers, and classroom-based measures.
Teacher checklists are also useful for determining specifically how the sound production

42

problem affects educational performance. The presence of any deviation in speech sound
production does not automatically indicate an adverse effect on the student’s ability to function
within the educational setting. The deviation must be shown to interfere with the student’s
ability to perform in the educational setting before a disability is determined. In order to be
identified as a student with a speech impairment in articulation, the deviation(s) in sound
production must be determined to have an “adverse effect on educational performance.”

Voice Impairment
Standard 3 (b) Voice Impairment: Examination by an otolaryngologist
Disorders of laryngeal structure and function are physical characteristics that must be
diagnosed by a physician, usually an otolaryngologist [ear, nose, and throat doctor specialist
(ENT)].
 Voice quality is a perceptual phenomenon that cannot be diagnosed by
instrumentation.
 Vocal function can be determined by assessing physical measured of pitch, loudness,
and respiratory support.

It is advisable to obtain a release of information in order to collaborate with the

otolaryngologist and any other relevant physician (e.g., pediatrician) regarding voice disorders.
The examiner should document all attempts to obtain evaluation information from the
otolaryngologist. If the parent prefers to provide documentation from the physician rather than
granting permission to the evaluation team, then it is advisable to document the release
refusal.

Four types of voice disorders:

1. Functional
 abuse/overuse/misuse
 edema/laryngitis
 polyps
 cysts
 nodules
 sulcus vocalics
2. Organic
 congenital
o laryngeal web
o atypical Laryngeal structure

 acquired

o papilloma
3. Neurological
 cerebral palsy
 muscular dystrophy

43

  head injury
4. Resonance Disorders
 hypernasality
 hyponasality
 nasal air emission

Additional health information obtained from either the physician or parent includes the
following:
 history of allergies;
 history of chronic ear infections, colds, asthma;
 variation in voice by times of day, seasons or weather, and days of the week;
 family voice problems;
 history of care under of physician and/or hospitalization;
 onset of disorder;
 progression of disorder;
 association with other physical ailments, emotional distress, or psychological
disturbance;
 use of medications (e.g., inhalants, decongestants);
 history of laryngeal procedures (e.g., intubation);
 diagnosis of general motor impairments (e.g., cerebral palsy);
 assessment of chronic vocal behaviors at home and at school (e.g., yelling, throat
clearing);
 amount of daily hydration;
 perception of the problem (child, parent, teacher); and
 physician diagnosis of laryngeal pathology or structural impairment.

Standard 3 (d) Voice Impairment: Documentation, including observation and/or assessment,

of how Voice Impairment adversely affects his/her educational performance in his/her
learning environment and the need for specialized instruction and related services (i.e., to
include academic and/or nonacademic areas).
In order to document observations and/or assessments, a representative sample of the
student’s speech should be collected and analyzed for voice, pitch, intensity, and quality. An
intelligibility ratio used to determine the understandable of the child’s speech. Document how
the student’s voice impairment adversely affects the student’s education performance in the
general education classroom or the learning environment. For preschoolers, document how the
voice dysfunction adversely affects their ability to participate in developmentally appropriate
activities. This information should be used when completing the Voice Severity Rating Scale.

Information obtained through observations, assessments, and teacher input that may assist
when determining impact may include:
 harsh, breathy, or hoarse voice;
 hyper- or hypo-nasal voice;
44

  intermittent voice or loss of voice;

 volume—too loud or too soft;
 pitch—too high or too low;
 voice interfering with communication;
 voice causing unfavorable listener reaction; and/or
 signs of frustration.

Among the many protocols available for rating perceptual qualities of voice in children are:
 Buffalo III Voice Profile (Boone, et al. 2009)
 GRBAS Scale (Karnell, et al. 2007)
 Quick Screen for Voice (Lee, et al. 2004)

Assessment of Respiratory Support for Speech

 Informal observation (e.g., running out of air during conversational speech)
o maximum phonation time (MPT) – amount of time the child can sustain a vowel
on one breath (average 9-15 seconds for elementary school children)
o assessment of the perception vocal quality: Pediatric Voice Handicap Index (Zura,
et al, 2007).

Standard 4 (b) Fluency Impairment: Information obtained from parents, students, and
teacher(s) regarding non-fluent behaviors/attitudes across communication situations
The SLP should obtain detailed observational data regarding stuttering behaviors/attitudes in
the school environment as well as data and information as related to student’s current level of
academic functioning and progress. For example, does the student initiate verbal interaction?
Is the student’s level of language complexity commensurate with peers? Does the student
volunteer during whole group and small group discussions? For preschoolers, obtain this
information from child care providers or other adults who see the child outside of the family
structure. This information can be collected via interview or checklist.

The parent should provide concerns, detailed medical history, family history of stuttering,
developmental history of student, and a description of stuttering behaviors/attitudes in the
home environment.

 Obtain data (i.e., benchmarking assessment, report card, work samples, attendance,
etc.) related to academic progress in the general curriculum from classroom teacher.

Standard 4 (d): Documentation, including observations across multiple settings and/or

assessment, of how the impairment adversely affects the child’s educational performance in
his/her learning environment and the need for specialized instruction and related services
(i.e., to include academic and/or nonacademic areas).

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“Educational performance” refers to the student’s ability to participate in the educational

process and must include consideration of the student’s social, emotional, academic, and
vocational performance. The presence of speech disfluencies does not automatically indicate
the disability is adversely effecting the student’s ability to function within the educational
setting. The disfluencies must be shown to interfere with the student’s ability to perform in the
educational setting before a disability is determined. The effect on educational performance is,
therefore, best determined through classroom observation, consultation with classroom and
special educators, and interviews with parents and the student. Teacher checklists are also
useful for determining specifically how the disfluencies affect educational performance.

Multiple sources of information will help determine how fluency Impairment adversely affects
the child’s educational performance in his/her learning environment and the need for
specialized instruction and related services (i.e., to include academic and/or nonacademic
areas).

Examples sources of information that can used:

 Multiple classroom observations (i.e., two or more) of the student, in both structured
and unstructured settings
 200–300-syllable speech sample in at least two2 contexts including, but not limited to,
narrative, conversation, or reading sample
 Formal fluency assessments for frequency, descriptive assessment, and speaking rate.
Examples of formal assessments:
o Stuttering Severity Instrument (SSI-4)
o Test of Childhood Stuttering (TOCS)
o Overall Assessment of the Speaker’s Experience of Stuttering (OASES)
o Cognitive Affective Linguistic Motor Social Scale (CALMS)
 Naturalness rating scale
 Assessment of feelings and attitudes which is completed via observations, rating scales,
and interview. Beliefs about stuttering and reactions to stuttering behavior are
identified and defined as it relates to the individual student. Observational data on how
the child responds in moments of disfluency as well as an interview of the student to
determine his/her perceptions of their communication skills is valuable information for
the team. Although much of this information is subjective in nature, it is valuable in
predicting the student’s response to fluency interventions and may also indicate the
need for more comprehensive evaluation in the areas of social/emotional development
by other team members (i.e., school psychologist). Some possible tools to assess
feelings/attitudes include:
o Perceptions of Stuttering Inventory (PSI)
o Overall Assessment of the Speaker’s Experience on Stuttering (OASES-S for ages 7­
12; OASES-T for ages 13-17)

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 o A-19 Scale for Children Who Stutter (Guitar, 2007)

o Communication Attitude Test and Behavioral Checklist (Brutten and Vanryckeghem,
2006)
 Screening of articulation, voice and language skills.
A 200–300-syllables speech sample should be collected in at least two settings (i.e., structured
vs. unstructured) and contexts (i.e., informal conversation, narrative, reading, answering
questions). It can be helpful to record (audio and/or video) samples in order to thoroughly
analyze the communication attempts in order to accurately document types of disfluencies and
secondary behaviors.
The following describes characteristics that may be used to analyze speech sample:
1. frequency of stuttering – this measure defines how often disfluencies are produced;
typically represented as the percentage of disfluent syllables in a sample.
2. duration of stuttering – this refers to the number of seconds a repetition, prolongation,
or block lasts or the number of iterations in a repetition (e.g., “li-li-li-like” contains three
stuttered and 1 fluent iterations). The longest duration is typically reported, or a range
can be given.
3. type of stuttering – this helps distinguish “normal” interruptions from “stuttered”
interruptions and provides indication of the development of the disorder (especially in
preschool children)
4. rate of speech and intelligibility – obtain rate of speech by counting the number of
syllables or words by the total number of minutes of the student’s speaking time
(suggested 5-10 minutes) to obtain words per minute (WPM) or syllables per minute
(SPM)
5. speech naturalness – analyze overall speech quality for naturalness in a subjective
manner
6. presence of secondary behaviors – According to ASHA, Secondary, avoidance, or
accessory behaviors that may impact overall communication should be clearly identified
and defined as part of the evaluation and include:
 distracting sounds (e.g., throat clearing, insertion of unintended sound);
 facial grimaces (e.g., eye blinking, jaw tightening);
 head movements (e.g., head nodding);
 movements of the extremities (e.g., leg tapping, fist clenching);
 sound or word avoidances (e.g., word substitution, insertion of unnecessary
words, circumlocution);

 reduced verbal output due to speaking avoidance;

 avoidance of social situations;

 fillers to mask moments of stuttering.

The SLP should review all observations, assessments (formal and informal), relevant
developmental information, and historical information from all team members. This
information should be used to complete the Fluency Severity Rating Scale.

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Fluency Severity Rating Scale (See Appendix R)

The Fluency Severity Rating Scale is to be used as a tool after a complete assessment of the
student’s fluency performance. The scale is designed to assist the examiner with interpretation
and documentation of the results of assessment findings in terms of severity or intensity. This
scale is not a diagnostic instrument and should not be used in the absence of assessment data.
In order to be identified as a student with speech impairment in the area of fluency,
disfluencies must be determined to have an “adverse effect on educational performance.” The
rating scale serves three purposes:
1. to document the presence of disfluent behaviors and their degree (Mild, Moderate,
Severe),
2. indicate the absence or presence of adverse effects on educational performance, and
3. to determine whether or not the student meets eligibility standards for a speech

impairment in fluency.

Once all evaluation procedures have been completed, the SLP should rate each of the defined
areas (Frequency, Descriptive Assessment, Speaking Rate), based on objective and subjective
data collected during the evaluation process. This tool will be beneficial to the team in
determining appropriate accommodations, modifications services, supplemental aids and
goals.

A Note on Cluttering
Although cluttering and stuttering can co-occur, there are some important distinctions between
the two. Children who stutter are more likely to be self-aware about their disfluencies and
communication, and they may exhibit more physical tension, secondary behaviors, and
negative reactions to communication. Children who clutter may exhibit more errors related to
reduced speech intelligibility secondary to rapid rate of speech. This student does not sound
fluent in the sense that they appear to not know what to say or how to say it. Along with fast
rate, a high level of “typical disfluencies,” such as interjections and revisions are often observed.
A student who is demonstrating cluttering often appears to communicate in a disorganized
manner with poor conversation skills and little awareness of his/her fluency and rate problems.

Evaluation Participants
Information shall be gathered from the following persons in the evaluation of a speech or
language impairment:

(1) The parent;

(2) The child’s general education classroom teacher;
(3) A licensed speech-language pathologist;
(4) A licensed otolaryngologist (for voice impairments only); and
(5) Other professional personnel (e.g.. school psychologist), as indicated.

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Evaluation Participants Guidance:

Below are examples of information participants may contribute to the evaluation.
(1) Parent(s) or legal guardian(s)
 Developmental & background history
 Social/behavioral development
 Medical history
 Current concerns
 Other relevant interview information
 Rating scales

(2) Student’s general education classroom teacher(s) (e.g., general curriculum/core instruction
teacher)
 Observational information
 Academic skills
 Differentiation strategies
 Rating scales
 Work samples
 Intervention data, if appropriate
 Behavioral intervention data
 Other relevant quantitative and/or qualitative data

(3) Licensed speech-language pathologist

 Observational information
 Rating scales
 Speech and language samples
 Direct formal assessments
 Oral Peripheral Examination
 Pre-vocational checklists
 Transitional checklists/questionnaires/interviews
 Vocational checklists/questionnaires/interviews
 Other relevant quantitative data
 Other relevant qualitative data

(4) A licensed otolaryngologist (for voice impairments only)

 Medical examination
 Health history

(5) Other professional personnel (e.g., school psychologist, special education teacher), as
indicated
 Direct assessment
 Functional behavior assessments/behavior intervention plans

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  Rating scales
 Observations in multiple settings with peer comparisons
 Medical information
 Clinical information
 Other relevant quantitative data/qualitative data

Components of Evaluation Report:

The following are recommended components of an evaluation. The outline is not meant to be
exhaustive, but an example guide to use when writing evaluation results.
 reason for referral
 current/presenting concerns
 previous evaluations, findings, recommendations (e.g., school-based & outside
providers)
 relevant developmental & background history (e.g., developmental milestones, family
history and interactions)
 vision and hearing screening results
 school history (e.g., attendance, grades, statewide achievement, disciplinary/conduct
info, intervention history)
 medical history
 assessment instruments/procedures (e.g., test names, dates of evaluations,
observations, and interviews, consultations with specialists)
 current assessment results and interpretations:
o observations
o formal assessments
o informal assessments
o intervention data review
o interpretation of results
 SLI Tennessee disability definition
 educational impact statement: review of factors impacting educational performance
such as academic skills, ability to access the general education core curriculum

 summary

 recommendations

Section IV: Eligibility Considerations

After completion of the evaluation, the IEP team must meet to review results and determine if
the student is eligible for special education services. Eligibility decisions for special education
services is two-pronged: (1) the team decides whether the evaluation results indicate the
presence of a disability and (2) the team decides whether the identified disability adversely
impacts the student’s educational performance such that s/he requires the most intensive
intervention (i.e., special education and related services). The parent is provided a copy of the

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written evaluation report completed by assessment specialists (e.g., psychoeducational

evaluation, speech and language evaluation report, occupational and/or physical therapist
report, vision specialist report, etc.). After the team determines eligibility, the parent is provided
a copy of the eligibility report and a prior written notice documenting the team’s decision(s). If
the student is found eligible as a student with an educational disability, an IEP is developed
within thirty (30) calendar days.

Evaluation results enable the team to answer the following questions for eligibility:
 Are both prongs of eligibility met?
o Prong 1: Do the evaluation results support the presence of an educational
disability?
 The team should consider educational disability definitions and criteria
referenced in the disability standards (i.e., evaluation procedures).
 Are there any other factors that may have influenced the student’s
performance in the evaluation? A student is not eligible for special
education services if it is found that the determinant factor for eligibility
is either lack of instruction in reading or math, or limited English
proficiency.
o Prong 2: Is there documentation of how the disability adversely affects the
student’s educational performance in his/her learning environment?
 Does the student demonstrate a need for specialized instruction and
related services?
 Was the eligibility determination made by an IEP team upon a review of all components
of the assessment?
 If there is more than one disability present, what is the most impacting disability that
should be listed as the primary disability?

Language Impairment: Eligibility Considerations

It is important to note that a child should not be made eligible for a language impairment
based solely on standardized testing. The assessment is important to identify strengths and
weaknesses. However, the evaluation should take into account all sources of information to
determine eligibility. The IEP team may identify a child as having a language impairment by
meeting ALL of the following criteria:
(a) The student receives a score of 77 or below (at least 1.5 standard deviations below the
mean) for Receptive Language, Expressive Language, or Total Language. Or the score
falls within the standard error of measure, and there is other supporting evidence
documenting the impairment.

The information gathered from all sources is just as important as the scores on
the standardized assessments and should play a significant role in the eligibility
determination. For example, a formally analyzed language sample can help to provide

51

 more complete, more accurate, and more reliable information regarding a student’s
ability to use language in the educational environment.
(b) The results of the second measure and other sources of data show evidence of and
support the deficit area identified on the comprehensive measure.
(c) The deficit(s) is not due to cultural or linguistic differences or dialect.
(d) The student exhibits a deficit in his primary language.
(e) There is documentation of adverse impact on the student’s educational performance.

Eligibility should be based on a child’s ability to use language with different people in varied
settings. Assessment results should for the most part build a database of a child’s abilities
across tasks and settings to determine their true communicative functioning level in the
schools. A student can demonstrate communication differences, delays, or even impairments
without demonstrating an adverse effect on educational performance.

The following should NOT be used to determine eligibility for a language impairment:
(a) Standardized test scores alone: Standard scores from norm-referenced language
tests should be only a small part of the eligibility determination.
(b) Cognitive Referencing: the practice of comparing IQ scores and language scores as a
factor for determining eligibility for speech-language eligibility. It is based on the
assumption that language functioning cannot surpass cognitive levels. However,
according to research, some language abilities may in fact surpass cognitive levels.
Therefore, ASHA does not support the use of cognitive referencing. (see
http://perspectives.pubs.asha.org)
(c) Age and grade level scores: Age- or grade-equivalent scores do not account for normal
variation around the test mean and the scale is not an equal interval scale. Therefore,
the significance of delay at different ages is not the same. Furthermore, the different
ages of students within the same grade make comparisons between students within
and between grades difficult. In addition, grade equivalents do not relate to the
curriculum content at that level. While seemingly easy to understand, equivalent scores
are highly subject to misinterpretation and should not be used to determine whether a
child has a significant deficit.

Adverse Impact: Evidence that the deviation has an adverse effect on educational
performance must be gathered and considered along with background information before a
determination of eligibility can be made. Educational performance refers to the student’s ability
to participate in the educational process and must include consideration of the student’s social,
emotional, academic, and vocational performance, not just academic skills. A low score on a
standardized test or the presence of any deviation in language does not automatically indicate
an adverse effect on the student’s ability to function within the educational setting. The
deviation must be shown to interfere with the student’s ability to perform in the educational

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setting before a disability is determined. Teacher checklists and observations are useful for
determining specifically how language problems affect educational performance.
 Academic impact could be reflected in difficulty with language-based activities, difficulty
understanding orally presented material, and/or efficiently and effectively expressing
information orally.
 Social/emotional impact might be manifested when a student is unable to formulate
sentences and questions in order to interact with peers, harassed because of
communication skills, or the student is embarrassed or frustrated because of the deficit
in language skills.
 Vocational impact might include a student’s inability to comprehend/follow oral
directions, ask and answer questions, and/or produce inappropriate responses to a
coworker or supervisor in a work setting.

A language impairment should not be considered a secondary disability unless it is

clearly apart from the primary disability. This is particularly applicable in the cases of
autism, developmental delay, intellectual disability/functional delay, traumatic brain injury, and
multiple disabilities. Although the student is able to receive speech therapy services to address
any communication deficits when he or she has one of the aforementioned primary disabilities,
language impairment should not be listed as a secondary disability on the eligibility report.

Speech Impairment (Articulation/Speech Sound Disorder) Eligibility

Considerations
For a student to be found eligible for a speech impairment (speech sound disorder), it must be
determined that the child is producing multiple sound errors or phonological processes across
at least two positions of a word, beyond the age when 90 percent of children have mastered
the sound(s). Additionally, errors must also impact the student’s intelligibility, academic, and/or
social-emotional functioning.

Speech errors commonly occur in normally developing children, so it is important that a

thorough evaluation be completed to accurately determine the presence of an articulation
impairment. While individual sound errors may be noticeable to a listener, not all speech errors
cause educational implications. For instance, the /r/ sound is a common error produced by
many children. Identifying this error does not equate to an educational disability. Many children
produce /r/ and vocalic /r/ in error, but do not require special education to be meet academic
and social standards at school. Similarly, preschool children simplify their speech, which may
affect multiple sounds, but not impact overall intelligibility, such as substituting /w/ for /r/ and
/l/ (wed/red; wake/;ake) or reducing syllables in words such as “puter” for computer and
“elphant” for elephant. Prior to the consideration of special education, the team should attempt
pre-referral interventions whenever possible to avoid misidentifying a student with an
educational disability when the speech errors may only require minimal guidance and
consistent home or classroom practice, not specialized instruction.
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Once the evaluation is completed, the SLP must consider all information related to types of
errors, frequency of errors, intelligibility of connected speech, and impact of the child’s speech
on his/her educational performance. The Speech Sound Severity Rating Scale is a tool to assist
in summarizing the pieces of the evaluation and ultimately assign a severity rating of the child’s
overall speech functioning. The Speech Sound Severity Rating Scale should be completed
following all evaluations and used when considering eligibility and the need for individualized
instruction.

The IEP team may not identify a child as speech impaired who exhibits any of the following:10
 mild, transitory, or developmentally appropriate sound production difficulties that
students experience at various times and to various degrees
 speech difficulties resulting from dialectal differences, learning English as a second
language, temporary physical disabilities, or environmental, cultural, or economic
factors;
 tongue thrust which exists in the absence of a concomitant impairment in speech sound
production;
 elective or selective mutism or school phobia without a documented speech sound
production impairment; and
 errors that do not interfere with educational performance.

Speech Impairment (Fluency): Eligibility Considerations

The team should consider the results of the evaluation in addition to an adverse educational
impact. Typically, a student exhibits disfluencies during connected speech demonstrated by at
least one of the following four characteristics:

(a) more than two percent atypical disfluencies based on frequency and/or durational
measurements of disfluencies, with or without the presence of struggle behaviors
during a speech sample of 200 syllables, 200 words, or 10 minutes in one or more
settings; or
(b) more than five percent atypical disfluencies during a speech sample (of 200 syllables,
200 words, or 10 minutes) with or without the presence of struggle behaviors, covert
stuttering behaviors, or coping mechanisms; or with the presence of one or more risk
factors; or
(c) rate of speech at least +1.5 standard deviations from the mean; or
(d) speech naturalness outside the normal range of 3.0 for children and 2.12-2.39 for
adolescents/adults on a nine-point naturalness rating scale.

10 Coplan, J., & Gleason, J. R. (1988). Unclear speech: Recognition and significance of unintelligible speech in
preschool children. Pediatrics, 82, 447–452.
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According to ASHA, educational impact includes the impact on functional communication in key
school situations and on quality of life (Beilby, Byrnes, Yaruss, 2012; Yaruss, Coleman, & Quesal,
2012). As indicated by Ribbler (2006), "For students who stutter, the impact goes beyond the
communication domain. In fact, stuttering can affect all areas of academic competency,
including academic learning, social-emotional functioning, and independent functioning".
Fluency disorders, however, do not necessarily affect test scores or subject grades. It is the role
of the SLP to inform and educate the IEP team about the multiple ways stuttering can influence
educational performance.

It is important to note here that eligibility and services are not based solely on academic
achievement. IDEA 300.101(c)(1) states, “Each state must ensure that FAPE is available to any
individual child with a disability who needs special education and related services even though
the child has not failed or been retained in a course or grade, and is advancing from grade to
grade,” nor are services provided to only support classroom performance. IDEA 300.42 says
that “supplementary aids and services means aids, services, and other supports that are
provided in regular education classes, other education related settings, and in extracurricular
and nonacademic settings, to enable children with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled
children to the maximum extent appropriate.”

In the educational environment, stuttering can be impactful in multiple dimensions. The overall
quality and quantity of oral classroom participation (i.e., classroom discussion, oral
presentations, class speeches, oral testing, etc.) can be adversely impacted. These students can
also experience difficulty working and communicating within cooperative learning groups.
Students may be hesitant to verbally express their ideas, offer explanations, or ask and answer
questions to familiar or unfamiliar adults. Poor fluency skills can also be highly impactful to the
student’s social interactions with peers and adults in locations such as the cafeteria or
playground. It is the role of the SLP to educate teachers, peers, and other persons in the
educational environment on appropriate verbal and non-verbal reactions, and listening
behaviors when conversing with a student with poor fluency skills.

Section V: Re-evaluation Considerations

A re-evaluation must be conducted at least every three years or earlier if conditions warrant.
Re-evaluations may be requested by any member of the IEP team prior to the triennial due date
(e.g., when teams suspect a new disability or when considering a change in eligibility for
services). This process involves a review of previous assessments, current academic
performance, and input from a student’s parents, teachers, and related service providers which
is to be documented on the Re-evaluation Summary Report (RSR). The documented previous
assessments should include any assessment results obtained as part of a comprehensive
evaluation for eligibility or any other partial evaluation. Teams will review the RSR during an IEP
meeting before deciding on and obtaining consent for re-evaluation needs. Therefore, it is

55

advisable for the IEP team to meet at least 60 calendar days prior to the re-evaluation due date.
Depending on the child’s needs and progress, re-evaluation may not require the administration
of tests or other formal measures; however, the IEP team must thoroughly review all relevant
data when determining each child’s evaluation need.

Some of the reasons for requesting early re-evaluations may include:

 concerns, such as lack of progress in the special education program;
 acquisition by an IEP team member of new information or data;
 review and discussion of the student’s continuing need for special education (i.e., goals
and objectives have been met and the IEP team is considering the student’s exit from
his/her special education program); or

 new or additional suspected disabilities (i.e., significant health changes, outside

evaluation data, changes in performance leading to additional concerns).

The IEP team may decide an evaluation is needed or not needed in order to determine
continued eligibility. All components of The RSR must be reviewed prior to determining the
most appropriate decision for re-evaluation. Reasons related to evaluating or not evaluating are
listed below.

NO evaluation is needed:
 The team determines no additional data and/or assessment is needed. The IEP team
decides that the student will continue to be eligible for special education services with
his/her currently identified disability/disabilities.
 The team determines no additional data and/or assessment is needed. The IEP team
decides that the student will continue to be eligible for special education services in
his/her primary disability; however, the IEP team determines that the student is no
longer identified with his/her secondary disability.
 The team determines no additional data and/or assessment is needed. The student is
no longer eligible for special education services.
 (Out of state transfers): The team determines additional data and/or assessment is
needed when a student transferred from out of state, because all eligibility
requirements did NOT meet current Tennessee state eligibility standards. Therefore, the
IEP team decides that the student would be eligible for special education services in
Tennessee with their previously out-of-state identified disability/disabilities while a
comprehensive evaluation to determine eligibility for Tennessee services is conducted.

Evaluation is needed:
 The team determines no additional data and/or assessment is needed for the student’s
primary disability. The IEP team decides that the student will continue to be eligible for
special education services in his/her primary disability; however, the IEP team
determines that the student may have an additional disability; therefore, an evaluation

56

 needs to be completed in the suspected disability classification area to determine if the

student has a secondary and/or additional disability classification. In this case, the
student continues to be eligible for special education services with the currently
identified primary disability based on the date of the decision. The eligibility should be
updated after the completion of the secondary disability evaluation if the team agrees a
secondary disability is present (this should not change the primary disability eligibility
date).
 The team determines additional data and/or assessment is needed for program
planning purposes only. This is a limited evaluation that is specific to address and gather
information for goals or services. This evaluation does not include all assessment
components utilized when determining an eligibility NOR can an eligibility be
determined from information gathered during program planning. If a change in primary
eligibility needs to be considered, a comprehensive evaluation should be conducted.
 The team determines an additional evaluation is needed to determine if this student
continues to be eligible for special education services with the currently identified
disabilities. A comprehensive is necessary anytime a team is considering a change in the
primary disability. Eligibility is not determined until the completion of the evaluation;
this would be considered a comprehensive evaluation and all assessment requirements
for the eligibility classification in consideration must be assessed.

When a student’s eligibility is changed following an evaluation, the student’s IEP should be
reviewed and updated appropriately.

According to IDEA 2004, dismissal criteria mirror eligibility criteria. Therefore, in making
decisions to dismiss a child from IEP services, the following questions must be considered:
(1) Does the student continue to exhibit a communication disorder?
(2) Does the communication disorder continue to adversely affect academic achievement
and/or functional performance?
(3) Does the student continue to require specially designed instruction to be involved in
and make progress in the curriculum? (IDEA, 2004)

Language Impairment – Re-evaluation Considerations

Comprehensive Re-evaluation Considerations:
 A formal, comprehensive language reevaluation should be considered when a review of
existing data is deemed insufficient to determine if the student continues to exhibit a
language impairment or if the parent requests updated testing.
 As best practice, formal language testing should be completed every three years since
language skills and language demands can change rapidly over time. Informal data
alone may be inconclusive and inadequate when determining continued eligibility, and
potential subsequent program planning for a student. The recommendation for formal
testing is an IEP team decision.

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  The criteria for eligibility is the same as the criteria for initial eligibility.

Considerations for Continued Language Therapy:

(a) Guidelines should be followed whenever considering whether a student should

continue to receive speech/language services or not.

(b) The criteria for exit from services for speech and language impairments should be
discussed with IEP team members at the beginning of intervention.
(c) The decision to dismiss is based upon IEP team input (i.e., parent, teacher, etc.) initiated
by the SLP or any other team member.
(d) The student no longer exhibits a language impairment.
(e) If progress is not observed over time, changes must be made in the
interventions/accommodations. If continued lack of progress is shown, specific goals
and intervention approaches must be re-examined.
(f) The student’s current academic level, behavioral characteristics, and impact on

educational performance should be considered when determining dismissal.

(g) Dual support is being provided within other services of special education.

Dismissal Consideration when Language Impairment is not a Secondary Disability:

It is very important to note that when a student is receiving speech-language therapy as
a related service under the umbrella of the primary disability and language impairment
is not listed as a secondary disability on the eligibility report, it is not necessary to hold a
re-evaluation meeting to remove the related service from the IEP. The SLP should bring
data and documentation to the IEP meeting (i.e., annual review or addendum IEP meeting) and
present it to the team regarding the student’s progress and present levels of educational
performance (PLEPs). If all team members agree that speech-language services are no longer
warranted, the goals should be removed from the IEP, and the service would be dismissed.

Speech Impairment – (Articulation) Re-evaluation Considerations

When the team meets to complete the Re-evaluation Summary Report (RSR), it may be
determined that a formal assessment in articulation is not needed. Articulation is a unique area
in that it can easily be gathered and observed during a child’s multiple speaking opportunities
throughout their day without the need for a standardized assessment. Intelligibility in
conversational speech and team input regarding potential academic impact may be more
valuable measures than a single-word articulation test. The SLP should have data from ongoing
therapy sessions regarding a child’s speech production, which would be relevant to determining
a child’s level of intelligibility and individual phoneme errors.

It is also important to remember that continued eligibility is not dependent on the identification
of sound errors alone, but a continued educational impact resulting from the speech sound
errors. It is possible that a child had been initially identified with a speech impairment, received
three years of speech therapy through an IEP, and then is found not eligible upon re-evaluation,
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despite continued speech sound errors. While the ultimate goal of the SLP is to remediate all
speech sound errors, there are some children who do not correct all sounds, but no longer
demonstrate any education impact related to the residual errors. Imperfection does not equate
to an educational disability.

Speech Impairment (Fluency) Re-evaluation Considerations

A student may be considered not eligible under the category of “speech impairment” in the area
of fluency when one or more of the following are documented:
1. Disfluencies are determined to be developmental in nature.
2. Disfluencies do not interfere with the student’s access to education and classroom
participation (may include structured instruction, teacher and peer communication,
cooperative learning and informal peer interaction).
3. Rate is the only effected area.
4. Speech disfluency is measured at <5% in a variety of speaking samples (i.e., reading,
narrative, answering questions, formal vs informal settings).
5. A student can readily identify disfluencies and has demonstrated efficient use of

fluency-inducing strategies as well as coping mechanisms.

6. No negative feelings/attitudes associated with the stuttering behavior are documented.

According to research reported by ASHA, once a child reaches the age of eight, it is much more
likely that the stuttering behavior will persist in some form. The team should give careful
consideration to the student’s feelings/attitudes and overall self-awareness of his/her speech
disfluencies. A child should not be discharged unless the team determines that stuttering is no
longer having a negative impact on how the child is participating in activities, interacting with
others and communicating in the educational environment. Furthermore, the impact of
stuttering cannot be measured strictly by the number of disfluencies observed. The type and
severity of disfluencies along with the prevalence of secondary behaviors must also be
identified as well as presence of avoidance behaviors.

The SLP is responsible for communicating to the team that stuttering can be a lifelong disability
and that students who stutter will likely experience periods of time with increased disfluencies
throughout their lifespan, particularly during times of change, highly stressful situations or
times of extreme emotion, either positive or negative. A continuum of services should be
considered, as it is likely that the student’s stuttering behaviors will vary drastically throughout
his/her educational career. It is expected that there will be periods of time where direct services
are necessitated and time periods when consultation services are more appropriate.

Speech Impairment – (Voice) Re-evaluation Considerations

The IEP team consisting of the parent(s), classroom teacher, speech-language pathologist,
school district representative, and other related-service providers will review existing data, IEP

59

progress, and present levels of educational performance to determine re-evaluation needs. If

the student’s voice disorder is no longer adversely impacting their ability to access the
curriculum in the general education setting, then the IEP team should consider dismissal.

Speech Impairment (Voice) Eligibility Considerations

The team should consider the following when reviewing the results of the evaluation:
(a) the child demonstrates atypical voice characteristic of loudness, pitch, quality, or

resonance for his or her age and gender; and

(a) the child’s voice impairment is not due to any temporary factor such as respiratory virus,
infection, allergies, short-term vocal abuse, or puberty; and
(b) the child’s voice impairment significantly affects the child’s educational performance or
social, emotional, or vocational development.

60

 Appendix A: TN Assessment Instrument

Selection Form
This form should be completed for all students screened or referred for a disability evaluation.

Student’s Name______________________ School______________________ Date_____/_____/______

The assessment team must consider the strengths and weaknesses of each student, the student’s educational
history, and the school and home environment. The Tennessee Department of Education (TDOE) does not
recommend a single “standard” assessment instrument when conducting evaluations. Instead, members of the
assessment team must use all available information about the student, including the factors listed below, in
conjunction with professional judgment to determine the most appropriate set of assessment instruments to
measure accurately and fairly the student’s true ability.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR ASSESSMENT
 Dominant, first-acquired language spoken in the home is other than English
LANGUAGE Limited opportunity to acquire depth in English (English not spoken in home, transience due to migrant

THIS SECTION COMPLETED BY GIFTED ASSESSMENT TEAM

employment of family, dialectical differences acting as a barrier to learning)

 Residence in a depressed economic area and/or homeless
ECONOMIC  Low family income (qualifies or could qualify for free/reduced lunch)
 Necessary employment or home responsibilities interfere with learning
 Student peer group devalues academic achievement
ACHIEVEMENT
 Consistently poor grades with little motivation to succeed
 Irregular attendance (excessive absences during current or most recent grading period)
 Attends low-performing school
SCHOOL
 Transience in elementary school (at least 3 moves)
 Limited opportunities for exposure to developmental experiences for which the student may be ready
 Limited experiences outside the home
 Family unable to provide enrichment materials and/or experiences
ENVIRONMENT
 Geographic isolation
 No school-related extra-curricular learning activities in student’s area of strength/interest
 Disabling condition which adversely affects testing performance (e.g., language or speech impairment,
OTHER clinically significant focusing difficulties, motor deficits, vision or auditory deficits/sensory disability)
 Member of a group that is typically over- or underrepresented in the disability category
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS FOR ASSESSMENT
__ May have problems writing answers due to age, training, language, or fine motor skills
__ May have attention deficits or focusing/concentration problems
__ Student’s scores may be impacted by assessment ceiling and basal effects
__ Gifted evaluations: high ability displayed in focused area: ____________________________________________
__ Performs poorly on timed tests or Is a highly reflective thinker and does not provide quick answers to questions
__ Is extremely shy or introverted when around strangers or classmates
__ Entered kindergarten early or was grade skipped _______ year(s) in _______ grade(s)
__ May have another deficit or disability that interferes with educational performance or assessment

SECTION COMPLETED BY ASSESSMENT PERSONNEL

As is the case with all referrals for intellectual giftedness, assessment instruments should be selected that most accurately
measure a student’s true ability. However, this is especially true for students who may be significantly impacted by the factors
listed above. Determine if the checked items are compelling enough to indicate that this student’s abilities may not be
accurately measured by traditionally used instruments. Then, record assessment tools and instruments that are appropriate
and will be utilized in the assessment of this student.
Assessment Category/Measure: Assessment Category/Measure: Assessment Category/Measure:

__________________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________

61

Appendix B: Resources and Links

Helpful links:
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)
http://www.asha.org/

ASHA: Speech Characteristics: Selected Populations:

http://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/ASHA/Practice_Portal/Clinical_Topics/Articulation_and_Phon
ology/Speech-Characteristics-Selected-Populations.pdf

Tennessee Department of Education

Speech-Language Resources and Forms
http://www.tn.gov/education/article/special-education-speech-language

62

Appendix C: Articulation Norms

Articulation and Phonological Processing Norms
Most children make some mistakes as they learn to say new words. A speech sound disorder
occurs when mistakes continue past a certain age. Every sound has a different age range for
when a child should make the sound correctly. Speech sound disorders include problems with
articulation (making sounds) and phonological processes (sound patterns).

An articulation disorder involves problems making sounds. Sounds can be substituted, left off,
added, or changed. These errors may make it hard to understand the child.

Young children often make speech errors. For instance, many young children sound like they
are making a "w" sound for an "r" sound (e.g., "wabbit" for "rabbit") or may leave sounds out of
words, such as "nana" for "banana." The child may have an articulation disorder if these errors
continue past the expected age. Not all sound substitutions and omissions are speech errors.
Instead, they may be related to a feature of a dialect or accent.

It is important that the assessing Speech-Language Pathologist (SLP) use articulation

norms as designated by the school district. Districts should designate specific norms to
be used based on the area demographics. The use of developmental norms, and the
compared production of sound errors, is one component of the overall scope of
assessment for identifying a student with a speech impairment. The Speech Sound
Production Severity Rating Scale, completed after assessment pieces are finished,
provides the SLP with a rubric to assist in determining if a student meets eligibility for
speech impairment. Norms used in speech samples should be consistent with norms
used in standardized assessments.

Iowa-Nebraska Articulation Norms

Listed below are the recommended ages of acquisition for phonemes and clusters, based
generally on the age at which 90 percent of the children correctly produce that sound. These
recommended ages are for phonetic acquisition only.

63

Sound Development Chart – Females

Phoneme yrs:mo 3:0 3:6 4:0 4:6 5:0 5:6 6:0 6:6 7:0 7:6 8:0 8:6 9:0

h initial

w initial

j initial

th voiced

f final

sh

ch

l final

th

dz

r final voiced

ng final

Word-initial clusters 3:0 3:6 4:0 4:6 5:0 5:6 6:0 6:6 7:0 7:6 8:0 8:6 9:0

tw kw

pl bp kl gl fl

64

 pr br tr dr kr gr fr

sp st sk

sm sn

sw

sl

skw

spl

spr str skr

thr

Source: Iowa-Nebraska Articulation Norms

Sound Development Chart – Males

Phoneme yrs:mo 3:0 3:6 4:0 4:6 5:0 5:6 6:0 6:6 7:0 7:6 8:0 8:6 9:0

h initial

w initial

j initial

f final

sh

ch

l final

th voiced

65

 dz

th

r final voiced

ng final

Word-initial clusters 3:0 3:6 4:0 4:6 5:0 5:6 6:0 6:6 7:0 7:6 8:0 8:6 9:0

tw kw

pl bp kl gl fl

pr br tr dr kr gr
fr

sp st sk

sm sn

sw

sl

skw

spl

spr str skr

thr

Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation-3

Ages at which 90 percent of the GFTA-3 normative sample mastered consonants and consonant
clusters by initial, medial, and final position (male)

Age Initial Position Medial Position Final Position

2:0–2:5

2:6–2:11 /m/ /p/

3:0–3:5 /b/ /d/ /n/ /f/ /h/ /d/ /g/ /m/ /ɳ/ /f/ /p/ /n/ /f/

3:6–3:11 /k/ /w/ /n/ /z/ /j/ /b/ /d/ /k/ /m/ /nt/

4:0–4:5 /t/ /kw/ /b/ /k/ /g/ /v/

4:6–4:11 /s/ /ʃ / /tʃ / /dʒ / /ʃ / /tʃ/ /t/ /ʃ / /tʃ /

5:0–5:11 /p/ /z/ /l/ /j/ /bl/ /pl/ /sp/ /s/ /l/ /ɳ / /z/
/st/ /sw/

66

 Age Initial Position Medial Position Final Position

6:0–6:11 /g/ /v/ /dr/ /gl/ /gr/ /kr/ /tr/ /r/

7:0–7:11 /ð/ /r/ /br/ /fr/ /pr/ /sl/ /v/ /ɚ/ /l/ /r/

8:0–8:11 /t/ /ð / /dʒ / /br/ /θ / /s/

9:0 & up /θ/

Ages at which 90 percent of the GFTA-3 normative sample mastered consonants and consonant
clusters by initial, medial, and final position (female)
Age Initial Position Medial Position Final Position

2:0–2:5 /p/

2:6–2:11 /m/

3:0–3:5 /b/ /d/ /k/ /n/ /w/ /h/ /d/ /g/ /m/ /n/ /f/ /p/

3:6–3:11 /f/ /n/

4:0–4:5 /t/ /sp/ /st/ /b/ /k/ /ɳ/ /z/ /j/ /d/ /k/ /m/ /f/ /v/ /nt/

4:6–4:11 /tʃ/ /dʒ/ /l/ /j/ /fr/ /gl/ /pl/ /tʃ/ /l/ /b/ /t/ /g/ /ʃ/ /tʃ/
/tr/

5:0–5:11 /p/ /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /bl/ /dr/ /kw/ /ʃ/ /s/ /l/
/pr/ /sl/ /sw/

6:0–6:11 /v/ /ð/ /r/ /br/ /gr/ /kr/ /v/ /s/ /dʒ / /r/ /br/ /ɚ/ /ɳ/ /z/ /r/

7:0–7:11 /g/ /θ/ /t/ /ð/ /θ/

8:0–8:11

9:0 & up

SPAT-D 3 Norms- Ages at which 85 percent of SPAT-D 3 standardized sample correctly

produced each consonant and consonant blend
Age Initial Position Medial Position Final Position
3–0 /m, n, j, w, b, p, d, t, k, g, /m, n, ɳ, b, p, d, t, k, g, f, /m, n, ɳ, b, p, d, t, k, g, f,
h, f/ s, kj/ v, s, l, ɳk, ks, ts, ɔr/
3–6 /dʒ/ /z/ /z, lk/
4–0 /s, ʃ, tʃ, st, sw/ / tʃ, dʒ, l/ / ʃ, tʃ, dʒ, ɛr,ar/
4–6 /l, bl,gl/ / ʃ, r, 3~/ /3r/
5–0 /z/ /nd, ɚz/
5–6 /v, ð, fl, sl, fr, gr/ /v/ /Ir/
6–0 /r, br, θr/ /ð/
6–6 /θ/ /θ/ /θ/
7-0 to 9–11

67

Appendix D: Phono Processing Norms

A phonological process disorder involves patterns of sound errors. An example of this is

substituting all sounds made in the back of the mouth like "k" and "g" for those in the front of
the mouth like "t" and "d" (e.g., saying "tup" for "cup" or "das" for "gas").

Another rule of speech is that some words start with two consonants, such as broken or spoon.
When children don't follow this rule and say only one of the sounds ("boken" for “broken” or
"poon" for “spoon”), it is more difficult for the listener to understand the child. While it is
common for young children learning speech to leave one of the sounds out of the word, it is
not expected as a child gets older. If a child continues to demonstrate such cluster reduction,
he or she may have phonological process disorder.

68

Normative Data: These guidelines for determining if a process should be a concern are reprinted with permission from Rules
Phonological Evaluation (Webb and Duckett, 1990a). These guidelines are based on normative data collected from the
literature and from field testing (Webb and Duckett, 1990b, 1992). Each horizontal bar in the chart above identifies the age
ranges when phonological processes disappear in normally developing children.

69

 Ages DELETIONS

2 1. Initial Consonant Deletion at/hat, up/cup, ike/bike

3 2. Final Consonant Deletion no/nose, ba/ball, pe/pen

4 poon/spoon, top/stop
3. Consonant Cluster Reduction
SUBSTITUTIONS

3½ –5 1. Stopping ton/sun dus/juice

3 2. Voicing/Devoicing die/tie crip/crib

3–6 3. Gliding wef/leaf weed/read

4. Fronting/Backing
4–5 dum/gum cop/top

5. Affrication/Deaffrication
5–6 chew/shoe ship/chip

ASSIMILATION

3–4 1. Progressive beb/bed dod/dog

3–4 2. Regressive lellow/yellow

or
gog/dog
3. Velar Assimilation
3

4. Labial Assimilation beb/bed

3–4

4 5. Alveolar Assimilation lellow/yellow dod/dog

3 6. Nasal Assimilation neon/pencil

OTHER (infrequent)

3–4 1. Vocalization (vowelization) bado/bottle ca/car

4 2. Weak Syllable Deletion tefon/telephone

7 asks/ask
3. Transposition (Metathesis)
mud/mother
5
4. Vowel Naturalization
op/stop
2
5. CC Deletion ca/cats
2
6. Reduplication wawa/water d du/thank you

Bennett (11/85: 9/87) Adapted from Hodson (1980); Ingram (1981); Shribert & Kwiakowski (1981); Kahn (1982).
Appendix E: Language Milestones
Language/Play Developmental Scales

AGE LANGUAGE SYMBOLIC PLAY CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY

< 12 MONTHS Intentional Communication  Exploratory action on objects
 Uses gestures and/or  Sensorimotor or functional play: mouthing, throwing, banging,
vocalizations to regulate shaking, pulling, turning, tearing, pushing, poking, etc.
behavior, participate in social
interaction and reference
joint attention
 Understands nonverbal,
situational cues
 Initiates a topic by combining
glances and vocalizations
 Takes one or two turns
12 TO 17 MONTHS First Words  Uses realistic objects  Combines at least two
 Combines gestures and conventionally structured objects in
sounds to communicate  Simple pretend play is relational play (plays with
intent directed toward self (eating, blocks, puts blocks in a
 Words tend to come and go sleeping, etc.) container, stirs with a
in vocabulary  Links schemes in simple spoon)
 Most words denote combinations (puts person in  Relational or functional play
existence, nonexistence, car and pushes car) predominates from 15–21
recurrence, and rejection months
 Repairs unsuccessful  Solitary or onlooker play
communicative interactions
by repeating, modifying the
form or using an alternative
strategy
 Develops comprehension of
single words to direction,
attention to relevant objects
or to suggest actions
appropriate to the
immediate environment
 AGE LANGUAGE SYMBOLIC PLAY CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY
 Points to objects in response
to “show me__” (body parts)
18 to 30 months First Word Combinations  Can focus pretend play on  Combines at least four
 Sudden surge in vocabulary animate and inanimate structured objects (tower of 4
growth to several 100 words objects and others (feeding blocks)
 Expands single-word mother, feeding teddy bear)  Focuses on process of
semantic relations (action,  Can have inanimate objects manipulating fluid materials
attribute, possession, denial, perform actions (doll washes (produces random scribbling
location) self) or pounding)
 Onset of two word  Uses single action scheme
utterances (MLU 1.5) with several agents or
 Uses word combinations recipients (stirs in cup, stirs
(action + object, agent + in pot, stirs on plate)
action, attribute + entity,  Play themes are restricted to
action + location, possessor very familiar events in which
+ possession child participates regularly
18 to 24 months First Word Combinations  Parallel play
 Uses words for prediction
 Uses imitation as
predominant strategy in
language learning
 Begins to engage in
conversation (provides new
information about topic,
requests information,
provides information about
the past)
 Talks to self while playing
 Understands word meanings
but depends on immediate
knowledge of prior, similar
experience and knowledge
of semantic relations to
know how these elements go
together

72
 AGE LANGUAGE SYMBOLIC PLAY CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY
24 to 30 months  Can introduce a topic  Uses one object to represent  Sand and water play consists
 Engages in short dialogue of a different object that is of filling, pouring and
a few turns similar dumping
 Repetition used to remain on  Can build with blocks
topic horizontally and vertically
30 to 47 months  Uses attention-getting words  Uses multiple related action  Combines 4–6 structured
with intonation schemes in sequence (feed objects with regard to
 Understands WH questions: doll with bottle, pat doll on ordinal relationship (stacks
→what for object back, put doll in bed) seriated rings, nests seriated
→what to do for action  Pretend themes are cups)
→where for location restricted to personally
 MLU = 1.75–2.25 experienced events
30 to 36 months Sentence Grammar  Pretends with object  Produces simple 3­
 Uses language to regulate dimensional structure (builds
own and other’s actions, to bridge with blocks)
plan and anticipate  Produces very simple figure
outcomes, report on present using fluid materials with
and past experiences, resemblance to target
comment on imagined (draws a face, makes a hot
context, project own and dog with play dough)
other’s feelings, and regulate
interactions
 Expresses more than one
function in a single utterance
 Develops semantic relational
terms to encode spatial,
dimensional, temporal,
causal, quantity, color, age
and other relations
 Uses grammatical
morphemes, prepositions,
tense markers, plural
endings, pronouns and
articles
 MLU = 2.75–3.5
 Understands questions:
→whose for possession

73
 AGE LANGUAGE SYMBOLIC PLAY CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY
→who for person
→why for cause or reason
→how many for number
 Understands gender
contrasts in third person
pronouns
 Asks WH questions—
generally puts WH at
beginning of sentence
36 to 42 months  Uses syntax (word order)  Gives dialogue to puppets  Constructive play
 Understands sentences and dolls predominates from 36
based on morphological and  Pretends without an object months
syntactical rules (uses word for a prop (uses imaginary  Uses blocks and sand box for
order strategy for agent­ objects) imaginative play
action-recipient relations)  Pretend themes involve  Can build vertical block
 Uses direct requests (may I, events that child has structure that requires
could you) observed but not balance and coordination (9
 MLU = 3.75 experienced; acts out blocks)
 Uses past tense sequences with miniature
 Uses future aspect (gonna) dolls (in house, garage,
airport)
42 to 47 months  Uses modals (can, may, might,  Group play begins  Produces 3-dimensional
would, could)  Joins other children in play enclosed structure (builds
 Engages in sociodramatic fort with blocks end to end to
play in which child takes role form enclosure)
of someone else and  Produces figure with some
elaborates on the theme in detail included (draws arms
cooperation with other and legs without body,
players makes animal figure using
 Plans out pretend situations hot dog and pancake shapes)
in advance, organizing who
and what are needed for role
playing
 Events in play are sequenced
into a scenario that tells a
story; links schemes into
complex script with

74
 AGE LANGUAGE SYMBOLIC PLAY CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY
beginning, middle, and end
(fix dinner, serve it, wash
dishes, go to bed)
 Can make dolls carry out
several activities or roles
 Creates imaginary characters
 Can direct actions of two
dolls, making them interact
48 to 60 months Discourse Grammar  Develops novel schemes for  Creates and repeats patterns
 Learns to abide by events child has not in 3-dimentional structures
conversational rules to be experienced or observed (repeated use of pattern in
clear, concise, informative  Develops cooperative play fence with different pattern
and polite for gate in fort)
 Produces connected  Produces figure resembling
discourse by setting up target (draws body and
transitions between many body parts; draws
sentences and clarifying house that resembles a face
shifts in reference from one - windows placed like eyes
clause or sentence to and door like mouth floating
another to convey personal in space
experiences and tell stories
 Understands connected
discourse by using
knowledge of scripts and
story grammar to
comprehend narratives
 Develops metalinguistic
awareness of language
structure and meaning
(ability to focus attention on
both language and content)
 Develops skills in making
grammatical judgments,
resolving lexical ambiguity,
using multiple meanings of
words in humor, and

75
 AGE LANGUAGE SYMBOLIC PLAY CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY
segmenting words into
phonemes
60 to 65 months  Modifies language when  Organizes other children and  Games-with-rules play
talking to younger child props for role play  Constructs elaborate
 Discusses state, feelings,  Can direct actions of 3 dolls structures and uses
emotions and attitudes microspheric objects in play
with structure
 Produces figure in
perspective of paper (draws
house resting on bottom of
paper as a baseline)
65 to 72 months  Can sustain topic through a  Can direct dolls where each  Constructs elaborate
dozen turns doll plays more than one structure that is realistic
role (father and doctor, reproduction with patterning
daughter and patient) and symmetry and uses
structure with microscopic
dramatic play
 Produces a 2-dimensional
perspective in drawing
(draws a baseline taking on
qualify of a horizon with
house in proper perspective)

76
 Levels of Play

Levels of Social Play Levels of Cognitive Play

Individual/solitary play Functional or sensorimotor or exploratory play
 Unoccupied behavior: Child doesn’t play but may watch others  Repetitive actions for pleasure: running, climbing, filling, emptying,
momentarily or play with own body. etc.
 Onlooking: Child observes children in groups but doesn’t overtly  Comprises 33% of play for 3 to 5 year olds.
enter into play (12 to 18 months).
 Solitary: Child plays alone, using toys different from children nearby
with no conversation with others (12 to 18 months).
Parallel Play Constructive Play
 Child plays with toys or engages in activities similar to those of other  Combining sensory and motor functional play with symbolic play.
children who are close by but not attempting to play with other  Systematic manipulation of materials to create a product or solve a
children (2 years old). problem - using blocks or paint to make something.
 Most common form of play for young children, ranging from 40% of
play for 3.5 year olds to 51% of play at ages 4, 5, and 6 years.
Cooperative/group Play Symbolic/socio-dramatic Play
 Child plays with other children in a group; roles may or may not be  Role-playing and/or make-believe transformation
assigned (3.5 years old).  Role-playing - pretending to be a parent, baby, shark, super hero
 Child is cooperative when there is organization for the purpose of  Make-believe transformations - pretending to drive a car (arm
working together toward a common goal (4 to 5 years old). movements) or give an injection with a pencil (object use)
Games with rules
 Recognition and acceptance of and conformity with preestablished
rules - tag, “Mother, May I?,” marbles, checkers, kick ball, board
games
 5 year olds
Johnson, J. E., Christie, JJ. F., and Yawkey, T. D. (1987). Play and Early Childhood Development. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. Based on Rubin et al. (1978). Free-play behaviors
in preschool and kindergarten children. Child Development, 49, 534-536.Stone, S. J. (1993). Playing: A Kid’s Curriculum. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.

77
Developmental Milestones of Narrative Production Used for Macrostructure*

Developmental Personal and Fictional Narratives Narrative Level Story Structure Level
Age
About 2 years Children embed narratives in adult-child Heaps and
conversations, with basic elements of sequences, and
narrative structure but no identifiable centering
high point.
About 3 years Children can produce verbal descriptions Primitive narrative Descriptive and action
of temporally organized general and unfocused sequences; more likely if
knowledge about routine events; chain retelling than generating a
children can independently report story
memories of past specific episodes with
little support
(i.e., questions and cues); no identifiable
high point.
About 4 years Children’s narratives have no identifiable Focused chains Complete episodes in 16% of
high point; 13% of personal narratives 4-year-olds’ stories; reactive
incorporate goal-directed episodes. sequences
About 5 years 42% of 5-year-old children incorporate True narratives Earlier story structure levels
goal-directed episodes; 95% of stories by still occur; some complete
children 5 and older have a central focus episodes may occur. In
or high point; children end narratives at fictional stories, children
the high point. include setting information
and may attempt to develop
a plot
About 6 years After age 5 years, children build to a high Abbreviated episode
point and resolve it in classic form.
Around 7-8 years Children use codes to tie personal Narrative 60% of 8-year-olds’ stories
narratives together; children use summaries are complete episodes.
introducers in elicited personal Stories include internal goals,
narratives. motivations, and reactions
that are largely absent in
stories produced by younger
children; some episodes will
be incomplete.

Multiple episodes
Around 11 years/ Children tell coherent, goal-based, Complex narratives Complex episode
5th grade fictional stories, although reference to
internal states is still rare. 10-year-olds Embedded episode
may be limited to number of embedded
or interactive episodes they can handle Interactive episode
when retelling a story.
Around 13 years Analysis and
generalization
*Note that information is based on narrative generation, not retelling unless specified.
Sources: Hedberg and Westby (1993); Hudson and Shapiro (1991); Kemper (1984); Peterson and McCabe (1953)
Source: Guide to Narrative Language: Procedures for Assessment (p. 144), by D. Hughes, L. McGillivray, and M. Schmidek, 1997, Eau
Claire, WI: Thinking Publications. Copyright by Thinking Publications. Reprinted with permission.
 Story Structure Levels – Ordered from Least to Most Complex

Story Structure Developmental Description

Levels Age
1. Descriptive Preschool Describes character(s), surroundings, and habitual actions with no
Sequence causal relations
2. Action Preschool Lists actions that are chronologically but not causally ordered
Sequence
3. Reactive Preschool Includes a series of actions, each of which automatically causes
Sequence other actions, but with no planning involved; no clear goal-directed
behavior
4. Abbreviated About 6 years Provides aims or intentions of a character but does not explicitly
Episode state the character’s plan to achieve aims; planning must be
interred
5a. Incomplete Around 7-8 years States planning, but one or more of the three essential story
Episode grammar parts of a complete episode is missing: IE, A, or C

5b. Complete Around 7-8 years Includes aims and plans of a character; may reflect evidence of
Episode planning in the attempts of a character to reach the goal; has at
minimum an initiating event, an attempt, and a consequence; uses
words like decided to

5c. Multiple Around 7-8 years Is a chain of reactive sequences or abbreviated episodes, or a
Episodes combination of complete and incomplete episodes
6. Complex Around 11 years Includes elaboration of a complete episode by including multiple
Episode plans, attempts, or consequences within an episode; includes an
obstacle to the attainment of a goal; may include a trick as in
“trickster tales”
7a. Embedded Around 11 years Embeds another complete episode or reactive sequence within an
Episode episode

7b. Interactive None established Describes one set of events from two perspectives, with characters
Episode by research; and goals influencing each other; may have a reaction or
beyond 11-12 consequence for one character serving as an initiating event for
years another character
Sources: Glenn and Stein (1980); Hedberg and Wesby (1993); Liles (1987); Steing (1988); Peterson and McCabe (1983)

79

Appendix F: General Classroom and Home

Articulation Interventions
General Classroom and Home Articulation Interventions
 Repeat the mispronounced word correctly in your response to the student's statement. (Student:
I got wed shoes. Response: Oh, I like those red shoes.)
 Show student the letter and letter placement in words while saying sound in reading and spelling.
(Tip: Highlight the target sound in words.)
 Give student feedback on pronunciation during reading and spelling. (“I heard you say ___. This
letter/word makes our mouths say____. Listen and watch how I say ___.”) Use descriptors to help
the child “feel” the sounds during reading, spelling, and word practice. ("K is a tongue scraper.
Feel how we scrape our tongue against the top of our mouth. Watch my mouth.")
 Emphasize sound in sound-letter activities. Have the student practice saying the sound while: a.
writing the sound/word with you/peer; b. grouping pictures/words with the target sound; c.
reading or repeating word lists with the sound; or d. contrasting rhyming words (car-tar, cap-tap).
 Give the student a consistent visual cue for the sound when reading or repeating spelling words.
 Have the student listen to you read a list of words with target sounds. ("Listen for the ___ sound
at the beginning (middle) (end) of the words.")
 Have the student look in mirror while saying the sound.
 Have the student listen to him/herself while using a feedback device (e.g., u-shaped PVC pipe,
Echo Mic, audio recording).
 Ask the student to speak slower. Rather than saying “slow down,” say: “I’m having trouble listening
when you talk fast. Would you talk a bit slower?”
 With younger children, bring whatever you are talking about closer to your mouth so that the
child is more apt to focus on speech production.
 If you hear a consistent speech sound error, use written text to increase the child’s ability to see,
hear, and be aware of that sound. For example, ask the student to find all of the words containing
the error sound in a page of a story. Make this a routine in your classroom so that no student is
singled out.
 If you have a student who is able to make a sound correctly some of the time when they know
an adult is listening, set up a non-verbal cue with that child to let them know that you are listening
(e.g., put your hand on the student’s shoulder before you call on them to read aloud.)
 Highlight words in their own writing or in classroom worksheets that contain sounds that the
child misarticulates.
 Read aloud and key into the words with the sound. (This is important.)
 Use stories with a lot of emphasis on the sound – help to sound out written words.
 Find pictures together in books or stories that have the sound.

80
 Talk about how different sounds are made with your mouth.
 Associate the sound with an object, action, or noise to help practice it in a fun way. (“The “P” is
the popping sound, because it’s made when we pop our lips.”)
 Play word game such as ”I’m thinking of a word that starts with: st, sp, thr,” (identify pictures in
books).
 Make matching picture cards with the sounds to play Go Fish, Memory, or Lotto.
 Find objects with the sound/start a collection.
 Play “I’m thinking of a word that starts (or ends) with ______ (make the sound).”
 Go on a treasure hunt for objects that begin with the sound.

81
Appendix G: Articulation Impact in the Classroom

Student: ______________________________ DOB: ______________ Date: ___________________

Teacher: ____________________________ Grade: ____ SLP/SLT: _____________________________

Completed by the classroom teacher:
1. What is the specific academic impact of the articulation disorder?

_____ Spelling/ Writing errors, explain:

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____ Reading errors, explain:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____ Reluctance to participate in oral activities, explain:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Please specify the social/emotional impact of the articulation disorder:

_____ Student is often misunderstood _____ Sound errors draw undue attention to speech
_____ Student appears frustrated/embarrassed _____ Peers have a negative reaction to sound errors

What interventions have you put in place to support the social/emotional concerns?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What other variables may interfere with the development of the student’s articulation skills?

_____ Oral motor difficulties _____ Dental concerns _____ Hearing concerns

_____ Other, explain: ________________________________________________________________________

4. Other comments:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Appendix H: Disfluency/Fluency Checklist
Student: ______________________________________ DOB: _______________ Date: ________________

Teacher: ____________________________________________________________ Grade: _______________

 Please complete this checklist based upon observation of behavior over the past 30 days.
1. How frequently does the student demonstrate disfluencies in speech?
_____ Occasionally _____ Often _____ Consistently (most instances when the student talks)

2. Compared to peers, this student: (check all that apply)

_____ avoids speaking in class (does not volunteer, appears to not want to reply)
_____ appears to be unaware that he/she has disfluencies in speech
_____ speaks with little or no outward signs of frustration
_____ is difficult to understand in class due to disfluencies

Rate of speech:
_____ slow _____ average _____ fast _____ very fast

Organization of verbalizations:
_____ poor _____ a few concerns _____ average _____ good

3. This student demonstrates disfluencies when: (check all that apply)

_____ talking with peers _____ talking with adults
_____ speaking in class _____ upset
_____ sharing ideas or telling a story _____ answering questions
_____ carrying on a conversation _____ reading aloud
_____ other: _____________________________________________________________________________

Environments where the disfluencies occur: (check all that apply)

_____ classroom _____ lunchroom _____ playground
_____ specials (PE, etc.) _____ hallways _____ before/after school activities

4. Types of disfluencies observed in the student’s speech: (check all that apply)
_____ revisions (stops and starts over) _____ repeats sounds/words/phrases
_____ prolongations (stretches a sound) _____ blocks (airflow/sounds stop during speech)
_____ eye blinking _____ facial grimaces
_____ head nods _____ avoids eye contact
_____ other: _____________________________________________________________________________

5. Explain how the student’s disfluencies negatively impact academics and/or socialization in the
educational environment:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

83
Appendix I: Language Skills Checklists

Language Skills Checklist: Kindergarten

Student____________________________________________________ Date____________________
Evaluator_____________________________________ Primary Home Language____________________
Compared to students of similar age, this student exhibits Average Below Significantly
strengths and weaknesses in the following areas: Average Below Avg.
Comprehension (ability to understand spoken
language)
1. Knows and uses vocabulary appropriate for age (i.e.,
shapes, colors ,names of common objects)
2. Understands that some words have multiple meanings
3. Understands age-appropriate concepts
4. Demonstrates concepts of print
5. Uses age-appropriate phonological awareness skills
6. Demonstrates adequate phonics skills
7. Follows one- to two-step directions
8. Recognizes rhyming words
9. Comprehends Stories
a. Identifies main ideas
b. Sequences events using pictures
c. Understands “WH” questions
d. Predicts story events, identifies cause/effect
e. Understands characters and setting
f. Identifies beginning, middle, and end of story
g. Identifies story problems and solutions
h. Retells, summarizes events
10. Categorizes colors, shapes, size, function
11. Solves simple problems
Oral Expression (Use of spoken/language to
communicate)
1. Verbally expresses wants and needs
2. Speaks appropriately with peers and adults
3. Recites short patterned songs, stories, and poems
4. Communicates when relating experiences
5. Communicates when retelling stories
6. Uses complete sentences when speaking
7. Uses subject-verb agreement and tense correctly
8. Takes up to three conversational turns on one topic
Are there any additional factors to consider regarding the student’s educational background?

84
 Language Skills Checklist: Grade 1

Student____________________________________________________ Date____________________
Evaluator_____________________________________ Primary Home Language____________________
Compared to students of similar age, this student exhibits Average Below Significantly
strengths and weaknesses in the following areas: Average Below Avg.
Comprehension (ability to understand spoken language)
1. Knows and uses vocabulary appropriate for age (i.e.,
shapes, colors ,names of common objects)
2. Recognizes grade-level antonyms, synonyms, homonyms

3. Understands age-appropriate concepts

4. Begins to understand pre-/suffixes and root words
5. Demonstrates concepts of print
6. Uses age-appropriate phonological awareness skills
7. Demonstrates adequate phonics skills
8. Follows two- to three-step directions
9. Recognizes rhyming words
10. Comprehends stories
a. Identifies main ideas
b. Distinguishes fact from fiction
c. Sequences events using pictures
d. Understands “WH” questions
e. Predicts story events, identifies cause/effect
f. Understands characters, setting, and plot
g. Identifies beginning, middle, and end of story
h. Identifies story problems and solutions
i. Retells, summarizes events
11. Categorizes colors, shapes, sizes, functions
12. Recalls information presented orally
13. Solves simple problems
Oral Expression (Use of spoken/language to communicate)
1. Expresses age-appropriate ideas
2. Uses curriculum vocabulary in classroom discussions
3. Recites short songs, stories, and poems
4. Communicates when relating experiences
5. Describes people, places, things, locations, and actions
6. Uses complete sentences when speaking
7. Uses correct grammar in sentences when speaking
8. Takes four conversational turns on one topic
Are there any additional factors to consider regarding the student’s educational background?

85
 Language Skills Checklist: Grade 2

Student____________________________________________________ Date____________________
Evaluator_____________________________________ Primary Home Language____________________
Compared to students of similar age, this student exhibits Average Below Significantly
strengths and weaknesses in the following areas: Average Below Avg.
Comprehension (ability to understand spoken language)
1. Knows and uses vocabulary appropriate for grade level
(including synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, etc.)
2. Understands age-appropriate concepts
3. Classifies and categorizes vocabulary words
4. Understands prefixes, root words, and common suffixes
5. Reads grade-level material fluently
6. Demonstrates adequate phonics skills
7. Follows multi-step directions
8. Comprehension of grade-level fiction/non-fiction
j. Identifies/infers main idea and supporting details
a. Distinguishes fact from fiction
b. Sequences events
c. Identifies/infers cause/effect relationships
d. Makes predictions and draws conclusions
e. Identifies characters, setting, and plot
f. Identifies beginning, middle, and end of story
g. Identifies story problems and solutions
h. Retells, summarizes events
9. Recalls and infers facts
10. Compares and contrasts words/pictures
11. Asks and answers questions before, during, after reading
12. Interprets information from diagrams, charts, graphs
13. Uses problem solving strategies
Oral Expression (Use of spoken/language to communicate)
1. Begins to inform, persuade using oral language
2. Uses curriculum vocabulary in classroom discussions
3. Uses increasingly complex language sentence patterns
4. Uses common rules of conversation with adults and
peers
5. Uses descriptive language
6. Retells stories including main idea and details
7. Uses correct verb tense and plural nouns
Are there any additional factors to consider regarding the student’s educational background?

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 Language Skills Checklist: Grade 3

Student____________________________________________________ Date____________________
Evaluator_____________________________________ Primary Home Language____________________
Compared to students of similar age, this student exhibits Average Below Significantly
strengths and weaknesses in the following areas: Average Below Avg.
Comprehension (ability to understand spoken language)
1. Knows and uses vocabulary appropriate for grade level
(including synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, etc.)
2. Classifies and categorizes vocabulary words
3. Understands prefixes, root words, and common suffixes
4. Reads grade level material fluently
5. Demonstrates adequate phonics skills
6. Follows multi-step directions
7. Comprehension of grade-level fiction/non-fiction
a. Identifies/infers main idea and supporting details
b. Distinguishes fact from fiction
c. Sequences events
d. Identifies/infers cause/effect relationships
e. Makes predictions and draws conclusions
f. Identifies characters, setting, and plot
g. Identifies beginning, middle, and end of story
h. Identifies story problems and solutions
i. Compares and contrasts elements between plots
8. Retells /summarizes events
9. Recalls, interprets & summarizes information
10. Asks and answers questions before, during, after
reading
11. Interprets information from diagrams, charts, graphs
12. Uses problem solving strategies
Oral Expression (Use of spoken/language to communicate)
1. Begins to inform, persuade using oral language
2. Adapts oral language to fit the situation
3. Expresses ideas appropriately and effectively for grade
level
4. Uses new vocabulary/descriptive language in
discussions
5. Speaks and writes in complete coherent sentences
6. Demonstrates knowledge of when to use formal and
informal language exchanges (i.e., slang, idioms)
Are there any additional factors to consider regarding the student’s educational background?

87
 Language Skills Checklist: Grade 4

Student____________________________________________________ Date____________________
Evaluator_____________________________________ Primary Home Language____________________
Compared to students of similar age, this student exhibits Average Below Significantly
strengths and weaknesses in the following areas: Average Below Avg.
Comprehension (ability to understand spoken language)
1. Understands and acquires new vocabulary appropriate for
grade level (including synonyms, antonyms, homonyms,
etc.)
2. Identifies the meaning of common root words and prefixes
to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words
3. Reads grade-level material fluently
4. Demonstrates adequate phonics skills
5. Follows multi-step directions
6. Narrative elements in stories read and written:
a. Summarizes main idea and supporting details
b. Distinguishes fact from opinion or fiction
c. Relates themes in works of fiction and nonfiction to
personal experience
d. Distinguishes cause from effect in context
e. Identifies similarities & differences between characters,
events, or themes in literary work
f. Identifies characters, setting, and plot
g. Make predictions and draw conclusions
h. Compares and contrasts elements between texts
7. Uses and identifies the four basic parts of speech (noun,
adjective, verb, adverb)
8. Recalls, interprets & summarizes information
9. Identifies sensory details and figurative language
10. Interprets information from illustrations, diagrams, charts,
graphs
11. Uses problem-solving strategies
Oral Expression (Use of spoken/language to communicate)
1. Begins to inform, persuade using oral language
2. Adapts oral language to fit the situation
3. Expresses ideas appropriately and effectively for grade
level
4. Demonstrates appropriate social language skills with peers
5. Speaks and writes in complete coherent sentences
6. Demonstrates knowledge of when to use formal and
informal language exchanges (i.e., slang, idioms)
7. Retells and summarizes stories heard
8. Solicits another’s opinion and offers own opinion
appropriately
Are there any additional factors to consider regarding the student’s educational background? (Use back of
form)

88
 Language Skills Checklist: Grade 5

Student____________________________________________________ Date____________________
Evaluator_____________________________________ Primary Home Language____________________
Compared to students of similar age, this student exhibits strengths and Average Below Significantly
weaknesses in the following areas: Average Below Avg.
Comprehension (ability to understand spoken language)
1. Understands and acquires new vocabulary appropriate for
grade level (including synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, etc.)
2. Determines the meaning of unfamiliar words using knowledge
of common root words, prefixes, & suffixes
3. Reads grade-level material fluently
4. Determines the meaning of unfamiliar words using context
clues
5. Follows multi-step directions
6. Narrative elements in stories read and written:
a. Summarizes main idea & supporting details
b. Distinguishes fact from opinion or fiction
c. Relates themes in works of fiction and nonfiction to
personal experience
d. Distinguishes cause from effect in context
e. Identifies similarities & differences/analogies
f. Identifies characterization, setting, and conflict in plot
g. Makes predictions and draw conclusions
h. Compares and contrasts elements between texts
7. Uses and identifies the eight basic parts of speech (noun,
adjective, verb, adverb, pronoun, conjunction, preposition,
interjection)
8. Recalls, interprets, and summarizes information
9. Identifies common idioms and figurative language
10. Interprets information from illustrations, diagrams, charts,
graphs
Oral Expression (Use of spoken/language to communicate)
1. Begins to inform, persuade using oral language
2. Adapts oral language to fit the situation
3. Expresses ideas appropriately and effectively for grade level
4. Demonstrates appropriate social language skills with peers
individually and within small groups
5. Speaks and writes in complete coherent sentences
6. Demonstrates knowledge of when to use formal and informal
language exchanges (i.e., slang, idioms)
7. Retells and summarizes stories heard
8. Solicits another’s opinion and offers own opinion
appropriately
9. Asks relevant questions and responds to questions
appropriately
Are there any additional factors to consider regarding the student’s educational background? (Use back of
form)

89
 Language Skills Checklist: Middle School

Student____________________________________________________ Date____________________
Evaluator_____________________________________ Primary Home Language____________________
Compared to students of similar age, this student exhibits strengths Average Below Significantly
and weaknesses in the following areas: Average Below Avg.
Comprehension (ability to understand spoken language)
1. Understands and acquires new vocabulary appropriate for
grade level (including synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, etc.)
2. Determines the meaning of unfamiliar words using knowledge
of common root words, prefixes, and suffixes
3. Uses strategies to learn meaning of an unfamiliar word
4. Determines the meaning of unfamiliar words using context
clues
5. Follows multi-step directions to complete a product
6. Narrative elements in stories read and written:
a. Summarizes main idea and supporting details
b. Distinguishes fact from opinion or fiction
c. Relates new information to prior knowledge
d. Distinguishes cause from effect in context
e. Identifies similarities and differences/analogies
f. Identifies characterization, setting, and conflict in plot
g. Make predictions and draw conclusions
h. Compares and contrasts presented information
7. Uses problem-solving strategies
8. Recalls, interprets and summarizes information
9. Identifies common idioms and figurative language
10. Interprets information from illustrations, diagrams, charts,
graphs
Oral Expression (Use of spoken/language to communicate)
1. Communicates ideas that persuade, describe, and inform
2. Adapts oral language to fit the situation
3. Oral presentations for various purposes is organized
4. Demonstrates appropriate social language skills with teachers
and peers individually, and within small groups
5. Confirms understanding by paraphrasing and clarifying
6. Demonstrates knowledge of when to use formal and informal
language exchanges (i.e., slang, idioms)
7. Retells and summarizes stories heard
8. Solicits another’s opinion and offers own opinion
appropriately
9. Asks relevant questions and responds to questions
appropriately
Are there any additional factors to consider regarding the student’s educational background? (Use back of
form)

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 Language Skills Checklist: High School

Student____________________________________________________ Date____________________
Evaluator_____________________________________ Primary Home Language____________________
Compared to students of similar age, this student exhibits Average Below Significantly
strengths and weaknesses in the following areas: Average Below Avg.
Vocabulary
1.Understands and acquires new vocabulary in content areas
2.Determines the meaning of unfamiliar words using
knowledge of common root words, prefixes, and suffixes
3. Uses strategies to learn meaning of an unfamiliar word
4. Determines the meaning of unfamiliar words using context
clues
Comprehension (ability to understand spoken language)
1. Reads content fluently in class
2. Identifies abstract/figurative language
3. Understands different points of view
4. Employs group decision-making techniques (brainstorming)
5. Compares and contrasts presented information
6. Uses problem-solving strategies
7. Recalls, interprets, and summarizes information
8. Interprets information from illustrations, diagrams, charts,
graphs
Oral Expression (Use of spoken/language to communicate)
1. Communicates ideas that persuade, describe, and inform
2. Adapts oral language to fit the situation
3. Gives oral presentations for various purposes is organized
4. Demonstrates appropriate social language skills with
teachers and peers individually, and within small groups
5. Clarifies, illustrates, or expands on a response when asked
6. Demonstrates knowledge of when to use formal and
informal language exchanges (i.e., slang, idioms)
7. Retells and summarizes stories heard
8. Solicits another’s opinion and offers own opinion
appropriately
9. Asks relevant questions and responds to questions
appropriately
10. Applies appropriate interviewing techniques
11. Expresses ideas using descriptive and precise language
12. Participates in discussions, initiates, and contributes ideas on
content area topics.
Are there any additional factors to consider regarding the student’s educational background? (Use back of
form)

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Appendix J: Teacher Pragmatics Checklists

Teacher’s Checklist and Rating Scale: Pragmatic Language Skills Grades K–3

Student: _________________________Teacher: ______________________Grade: ____Date: ____________

 Please complete this form in ink. It will be included in the student’s final report.
 This will help determine the role communication plays in educational/social development.

Sometimes
Usually
Always

Never
Nonverbal Communication Skills
1. Understands others’ use of body language/uses appropriate body language
2. Understands and uses appropriate physical space boundaries
General Conversation Skills
3. Responds to greetings/says goodbye
4. Tells of wants, needs, and preferences
5. Asks appropriately for help, assistance, and permission
6. Starts and maintains friendships
7. Initiates topic
8. Joins an ongoing conversation appropriately
9. Maintains topic
10. Provides relevant answers to questions
11. Interrupts appropriately
12. Gives sufficient information for listener comprehension
13. Revises messages when listener misunderstands
14. Demonstrates and shares feelings appropriately
Comments/Questions:
What are the problems that concern you the most?

Are there other concerns about this student’s communication skills?

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 Teacher’s Checklist and Rating Scale: Pragmatic Language Skills Grades 4–12

Student: ________________________Teacher: _____________________Grade: ____Date: ____________

 Please complete this form in ink. It will be included in student’s final report.
 This will help determine the role communication plays in educational/social development.

Sometimes
Usually
Always

Never
1. Observes turn-taking rules
2. Introduces appropriate topics of conversation
3. Maintains topics of conversation (nods, responds with “hmm”)
4. Makes relevant contributions during conversation/discussion
5. Asks appropriate questions
6. Avoids use of repetitive/redundant information
7. Asks for/responds to requests for clarification
8. Participates appropriately in structured group activities
9. Uses appropriate strategies for gaining attention
10. Asks for help appropriately
11. Asks for permission appropriately
12. Agrees/disagrees using appropriate language
13. Responds appropriately when asked to change his/her actions
14. Responds to teasing, anger, failure, disappointment
appropriately
Comments/Questions:
What are the problems that concern you the most?

Are there other concerns about this student’s communication skills?

93
Appendix K: Fluency Questionnaire for
Parents/Caregivers
Student: _____________________________________ DOB: _________________ Date: ____________________
Teacher: _____________________________________ Grade: _________________________________________
Parent completing the form: ____________________________________________________________________

1. Describe the concerns you have regarding your child’s speech:

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
At what age did you first notice the concerns? __________

2. Have the concerns improved or worsened since that time? (please circle)

3. Please list medications your child is taking: ___________________________________________________

4. Below are some examples of stuttering/disfluencies (check all that you observe in your child)

_____ frequent interjections (“um,” “like,” “you know,” “well,” etc.)

_____ repeats sounds, syllables, words and/or phrases

_____ prolongs sounds (sssssssssaturday, nnnnnnnnnobody, etc.)

_____ blocks, or gets stuck, and is not able to get the sounds/words out

_____ revisions (stops and starts over when verbalizing)

_____ unusual face or body movements when speaking, or just prior to speaking

5. Have there been any changes at home which correspond to the start or increase in

disfluencies? _____ Yes _____ No

If yes, please explain:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Is there a family history of stuttering? _____ Yes _____ No

6. My child demonstrates disfluencies when:

_____ angry _____ excited _____ answering questions _____ reading aloud
_____ talking with peers _____ talking with adults _____talking on the phone _____ singing

Please describe additional concerns:

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

94
Appendix L: Voice Checklist
Student: ___________________________________ Date: ____________________

Teacher: ___________________________________ Grade: ___________________

*Please complete the checklist based upon observation of your student’s vocal quality over the past 30

days.

1. Does the student’s voice stand out as being different from peers?
If yes, circle all that apply: hoarse, breathy, hypernasal, hyponasal, Yes/No
Other:

2. Does the student’s voice interfere with his/her ability to communicate effectively
in the educational setting? Yes/No

3. Are you observing the student excessively using any of the following behaviors?
Loud talking
Yelling/screaming Yes/No
Throat clearing Yes/No
Coughing Yes/No
Making unusual noises Yes/No
Talking too much Yes/No
Yes/No
4. Please check how frequently you are observing the student demonstrating any of the behaviors
listed in question 3:

Consistently _____ Occasionally _____ Rarely _____

5. How does the vocal concern impact social/emotional/academic functioning?

Check all that apply:
_____ Student appears embarrassed _____ Student limits verbal participation
_____ Student appears frustrated _____ Student has been teased by peers
_____ Student withdraws from peers

6. Describe any changes in the way his/her voice has sounded since the start of the school year:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

95
Appendix M: Vocal Habit Chart

Student: _______________________________ Teacher: ____________________________

Week of: ______________________________________________________________________

Is this week baseline data? Yes_____ No_____

Is this week for progress monitoring? Yes_____ No_____

Directions: Choose a time each day where unhealthy vocal habits are most likely to occur. Count the
number of times the student engages in the habits/behaviors. Complete the chart for one week in
order to establish a baseline. Involve the student in charting his/her habits. Complete this form again
as needed for progress monitoring.

Unhealthy Vocal Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Habits Time ______ Time ______ Time ______ Time ______ Time ______
To To To To To
Time ______ Time ______ Time ______ Time ______ Time ______
Yelling or
screaming
Throat
clearing/coughing
Vocal noise
making
Excessive talking
Other:

Comments:_______________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

96
Appendix N: Permission to Screen Language Skills

Date of Request: _______________ Date Received: _________________

Name: _____________________________________________ DOB: ________________ Grade: __________

Teacher: ___________________________________ School: ______________________________

Parents: __________________________________________________ Phone: _________________________

Address: __________________________________________________________________________________

This form constitutes a request for screening, with parent/guardian permission, to determine whether areas of concern
can be addressed within the student’s regular education environment or if a special education referral is needed. This
screening will include a review of the student’s communicative abilities and can address language comprehension and use,
articulation, fluency, or voice. Results and recommendations will be reviewed with the parent and teacher to determine a
plan of action.

Reason for Screening Request: (check all areas of concern)

_____Misarticulating sounds/speech _____Grammar difficulties

_____Language comprehension _____Expressive language

_____Listening skills _____Difficulty with fluency

_____Voice differences (such as hoarseness, hypernasality, pitch, rate, volume)

_____Other____________________________________________________________________

Comments (Please provided specific examples supporting the request for a screening):
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

Referred By: ____________________________________

_____ I do give consent to conduct the screening

_____ I do not give consent to conduct the screening

__________________________________________ ___________________
Parent/Guardian Signature Date

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Appendix O: Examination of Oral Peripheral
Mechanism
Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ____________ Examiner: ____________________________________________

1. Facial Appearance _______________________________________________________

2. Lips
 Appearance ___________________________________________________________

 Habitual posture:  Closed  Parted

 Mobility:  Press  Purse  Retracts

3. Jaw Mobility Sufficient________ Insufficient_________ Excessive_________

4. Tongue
Appearance at rest: ________________________________________________________

Size:  Appropriate  Too large  Too small

 Protrusion  Tremors  Deviation

Mobility:  Elevation  Lateralization  Licks lip with tongue  Lingual Frenum

 Moves independently with jaw  Sweeps palate from alveolar ridge

5. Palate
Appearance of hard palate______________ Length of soft palate_____________

Mobility____________________________ Gag Reflex_____________________

Closure evidently complete________________________________________________

Uvula ______________ Length __________ Mobility ________ Bifid ____________

6. Diadochokineses
Papapa – (avg. =3-5 ½) _____________ kakaka – (avg. = 3 ½ - 5 ½) ___________
Tatata – (avg. =3-5 ½) ______________ putuku – (avg. = 1-1 ¾) ______________

(Below=less than 1 per sec.) ___________

(Above=more than 1 per sec.) __________

(See instructions for assessment of diadochokinetic rate.)

7. Tongue Thrust
Does s/he swallow with teeth apart? Yes No
Can you see the tongue when s/he swallows? Yes No
If s/he swallows with the lips closed,

can you see tensing of the chin? Yes No

8. Dental observations Spacing________________ Missing teeth________________

Alignment: normal_____________ misaligned_____________ spaced_____________
Condition: good______ slight decay_____ moderate decay_____ excessive decay_____
Occlusion : normal________ overjett_______ edge to edge_______ crossbite________

9. Breathing Mouth breather? Yes No

Other deviations noted: _________________________________________________________________________________________________

Comments ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Appendix P: Language Severity Rating Scale
Student ____________________________ School ____________________ Grade ____ Date of Rating _________ DOB __________ Age ____ SLP _______________________________
FORMAL ASSESSMENT 0 2 3 4
< 1.5 SD below the >1.5 SD below test mean >2 SD below test mean >2.5 SD below test mean
Comprehensive language mean (standard score between 70-77) or (standard score between 62– (standard score below 62) or
score, and/or composite (Standard Score* of 78 2nd - 6th Percentile 69) or 1st –2nd Percentile below 1st Percentile
receptive/expressive scores or above) ☐ Standard error of measured used
because____________________________
___________________________________
At least one of the following areas are At least two of the following At least three of the following
deficient areas are deficient areas are deficient
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT 0 2 3 4
Language skills are Check areas of weakness: Check areas of weakness: Check areas of weakness:
Check descriptive tools used: within expected range.  Sentence length/complexity  Sentence  Sentence
 Language/communication  Word order/syntax length/complexity length/complexity
sample  Vocabulary/semantics  Word order/syntax  Word order/syntax
 Checklist(s)  Word finding  Vocabulary/semantics  Vocabulary/semantics
 Observations  Word form/morphology  Word finding  Word finding
 Other: _______________  Use of language/pragmatics  Word form/morphology  Word form/morphology
 Auditory perception  Use of  Use of
language/pragmatics language/pragmatics
 Auditory perception  Auditory perception
0 2 3 4
FUNCTIONAL/ACADEMIC Functional/Academic The student uses language skills Due to language deficits, the The student does not use
LANGUAGE SKILLS language skills are effectively most of the time with student needs more cues, language skills effectively
within expected range. little or no assistance required. models, explanations, or most of the time despite the
assistance than the typical provision of general
student in class. education accommodations
and supports.
1. Circle score for the most appropriate description for each category. Do not include regional or dialectal differences when scoring.
2. Circle the total score on the bar/scale below and compute the total score and record below to determine severity rating.

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 TOTAL SCORE: __________

No Disability Mild Moderate Severe
Based on compilation of the assessment data, this student scores in the Mild, Moderate or Severe range for a Language Disability.  Yes  No
There is documentation/supporting evidence of adverse effects of the Language Disability on educational performance.  Yes  No
(BOTH STATEMENTS ABOVE MUST BE CHECKED YES)
*Standard scores are based on a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. The standard score can be a receptive, expressive or total language quotient T-scores
are based on a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.
Appendix Q: Speech Sound Production Severity Rating Scale
Student __________________________School ______________________ Grade ____ Date of Rating _______ DOB _______ Age _____ SLP ____________________________
Sound Production 0 1 3 4
No sound/phonological Sound errors/ phonological Sound errors/phonological Sound errors/phonological
process errors; errors are processes less than one processes one to two years processes two or more
consistent with normal year below age below age years below age
development
Stimulability 0 1 2 4
Most errors stimulable in Most errors stimulable in at Although not correct, most No error sounds are
several contexts least one context errors approximate correct stimulable for correct
production production
Oral Motor 0 0 3 4
and/or Oral motor and/or Oral motor and/or Oral motor and/or Oral motor and/or
Motor Sequencing sequencing adequate for sequencing difficulties are sequencing difficulties sequencing greatly interfere
speech production minimal and do not interfere with speech with speech production, use
contribute to speech production of cues, gestures or AD
production problems needed
Intelligibility 0 2 4 6
Connected speech is Connected speech is Connected speech Connected speech mostly
intelligible intelligible; some errors sometimes unintelligible unintelligible; gestures/cues
noticeable; more than 80% when context is unknown; usually needed; less than
intelligible 50-80% intelligible 50% intelligible
Instructions: 1. Do not include regional or dialectal differences when scoring.
2. Circle the score for the most appropriate description for each of the four categories, i.e., Sound Production, Stimulability, Oral Motor,
Intelligibility.
3. Compute the total score and record below.
4. Circle the total score on the bar/scale below.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 TOTAL SCORE: ____________

No disability Mild Moderate Severe to Profound

Based on compilation of the assessment data, this student scores in the Mild, Moderate or Severe range for Speech Sound Production on
the rating scale for Speech Sound Production. Disability standards for Phonological Processing require ratings at the Moderate, Severe, or
Profound Levels of Severity.  Yes  No
There is documentation/supporting evidence of adverse effects of the Speech Sound Production on educational performance.  Yes  No
(BOTH STATEMENTS ABOVE MUST BE CHECKED YES)
Determination of eligibility as a student with a Speech and/or Language Impairment is made by the IEP Team.

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 Appendix R: Fluency Severity Rating Scale
Student _______________________ School ____________________ Grade ______ Date of Rating _______ DOB _______ Age _________ SLP ___________________________
0 1 2 3
Frequency  Frequency of disfluency  Transitory disfluencies  Frequent disfluent  Habitual disfluent
is within normal limits for are observed in speaking behaviors are observed in behaviors are observed in
age, sex and speaking situations and/or many speaking situations majority of speaking
situation and/or  3-4 stuttered words per and/or situations and/or
 ≤ 2 stuttered words per minute and/or  5-9 stuttered words per  More than 9 stuttered
minute and/or  5% to 11% stuttered minute and/or words per minute and/or
 ≤ 4 % stuttered words words  12% to 22% stuttered  ≥23% stuttered words
words
0 1 2 3
Descriptive Assessment  Speech flow and time  Whole-word repetitions  Whole-word repetitions  Whole-word repetitions
patterning are within  Part-word repetitions  Part-word repetitions  Part-word repetitions
normal limits. and/or and/or and/or
Developmental disfluencies  Prolongations are  Prolongations are  Prolongations are
may be present present with no secondary present. Secondary present. Secondary
characteristics. Fluent symptoms, including symptoms predominant.
speech periods blocking avoidance and Avoidance and frustration
predominate physical concomitants may behaviors are observed.
be observed.
0 1 2 3
Speaking Rate  Speaking rate not  Speaking rate affected to  Speaking rate affected to  Speaking rate affected to
affected mild degree. Rate moderate degree. Rate severe degree and
difference rarely notable to difference distracting to distracting to
observer, listener and/or observer, listener and/or listener/observer and/or

 82-99 WSM 125-150  60-81 WSM 150-175  <60 WSM > 175 WSM
WSM WSM
Instructions: 1. Circle the score for the most appropriate description for each of these categories: Frequency, Descriptive Assessment, Speaking Rate.
2. Compute the total score and record below.
3. Circle the total score on the rating bar/scale below.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL SCORE: __________

No disability Mild Moderate Severe
Based on compilation of the assessment data, this student scores in the Mild, Moderate or Severe range for Fluency disorder.  Yes  No
*This assessment provides documentation/supporting evidence of adverse effects of the Fluency Disability on educational performance.  Yes  No
(BOTH STATEMENTS ABOVE MUST BE CHECKED YES)
Determination of eligibility as a student with a Speech and/or Language Impairment is made by the IEP Team.

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Appendix S: Voice Severity Rating Scale
Student _________________________ School ________________________ Grade ______ Date of Rating _______ DOB _______ Age ___ SLP __________________________
Pitch 0 1 3
Pitch is within normal limits. There is a noticeable difference, There is a persistent, noticeable
which may be intermittent. inappropriate raising or lowering of
pitch for age and sex.
Intensity 0 1 3
Intensity is within normal limits There is a noticeable difference in There is persistent, noticeable,
intensity, which may be inappropriate increase or decrease
intermittent. in the intensity of speech or the
presence of aphonia.
Quality 0 1 3
Quality is within normal limits. There is a noticeable difference in There is persistent, noticeable,
quality, which may be intermittent. breathiness, glottalfry, harshness,
hoarseness, tenseness, stridency or
other abnormal quality.
Resonance 0 1 3
Nasality is within normal limits. There is a noticeable difference in There is persistent, noticeable cul
nasality, which may be intermittent. de sac, hyper or hyponasality, or
mixed nasality.
Instructions: 1. Do not include regional or dialectal differences when scoring.
2. Circle the score for the most appropriate description for each category, i.e., Pitch or Intensity.
3. Compute the total score and record below.
4. Circle the total score on the bar/scale below.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 TOTAL SCORE: __________

No disability Mild Moderate Severe

Based on compilation of the assessment data, this student scores in the Mild, Moderate or Severe range Voice Disorder.  Yes  No
There is documentation/supporting evidence of adverse effects of the Voice disorder on educational performance.  Yes  No
(BOTH STATEMENTS ABOVE MUST BE CHECKED YES)

Determination of eligibility as a student with a Speech and/or Language Impairment is made by the IEP Team.

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Appendix T: Evaluation Report Template
SPEECH-LANGUAGE EVALUATION REPORT

Student Name: Examiner:

Sex: School:
District: Grade:
Teacher: Date of Birth:
Date of Evaluation: C.A.:

I. Purpose of Evaluation
☐ This speech and language evaluation was requested to determine if the student meets the Tennessee
Department of Education eligibility standards for disability.
☐ This is a re-evaluation in order to determine if the student meets the Tennesee Department of Education
eligibility standards as speech and/or language impaired. (See re-evaluation summary in student’s special
education file.)
☐ A speech and language evaluation was requested to gather more information to be used in planning the IEP.
☐ This assessment is part of a comprehensive evaluation involving other disciplines, which includes:
☐School Psychologist ☐Special Educator ☐Occupational Therapy ☐Physical Therapy

II. Background Information and Assessment Observations (all fields must be completed)
Relevant Developmental and Medical History: (please summarize information from the parent-completed case history
form)

Pre-referral Interventions and Outcomes:

☐ Teacher Input and Observations forms are attached. Summarize information:

☐ Parent Information is attached. Summarize information:

During the assessment the student was: ☐ Cooperative ☐ Attentive ☐ Distracted ☐ Other
If other, please explain:

☐ Test results are considered valid

☐ Test results should be viewed with caution, as they may not indicate an accurate current level of communicative

abilities.

Comments:

III. Environmental Considerations and Dialectal patterns

Is the student an English learner? ☐ Yes ☐ No
If yes, is the student English language proficient? ☐ Yes ☐ No
If the student is an EL, please summarize the EL interventions and service history:

Home language (L1): Student’s Dominant language:

IV. Hearing and Vision

Hearing: Choose an item. Date of Screening: Click here to enter a date.

If the student failed the most recent screening, please provide current communication with parents/guardians:

Vision: Choose an item. Date of Screening: Click here to enter a date.

If the student failed the most recent screening, please provide current communication with parents/guardians:

V. Speech Assessment
A. Articulation Test:

Articulation error sounds/patterns which were produced, and which are considered below normal limits for a child this

age include the following:

Substitution Deletion Distortion

Initial

Medial

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Final

Phonological Error Patterns

(Patterns checked should not be used by a child this age)

☐ Initial consonant deletion (up for cup) ☐ Final consonant deletion (do for dog)
☐ Weak syllable deletion (tephone for telephone) ☐ Intervocalic deletion (teephone for telephone)
☐ Cluster reduction (sove for stove, cown for clown) ☐ Voicing/Devoicing (bear for pear, koat for goat)
☐ Stopping (tun for sun, pour for four) ☐ Backing (kable for table)
☐ Fronting (tup for cup, thun for sun) ☐ Stridency deviation (soe for shoe, fumb for thumb)
☐ Liquid simplication (wamp for lamp, wed for red) ☐ Deaffrication (tair for chair, dump for jump)

The student exhibited developmental speech sound errors affecting:

Speech sound errors that have time to develop based on the student’s age:
The error sounds found not stimulable through the word level include:

Informal conversational speech sample exhibited developmental sound errors?

Are the conversational speech errors consistent with errors in formal testing?

If no, explain:

Intelligibility of conversational speech:

In known contexts: ☐ Good ☐ Fair ☐ Poor

Percent of intelligibility in known context: %

In unknown contexts: ☐ Good ☐ Fair ☐ Poor

Percent of intelligibility in unknown contexts: %

Articulation and/or phonological norms used:

The same norms were used for sounds in words/sentences/conversation, and consistently across the district?

If no, please explain:

Based on formal and informal assessment:

☐ No identified articulation/phonological error pattern problem
☐ Articulation/Phonological error pattern problem identified

If problem identified, summarize the adverse impact in the educational setting (i.e., grades, work samples, etc.):

B. Oral Peripheral Exam

☐ Oral structures and movements appear adequate for speech production ☐ Deviations observed. If so, please
explain:

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C. Voice Test:
☐ Appropriate for sex and age
☐ Not appropriate for sex and age. Please explain:

If voice was found to be inappropriate, explain the adverse impact in the educational setting (i.e., grades, work samples,
etc.):

If not appropriate, has the parent/guardian consulted with their medical doctor?
D. Fluency Test:
☐ Appropriate for age
☐ Inappropriate for age

If fluency was assessed, provide detailed formal and informal test results below:

Student’s attitude towards stuttering: (include student and/or parent interview as an attachment)

If fluency was found to be inappropriate, explain the adverse impact in the educational setting (i.e., grades, work
samples, etc.):

VI. Language Assessment

A minimum of one comprehensive standardized measure of receptive and expressive language. Also, at minimum one

additional standardized measure to support the comprehensive assessment. Pragmatics should be assessed if

identified as an area of concern during referral and/or reevaluation.

Comprehensive assessment(s): (minimum of one)

Test:

Receptive Score: Expressive Score: Total Score:

Narrative: (Describe subtest scores, skills assessed, explanation of score in terms of normalcy and exceptionality)

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Test:

Receptive Score: Expressive Score: Total Score:

Narrative: (Describe subtest scores, skills assessed, explanation of score in terms of normalcy and exceptionality)

Additional standardized assessment(s): (minimum of one)

Test:

Narrative: (Define skills assessed, explanation of score in terms of normalcy and exceptionality)

Test:

Narrative: (Define skills assessed, explanation of score in terms of normalcy and exceptionality)

Test:

Narrative: (Define skills assessed, explanation of score in terms of normalcy and exceptionality)

Informal language sample reveals appropriate:

Syntax: Semantics: Pragmatics:

Was a Functional Communication Assessment completed?

Please explain the results is completed. If not completed, please explain why it was not necessary:

Summary/overall Impressions of formal, informal, and functional communication language assessments:

If inappropriate language is indicated, explain the adverse impact in the educational setting (i.e. grades, work samples,
etc.) :

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VII. Effects on Educational Performance (Based on data collection)
☐ Does not adversely affect educational performance.
☐ Does adversely affect educational performance.

VIII. Diagnostic Impressions

This student does meet the eligibility standards for the following impairments:
☐ Language Impairment ☐ Speech Impairment in the area(s):
☐ Severity Rating Scales have been completed and attached
Summarize the Severity Rating Scale:

IX: Recommendations

This report is submitted to the IEP team for consideration when making decisions regarding placement and programming.

_____________________________________________________________
Speech-Language Pathologist

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http://www4.esc13.net/uploads/speech/docs/09-10/dec/RtIStrategies_Artic.pdf

http://www.oliviasplace.org/speech-and-language-strategies-for-parents-educators-articulation/

http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Otitis-Media/

http://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/PreventingSpeechandLanguageDisorders.pdf
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https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/evidence-summary30/speech-and­
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American Speech-Language Hearing Association. (1993). Definitions of Communication Disorders and

Variations [Relevant Paper]. Available from www.asha.org/policy.
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The National Center for Voice and Speech, http://www.ncvs.org/

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diagnosis-treatment-prevention/voice-disorder-prevention/

Guidelines for Determining a Voice Disorder

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Speech Sound Assessment (taken from ASHA)
http://www.asha.org/PRPSpecificTopic.aspx?folderid=8589935321&section=Assessment)

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therapy.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=38:difference&catid=11:admin
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Education.

Bernthal, J., Bankson, N. W., & Flipsen, P., Jr. (2013). Articulation and phonological disorders. New York,
NY: Pearson Higher Education.

Boone, DR. McFarlane, SC., Von Berg, SL& Zraick, RI. (2009). The Voice and Voice Therapy. (8th). Boston,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Karnell, M.P, Melton, S.D, Childes, J.M, Coleman, T.C, Dailey, S.A, &Hoffman, HT. (2007). Reliability of
Clinician-Based (GRBAS and CAPE-V) and Patient-Based (V-RQOL and IPVI) Documentation of Voice
Disorders. Journal of Voice, 21(5), 576-590.

Lee, L., Stemple, JC, Glaze, L.; Kelchner, L.N. (2004). Quick Screen for Voice and Supplementary
Documents for Identifying Pediatric Voice Disorders. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools,
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Zura, KB, Cotton, S., Klechner, L., Baker, S., Weinrich, B., &Lee, L. (2007). Pediatric Voice Handicap Index
(PVHI): A new tool for evaluating pediatric dysphonia. International Journal of Pediatric
Otorhinolaryngology, 71(1), 77-82.

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