Pnrao2 PDF
Pnrao2 PDF
Pnrao2 PDF
technology
Volume II
Metal Cutting and Machine Tools
Fourth Edition
P N Rao
Professor
Department of Technology
University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls
USA
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Questions 16.23
Multiple Choice Questions 16.24
Answers to MCQs 16.24
Manufacturing technology is undergoing continuous changes along with the progress in other technological
fields. Accordingly, this book, which has been used widely by the education community in India and abroad,
needs to be updated to include all those changes. The curricula of mechanical engineering in various Indian
universities keep changing to incorporate the changes in technology. As a result, it is necessary to incorporate
those requirements in this new edition retaining the main theme of the book.
Based on the responses received from various academicians in the field, I have tried to incorporate the
developments in the manufacturing technologies so that the Indian educators can have all the information
they need in a single book.
Content Overview
Whenever a process or equipment is described, the practical information, such as specifications, operating
parameters and designing for the process, have all been highlighted. Each process is supplemented with simple
illustrations, numerical calculations for the design process and a discussion of the results so obtained. A large
number of well-labelled illustrations are provided to give the necessary insight into the process and its design.
Chapter 1 introduces the different material-removal processes and machine tools. Chapter 2 discusses the
different aspects of metal cutting, laying emphasis on chips, BUE, cutting-tool materials, tool life and surface
finish. Chapter 3 is on machine tools, their classification and elements. Chapter 4 describes centre lathe in
detail, and Chapter 5 is on special-purpose lathes. Chapters 6 and 7 discuss reciprocating machine tools and
milling, respectively. Chapter 8 is on hole-making operations. Chapter 9 explains the different types of abrasive
processes, while Chapter 10 describes some other machine tools like sawing and broaching machines. Chapter
11 deals with some unconventional machining processes, Chapter 12 provides micro machining processes and
Chapter 13 is on machine-tool testing. Chapter 14 points out some general guidelines for designing machines.
Chapter 15 describes jigs and fixtures, while Chapter 16 on metrology describes the different kinds of
measurements used in machining processes. Finally, Chapter 17 deals with the numerical control of machine tools.
New Features
All the chapters were thoroughly checked to see that written material is in line with the current practice such
that some of the obsolete details are removed. Many of the illustrations are redrawn to simplify them for
better understanding of the concepts in tune with the text. In addition to that, the following topics are added
or updated in the book:
Chapter 1 – Automation
Chapter 2 – Updated topic on thermal analysis
Chapter 7 – Thread milling
Chapter 9 – Some improvements and revisions
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my sincere thanks to the University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, USA, where I am cur-
rently working, for providing the necessary facilities and environment for undertaking the revision work.
Thanks are due to my colleague, Dr R. R. Srikanth, who helped in organizing the case studies of the book.
I am thankful to Dr Matthias Pleil, Support Center for Microsystems Education, The University of New
Mexico, who introduced me to the fascinating world of MEMS and helped in developing the case study on
pressure sensor manufacturing. I also express heartfelt thanks to the editors and production department at
McGraw Hill (India) for nudging and guiding me for the timely completion of this work.
I would like to thank the reviewers who have gone through the revised content of the book and have given
their valuable suggestions. In particular, I would like to thank:
Pravin Kumar Delhi Technical University (DTU), Delhi
Manoj Kumar Sinha National Institute of Technology (NIT), Delhi
Dr. Avinash Kumar Dubey Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology (MNNIT), Allahabad
Vratraj K. Joshi Gujarat Technical University (GTU), Ahmedabad
Chirag K. Balar Gujarat Technical University (GTU), Ahmedabad
Mukund Dutt Sharma National Institute of Technology (NIT), Hamirpur
I would welcome further suggestions regarding the coverage in the book and would be happy to incorporate
the suggested improvements in future editions to make the book more suitable to the changing curriculum
needs of the teaching of manufacturing technology.
Feedback
Despite the utmost care taken, it is not uncommon that some errors will be left in the book uncorrected, and I
would request the readers to communicate any such errors and omissions so that I will be able to correct them
at the earliest possible opportunity.
P. N. RAO
Manufacturing technology related to the machine tools is an important subject taught in most of the engineer-
ing curricula. The need is more for a balanced approach dealing with the engineering as well as technological
aspects that direct towards the actual application of the concepts.
The first volume in the present series was first published in 1986. That book has deviated from the
established tradition of the books on workshop technology that deal heavily with the theoretical descriptions by
incorporating a variety of actual applications and numerical aspects to explain the concepts of manufacturing
processes. The success of the book, which has now gone through the second edition recently, established the
methodology adopted.
It was long felt a similar approach needed for teaching machine tools in engineering colleges. The author
over the years of teaching the subject in Indian Institute of Technology Delhi felt the need for such a book
and that is how the seeds for this new book have been sowed. There is a large variety of books available
in the market to deal with the workshop machinery. A majority of these books deal with a very descriptive
nature of the machine tools and though voluminous, often are not suitable to completely provide a thorough
analytical basis required for manufacturing engineering. Many of these books are more suitable for operators
and technicians rather than engineers. Other varieties of books that were written with engineer in mind give
very little details and are thus difficult to use unless supplemented by other books.
This book is thus aimed at providing the material in a more balanced approach such that the engineer is in
a position to appreciate the details of the process as well as the necessary analytical and design approaches
that are essential in developing the manufacturing engineering aspects of these processes. Thus, it is sincerely
hoped that the new approach will be appreciated and the various curricula in engineering colleges will take the
new approach there by giving the students a better appreciation of the manufacturing processes by reducing
the descriptive portions largely.
This book is the outgrowth of course material used by the author for teaching a number of undergraduate
courses relating to metal cutting and machine tools. The author practised the concept of providing the
practical information, such as specifications, operating parameters and designing for the process, whenever
a manufacturing process is discussed. This helps in the understanding the nuances of the process better by
the student. As far as possible, effort has been made to supplement the processes with simple illustrations,
discuss the analytical aspects and carryout the design process and a discussion of the results so obtained. A
large number of well-labelled illustrations are provided to give the necessary insight into the process and its
design. The actual photographs of the machine tools are avoided deliberately to keep the size of the book in
reasonable limits.
In this book, study of various categories of machine tools available along with their capabilities and
applications would be carried. The study in this book would be restricted to some aspects of the machine tools
from the standpoint of their application to either mass production or batch production depending upon the
requirement. With each of the machine tool description, the method of selection for a given application and
the setting process are also developed. These machine tools are so versatile that with a little ingenuity and use
of accessories, it is possible to practically manufacture any type of job needed.
The book starts with a long introduction to the metal cutting aspects that form the core of all the subsequent
chapters. Details are provided whereby analysis of the mechanics of orthogonal cutting can be understood
along with the various practical aspects of its application in real life manufacturing situations.
A separate chapter is provided on the basics of machine tool construction wherein effort has been made to
collate the common aspects of all the machine tool details in one place. These details are applicable to many
of the machine tools discussed in the later chapters.
In the subsequent chapters, all the major categories of machine tools and processes namely lathes, shaping,
milling, hole making, and grinding are covered in greater detail. The unconventional machining processes
such as EDM, ECM are covered in a separate chapter. Though these are termed as unconventional, they are
quite extensively used in the industries. From that viewpoint, reasonably large coverage of this is attempted.
Some of the other elements that form the integral portions for the study of machine tools namely, machine
tool testing, metrology, and design for machining are also covered through separate chapters though the
coverage is maintained in a low key to conserve the space. Process planning which is a very important
component of the machine tools, which is normally neglected in most of the engineering curricula has been
covered in this book with reasonable details. It is the author’s conviction that through the understanding of
the principles of process planning the student will be better appreciating the application of machine tools.
The book finally ends with a chapter on Numerical Control of machine tools in view of its importance in
the industry. Though this subject merits a further coverage as a separate book, sufficient details are provided
in this book to help the student getting the basics with which they will be able to use the NC machine tools.
I am grateful to the authorities of the MARA Institute of Technology, Shah Alam, Malaysia, which have
provided excellent environment, opportunities and facilities to undertake this task. In particular, I would like
to express my sincere thanks to the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and CADEM Centre who allowed me
to liberally use the available facilities and time for this venture. It is a pleasure to express heart-felt gratitude
to my family members who have borne long hours of inconvenience during the preparation of the manuscript.
I am also thankful to many of my students who have learned this subject from me, for the probing questions
and comments through which the subject could be brought to this form.
Readers of the book are requested to provide comments and suggestions related to the coverage and
examples used in the book. I would appreciate and welcome any helpful constructive criticism for
improvement in future editions.
October 1998 P. Nageswara Rao
Visual Walkthrough
1.1 IntroductIon to MaterIal reMoval Processes
The study of metal cutting and machine tools is one of the most fascinating experiences. Machining of
materials is adopted basically to get higher surface finish, close tolerances and complex geometric shapes,
which are otherwise difficult to obtain.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Of all the manufacturing processes available, metal removable is perhaps the most expensive one. The
reason being that from the raw material, quite a substantial amount of material is removed in the form of
Provides a brief perspective of chips in order to achieve the final shape required. Also, lot of energy is expended in the process of material
removal. So the choice of material removal as an option for manufacturing should be considered when no
historical developments related other manufacturing process suits the purpose. However, invariably all the components will be undergoing a
material removal operation at one point or other.
to the processes discussed in the A machine tool is defined as one which while holding the cutting tools would be able to remove metal
from a work piece in order to generate the requisite job of given size, configuration and finish. It is different
chapter from a machine, which essentially is a means of converting the source of power from one form to the other.
The machine tools are the mother machines since without them no components could be produced in their
finished form. They are very old and the success of the industrial revolution owes to a very great extent to
them.
Existence of some form of crude machine tools is recorded as early as 700 B.C. However, the most
prominent beginning of the machine tool is the John Wilkinson’s horizontal boring machine towards 1775.
This invention made the James Watt’s steam engine a reality. Henry Maudslay followed this with an engine
lathe in 1794. A later machine tool to be invented is the planer by Roberts in 1817. Maudslay combined a
lead screw, a cross-slide and change gears in a form, which is almost similar to the current day centre lathe.
At the same time another major machine tool to be invented is the milling machine by Eli Whitney in 1818.
The drill press is the next machine tool to be developed around 1840 by John Nasmyth. Stephen Fitch
designed the first turret lathes in 1845. It carried eight tools on a horizontally mounted turret for producing
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Objectives
Each chapter begins with a clearly
Material removal is the principal operation carried out by majority of the manufacturing
industries. This chapter provides a summary of the major factors that need to be considered in defined set of objectives that
metal cutting. After completing this chapter, the reader will be able to
❯ Understand the basic parameters in the metal cutting operation.
provide a quick reference to the
❯ Appreciate different types of chips formed in metal cutting and their relevance to chapter’s key aspects. These help
manufacturing
❯ Calculate analytically the forces and other parameters associated with the orthogonal cutting students better anticipate what they
❯ Understand the importance of shear angle in metal cutting will be studying and help instructors
❯ Select the cutting tool material for a given application
❯ Understand the temperatures developed in metal cutting and the variables that control it
measure student’s understanding.
Understand tool wear and tool life and the variables that control them
Recirculating Screw
balls
WELL-LABELLED
ILLUSTRATIONS
Neat illustrations within the
chapters provide a complete
description of the object in Nut
(Side plate removed)
Example 4.4
Estimate the actual machining time required for the 120
component (C40 steel) shown in Fig. 4.42. The available
spindle speeds are, 70, 110, 176, 280, 440, 700, 1100, 1760
and 2800. Use a roughing speed of 30 m/min and finish
speed of 60 m/min. The feed for roughing is 0.24 mm/ Ø42
SOLVED EXAMPLES
rev while that for finishing is 0.10 mm/rev. The maximum
depth of cut for roughing is 2 mm. Finish allowance may Throughout each chapter, various
be taken as 0.75 mm. Blank to be used for machining is 50
mm in diameter.
Fig. 4.42 Machining time example 1
solved examples are given that
Solution Stock to be removed =
50 - 42
= 4 mm help readers understand and apply
2
Finish allowance = 0.75 mm the concept learnt in the chapter.
Roughing:
Roughing stock available = 4 – 0.75 = 3.25 mm
Since maximum depth of cut to be taken is 2 mm, there are 2 roughing passes.
Given cutting speed, V = 30 m/min
s um m ary
There are a large number of hole making operations depending upon the geometry of the hole to be made.
● Drilling is the most common hole making operation.
● Twist drill geometry with two cutting lips arranged helically around the central web acts as the main
Q u e sti ons
6.1 Explain with a neat sketch the operation and need for a clapper box in a mechanical shaper.
6.2 Give a schematic sketch of a shaper labelling important parts and their functions. REVISION QUESTIONS
6.3 What are the applications of shaping machines in a typical machine shop?
6.4 Explain the following principal parts of a mechanical shaper. A set of review questions has
(a) Ram
(b) Tool post been carefully constructed
(c) Quick return motion
6.5 Give the details of different types of shapers and their applications. to help students review their
6.6
6.7
Give the various details that need to be specified for a shaping machine.
Describe the operation of the quick return motion in a mechanical shaper.
understanding of the concepts.
6.8 How are the tools held in a shaper?
6.9 Describe the methods of holding the work pieces in shapers. Give simple sketches of the same.
6.10 Give a neat sketch of the mechanical feed drive of a horizontal shaper and explain its function.
6.11 Describe with a schematic sketch the operation of a hydraulic shaper.
P ro b le m s
7.1 A 20 mm ¥ 150 mm diameter HSS side and face milling cutter is to be used to cut a groove into a
PRACTICE PROBLEMS piece of brass with one cut. The groove is 20 mm wide, 4 mm deep and 250 mm long. Calculate the
total machining time. Justify the assumptions made if any. [0.558 minutes]
7.2 In a slab milling operation, the milling cutter has 20 teeth and is 100 mm in diameter. The rotational
Practice problems are given in each speed of the cutter is 5 RPS. If the flat surface to be generated is 200 mm by 50 mm and feed per tooth
is 0.013 mm/rev., calculate the machining time required for 100 pieces. The depth of cut may be taken
chapter to provide hands-on practice as 6 mm. Specify any assumptions made. [1.15 minutes]
to students in solving problems 7.3 A surface 115 mm wide and 250 mm long is to be rough milled with a depth of cut of 6 mm by a
16-tooth cemented carbide face mill 150 mm in diameter. The work material is medium hard cast iron
related to real-life situations. (220 – 260 BHN). Estimate the cutting time and justify the process parameters used.
[4.6296 minutes]
7.4 A flat surface of 250 ¥ 350 mm is to be produced on a horizontal axis milling machine. A slab mill
of 100 mm diameter and 150 mm width is to be used for the purpose. Calculate the machining
time assuming that entire stock can be removed in one depth of 1 mm. Make only the requisite
assumptions. [6.25 minutes]
7.5 A grey cast iron casting plane surface, which is 150 mm wide and 450 mm long is to be finished by
C a s e s T u dy
tUrBiNe Blade MachiNiNg
Engine components for airplanes which need to maintain low weight, high temperature resistance and
increased thermal efficiency require that these be manufactured with high nickel and titanium alloys.
CASE STUDIES The commonly used materials are Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 718. The geometry of turbine blade is com-
plex and these blades are arranged on the rotor disk with specialized geometry that facilitates the flow
of gases. The gap between the blades is relatively small and has complex geometry, the machining
Provides a practical view point of of which requires a very careful planning. Being hard materials these alloys can be machined using
the subject to increase interest and conventional milling, Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) and Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
processes.
understanding. In this case study, these alloys were machined using conventional milling, EDM and ECM processes
in order to compare the material removal rates and economics. The conventional milling is done
with trochoidal milling which is a method of machining used to create a slot wider than the milling
cutter diameter. This is accomplished by moving the cutter through a series of circular cuts known
as a trochoidal tool path. This provides a low radial depth of cut and a high axial depth of cut and
achieves good material removal rate. In the EDM setup, initial roughing was done using the regular
EDM process and then Wire EDM was used. The table below shows the variation of MRR among the
processes.
Introduction
1
1.1 IntroductIon to MaterIal reMoval Processes
The study of metal cutting and machine tools is one of the most fascinating experiences. Machining of
materials is adopted basically to get higher surface finish, close tolerances and complex geometric shapes,
which are otherwise difficult to obtain.
Of all the manufacturing processes available, metal removable is perhaps the most expensive one. The
reason being that from the raw material, quite a substantial amount of material is removed in the form of
chips in order to achieve the final shape required. Also, lot of energy is expended in the process of material
removal. So the choice of material removal as an option for manufacturing should be considered when no
other manufacturing process suits the purpose. However, invariably all the components will be undergoing a
material removal operation at one point or other.
A machine tool is defined as one which while holding the cutting tools would be able to remove metal
from a work piece in order to generate the requisite job of given size, configuration and finish. It is different
from a machine, which essentially is a means of converting the source of power from one form to the other.
The machine tools are the mother machines since without them no components could be produced in their
finished form. They are very old and the success of the industrial revolution owes to a very great extent to
them.
Existence of some form of crude machine tools is recorded as early as 700 B.C. However, the most
prominent beginning of the machine tool is the John Wilkinson’s horizontal boring machine towards 1775.
This invention made the James Watt’s steam engine a reality. Henry Maudslay followed this with an engine
lathe in 1794. A later machine tool to be invented is the planer by Roberts in 1817. Maudslay combined a
lead screw, a cross-slide and change gears in a form, which is almost similar to the current day centre lathe.
At the same time another major machine tool to be invented is the milling machine by Eli Whitney in 1818.
The drill press is the next machine tool to be developed around 1840 by John Nasmyth. Stephen Fitch
designed the first turret lathes in 1845. It carried eight tools on a horizontally mounted turret for producing
screws. A completely automatic turret lathe was invented by Christopher Spencer in 1869. This is the first
form of the automatic lathe utilising cams for feeding the tool in and out of the work piece thereby automating
most of the machining tasks. He is also credited with the development of a multiple-spindle lathe. Finally the
surface grinder was developed around 1880. This probably completes the development of almost all basic
machine tools.
Over the intervening period, the basic machine tools have been refined by adding various attachments as
well as automating the movements. Also the invention of various precision measurement techniques helped
in improving the accuracy and productivity of the machine tools.
Manufacturing technology is going through major technological changes because of the revolutionary
changes being brought in by the developments in the microelectronics. The availability of computers and
then microprocessors has completely changed the machine tool scenario by bringing in the flexibility which
was not possible through the conventional mechanisms. The development of Numerical Control in 1952 has,
for the first time, brought the kind of flexibility to the metal cutting operation, that at present, a majority of
the manufacturing processes are making use of these principles in some form or the other. This allows for the
Just In Time (JIT) manufacture leading to zero inventories, zero setup times and single component batches
without losing any advantages of mass manufacture.
Material-Removal Processes
Traditional Nontraditional
EDM
ECM
LBM
Cutting etc.
Abrasive
The large varieties of material removal processing machines that are available as such are:
● Turning machines (Lathes)
● Drilling machines
● Boring machines
● Milling machines
● Grinding machines
● Reaming
Table 1.1 lists the status of machine tool industry in India, which is considered as one yardstick towards
the industrialisation.
As mentioned earlier, material removal processes are very expensive and hence, should be resorted to only
when it is absolutely needed. Table 1.2 gives a relative comparison of the material removal processes with the
other manufacturing processes as a qualitative comparison.
1.3 autoMatIon
Beginning of the twentieth century, large volume manufacture has taken off in a big scale and in the process
reduced the manufacturing costs. This made it possible that people have access to a large range of products
and the economies have improved. Automation played a big part in this process. Merriam Webster dictionary
defines automation as “the technique of making an apparatus, a process, or a system operate automatically”.
The aftermath of automation is that quality and consistency of manufacturing have improved, while the need
for human labour has decreased. The reduction in the manufactured goods is due to the productivity improve-
ment achieved due to automation.
In the beginning, most of the manufacturing automation is hardware oriented with all mechanical devices
such that the necessary activation is done through levers and actuators. Later, this has been improved by the
addition of hydraulic and pneumatic devices to provide more flexibility. This type of industrial automation is
specifically used to produce a single component that is normally termed as hard automation. When any small
design is to be incorporated, the automation components need to be modified to suit the new design. This
is time consuming, depending upon the type of modification involved. However, with the developments in
the microelectronics, sensors and computers, the automation has changed drastically in what is now termed
as soft automation, where the components remain fixed while their functionality is controlled through the
program which can be modified to suit any design changes as required. The computer numerical control
machines and robots are part of that industrial automation which leads to much improved productivity and
quality.
MT4e-V2_01.indd 5
Manufacturing Typical Size Range, Tolerance Typical Relative Disadvantage to Use
Process Application kg Surface Finish Production Tooling Cost
Volume
Sand casting All metals Unlimited ±0.030 mm/mm Unlimited Low Casting must be machined
3.2 mm
Die casting Zinc and Up to 7 kg ±0.0015 mm/mm Very high High Porosity
Aluminium alloys 1.6 mm
Drop forging All materials Unlimited Very high Medium Slow cycle time
Hot Extrusion All metals Unlimited Very high Low Low production speeds
Gas Metal Arc All metals 12 mm thick High High Equipment cost and portability
Welding
Sheet metal All materials ±0.08 mm Very high Low Leaves burr on the part
blanking
Turning All materials Unlimited ±0.050 mm Very high Medium Relatively slow
2.0 mm Material wastage
Milling All materials Unlimited ±0.050 mm High Medium Relatively slow
2.0 mm Material wastage
Grinding All materials Unlimited ±0.025 mm High Medium Expensive finishing operation
0.4 mm
Electric discharge Electrically ±0.003 mm Low Low Dielectric fluid must be filtered
machining conductive 0.1 mm
materials
Introduction
1.5
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Chapter
Metal Cutting
2
Objectives
Material removal is the principal operation carried out by majority of the manufacturing
industries. This chapter provides a summary of the major factors that need to be considered in
metal cutting. After completing this chapter, the reader will be able to
❯ Understand the basic parameters in the metal cutting operation.
❯ Appreciate different types of chips formed in metal cutting and their relevance to
manufacturing
❯ Calculate analytically the forces and other parameters associated with the orthogonal cutting
❯ Understand the importance of shear angle in metal cutting
❯ Select the cutting tool material for a given application
❯ Understand the temperatures developed in metal cutting and the variables that control it
❯ Understand tool wear and tool life and the variables that control them
❯ Determine how the surface finish varies with the process parameters
❯ Know the various cutting fluids and their application methods
❯ Empirically determine the cutting forces
❯ Optimise the machining process to satisfy the required conditions
2.1 IntroductIon
The importance of machining processes can be emphasized by the fact that every product we use in day-to-
day life has used this process either directly or indirectly.
(a) In US, more than $ 100 billion were spent annually on the machining and related operations.
(b) Typically a large majority (above 80%) of all the machine tools used in the manufacturing industry
are metal cutting in nature.
(c) An estimate in 1957 showed that about 10 to 15% of all the metal produced in US. is converted into
chips.
These facts show the importance of metal cutting in general manufacturing. It is therefore important to
understand the metal cutting process in order to make the best use of it. Before the end of 19th century, some
amount of work was done by people like Tresca, Thime, Mallock, etc. But it was mostly scattered work. The
V V
Rake face
Tool
Rake face
Tool
Clearance angle Clearance angle
Clearance angle: This is the angle between the machined surface and the underside of the tool called the
flank face. The clearance angle is provided such that the tool will not rub or spoil the machined surface, but
at the same time will increase the cutting forces. A very large clearance angle reduces the strength of the tool
tip, hence normally an angle of the order of 5 to 6° is generally used.
The conditions which have a predominant influence on the metal cutting are: work material, cutting tool
material, cutting tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut and cutting fluid used.
The cutting speed, V, is the speed with which the cutting tool moves through the work material. This is
generally expressed in metres per second (ms–1).
Feed rate, f, may be defined as the small relative movement per cycle (per revolution or per stroke) of the
cutting tool in a direction usually normal to the cutting speed direction.
Depth of cut, d, is the normal distance between the unmachined surface and the machined surface.
disposal view point. However, the cutting force becomes unstable with the variation coinciding with the
fracturing cycle as shown in Fig. 2.6. Also they generally provide better surface finish. However, in case of
ductile materials they cause poor surface finish and low tool life. Higher depths of cut (large chip thickness),
low cutting speeds and small rake angles are likely to produce discontinuous chips.
12,500
Cutting force, Lb
10,000
7,500
5,000
1.0 2.0 3.0
Distance cut, inches
Fig. 2.6 The variation of cutting force in discontinuous chip formation (Medium carbon steel, Rake angle =
30°, Cutting speed = 1.65 ft/min, Depth of cut = 0.41 in, Feed rate = 0.125 in/rev)
unstable and parts of it get removed while cutting. The removed por-
tions of BUE partly adhere to the chip underside and partly to the ma-
Chip chined surface as shown in Fig. 2.9. This causes the finished surface
Built-up-edge to be rough. However, since the cutting is carried by the BUE and not
Tool the actual tool tip, the life of the cutting tool increases while cutting
with BUE. In this way BUE is not harmful during rough machining.
The conditions that normally induce the formation of BUE are low
Work piece cutting speed, high feed and low rake angle. One of the prerequisites
for the formation of BUE is the work hardenability of the work piece
material. Higher the work hardenability, rougher is the machined
Fig. 2.8 Close-up view of BUE surface produced.
Though the above is a theoretical classification of chips, in actual practice many other types (which could
appear in the border areas of these three types) would also be present.
2.2.4 BUE
The formation of a BUE on the tool is brought about by the high normal loads on the tool rake face leading to
adhesion between the chip and the tool. This adhesion may be so severe that instead of the chip sliding over
the tool face, considerable plastic flow and eventual rupture occurs within the chip. Further layers build up,
leading to a large nose of the material projecting from the cutting edge.
The adhesion at the chip tool interface is very strong and different from the conventional adhesion
characteristics of the material pair concerned. The conditions of machining are more extreme compared to
most other deformation processes.
(i) It is a plastic flow process with exceptionally large strains. There is high compressive stress acting
on the plastic zone and this prevents rupture until the strain is well above the rupture value, in say, a
tensile test.
(ii) The deformation is localised to an extremely small plastic zone. The strain rate is unusually high.
(iii) The chip material rubbing over the tool face is freshly formed from the body of the work material
and is in a chemically clean condition. This makes it more chemically active than the usual oxidised
surfaces encountered in most sliding situations, a feature which increases the tendency for adhesion
and so gives a higher friction force.
Chip Chip
Tool Tool
Shear zone
Work piece Work piece
Fig. 2.10 (a) Thin shear plane model, (b) Thick shear zone model
Though the first model Fig. 2.10(a) is convenient from the stand point of analysis, physically it is
impossible to create . The reason being that for transition from undeformed material to a deformed one along
a thin plane, the acceleration across the plane has to be infinity, for the velocity to change instantaneously
from cutting speed Vi to Vc. Similarly the stress gradient across the shear plane has to be very large to be
practical.
In the second model Fig. 2.10(b) by marking the shear zone over a region, the transitions in velocities and
the shear stresses could be realistically accounted for.
The angle made by the shear plane with the cutting speed vector, f is a very important parameter in metal
cutting. Higher the shear angle better is the cutting performance. From a view of the Fig. 2.10(a), it can be
observed that higher rake angles give rise to higher shear angles.
Ch
90°
ip
ip
Tool
Tool
Work piece Work piece
(a) (b)
To simplify the matters, researchers often resort to orthogonal cutting wherein the cutting edge is
perpendicular to the cutting velocity as shown in Fig. 2.11(a). Though normal turning is oblique, a special
case of turning a pipe from the side as shown in Fig. 2.12 is orthogonal. Similarly parting operation in turning
is orthogonal. Since this type of cutting reduces the complexity, most of our discussion in this chapter would
be based on orthogonal cutting only.
Lathe chuck
Axis of rotation
Cutting tool
Strain gauges to
measure forces
Tubular
specimen
Fig. 2.12 Realisation of orthogonal cutting in practice while turning a tube from the end
Chip
Tool
N a
Chip F
FS
R
FH j
FS
FH NS b – a
NS FV Work piece
R
FV F
¢
R
b
N
Fig. 2.14 Forces acting on an isolated chip in Fig. 2.15 Merchant’s cutting force circle in
metal cutting orthogonal cutting
We will make some construction into the Fig. 2.15 to get the relationships between the various forces as
in Fig. 2.16 and 2.17.
FS FH a
FH j
FV b–a
NS
a R
FV R F
j b
N
Fig. 2.16 Part of Merchant’s cutting force diagram Fig. 2.17 Part of Merchant’s cutting force diagram
Chip
Tool
C
B
B C
ds A
j –f
dy a
Work piece
To understand the significance of the various equations derived a number of numerical examples were
solved below.
Example 2.1
A bar of 75 mm diameter is reduced to 73 mm by a cutting tool while cutting orthogonally. If the mean length
of the cut chip is 73.5 mm, find the cutting ratio. If the rake angle is 15°, what is the shear angle?
p (75 + 73)
Solution Length of uncut chip, l = = 232.4779 mm
2
tc 73.9
Cutting ratio, r = = = 0.3179
t 232.4779
È r cos a ˘ È 0.3179 cos 15 ˘
Shear angle, j = tan -1 Í ˙ = tan -1 Í ˙
Î 1 – r sin a ˚ Î 1 – 0.3179 sin 15 ˚
Shear angle, j = tan–1(0.3346) = 19°
Example 2.2
In an orthogonal cutting test with a tool of rake angle 10°, the following observations were made:
Chip thickness ratio = 0.3
Horizontal component of the cutting force = 1290 N
Vertical component of the cutting force = 1650 N
From the Merchant's theory, calculate the various components of the cutting forces and the coefficient of
friction at the chip tool interface.
Solution Given r = 0.3 a = 10°
The shear plane angle, f is
r cos a 0.3 cos 10
tan f = = = 0.311679
1 – r sin a 1 – 0.3 sin 10
shear angle, f = tan–1(0.311679) = 17.31°
Given FV = 1650, FH = 1290
The friction force along rake face is
F = FH sin a + FV cos a = 1290 sin 10 + 1650 cos 10 = 1848.94 N
the normal force on the rake face is
N = FH cos a – FV sin a = 1290 cos 10 – 1650 sin 10 = 983.88 N
The coefficient of friction, m, at the chip tool interface is given by
F 1848.94
m= = = 1.8792
N 983.88
The friction angle, b is given by
b = tan–1 m = tan–1(1.8792) = 62°
The resultant cutting force, R is given by
Example 2.3
The orthogonal cutting of steel with 10° rake tool with a depth of cut of 2 mm and feed rate of 0.20 mm/rev.
The cutting speed is 200 m/min. The chip thickness ratio is 0.31. The vertical cutting force is 1200 N and
the horizontal cutting force is 650 N. Calculate from the merchant’s theory, the various work done in metal
cutting and shear stress.
Solution Given r = 0.31, a = 10°
Shear plane angle, f is
0.31 cos 10
tan f = = 0.32266
1 – 0.31 sin 10
Shear angle, f = tan–1(0.32266) = 17.88°
Given FV = 1200, FH = 650
The shear force along the shear plane is
Fs = 650 cos 17.88 – 1200 sin 17.88 = 250.18 N
The normal force on the shear plane is
N s = 1200 cos 17.88 + 650 sin 17.88 = 1341.61 N
The area of the shear plane is given by
bt 2 ¥ 0.20
As = = = 1.3028 mm 2
sin f sin 17.88
Friction force along rake face is
F = 650 sin 10 + 1200 cos 10 = 1294.64 N
Normal force on the rake face is
N = 650 cos 10 – 1200 sin 10 = 431.75 N
Under a microscope the actual contact of two sliding surfaces through the high spots (asperities). In
the case of normal contacting surfaces as shown Fig. 2.21, the real area of contact is different from the
apparent area of contact. Real area changes first by the elastic deformation, and when load increases by
plastic deformation. Thus
N
Ar = (42)
p
Under the influence of normal and tangential load, it has been shown that very high temperatures are
developed at the contacting asperities and that metallic bonding of the contacting high spots can occur. Thus
sliding of one surface relative to the other must be accompanied by shearing of the welded asperities.
When plastic deformation takes place at the contacting surfaces, then the friction mechanism is different
because of the fact that real area of contact approaches that of apparent area of contact. Under these conditions
the friction force is independent of normal force.
Another anomaly noted with the experimental data of metal cutting is that the friction coefficient increases
with an increase in the rake angle as shown in Table 2.1 below.
It is normally expected that with an increase in the rake angle, the metal cutting forces decrease and should
normally be associated with a decrease in the friction. However, in actual practice the friction coefficient
increases as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Variation of coefficient of friction with rake angle in orthogonal cutting
This is happening because the influence of the rake angle is not the same on the different components
of the cutting force. The normal force on the rake face decreases to a great extent compared to the
friction face as shown in Table 2.2. Thus, though there is an overall decrease in the forces, the coefficient
of friction increases. That is why Kronenberg calls this friction coefficient as ‘apparent coefficient of
friction’.
Table 2.2
Rake Angle, a° Friction Force F Normal Force N Coefficient of % Decrease
Friction, m
N N F N
16 3025 4518 0.67
30 2524 2938 0.86 16.87 35
45 2470 2034 1.21 18.62 55
In metal cutting, we have a sliding situation under conditions of high normal load and with a metal surface,
which is chemically clean, having been recently exposed from the body of the parent metal. The cleanness of
the metal surfaces can explain the high value of m and high normal load can explain the departure from the
usual laws of friction.
Thus the friction along the rake face of a cutting tool can be
considered as partially sticking and partially sliding as shown in Normal stress
Fig. 2.22. In the sticking zone, the shear stress would be constant,
Shear stress
approaching the work material’s yield stress, while in the sliding
zone, the normal Coulomb’s laws of friction would hold good. Rake face
Another aspect to be noted is the inclusion of the rubbing
force component at the clearance face in the measured forces. Sticking Sliding
This component can be obtained by plotting the measured cutting region region
force against the depth of cut and extrapolating back to zero
Tool
depth. Even after this deduction, which is not contributing to the
shear, we get a higher value of m which can only be explained by
the distribution of stresses on the rake face as shown in Fig. 2.22. Fig. 2.22 Stress distribution expected
along the rake face
20
10
0
– 20 – 10 0 10 20 30
b–a
Fig. 2.23 Comparison of experimental results with the shear angle relationships
To this extent a number of tool geometries have been specified by the different agencies, and some of them
are discussed below. Before looking at the geometries a look at the designation of some of the features of the
tools are shown in Fig 2.25.
and measured on PB
Tool signature: ab – as – je – js – Ce – Cs – r
where r is the nose radius.
Base plane
(PB)
(a)
as
Section B–B
fs
A
B
B
fe
X
Ce
Feed
Cs
ab
A Section A–A
(b)
Fig. 2.26 The tool specification system as per the ASA.
cutting edge (side cutting edge angle Cs in ASA). A third plane called the orthogonal plane as shown in
Fig. 2.27 is perpendicular to these two planes.
● Base plane - PB – perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector
● Cutting plane - PC – plane perpendicular to PB and taken along the principal cutting edge
The drawback of this system is that it needs some calculations to obtain setting angles on tool grinding
fixture.
Orthogonal plane
(PC )
90
Cutting plane
(PO)
Base plane
(PB )
(a)
Work piece
B ao
Section B–B
A
Base plane
B
Cutting tool
Cutting plane
Orthogonal
A plane
i
Section A–A
(b)
PC and measured on PO
● Auxiliary orthogonal clearance angle (jo¢) – angle of inclination of the auxiliary flank from auxiliary
cutting plane, PC¢ and measured on auxiliary orthogonal plane, PO¢
● Principal cutting edge angle (C) – angle between PC and the direction of assumed longitudinal feed or
PL and measured on PB
● Auxiliary cutting angle (C ¢) – angle between PC¢ and PL and measured on PB
Equations for conversion between ASA and ORS system are as follows:
tan ab = sin Cs tan ao + cos Cs tan i (48)
tan as = cos Cs tan ao – sin Cs tan i (49)
tan i = – tan as sin Cs + tan ab cos Cs (50)
tan ao = tan as cos Cs + tan ab sin Cs (51)
materials. An exception is brass where, to prevent digging of tool in work, it is machined with small rake
angles.
2.7 dynamometerS
As noted earlier, the cutting force is an important indication for the performance of the machining operation.
The equipment that is used to measure the cutting force is called dynamometer. The measurement of cutting
force can be accomplished by a number of approaches. They are:
(a) By measuring the deflection of a body that is directly influenced by the acting cutting forces,
(b) By measuring the strain induced in the body that is directly influenced by the acting cutting forces,
and
(c) By measuring the pressure exerted on a medium that is directly influenced by the acting cutting
forces.
Any typical setup for measuring the cutting force consists of the following two components:
● A medium that experiences the cutting force, and
● A sensor that measures and converts it to a measurable quantity such as a strain gage
The sensor output is then normally amplified and measured using any of the traditional measuring
equipment that is used in the laboratory.
While designing a dynamometer, it is important to consider a number of design requirements. They are:
● Sensitivity—it should provide sufficient sensitivity for different ranges of measurements.
● Rigidity—It should have high stiffness and rigidity.
● Cross sensitivity—In the case of multi-channel dynamometer it should separate the individual force
or temperature.
● Solid construction—It is preferable that the dynamometer be manufactured from a single block of
material, rather than an assembly of a number of parts in the force transmission, as they may cause loss
of accuracy.
● Ease of calibration—The dynamometer should be calibrated with simple procedures, and the calibration
● Capacitance pickup
● Inductance pickup
(b) Measuring the strain (more common for low cost equipment)
● Strain gauges in full bridge, half bridge and quarter bridge configurations.
c2
c4
f1
f2
Cutting force
f3
Feed rate, f f
4
c1
c3
Feed force
Cutting speed, V
f2 f3 c2 c3
G G
c1
f1 f4 c
4
All these properties may not be found in a single tool material. A comparison of the various properties of
the cutting tool materials are presented in Table 2.3. Improvements in tool materials having been taking place
over the past century to give us better cutting performance. Some of these tool materials have been discussed
next.
Ca
Ca
rbo
fine powder of alloy tool steel is compressed under s t co
Hardness, RC
Hardness, RA
75 ba
n-t
hot isostatic pressure. With suitable hardening and lt 45
oo
ls
tempering, this method provides for uniform dispersion
tee
35
of carbides in the matrix. These have been found to
ls
65
grind more easily, exhibit uniform properties and 25
perform more consistently in cutting. 20
A recent development is the physical coating process
55
(PVD - Physical Vapour Deposition) at lower temperatu- 100 300 500 700
res, which allows the HSS tools to be coated with Temperature, °C
hard nitrides of titanium and aluminium. With much
Fig. 2.30 Variation of hardness with
favourable cutting geometries and the hard coatings, temperature for various cutting
the cutting performance and tool life of HSS tools has tool materials
improved substantially. The PVD coatings are generally
done at low temperatures, as a result the adherence of coating is a problem, which is solved by improved
cleaning and etching techniques. There are efforts to further improve the cutting performance by improving
the coating characteristics by combining various nitrides.
Colour
Symbol Broad Designation Material Use and Working of of
Categories of to be Machined Condition Cutting Feed
Materials to Speed Rate
be Machined
P Ferrous P01 Steel, steel castings Finish turning and boring,
metals with high cutting speeds, small
long chips chip section, accuracy of
dimensions and finish,
vibration free operation
P10 Steel, steel castings Turning, copying,
E
with possibilities of
large cutting angles for
machining in unfavourable
conditions and work on
automatic machines
P50 Steel, steel castings of For operations demanding
medium or low strength very tough carbides,
with sand inclusion and turning, planing, slotting,
cavities low cutting speeds,
B
Colour
Symbol Broad Designation Material Use and Working of of
Categories of to be Machined Condition Cutting Feed
Materials to Speed Rate
be Machined
M Ferrous W M10 Steel, steel castings, Turning medium or high
metals with manganese steel, grey cast cutting speeds, small or
long or short iron, alloy cast iron medium chip sections
chips M20 Steel, steel castings, Turning, milling,
O
metals
M30 Steel, steel castings, Turning, milling, planing,
austenitic steel, grey cast medium or cutting speeds
L
Tungsten carbide
substrate
5 mm
is harder than TiCN or TiN coatings. At 1000°C, TiAlN is considerably harder than TiCN and TiN. Titanium
Nitride is one of the first coatings and the most widely used one. It provides low friction, high hardness,
higher refractoriness and good adhesion to the substrate. It also has greater resistance to flank wear. Titanium
carbide has higher resistance to flank wear. Ceramic (such as Al2O3) coatings have higher refractoriness
and resist crater wear as well as flank wear. However these do not bond well with the substrate. It has been
noticed that the tool life will improve with different types of coatings. During the actual experiments when
machining AISI 1045 steel, it was noticed (Jindal, Santhanam, Schleinkofer, and Shuster) that PVD coating
of TiN has less improvement compared to the PVD coating of TiAlN. The improvement in the coating of
TiCN remained in between that of TiN and TiAlN.
Multiple coatings generally provide higher tool life and offer broader use for machining differing work
materials. The combinations that have found wide use are TiCN + Al2O3 + TiN; and TiN + TiC + Al2O3. By
virtue of the general applicability of a single grade for a spectrum of machining situations, the shop needs to
maintain an inventory of small number of varieties. Coated carbides are being increasingly used in industry
in comparison to the uncoated varieties. It is estimated that 40% of all cutting tools used in the industry are
coated.
2.8.6 Ceramics
Ceramics are essentially alumina (Al2O3) based high refractory materials introduced specifically for high
speed machining of difficult to machine materials and cast iron. These can withstand very high temperatures,
are chemically more stable and have higher wear resistance than the other cutting tool materials. In view of
their ability to withstand high temperatures, they can be used for machining at very high speeds of the order
of 10 m/s. It is possible to get mirror finish on cast iron using ceramic turning. The main problems of ceramic
tools are their low strength, poor thermal characteristics and the tendency to chipping. About 2 to 5 weight%
of zirconium oxide (ZrO2) is added to alumina that increases the fracture toughness of the tool without affect-
ing its wear resistance. The machine tools used for ceramic machining have to be extremely rigid to provide
smooth machining conditions for machining with ceramics and should be able to provide high cutting speeds.
They are not suitable for intermittent cutting or for low cutting speeds.
Apart from the pure alumina based ceramics, sometimes other materials such as Titanium carbide (TiC),
Titanium Nitride (TiN), and Titanium diboride (TiB2) are added to enhance the transverse rupture strength,
hardness and thermal shock resistance. Some yittria may also be added as a sintering agent. Other ceramics
of relatively recent origin are alumina-titanium diboride, alumina-zirconia-tungsten compound, and silicon-
aluminium-oxygen-nitrogen (Si-Al-O-N) complex compound. These are less hard but tougher than alumina
ceramics.
Whisker reinforced alumina (Al2O3 + SiCw) are alumina based ceramic tools that have strengthening
silicon carbide fibres (about 25 wt. %) added into the alumina matrix. This material has increased fracture
toughness, high thermal conductivity and lower thermal expansion coefficient. Silicon nitride (Si3N4) based
ceramics are also used as cutting tool materials. These have good oxidation resistance, good mechanical
strength and high hardness. Typical properties of ceramic materials that are used for cutting tool materials
are given in Table 2.8.
Ceramic tools should be used with very high cutting speeds on steels. They are not suitable for low cutting
speeds or for intermittent cutting. Cutting fluid if applied should be in flooding with copious quantity of fluid
to thoroughly wet the entire machining zone, since ceramics have very poor thermal shock resistance. Else
it can be machined with no coolant. Ceramic tools are used for machining work pieces, which have high
hardness such as hard castings, case hardened and hardened steels. Typical products that can be machined are
brake discs, brake drums, cylinder liners, and flywheels. Correct cutting speed produces good surface finish,
optimum productivity and better tool life.
Ceramic tools cannot machine some materials such as aluminium, titanium, since they have strong affinity
towards them, as a result of which chemical reactions are likely to take place.
Among other things, some of the vital requirements when machining with ceramics are:
● Use the highest cutting speed recommended and preferably select square or round inserts with large
nose radius.
● Use rigid machine with high spindle speeds and safe clamping angle.
2.8.7 Diamond
Diamond is the hardest known (Knoop hardness ~ 8000 kg/mm2) material that can be used as a cutting tool
material. It has most of the desirable properties of a cutting tool material such as high hardness, good thermal
conductivity, low friction, non-adherence to most materials, and good wear resistance. However, the factors
that weigh against its use are the high cost, possibility of oxidation in air, allotropic transformation to graph-
ite above temperatures of 700°C, very high brittleness and difficulties associated in shaping it to suitable
cutting tool form.
Natural diamond tools could be used for relatively light Tungsten carbide
tool bit
cuts where these provide extremely high tool life, which can
easily justify the high cost of diamond. However, natural
diamond is unreliable in performance because of the impurities
present and easy cleavage. Artificial diamonds are basically
polycrystalline (PCD) in nature. These are extensively used
in industrial application because they can be formed for any
given shape with a substrate of cemented carbide.
Polycrystalline diamond tools are metallurgically bonded Diamond
to a tungsten carbide substrate and cut into small bits. The Brazing
tungsten carbide provides the necessary elastic support for the
hard diamond tool. This is then placed in the carbide inserts Fig. 2.33 Polycrystalline diamond
that have precision pockets to receive the diamond bit and then brazed to the carbide
tool bit
brazed as shown in Fig. 2.33.
They are used with a negative rake angle (–5°) for machining hard materials while positive rake angles
(15°) can be used for soft materials such as copper. They cannot be used for machining low carbon steels,
titanium, nickel, cobalt or zirconium because of the possible reaction with the work material. Typical materials
that are machined with diamond tools and the suggested process parameters are given in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Cutting data for Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) tool bits (From Seco catalogue)
Material Cutting Speed, m/min Depth of Cut, mm Feed Rate, mm/rev
Aluminium alloys > 11% Si 300–3000 Up to 4 0.10–0.50
MMC SiC-particles (15–30%) 200–800 Up to 3 0.10–0.50
Copper, Brass and Bronze 600–1200 Up to 3 0.10–0.50
Carbon and graphite 100–400 Up to 3 0.10–0.50
Sintered carbide 10–40 Up to 3 0.10–0.50
Green carbide 80–200 Up to 0.5 0.10–0.50
Green ceramic 100–600 Up to 2 0.05–0.20
Plastic composites 100–1000 Up to 3 0.10–0.50
Thus, there is a large variety of cutting tool materials available which should be selected carefully for a given
application, taking all the intervening factors into account. The recommendations and characteristics have
been summarised in Table 2.10. These can act as guidelines, however many of the cutting tool manufacturers
such as Sandvik, Widia provide detailed literature to help in the choice of cutting tools. These along with the
Metal Cutting Handbook should be used for finalising the tool material selection.
Table 2.10 Summary of applications for various cutting tool materials [Komanduri]
Tool Material Work Materials Remarks
Carbon steels Low strength, softer materials, Low cutting speeds, low strength
nonferrous alloys, plastics materials
Low/medium alloy steels Low strength, softer materials, Low cutting speeds, low strength
nonferrous alloys, plastics materials
HSS All materials of low and medium strength Low to medium cutting speeds, low to
and hardness medium strength materials
Cemented carbides All materials up to medium strength and Not suitable for low speed application
hardness
Coated Cast iron, alloy steels, stainless steels, Not for Titanium alloys, not for non-
carbides super alloys ferrous alloys as the coated grades do not
offer additional benefits over uncoated.
Ceramics Cast iron, Ni-base super alloys, Not for low speed operation or inter-
nonferrous alloys, plastics rupted cutting. Not for machining Al, Ti
alloys.
CBN Hardened alloy steels, HSS, Ni-base High strength, hard materials
super alloys, hardened chill cast iron,
commercially pure nickel
Diamond Pure copper, pure aluminium, Al-Si Not for machining low carbon steels, Co,
alloys, cold pressed cemented carbides, Ni, Ti, Zr.
rock, cement, plastics, glass-epoxy
composites, non-ferrous alloys, hardened
high carbon alloy steels (for burnishing
only), fibrous composites
Chip
Tool
Insulation Insulation
Mercury
contact
Copper wire
Tool
Chip
Recording
Lead bath Chromel
Alumel
Heating coil
Potentiometers
Insulation
Fig. 2.35 Setup for measuring average chip-tool interface temperature using chip-tool thermo couple
technique
is made as the tool work thermocouple. A mercury slip ring connection at the end of the work piece through
the spindle bore is a convenient way for completing the emf circuit.
Sources of errors in tool work thermocouple:
(i) Not an ideal thermocouple, which means emf, is low and the calibration need not always be a straight
line.
(ii) Doubt the calibration procedure because it is done in the stationary situation.
As shown, it is possible only to find the average chip-tool interface temperature from the above
experiment. However, it is possible to use analytical techniques for predicting the average temperatures as
well as temperature distributions.
the cutting zone. As a result, the temperature of the tool tip would be highest. The temperature then would
conduct through the tool along the rake face as well as the flank face. Most of the tool wear mechanisms are
thermally activated, which will increase the wear along the rake and flank faces of the tool. To get a generic
idea, Cook developed a formula to estimate the tool tip temperature using dimensional analysis as follows:
1
ÊV d ˆ3
T = 0.4 Ta Á (52)
Ë K ˜¯
This equation provides a reasonable estimate for the temperature for rake angles between –5 and +15°.
More complex analytical determination methods have been developed which are beyond the scope of this
book.
Highest temperature on the tool can be seen in a typical temperature contour plot in metal cutting in
Fig. 2.36.
680
700
710
720
690
720
730
740
670
Temperatures
in °C 750
66
0
65
0
TOOL
64
0
630
620
Work piece
The cutting process parameters - speed, feed and depth of cut have considerable effect on the cutting
temperatures generated. Of these, cutting speed has the highest effect as shown in Fig. 2.37, since this controls
the total energy input to the metal cutting operation. The next influence is that of feed as shown in Fig. 2.38.
The effect of depth of cut is the least of all.
ture
600
em pera
ce t
ol-fa
Temperature, °C
500
n to
Mea
400
perature
ear-zo ne tem
300 ean sh
M
200
100
Fig. 2.37 The effect of cutting speed on the temperature of the tool
Superhard
Temperature of chip, °C
Ceramics
TiC/TiN
Coated
Cemented carbides
Coated
HSS
Feed rate
Flank wear: Flank wear or wear land is on the clearance surface of the tool. The wear land can be charac-
terised by the length of wear land, w. It modifies the tool geometry and changes the cutting parameters (depth
of cut).
The typical wear patterns used as tool life criteria, as standardised by ISO are shown in Fig. 2.40. These
are to be used as tool life criteria as discussed later.
KT
Tool face A
Crater
KB
KM
Section A–A A
Zone Zone Zone
C B N
VBmax
VC VN
VB
Wear notch
View on
major flank
Fig. 2.40 The wear parameters and their characterisation as suggested by ISO
Cutting tools are subjected to extremely severe cutting conditions such as the following:
● metal to metal contact with work and chip
● virgin metal
Because of all the above mentioned factors, the tool-chip and tool-work interfaces exhibit the type of wears
found. As tool wear progresses, cutting forces and vibrations increase. Tool tip softens, flows plastically, and
gets a blunt edge, which results in further progression of plastic deformation from tool tip to the interior. After
that the tip of the tool almost gets separated.
The presence of crater wear in very small sizes is not of much consequence as far as the machining
performance is concerned. Initially, they may increase the rake angle and thus decrease the cutting forces.
However, as the depth increases the friction increases, the chip contact length increases and consequently the
decrease in the machining performance. Ultimately with very large crater depth (KT), the tool tip weakens
and fails catastrophically. However, normally the tool is removed from service much before this, because of
flank wear.
Flank wear directly affects the component dimensions. Thus there is always a close limit on the value of
the wear land. In addition, as the wear land progresses, the tool tip becomes weak because of the progress of
crater wear. Thus in many situations, the crater wear is more harmful if is deep from the tool re-sharpening
point of view, since sizeable tool material volume needs to be re-ground away.
A number of wear mechanisms as follows have been proposed to explain the observed tool wear
phenomenon.
● Adhesion
● Abrasion
● Diffusion
● Fatigue
The rate of change in wear patterns with time is shown in Fig. 2.41 for crater wear and Fig. 2.42 for flank
wear. Note that at low speeds, the land wear predominates, whereas at higher speeds, the two wear rates are
essentially equal. At even greater speeds crater wear predominates. At high speeds, probably the temperature
is a predominant factor which governs the wear growth. The land wear curves generally exhibit a portion of
initial rapid wear, whereas the crater wear curves are generally linear (Fig. 2.42).
Max. Cross-section of crater, mm ¥ 10
20
ng
16
di
oo
Fl
ry
D
12
Mist
8
4
Jet
0
0 10 20 30
Cutting time, minutes
Initially when the sharp tool comes into contact with the work piece for metal removal, all the heat
generated quickly raises the tool temperature to a very high level. This is because the tool material present
at the tip being small will not be able to conduct all the heat. This causes a very rapid wear rate as seen in
Fig. 2.42 in the first region. With a small amount of flank wear taking place, the tool material becomes
sufficient to conduct the heat conveniently, and thus the temperature gets distributed uniformly in the tool.
This results in a lower temperature and consequently a uniform and lower rate of flank wear growth. This
is characterised by the second region in Fig. 2.42. As time progresses, with increased friction, the cutting
forces increase and consequently the temperature rises catastrophically, bringing the end of the tool. This is
characterised by the third region in Fig. 2.42. The end of second region can be conveniently used as a tool
failure criterion as discussed later. Also the wear rate is substantially affected by the cutting speed as shown
in Fig. 2.43.
6% Co HV 1296
1.00
Grain size 8 microns
Flank wear, mm
6% Co HV 1496
0.75
Grain size 3.5 microns
0.50
5.5% Co HV 1555
Grain size 2 microns
0.25
6% Co HV 1646
Grain size 1 micron
0
0 10 20 30
Cutting time, min
The tool life can be specified by any of the following measurable quantities:
● Actual cutting time to failure
● Length of work cut to failure
● Volume of metal removed to failure
● Number of components produced
The main advantage of wear land as a failure criterion is that it is fairly easy to measure and also is directly
proportional to the surface finish and cutting forces. But practically, it is not uniform. At high speeds and
feeds, diffusion wear will be more and then the crater wear also may provide a failure criterion.
But the problem is with the measurement of the crater to be scanned for maximum depth, which is laborious
and time consuming. Total destruction criterion is easier to apply but then there are associated problems, e.g.
in carbides it may spoil the nearby edges and also damage the work. Therefore a large wear land size can be
equivalent to total destruction.
Alternatively the indirect methods mentioned above such as the fixed increase in the value of cutting
force, or increase in the power consumed or measured vibrations, etc. can be used as an indication of the end
of tool life. These are generally used in CNC machine tools where automatic tool life monitoring facilities
are present.
co us V 0.44 A0.22
q= (57)
k 0.44 t 0.56
2.10.3 Machinability
Machinability is the characteristic of the work material expressing its ease of machining. However conve-
nient it looks, it is a characteristic which is difficult to quantify. Unfortunately like other characteristics of
the material it is not a simple property. For example, hard work materials are difficult to machine. However,
hardness alone would not be able to specify the machinability, since it also depends on the other charac-
teristics such as tool materials used, process parameters, etc.
100
increases, the tool life decreases as exemplified by the
f = 0.508 mm/rev
exponents in the above tool life equation. V = 0.41 m/s
Increasing the rake angle decreases the cutting forces and 50
the heat produced at the tool tip, therefore increases tool life.
However, increasing the rake angle to a large value reduces
0 5 10 15 20
the tool material available at the tool tip for conducting heat Rake angle, deg
generated, thus increasing the tool tip temperature. This
Fig. 2.44 Tool life as affected by rake
would decrease the tool life, thus explaining the existence of
angle, and feed rate.
an optimum value for the rake angle as shown in Fig. 2.44.
Under the same conditions, tool material affects tool life. For example carbides have higher tool life than
HSS as can be seen from the following Table 2.13 of exponents:
Table 2.13
Tool Material Speed Exponent, n
HSS 0.08 to 0.20
Carbides 0.20 to 0.49
Oxides 0.50 to 0.70
Work material also plays a very great influence on the tool life. It is not the hardness alone, but the
physical microstructure and the constituent phases that make a large difference in the actual tool life values.
Steels containing free ferrite are soft and their machining involves no tool wear, however they are likely to
form BUE and consequently poor surface finish. Presence of pearlite improves machinability giving good
surface finish with no BUE formation, but decreases tool life. Presence of cementite, because of its hardness
reduces tool life. Similarly in cast irons, the free graphite improves machinability and improves tool life.
Feed
Machined
Work
surface
surface
Tool
f/2 f/2
g b l
R max a c e
d
Fig. 2.45 Surface profile as produced by turning with a sharp cutting tool
Normally the surface finish is represented by any suitable index, such as arithmetic average, Ra, or centre
line average, Rcla or any other suitable parameter. For our convenience, let us derive the finish expression
for centre line average, Rcla. It is defined as “the arithmetic average value (AA) of the departure of the
whole of the profile both above and below its centre line throughout the prescribed meter cut-off in a plane
substantially normal to the surface”.
Referring to Fig. 2.45, the surface roughness value is given by
|Area abc | + |Area cde |
Rcla = (59)
f
Nose
radius Feed
g
l
R Machined
Work surface
surface
(a)
Feed
Nose
radius
Machined
surface
Work
surface
(b)
Fig. 2.46 Surface profile as produced by turning with a cutting tool having a nose radius
It can be shown that for case (a), the surface roughness value to be
(i) the cutting process parameters, speed, feed and depth of cut
(ii) the geometry of the cutting tool
(iii) application of cutting fluid
(iv) work and tool material characteristics
(v) rigidity of the machine tool and the consequent vibrations
The major influence on surface finish is exerted by the feed rate and cutting speed. As the feed decreases,
from the above equations, we can see that the roughness index decreases. Similarly as the cutting speed
increases, we have better surface finish. Thus while making a choice of cutting process parameters for finish,
it is desirable to have high cutting speed and small feed rate.
● lubricating action
Cooling Action
Originally it was assumed that the cutting fluid improves the cutting performance by its cooling properties
alone. That is why the name coolant was given to it. Since most of the tool wear mechanisms are thermally
activated, cooling the chip tool interface helps in retaining the original properties of the tool and hence
prolongs its life. However, a reduction in temperature of the work piece may under certain conditions increase
the shear flow stress of the work piece thereby decreasing tool life. It has been shown through a number of
investigations that cooling, in fact, is one of the major factors in improving the cutting performance.
Lubricating Action
The best improvement in cutting performance can be achieved by the lubricating action since this reduces
the heat generated, thus reducing the energy input to the metal cutting operation. However, if the cutting
fluid is to be effective, it must reach the chip tool interface. However, it is not easy to visualize how it is
accomplished in the case of a continuous turning with a single point turning tool, especially when the chip-
tool contact pressure is as high as 70 MPa. Merchant suggested that minute asperities exist at the chip-tool
interface and the fluid is drawn into the interface by the capillary action of the interlocking network of these
surface asperities.
There are three possible directions through which cutting fluid could be applied as shown in Fig. 2.47.
(i) On the back of the chip
(ii) Along the rake crevice between the chip and rake face of the tool
(iii) Along the clearance crevice between the finished work surface and clearance face of the tool
ng
16
di
oo
ry
Fl
12 D
Mist
8
4
Jet
0
0 10 20 30
Cutting time, minutes
Fig. 2.48 Comparative performances of cutting fluid application methods
Straight Mineral oils: These are the pure mineral oils without any additives. Their main function is lubrication
and rust prevention. These are chemically stable and lower in cost. However, their effectiveness as cutting
fluids is limited and therefore would be used for light duty application only.
Mineral oils with additives (Neat oils): This is by far the largest variety of cutting fluids available commer-
cially. A number of additives have been developed which when added to the mineral oils would produce the
desirable characteristics for the different machining situations. Many difficult to machine situations would be
helped by the use of these cutting fluids. These are generally termed as neat oils.
The additives generally improve the load carrying capacity as well as chemical activity. Fatty oils are
generally used for adding the load carrying properties. Other class of additives termed as EP (Extreme Pressure)
additives are used for more difficult to machine situations. These EP agents come into effect whenever
minute high-spots on the mating surfaces break through the oil film and rub together to setup localised high
temperature spots. This high temperature causes the EP additives to react with the adjacent metals and create
an anti-welding layer of solid lubricant precisely where it is required. The layer is continuously broken by the
severe rubbing action between the chip and the tool.
EP additives are basically chlorine, sulphur or a combination of both of them. As a result, the anti-welding
compounds formed in the cutting zone are iron chloride and iron sulphide, both of which have very low shear
strengths.
Table 2.15 gives some selection guidelines based on the tool material characteristics.
f
r+
n = tan -1 2 (70)
d
The constants used in the above equations are given in Table 2.16.
Table 2.16
C45 Steel C25 Steel Low Alloy Steel Cast Iron
k1 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
k2 0.20 0.30 0.33 0.30
fo 34.0 28.5 35.0 28.5
xo 52.0 52.0 52.0 52.0
2 706.0 588.0 715.0 392.0
t, N/mm
A* 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.10
* for using f in m, and V in m/s
2.14 economIcS
The ultimate objective of the manufacturing engineer is to produce the objects at the most economical cost.
To do this he should be able to analyse the machining process for all the possible costs, so that he is able to
optimise the process to get the minimum possible costs, after satisfying all the requirements.
The various costs associated with machining process are:
(i) the manpower cost, Cl which is measured in ` per unit time, generally hours that operator is employed
(ii) the machine tool operating (overhead) cost, Cm which includes machine depreciation, and other costs
associated with the running of the machine tool such as power consumed, maintenance overheads,
consumables such as oils, etc. This may also include the other overhead costs, which takes care of all
the fixed overheads such as buildings, land and administrative overheads.
Combining the above two costs we can have an overall overhead cost as, Co
Co = Cm + Cl (71)
(iii) the job handling cost, which arises because of the time spent in loading and unloading of the job,
during which time the machine tool is kept idle, and also requires the operator to attend to the job. It
is also possible that some special equipment such as crane, etc. may be used for heavy jobs.
(iv) the tool cost, Ct which is the cost of the cutting tool for the given operation.
The three optimisation criterion that are generally considered are:
(i) Minimisation of the machining cost,
(ii) Maximizing the production rate, and
(iii) Maximizing the profit rate.
Of the three criteria, the profit rate criterion requires more information in terms of various costs, which
may not always be available to the process planning department. Hence the other two are more practical in
terms of actual application. Later, practical examples show the effects of each of the criterion on the results
obtained.
These costs could be demonstrated conveniently with the help of a simple turning operation. Let us assume
turning of a bar of length, L mm and diameter D mm, with a cutting speed of V m/min, feed rate of f mm/rev,
and depth of cut of d mm.
Time for machining is given by
L
Tm = (72)
fN
where N is the spindle RPM which is related to cutting speed by the following relation
p DN
V= (73)
1000
Substituting this into the previous equation, we get
p DL
Tm = (74)
1000 f V
For a given job, the cost of all overheads is given by
Cl = Co [ p ( tl + tul + ta ) + to ] (75)
È to ˘ 1
CP = Co Ít1 + tu1 + ta + ˙ + [ Ce + tc Co ] + Co Tm (83)
Î p ˚ pg
T =Ê ˆ
C n
(86)
ËV ¯
Thus, for the straight turning application,
1
1000 V f Ê C ˆ n 1000 f C n ÊÁË l - 1n ˆ˜¯
1
pg = = V (87)
p Dl Ë V ¯ p Dl
The cost per piece, CP is given by
È to ˘ p Dl [Ce + tc Co ] Co p D l
CP = Co Ít1 + tu1 + ta + ˙ + n -1
+ (88)
Î p˚ 1
1000 fV
1000 f C n V n
For minimum cost, the above equation could be differentiated with respect to cutting speed V, considering
the fact that all other conditions such as feed and depth of cut could be maintained constant, we get
n
È Co Ê n ˆ˘
V =CÍ Á ˜˙ (89)
Î e c o Ë1 - n¯ ˚
C + t C
1 1 È Co ˘È n ˘
V n = Cn Í ˙ Í1 - n ˙ (90)
Î Ce + tc Co ˚Î ˚
p D l È Ce + tc Co ˘ -2
1000 f ÍÍ C 1n ˙ - [ Co V ] = 0 (91)
Î ˙˚
∂CP p D l [Ce + tc Co ] Ê 1 - n ˆ 1 - 2 n Co p Dl - 2
= ÁË ˜¯ V n - V =0 (92)
∂V 1000 f C n
1
n 1000 f
From the tool life equation we can also obtain the minimum cost tool life as
n
ÈÊ Ce ˆ Ê 1 - n ˆ ˘
T = Í Á tc +
n
Á ˜˙ (93)
ÎÍË Co ˜¯ Ë n ¯ ˚˙
or
È Ce ˘ Ê 1 - n ˆ
T = Í tc + ˙ ÁË n ˜¯ (94)
Î Co ˚
In order to arrive at a maximum production rate we take the total time for the manufacture as
to Ê Tm tc ˆ
Time = tl + tul + ta + + Tm + Á
Ë T ˜¯
(95)
p
For a single pass turning job, it can be shown that
to p Dl tc p D l
Time = tl + tul + ta + + + (96)
p 1000Vf 1000 f C 1n V 1 - 1n
For getting the maximum production rate, the above expression for manufacturing time is differentiated
w.r.t. cutting speed, V and equated to zero.
-2
∂Time p DlV È 1 - n ˘ 1 -n2 n
tc p D l
=– + Í ˙V =0 (97)
∂V 1000 f 1000 f C Î n ˚
1
n
Simplifying, we get
tc Ê 1 - n ˆ 1
1 Á
Ë ˜¯ V n = 1 (98)
Cn n
Simplifying, we get
n
V =CÈ ˘
n (99)
Í tc (1 - n ) ˙
Î ˚
tc (1 - n )
T= (100)
n
Example 2.4
A 600 mm long job of diameter 150 mm of AISI 4140 steel is to be turned with a depth of cut of 1.5 mm and
feed rate 0.25 mm/rev. The following data is applicable for the problem:
Labour cost per hour = `12.00
Machine overhead per hour = `40.00
Grinding cost per hour = `15.00
Grinding machine overhead per hour = `50.00
Idle time = 5 minutes
The Taylor’s tool life equation is given by
V T 0.22 = 475
The operation can be carried out using tungsten carbide tools either as brazed tools or throw away tools.
For brazed tools:
Initial cost = `60
Grinding time = 5 minutes/edge
Tool change time = 2 minutes
9 grinds per tool before salvage
60 + 5.417 ¥ 9
Tool cost, Ce = = 10.875 `
10
Tool change time, tc = 2 minutes
Minimum Cost criterion:
n
È Co Ê n ˆ˘
Optimum cutting speed, V = C Í Á ˜˙ (101)
Î e c o Ë1 - n¯ ˚
C + t C
0.22
È 0.8667 Ê 0.22 ˆ ˘
= 475 Í ÁË 1 - 0.22 ˜¯ ˙ (102)
Î 10.875 + 20.8667 ˚
= 199.5 m/min
È Ce ˘ È 1 - n ˘
Optimum tool life, T = Ítc + ˙Í ˙ (103)
Î Co ˚Î n ˚
10.875 ˘ È 1 – 0.22 ˘
= È2 + (104)
ÍÎ 0.8667 ˙˚ ÎÍ 0.22 ˚˙
= 51.58 minutes
p Dl
Machining time, Tm = (105)
1000 f V
p ¥ 150 ¥ 600
= (106)
1000 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 199.5
= 5.669 minutes
to È tc ˘
Total time = tl + tul + ta + + Tm Í1 + ˙ (107)
p Î T˚
Ê to ˆ
Cost of operation = Co Á tl + tul + ta + ˜ + Tm [ Ce + tc Co ]
Ë p¯
= 0.8667 ¥ 5 + 3.664 [(10.875 + 2 ¥ 0.8667)]
= 14.02 `
Throw away Tools:
40
Tool cost, Ce = =5` (112)
8
Tool change time, tc = 1.5 minutes
Minimum Cost criterion:
0.22
È 0.8667 Ê 0.22 ˆ ˘
Optimum cutting speed, V = 475 Í ÁË 1 - 0.22 ˜¯ ˙ (113)
Î 5 + 1.5 ¥ 0.8667 ˚
= 232.4 m/min
5 ˘ È 1 – 0.22 ˘
Optimum tool life, T = È1.5 + = 25.77 minutes
ÍÎ 0.8667 ˙˚ ÍÎ 0.22 ˚˙
p ¥ 150 ¥ 600
Machining time, Tm = = 4.866 minutes
1000 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 232.4
1.5 (1 - 0.22 )
Optimum tool life, T = = 5.318 minutes
0.22
p ¥ 150 ¥ 600
Machining time, Tm = = 3.439 minutes
1000 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 328.87
È 1.5 ˘
Total time = 5 + 3.439 Í1 + = 9.409 minutes
Î 5.318 ˚˙
Cost of operation = 0.8667 ¥ 5 + 3.439 [(5 + 1.5 ¥ 0.8667)]
= 11.388 `
The above results are summarised in the following table:
Parameters Brazed Tools Throw Away Tools
Minimum Cost Maximum Minimum Cost Maximum
Production Rate Production Rate
Cutting speed, m/min 199.5 308.7 232.4 328.87
Tool life, Minutes 51.58 7.09 25.77 5.318
Machining time, minutes 5.669 3.664 4.866 3.439
Operation time, Minutes 10.89 9.679 10.149 9.409
Cost, ` 10.63 14.02 9.74 11.388
The results present interesting reading. For example, when the production rate is to be maximised, the
cutting speed has increased to nearly the maximum value, giving rise to a very low value for the tool life. The
reverse is also true. This is happening because the earlier optimisation does not have any constraints on the
variables. Hence the variables go to the extreme. However, it is necessary to get more useful values so that
the optimisation can be carried out using various constraints on the variables. For example, the following are
some of the possible constraints. More details can be found in the literature cited at the end of this chapter.
(i) The maximum cutting power available at the machine tool spindle,
(ii) the maximum cutting force permissible,
(iii) the surface finish and the diametral tolerance to be achieved on the machined surface
(iv) the limits on speed, feed and depth of cut imposed by the machine tool and the cutting tool.
(v) maximum permissible cutting temperature,
(vi) maximum permissible chatter,
Maximum and minimum speed constraints: Usually, these constraints are imposed by the machine tool. How-
ever, in the case of carbide and ceramic tools, certain minimum cutting speeds need to be maintained to avoid
the failure of these cutting tools due to BUE formation or micro-chipping. Hence, the minimum speed con-
straint is determined as the larger of the values of minimum cutting speed from machine tool and minimum
cutting speed due to cutting tool (Vmin). Thus, the speed constraint can be expressed as
Ï p D N min ¸ p D N max
max Ì , Vmin ˝ £ V £
Ó 1000 ˛ 1000
Maximum and minimum feed constraints: The maximum feed permissible for the cutting tool (ftmax) is set as
per the recommendations given by the cutting tool manufacturer. As per these recommendations, ftmax should
not exceed 0.4 – 0.5 times the insert corner radius for triangular inserts and 0.6 – 0.7 times the corner nose
radius for square inserts. The minimum feed value is set to the smallest feed rate available on the machine
tool. This constraint prevents the feed rate during finishing operation from becoming too small. Thus the feed
constraints can be expressed as,
fmin £ f £ min {fmax, ftmax}
Maximum and minimum depths of cut constraints: The maximum depth of cut constraint has relevance in
roughing operations, while the minimum depth of cut constraint should be considered in finishing operations.
The maximum limit on depth of cut due to cutting tool (dt max) is set to half the cutting edge length for inserts
with included angle of 55° or 60° and for inserts with included angle of 80°–100°, dtmax is set to two-thirds
of the cutting edge length. Minimum limit on depth of cut (dmin) is set to 0.5mm for finishing operations and
1mm or depth of pocket, whichever is lower, for roughing operations. The depth of cut constraints can thus
be expressed as,
dmin £ d £ dtmax
It is possible to develop mathematical models using the above constraints and the extended Taylor’s tool
life equation to get more realistic and practical results for optimised machining process parameters.
Summary
Metal cutting forms the basis for all the machine tools. In this chapter an overview of metal cutting is
presented, which explains the underlying principles used in all the metal cutting machine tools.
● A cutting tool performance is significantly affected by its geometric parameters such as rake angle
discontinuous, continuous and continuous with BUE are formed during this process.
● Merchant’s thin shear plane model predicts the performance of orthogonal cutting and based on this
CBN and diamond tools are selectively used for specific applications.
● Cutting temperature is affected to a great extent by cutting speed and to a lesser extent by the other
parameters.
● Tool wear is predominantly of two types: crater wear and flank wear.
● There are a number of tool life criteria that are used in metal cutting. Tool life is controlled in a
majority of situations by the flank wear due to processing requirements.
● Surface finish is an important requirement that is controlled by the feed rate used and the tool nose
radius.
● Different types of cutting fluids such as water soluble, mineral oils and mineral oils with additives
are used in metal cutting operations.
● There are a number of ways the cutting fluids can be applied.
● It is possible to optimise a metal cutting operation based on a number of constraints that need to be
Q u e s t io ns
2.1 Explain with a neat sketch what you understand by ‘Orthogonal Cutting’ and its relevance in metal
cutting study. How can orthogonal cutting be realised in practice?
2.2 What are the conditions that would allow a continuous chip to be formed in metal cutting?
2.3 From the machining performance view point which type of chip is preferred? Explain your answer
with suitable justification. Also show the conditions which favour such a chip formation.
2.4 Explain with a neat sketch what you understand by ‘Orthogonal Cutting’ and its importance? How can
orthogonal cutting be realised in practice.
2.5 In an orthogonal cutting tool what are the important angles that are to be maintained? For each of the
angle explain its influence on the machining performance.
2.6 How is metal removed in metal cutting? Explain the process by giving any simple model to explain
the metal removal process.
2.7 What is meant by built-up-edge (BUE)? With a neat sketch explain the formation of a BUE. Explain
the conditions, which promote the growth of BUE along with its consequences.
2.8 Derive the expression for shear angle in orthogonal cutting in terms of rake angle and chip thickness
ratio.
2.9 Show schematically the Merchant's force circle in orthogonal cutting. Derive the equations for shear
and friction forces in terms of the material properties and cutting process parameters. Give in detail
the assumptions made while arriving at the final equations.
2.10 Derive the expression for the main cutting force in orthogonal cutting in terms of work material
properties and cutting process parameters.
2.11 Derive the expression for the specific cutting energy in orthogonal cutting in terms of the shear angle
and the mean shear strength of the work material. Assume Merchant's minimum energy principle
holds good and that rake angle is zero.
2.12 A single point cutting tool has a zero rake angle and 2 degree clearance angle. By what percentage
would the life of the tool between re-grinds be increased if a clearance angle of 8 degree was provided?
State any assumptions made.
2.13 Derive the shear angle relationship based on Merchant's minimum energy principle. Discuss its
validity from the experimental observations.
2.14 Discuss the importance of shear angle from the standpoint of metal cutting performance. What factors
influence its value?
2.15 Discuss the nature of friction found in metal cutting. How do you explain the large value of apparent
friction coefficient found in metal cutting?
2.16 What are the various forms of wear found in cutting tools? Show with a neat sketch.
2.17 How does the cutting process parameters affect the cutting tool wear in single point tools?
2.18 Show diagrammatically the variation of flank wear of cutting tool with time and explain its importance
from the tool life point of view.
2.19 What are the types of cutting tool wear patterns observed in single point tools? How do they affect the
metal cutting performance?
2.20 How do you define Tool Life? Explain the parameters that control the tool life of a single point cutting
tool.
2.21 Which are the suitable tool failure criteria that are generally practised in industry? Explain your
answers with examples.
2.22 What is the most generally used method for measuring average chip tool interface temperature?
Explain its principle with a neat sketch.
2.23 What are the various methods available for measuring the cutting tool temperature? Explain their
applications and disadvantages.
2.24 How are the cast cobalt alloys differ from cemented carbides in terms of material composition and
machining performance?
2.25 What are the desirable characteristics of a cutting tool material? Explain how these are satisfied in the
case of high speed steel tools.
2.26 How are the cemented carbides classified by ISO? Explain the general applications of each category.
2.27 How are the properties of cemented carbides affected by grain size, composition and amount of
bonding material? Explain them with reference to metal cutting application.
2.28 How do you expect the coatings on carbides improve the machining performance?
2.29 Explain the advantages of coated carbides over the uncoated carbides. Name any three materials used
for coatings.
2.30 How do you compare cutting tool made of CBN with that made by cemented carbides? Your answer
should be based on tool material composition, structure, and cutting performance.
2.31 Why are synthetic diamonds preferred to natural diamonds as cutting tools?
2.32 What are the situations where diamonds are used as cutting tools?
2.33 What are the advantages and disadvantages of ceramics as cutting tool materials?
2.34 How are the ceramic tools made?
2.35 What are the main applications of cutting fluids?
2.36 What are the mechanisms that are generally responsible for the effectiveness of cutting fluid in
improving machining performance?
2.37 What are the points from which a cutting fluid may be applied in a machining operation? Explain their
relative merits.
2.38 Explain the basis for the selection of a specific cutting fluid for a given application. Take the example
of turning, milling and grinding, and suggest the type of cutting fluid used.
2.39 What is the mechanism suggested for the cutting fluid to reach the chip-tool interface in spite of the
adverse conditions of high pressure existing there? Explain with a neat sketch.
2.40 What is meant by machinability? Explain the method of representing the machinability.
2.41 What are the factors that control surface finish in turning? How do you select the cutting process
parameters for finish turning?
2.42 Derive the relationship for the minimum cost cutting speed in single point turning of a cylindrical
work piece. State the assumptions made.
2.43 Derive the relationship for the maximum production rate cutting speed in single point turning of a
cylindrical work piece. State the assumptions made.
2.44 Derive the relationship for the minimum cost tool life from first principles in single point turning of
a cylindrical work piece. State the assumptions made.
2.45 Derive the relationship for the maximum production rate tool life in single point turning of a cylindrical
work piece. State the assumptions made.
2.46 Discuss the forms of tool life equations generally used with their applicability.
2.47 Suggest the grade of carbide you would use for i) rough milling of medium carbon steel, ii) finish
turning of white cast iron rolls. Justify your recommendation.
2.48 Find the tool life for the minimum cost per piece in single pass turning given:
a = machine rate including labour and overhead,
b = tool cost per cutting edge, and
t = tool change time,
n = exponent in Taylor’s tool life equation.
C = constant in Taylor’s tool life equation.
Make any valid assumptions with justification.
2.49 Give a comparative evaluation of the various cutting tool materials.
2.50 What are the desirable properties of a cutting tool material?
2.51 What are the locations where heat is produced in an orthogonal cutting tool? Show their approximate
percentages.
2.52 Explain how effective tungsten carbide is as a cutting tool material in comparison to the other cutting
tool materials. What are the improvements caused by the coated carbides?
2.53 Explain the tool nomenclature as used in ASA and ORS systems.
2.54 Compare ASA and ORS systems of tool nomenclature.
2.55 Give the significance of various tool angles with a neat sketch.
2.56 What do you understand by the name tool signature? Give a typical tool signature in ASA system.
2.57 Explain the principles used in designing a metal cutting dynamometer.
2.58 Give any one type of metal cutting dynamometer design you are familiar with and explain its function.
Pro b le ms
2.1 A 100 mm bar is turned by means of a tool with a rake angle of 15° orthogonally. Depth of cut is 5
mm while the feed rate is 0.25 mm/rev. If the mean length of a cut chip representing one rotation of
the work piece is 90.5 mm, find the shear plane angle. [17.63°]
2.2 During a metal cutting test under orthogonal conditions in a lathe with a tool of rake angle 20°, with
a depth of cut of 3 mm and feed rate of 0.38 mm/rev, the following data is recorded.
Average chip thickness = 0.89 mm
Horizontal component of the cutting force = 1600 N
Vertical component of the cutting force = 2340 N
Calculate the following:
(a) coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface
(b) shear plane angle, and
(c) shear stress at the shear plane. [3.905, 25.17°, 168.95 MPa]
2.3 The following data was obtained from an orthogonal cutting test.
Rake angle = 20° Depth of cut = 6 mm
Feed rate = 0.25 mm/rev
2.9 In an orthogonal cutting test on an alloy of aluminium, the following values were known or obtained
from experimental data.
Rake angle = 20° Thrust force = 340 N
Uncut chip thickness = 0.125 mm Width of cut = 3.75 mm
Cutting speed = 0.5 m/s Chip thickness = 0.51 mm
If the force in the cutting speed direction is 1.3 times that of the thrust force, calculate the average
yield shear stress of the work material. State the assumptions made and derive any expression required
for the calculations from the first principles. [115.42 MPa]
2.10 In an orthogonal cutting test, the following data were obtained.
Uncut chip thickness = 0.2 mm Chip thickness = 0.5 mm
Chip width = 2.0 mm Cutting force = 900 N
Thrust force = 600 N Rake angle = 8°
Cutting speed = 0.6 m/s
Calculate the average friction angle at the chip tool interface, shear stress and energies consumed in
friction and shear. [64.3°, 198.06 MPa, 125.6 J/s, 233.93 J/s]
2.11 The following data was obtained in orthogonal cutting of mild steel.
Uncut chip thickness = 0.25 mm Chip thickness = 0.75 mm
Chip width = 2.50 mm Cutting force = 900 N
Thrust force = 450 N Rake angle = 0°
Calculate a) the angle of friction along the tool rake face and b) shear strength of the work material.
[63.43°, 138 MPa]
2.12 In an orthogonal cutting of C35 steel with HSS tool, the following conditions were noted.
Uncut chip thickness = 0.25 mm Chip thickness = 1.0 mm
Width of cut = 2.5 mm; Rake angle = –5°
Cutting force = 900 N; Thrust force = 900 N
Calculate the shear angle, mean shear strength of the work material and other force components.
[13.7°, 250.55 MPa, 818.1 N, 975 N, 661.2 N, 1087.5 N]
2.13 Show that in metal cutting, when the rake angle is zero in orthogonal cutting, the ratio of the shear
strength of work material, t, to the specific cutting energy, us, is given by
ts r (1 - m r )
=
us 1 + r2
where m is the coefficient of friction in the chip tool interface while r is the cutting ratio.
2.14 In an orthogonal cutting, if the frictional force, F on the tool rake face is equal to K t A, show that the
following relationship between the mean coefficient of friction, m and the shear angle, f, is valid.
K cos 2 ( f - a )
m=
K sin ( f - a ) cos ( f - a ) + 1
where K is a constant, A is the area of cross section of the chip and a is rake angle.
2.15 If the shear angle relationship given by Lee and Shaffer ÈÍf = + ( a - b ) ˘˙ is valid, show that the
p
specific cutting energy, us is given by Î 4 ˚
us = t (1 + cot f)
where t is the mean shear strength of the work material.
2.16 In an orthogonal cutting test the following values were known or obtained from experimentation.
Rake angle = 20° Thrust force = 500 N
Uncut chip thickness = 0.14 mm Width of cut = 5 mm
Cutting speed = 2 m/s Chip thickness = 0.70 mm
If the force in the cutting speed direction is two times that of the thrust force, calculate the average
yield shear stress of the work material. [16.52 MPa]
2.17 During a metal cutting test under orthogonal conditions in a lathe with a tool of rake angle 20°, with
a depth of cut of 3 mm and feed rate of 0.38 mm/rev, the following data is recorded.
Average chip thickness = 0.89 mm
Horizontal component of the cutting force = 1000 N
Vertical component of the cutting force = 1840 N
Calculate the following:
(a) coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface
(b) shear plane angle, and (c) shear stress at the shear plane. [6.67, 25.2°, 45.35 MPa]
2.18 The following data was obtained from an orthogonal cutting test.
Rake angle = 20° Depth of cut = 6 mm
Feed rate = 0.25 mm/rev Cutting speed = 0.6 m/s
Chip length before cutting = 29.4 mm
Vertical cutting force = 1050 N
Horizontal cutting force = 630 N
Chip length after cutting = 12.9 mm
Using Merchant's analysis, calculate
(a) magnitude of resultant force,
(b) shear plane angle,
(c) friction force and friction angle, and
(d) various energies consumed. [1224.5 N, 25.88°, 1202 N, 79º, 61.5 J/s, 316.487 J/s]
2.19 Show that in an orthogonal cutting, when rake angle is 45° and the thrust and cutting forces are equal,
the shear angle, f is given by
È Fs2 ˘
cos -1 Í 2 - 2 - 2 ˙
ÎÍ g FH ˙˚
f=
2
where g is the shear strain
Fs force along the shear plane
FH cutting force in the direction of the cutting speed
State any relevant assumptions made.
2.28 In a normal turning operation the tool life varies with cutting speed as shown in the following table:
Cutting speed, V, m/min Tool Life, T, min
25 30
70 2
Estimate the tool life for this operation at a speed of 60 m/min. [2.99 minutes]
2.29 A carbide cutting tool has tool life exponent n = 0.27. It gives a tool life of 60 minutes while machining
a mild steel work piece at a cutting speed of 120 m/min. Compute the tool life if it is to be cut at a 20%
higher cutting speed. Also what is the cutting speed if the tool life is to be doubled?
[30.39 minutes, 99.387 m/min]
2.30 Free cutting steel work pieces of 200 mm long and 100 mm in diameter are to be turned on a lathe
using a feed of 0.15 mm/rev and a depth of cut of 2 mm. It is possible to use brazed and throw away
type cemented carbide tools for the operation. The overhead cost is `80 per hour, while the tool life
constants are n = 0.25 and C = 200. Compare the minimum cost and maximum productivity times and
costs of these with the following data:
Brazed tools Throw away tools
Tool cost = `90 `30
No of regrinds = 10 No. of edges = 4
Regrinding cost = `15
Tool change time = 3 min 1 min
2.31 In a metal cutting experimentation, the tool life were found to vary with cutting speed in the following
manner:
Cutting speed, V, m/min Tool Life, T, min
100 120
130 50
Derive the Taylor’s tool life equation for this operation and estimate the tool life at a speed of 2.5 m/s.
Also estimate the cutting speed for a tool life of 80 minutes. [31.1867 minutes, 113.072 m/min]
2.32 A bar of 150 mm long and 60 mm in diameter is to be turned with a feed rate of 0.25 mm/rev. The
machine and labour overhead is `150 per hour. The tool cost is `15 per edge and the tool changing
time is 1 minute. Two different work materials A and B satisfy the requirements of the operation
whose tool life constants are given below:
Material n C
A 0.15 125
B 0.16 150
Compute the economical work material for this operation. [Material B]
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
2.1 Rake angle of a cutting tool can be defined as (c) Angle between flank face of the cutting
(a) Angle between rake face and flank face tool and normal to the machined surface
of a cutting tool (d) Angle between flank face of the cutting
(b) Angle between rake face of the cutting tool and the machined surface
tool and normal to the machined surface
2.2 Clearance angle of a cutting tool can be 2.8 Shear angle in orthogonal cutting is
defined as (a) The angle between the flank face and the
(a) Angle between rake face and flank face shear plane
of a cutting tool (b) The angle between the rake face and the
(b) Angle between rake face of the cutting shear plane
tool and normal to the machined surface (c) The angle between the flank face and the
(c) Angle between flank face of the cutting machined surface
tool and normal to the machined surface (d) The angle between the rake face and the
(d) Angle between flank face of the cutting machined surface
tool and the machined surface 2.9 A negative rake angle is generally preferred
2.3 Continuous chip can form during the cutting for
of (a) Brittle work piece materials to reduce
(a) Ductile materials cutting forces
(b) Brittle materials (b) Cutting tool materials that are hard and
(c) Any material at low cutting speeds brittle
(d) Any metal at high depths of cut (c) Ductile work piece materials to reduce
2.4 Discontinuous chip can form during the cutting forces
cutting of (d) Cutting tool materials that have higher
(a) Ductile materials shock resistance
(b) Brittle materials 2.10 P grade cemented carbide cutting tool bit is
(c) Any material at high cutting speeds used for
(d) Any metal at low depths of cut (a) Ferrous material with short chips
2.5 Built-up-edge can form during the cutting of (b) Ferrous material with long chips
(a) Soft materials at high cutting speeds (c) Non-ferrous material with short chips
(b) Brittle materials at low cutting speeds (d) Any non-ferrous metal
(c) Hard material at low cutting speeds 2.11 Ceramic cutting tools should be used
(d) Soft materials at low cutting speeds (a) With cutting fluid
2.6 An important assumption of Merchant’s (b) With low cutting speeds because of their
cutting force analysis is brittleness
(a) The cutting tool is perfectly sharp (c) With very high cutting speeds
(b) Rake angle of the cutting tool is positive (d) With old machine tools
(c) Rake angle of the cutting tool is negative 2.12 Tool life criterion normally used is
(d) Chip thickness is proportional to the rake (a) Crater wear
angle (b) Flank wear
2.7 A positive rake angle is generally preferred for (c) Crater wear and flank wear
(a) Brittle work piece materials to reduce (d) Crater wear and nose wear
cutting forces 2.13 Cutting fluids are used during the machining
(b) Cutting tool materials that are hard and operation to
brittle (a) Cool the work piece only
(c) Ductile work piece materials to reduce (b) Cool the cutting tool and work piece
cutting forces (c) Clean the work piece
(d) Cutting tool materials that have poor (d) Clean the machine tool
thermal conductivity
2.14 Water soluble cutting fluids are mainly used (c) More horse power for a given cut
to (d) Less horse power for a given cut
(a) Cool the cutting tool and work piece 2.18 Effect of hardness of work material on its
(b) Clean the work piece machinability
(c) Clean the machine tool (a) No effect
(d) Lubricate the cutting tool and work piece (b) Increases machinability
interface (c) Decreases machinability
2.15 Why is the cutting speed of 150 m/min better (d) Very little effect on machinability
than 30 m/min when using cemented carbide 2.19 Effect of rake angle of cutting tool on ma-
cutting tools? chinability
(a) There would be better shaped chips (a) No effect
(b) Less heat is produced at 150 m/min than (b) Increases machinability up to a certain
at 30 m/min limit
(c) The higher speed is less likely to burn (c) Decreases machinability
the edge of a carbide tool (d) Very little effect on machinability
(d) The higher speed would produce a better 2.20 The cutting speed for maximum profit rate
finish should be chosen as
2.16 When using low cutting speeds and negative (a) Below the speed for minimum cost
rake tools to cut soft metals, the result is often (b) In between the speeds for minimum cost
(a) A long, and uniform coiled chip and maximum production rate
(b) The metal splitting ahead of the tool (c) Equal to the speed for minimum cost
(c) A built-up edge (d) Higher than the speed for maximum pro-
(d) A good surface finish duction rate
2.17 Cutting tools with negative rake angle require
(a) Frequent resharpening
(b) Less frequent resharpening
Answers to MCQs
2.1 (b) 2.2 (d) 2.3 (a) 2.4 (b) 2.5 (d)
2.6 (a) 2.7 (c) 2.8 (b) 2.9 (b) 2.10 (a)
2.11 (c) 2.12 (b) 2.13 (b) 2.14 (a) 2.15 (d)
2.16 (c) 2.17 (c) 2.18 (c) 2.19 (b) 2.20 (b)
C a s e s T u dy
machInIng
In a machine shop, annealed AISI 4140 steel rods of 150 mm diameter are to be turned to 149 mm. The
hardness of the material is BHN 250. The length of the rods is 100 mm. The optimum cutting speed
and feed can be obtained from Machinery’s Handbook (30th edition, p 1071) for different cutting tool
materials. For example, the optimum cutting speeds for the following tool materials as in the table are
108, 192 and 375 m/min. The feed rates are 0.43, 0.43 and 0.25 mm/rev. These speeds and feeds are
valid for a tool life of 15 minutes. In regular production, it means the tool need to be replaced every 15
minutes which adds a lot of idle time on the machine and the operator involvement. From the Taylor
tool life equation it is noticed that for increasing the tool life the cutting speed needs to be reduced. For
carbide tools, to increase the tool life the cutting speed is to be multiplied by 0.86 for 45 minute tool
life, 0.78 for 90 minute tool life, 0.71 for 180 minute tool life. The factors for coated carbides are 0.80,
0.70 and 0.61 respectively. Similarly for ceramic tools are 0.89, 0.82 and 0.76 respectively. When the
cutting speed is decreased, the machining time will increase. It may be noticed that the increase in tool
life is not directly proportional to the reduction in cutting speed. The machining times can therefore be
recalculated for all tool lives as given in the following table:
The relationship between tool life and the machining time can be better understood by actually
comparing the number of parts that can be completely machined before a tool change is done in the
machine. The data can be calculated with the results as follows:
Assuming the tool cost of coated carbides and ceramic tools to be 1.4 times and 1.2 times respectively,
compared to uncoated carbides, work out the economics for each tool/ work piece combination. One
word of caution is that the relationship of the surface finish produced based on the cutting speed and
feed used as well as the rigidity of the machine for suitability of the process was not considered in the
above calculations.
Machine Tools
3
Objectives
Machine tools are the main engines of the manufacturing industry. This chapter tries to
cover a few of the details that are common to all classes of machine tools in this book. After
completing this chapter, the reader will be able to
❯ Understand the classification of the various machine tools used in manufacturing industries
❯ Find the differences between generating and forming of surfaces
❯ Learn various methods used to generate different types of surfaces
❯ Distinguish the different accuracies and surface finishes that are achievable with different
machine tools
❯ Understand the different components of the machine tool and their functions
❯ Learn about the different support structures used in the machine tools
❯ Understand various power transmission systems that are utilized in machine tools
❯ Understand various actuation systems that are useful to generate the required surfaces
❯ Learn the different types of guideways used in the machine tools
❯ Understand briefly about the work holding requirements
3.1 IntroductIon
The earliest known machine tools are the Egyptian foot-operated lathes. The machine tools were developed
essentially to allow for the introduction of accuracy in manufacturing.
A machine tool is defined as one which while holding the cutting tools would be able to remove metal from
a work piece in order to generate the requisite product of given size, configuration and finish. It is different
from a machine, which essentially is a means of converting the source of power from one form to the other.
The machine tools are the mother machines since without them no components could be produced in their
finished form. They are very old and the industrial revolution owes its success to a very great extent to them.
A machine tool is required to provide proper support to the work piece and cutting tool as well as provide
motion to one or both of them, in order to generate the required shape on the work piece. The form generated
depends upon the type of machine tool. The details of these will be seen in this chapter.
In the last two centuries, the machine tools have developed to a very great extent, because of new
inventions. The machine tool versatility has grown to cater to the varied needs of the new inventors who
made major developments. For example, James Watt’s steam engine could be proven only after a satisfactory
method was found to bore the engine cylinder with a boring bar by Wilkinson around 1775.
A machine tool is designed to perform certain primary functions, but the extent to which it can be exploited
to perform other (secondary) functions is a measure of its flexibility. Generally the flexibility of the machine
tool is increased by the use of secondary functional attachments, such as radius (spherical) turning attachment
for a centre lathe. Alternatively to improve productivity, special attachments are added which also reduce the
flexibility.
rate of production. These are used specifically for one product only and thus have the least flexibility.
However these do not require any manual intervention and are most cost effective. Examples are
transfer lines composed of unit heads for machining any given product completely.
The application of these four types can be shown graphically in Fig. 3.1.
Single-purpose
machine tool
Pr
od
uc
tio
n
Rate of production
Special- Fle
xib
purpose ilit
y
machine
tool
Production
machine tool
General-purpose
machine tool
Variety of production
The other classification is based on the actual motions which is shown later in this chapter.
Angle milling
cutter
Generated surface
Tool Secondary motion
(Feed)
(a) (b)
Angular
milling
cutter Dovetail Feed direction
form
SINGLE-POINT TOOLS
External Internal
turning boring
screw internal screw
cutting cutting
MULTI-POINT TOOLS
Primary
motion
Generated surface
Secondary motion
Tool (Feed)
Primary
motion Generated surface
Primary
motion
Generated surface
Secondary motion Secondary motion
Tool (Feed) (Feed)
Tool
fig. 3.7 Generation of a conical surface by a fig. 3.8 Generation of a contoured surface
single point cutting tool by a single point cutting tool
Generated
surface
Primary
motion
Tool
Secondary motion
(Feed)
Generated surface
Primary
motion
Secondary motion
Tool (Feed)
Primary motion
Secondary motion
(Feed)
Fig. 3.11 Generating a flat surface with linear motion of a single point cutting tool
With the multi-point tool generally plane surfaces are generated as shown in Fig. 3.12. However, in this
situation it is generally the combination of forming and generating to get a variety of complex surfaces, which
are otherwise impossible to get through the single point tool operations. Some typical examples are the spur
gear hobbing or spiral milling of formed cavities, which are described in later chapters.
Face milling
(vertical milling machine)
,f
Feed
● accuracy expected
The drive units in a machine tool are expected to provide the required speed and convert the rotational
speed into linear motion as required. Details of these may be found in books dealing with machine tool
design.
● Impact resistance
● Accuracy of guideways
● Wear resistance
Bed Bed provides a support for all the elements present in a machine tool. It also provides for the true
relative positions of all units in machine tools. Some of these units may be sliding on the bed or fixed. For
the purpose of sliding, accurate guideways are provided. Bed weight is approximately half the total of the
machine tool weight.
Chuck
Arbor
Tool Post Tailstock
Headstock
Carriage Table
Lead screw Bed Column
Knee
Saddle
Radial arm
Tool head
Ram
Column
Housing
Table
Table
Base
Base (d) Shaper
(c) Radial drilling machine
The basic construction of a bed is like a box to provide the highest possible rigidity with low weight. To
increase the rigidity the basic box structure is added with various types of ribs as shown in Fig. 3.15. The
addition of ribs complicates the manufacturing process for the beds.
Beds are generally constructed using cast iron or alloy cast iron consisting of alloying elements such as
nickel, chromium and molybdenum. With cast iron, because of the intricate designs of the beds the casting
defects may not be fully eliminated.
Alloy steel structure is also used for making beds. The predominant manufacturing method used is
welding. The following advantages can be claimed for steel construction.
(a) With steels, the wall thickness can be reduced, thus greater strength and stiffness for the same weight
would be possible with alloy steel bed construction.
(b) Walls of different thicknesses can be conveniently welded whereas in casting this would create
problems.
(c) Repair of welded structures would be easier.
(d) Large machining allowances would have to be provided for casting to remove the defects and hard
skin.
Concrete is also used as bed material. Its choice is mainly because of the large damping capacity. For
precision machine tools and measuring machines granite is also used as the bed material.
The major types of bed styles used in the machine tools are shown in Fig. 3.16.
fig. 3.15 Different types of ribs used for strengthening machine tools beds
Spindle Speeds
The choice of the range of speeds that need to be provided will depend upon the range of cutting speeds to be
obtained along with the range of diameters of work pieces that need to be cut. The final speed at the spindle
can be obtained in two ways:
Table 3.2 Speed ranges that are generally used in conventional machine tools
Machine Tool Speed Range
Centre lathe 40 to 60
Milling machine 30 to 50
Drilling machine 20 to 30
Grinding machine 1 to 10
The cutting speed, V is related to the work piece diameter, D and the revolving speed of the work piece/
tool, N as follows:
p DN
V= m/min
1000
This equation can be rewritten as
1000 V
N= rpm
pD
The maximum and minimum spindle speeds can be obtained from an idea of the maximum and minimum
work piece that need to be considered assuming it to be a lathe. In the case of a milling machine it should be
the smallest and largest size of the cutter diameters to be used. Hence
1000 Vmax
Maximum spindle speed, Nmax = rpm
p Dmin
1000 Vmin
Minimum spindle speed, Nmin = rpm
p Dmax
Where, Vmax = maximum cutting speed to be used, m/min
Vmin = minimum cutting speed to be used, m/min
Dmax = maximum diameter of the work piece/cutter, mm
Dmin = minimum diameter of the work piece/cutter, mm
Rather than selecting the individual cutting speeds between the maximum and minimum speeds arbitrarily,
they are chosen following any one of the progressions such as arithmetic progression, geometric progression
or logarithmic progression. A typical ray diagram of speeds is shown in Fig. 3.18. This is a plot of cutting
speed vs. diameter. The full lines in the Fig. 3.18 represent the constant spindle speeds, N1, N2, etc. For
example at a spindle speed of N1, the maximum and minimum diameters need to be between D1 and D2 to
achieve the range of cutting speeds for which the machine tool is designed. It is interesting to note that as
spindle speed is increased, the range of diameters decrease to maintain the range of cutting speeds.
N5 N4 N3
N2
N1
Cutting speed, V
Vmax
Vmin
D2 D1
Diameter, D
fig. 3.18 Typical ray diagram of spindle speed
Arithmetic Progression
An arithmetic progression is a sequence in which each term (except the first term) is obtained from the previ-
ous term by adding a constant known as the common difference. For arithmetic progression the intermediate
speeds can be obtained by using the following formula:
Speed, Ni = Nmin + (i – 1) a
Nmax = Nmin + (n – 1) a
Where, a = common difference,
n = number of speeds.
N max - N min
Hence, a=
n -1
For example, if 12 speed layout is to be chosen with minimum speed of 100 and maximum speed of 3400
rpm.
3400 - 100
Then common difference, a = = 300 rpm
12 - 1
Thus the required speeds are: 100, 400, 700, 1000, 1300, 1600, 1900, 2200, 2500, 2800, 3100, and 3400.
Geometric Progression
Geometric progression is a sequence in which each term (except the first term) is derived from the preceding
term by the multiplication of a non-zero constant, which is the common ratio. For geometric progression the
intermediate speeds can be obtained by using the following formula:
Speed, Ni = Nminf(i – 1)
Maximum speed, Nmax = Nmin f(n – 1)
N max
( n -1)
Or, f=
N min
Where f = Common ratio.
For example, if 12 speed layout is to be chosen with minimum speed of 100 and maximum speed of 4050
rpm.
(12 -1) 4050
Then common ratio, f = = 1.4
100
Thus the required speeds are: 100, 140, 196, 274, 384, 538, 753, 1054, 1476, 2066, 2893, and 4050.
It can be noticed that the speed steps in the case of geometric progression are more dispersed at higher
speeds, which allows for a range of work piece diameters to be used unlike in arithmetic progression where
the range of work piece diameters that can be used at the higher spindle speeds is very limited. This limits the
productivity of the machine tools. Hence geometric progression is generally preferred by the machine tool
designers. The common ratios that are employed are 1.26, 1.41 and 1.58 for general work.
Logarithmic Progression
Another method that is possible for arranging range of spindle speeds is
logarithmic progression (LP). Though the calculations involved are a little
complex and utilizes trial and error procedures, LP reduces the crowding
of speeds in the higher range while the gaps at the lower range are also
narrowed down.
Lead Screws
The rotary motion from the drive motor needs to be converted to linear motion to move the various axes of
the machine tool. In conventional machine tools, the square (Acme) thread is normally used for this purpose.
However, in view of the metal-to-metal sliding contact between the nut and the screw, the friction is very
high. This results in greater power being utilised for the movement of the axes. Typical friction coefficients
for these systems are shown in Table 3.3. Further, in view of the clearance provided between the nut and the
screw in the case of Acme thread as shown in Fig. 3.21 to reduce friction, there is the problem of backlash
whenever there is a reversal of motion. If any attempt is made to reduce the backlash, the friction increases.
Hence most of the higher end machine tools use a lead screw with a recirculating ball nut.
In the case of recirculating ball screws, the nut is replaced by a series of balls, which circulate in the
channel in the form of threads as shown in Fig. 3.22. This results in a highly efficient rolling motion of balls
in the space between the screw shaft and nut. The balls at the end of the thread portion in the nut will be
re-positioned into the beginning of the thread form by a deflector as shown in Fig. 3.22. The size of the nut
being an internal return of the balls is small compared to the external return type using an external return tube.
Clearance Nut
(Backlash)
Lead screw
Recirculating Screw
balls
Nut
(Side plate removed)
Further, the ball screws can be preloaded to eliminate the axial displacement, which consequently also
reduces the backlash. One of the methods followed for pre-loading is keeping a spacer between the two nuts
as shown in Fig. 3.23. This increases the axial rigidity of the nut while decreasing the axial displacement.
FB FA
fig. 3.23 Pre-loading of the recirculating ball screw and nut arrangement
The recirculating ball screws have a number of advantages compared to the conventional type of screws.
(a) They have a longer life.
(b) The wear of the screw is relatively small. Hence it will maintain accuracy through the entire life of
the screw.
(c) The frictional resistance offered is small, hence can be used for carrying heavier loads at faster speeds.
(d) The power required for driving is small due to less friction.
3.10 GuIdeways
Guideways (slideways) are linear bearings for translatory movement between two members of a machine
tool, such as carriage and bed in a lathe. They should provide
● alignment and fit
When motion starts there should be instant and accurate response with repeatability both for feeding and
pre-locating. The slide is at the end of a transmission train and the time lag between the input command and
output response for a small effort will depend primarily upon the stiffness of the transmission, the friction,
etc.
The requirements of the guideways are:
● High accuracy
A close grained material is used along with inclusion of alloying elements. The bearing surfaces are flame
and induction hardened for better wear characteristics. The bearing surfaces can be either ground or scraped.
Grinding being high heat production process should be properly managed and the checking of the guideways
for straightness should be done when it returns to normal temperature. Scraping when used should confirm
to a specified number of high spots per unit area, the low spots forming minute oil wells. Flaring cup wheel
grinding forms a multitude of oil channels, but the grain marks can abrade the mating surfaces. For very high
accuracy such as jig boring, scraping is used.
The types of guideways may be classified as
● Guideways with sliding friction also termed as slide ways.
● Guideways with rolling friction also termed as anti-friction ways. In this there are two varieties with
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
The shape of slideway depends basically upon the function it is expected to serve. The following are some
guiding principles in identifying the shape of a slideway.
● load carrying capacity
● ease of manufacture
● effective lubrication
● position of slideway
V-slideways
They can adjust clearances under the weight of the moving member. Machining accuracy is not greatly
affected by the wear of guideways. The chips would not clog the slideways. However, they are difficult
to manufacture and provide very small bearing area. They can be symmetrical as in Fig. 3.24(a) or more
generally asymmetric as in Fig. 3.25. Symmetrical is good when the acting load is perfectly vertical since
the load will be equally distributed among the faces of V. However in metal cutting, we have seen that
tangential force is more compared to radial force. Thus, in asymmetrical V, the longer face is normally made
perpendicular to the direction of the resultant force. This allows for uniform wear in both the faces.
Flat Slideways
Flat slideways [Fig. 3.24(b)] are easier to manufacture and are able to provide a large amount of bearing area.
However, the locational accuracy and other advantages provided by the V-slideways are missing. Hence
the flat slideways cannot be used on their own, but in conjunction with the V-slideways. The most common
arrangement found in lathes is shown in Fig. 3.26. Similar arrangement is also used in planers and horizontal
boring machines.
Round Slideways
Round slideways [Fig. 3.24(c)] are kinematically sound since they constrain all possible motions except the
direction required, but are only used in vertical type of machines such as drilling (radial and pillar). Main
reasons for their non-acceptance are:
● low rigidity
Dovetail Slideways
Dovetail slideways [Fig. 3.24(d)] are compact, but difficult to manufacture. These are generally used for
vertical movement and where space is at a premium. However they provide good rigidity and alignment.
Dovetails are generally used in carriage of lathe, for moving knee of a milling machine.
Alternatively separate steel guideways can be used which can be welded in case of welded bed construction.
Steel guideways have all the requisite properties and are easier to manufacture and maintain accuracy.
A very high level of friction is encountered in slideway systems as shown in the above varieties because
of the metal to metal contact existing between the members. Also because of the large variation in the static
and dynamic friction coefficient, stick slip phenomenon would be observed with metal to metal contact. This
is undesirable, particularly for high speed operations such as those found in the modern machine tools.
A method which is often used to minimise the stick slip motion and provide some measure of damping
capacity and improve the wear resistance, is when composite materials of small thickness are provided in
between the moving members of a slideway system. The slideway composite materials are made from two or
more materials so that one of them provides the friction reduction capability, and others increase the strength,
wear resistance and load bearing capacity. Another advantage is when this material wears out, the composite
material can be re-pasted. A slideway system with composite material is shown in Fig. 3.27. A number of
composite materials are commercially available such as Turcite-B, SKC-3, and Ferobestos LA3.
fig. 3.27 Anti-friction material used between the bed and the carriage of a lathe
Anti-friction Slideways
The anti-friction guideways involve intermediate rolling members (balls or rollers) between the sliding mem-
bers, thus reducing the friction as shown in Fig. 3.28.
(a) (b)
(c)
The use of anti-friction guideways because of the low friction during motion, and high stiffness, will
provide very high velocities possible for slideway movement. These are generally used in high precision
machine tools.
LM block
(Fastened to table)
Balls LM rail
Another type of linear motion device is the use of a ball bush where the balls are arranged in a track inside
of a bush, which can slide along a ground rod to provide the linear motion similar to a round slideway used
in conventional machine tools.
● Clamps
Vices
These are used for general purpose work holding on milling machines, shapers and grinding machines. The
vice consists of a fixed jaw and moving jaw and is generally useful for jobs which are prismatic and with
plane faces. The location available is the jaw surface which is generally a plane. However it is also possible
to change the types of jaw to suit the external contour of the job. For example a VEE jaw can be used as for
cylindrical external contours.
Chucks
Chucks are basically used for axi-symmetric jobs as well as for irregular surfaces where the job requires to be
rotated during or in between the machining operation. They are generally used in lathes, cylindrical grinding
machines and milling machines fitted with dividing heads.
The chucks may have two, three or four jaws depending upon the desired fixturing requirement. More
details of chucks are given in Chapter 4.
Clamps
The table of machine tools generally have the flat surface with accurately machined T-slots, which are gen-
erally used for work holding purpose. Various clamps and locating elements are available to hold complex
surfaces on these surfaces. These are discussed in later chapters that relate to specific machine tools.
suMMary
Machine tools are mainly used to provide higher accuracy that is essential in the manufacturing industry.
A machine tool is able to hold a cutting tool and removes material from the stock to get the required part
geometry.
● Machine tools are classified into different types based on their application, as general purpose,
● Depending upon the surface a large number of different motions are used, based on the type of tools
in operation.
● There is a large variation in accuracy and surface finish between the different operations.
● All the machine tools have work holding, tool holding, support, and work and tool motion
desired.
● Power transmission in machine tools is utilized to obtain a range of speeds and feeds that are
required to cater to the different work materials and machining conditions.
● Lead screws are used in machine tools to convert rotary motion to linear motion, which is used to
move the table or cutting tool depending upon the type of machine tool.
● Recirculating ball screws are used for more efficient load transmission.
● Antifriction guideways are used in a majority of the modern machine tools, while the conventional
guideways are also used.
● A number of work holding systems are possible based on the part geometry.
Q u e s t io ns
3.1 How do you classify the various machine tools based on the motions used for generating the surfaces?
Explain with the help of suitable block diagram.
3.2 What are the various methods available for generating plane (flat) surfaces with machine tools?
3.3 Compare Generating and Forming with reference to metal cutting machine tools.
3.4 Explain the term ‘Machine Tool’ and how is it different from machine.
3.5 Explain the classification of machine tools based on production capacity. Give the relative advantages
with reasons and applications.
3.6 How do you select a machine tool for a given application? Give your answer with an application.
3.7 What are the various elements present in a machine tool for the purpose of generating any specified
surface? Explain their relevance from the viewpoint of the final requirement.
3.8 What are the materials used for the manufacture of support structures in machine tools? Give their
applications and disadvantages.
3.9 What are the types of slideways used in machine tools with particular reference to a centre lathe?
Explain why such a geometry is preferred.
3.10 How do you classify various manufacturing machines based on the motions of the machine axes?
Show the example surfaces generated for each of them.
3.11 What are the types of guide-ways used in machine tools? Explain about the various types generally
used in lathe machines.
3.12 What is the function served by a lead screw in a machine tool?
3.13 Give the advantages derived by the use of re-circulating ball screws.
3.14 Write a brief note on linear motion elements used in machine tools.
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
3.1 General purpose machine tools are used 3.2 Generating a surface compared to forming is
(a) For high production rates (a) Requires less power
(b) In normal workshops and repair shops (b) Less accurate
(c) For large production volumes (c) More accurate
(d) For automated production (d) Requires more power
3.3 Steel structure with welding is preferred to 3.9 Flat surface can be produced on a machine
cast iron for machine tool structure because tool
they (a) Using a single point tool moving along
(a) Absorb impact loads the axis of rotation of work piece
(b) Reduce noise (b) Using a single point tool moving per-
(c) Are heavier pendicular to the axis of rotation of work
(d) Repair of welded structure is easy piece
3.4 V-slideway is preferred in lathe bed because (c) Using a single point tool moving at an
it angle to the axis of rotation of work
(a) Is easy to manufacture piece
(b) Adjusts clearance under the weight of (d) Using a single point tool moving along
the moving member the axis of rotation of work piece
(c) Is a simple design 3.10 The following process provides best surface
(d) No specific advantage finish
3.5 Speeds in a gear box of a machine tool are (a) Hand grinding
chosen to follow the geometric progression (b) Cylindrical grinding
because it (c) Cylindrical turning
(a) Allows to have fixed speed difference (d) Milling
between any two consequent speeds 3.11 The following process provides highest
(b) Appears more geometrical dimensional accuracy
(c) Allows more uniform dispersion of (a) Cylindrical turning
speeds in the entire range (b) Jig boring
(d) Allows more speeds in the maximum (c) Shaping
speed range (d) Milling
3.6 Recirculating ball screws are used because 3.12 The most complete definition of a machine
(a) They are easy to manufacture tool is that
(b) Power required for driving them is small (a) converts the energy from one type to
due to small friction other
(c) Frictional resistance is more compared (b) holds the work piece and provides rotary
to Acme threads motion
(d) Variable friction present due to the recir- (c) holds the work piece and the cutting tool
culating balls to remove metal
3.7 The following system has the lowest frictional (d) holds the cutting tool to remove metal
resistance 3.13 Special purpose machine tools (SPM) are used
(a) Dove tail slideway (a) For small batch manufacture
(b) Round slideway (b) In normal workshops and repair shops
(c) Linear motion device used in the slide- (c) For large production volumes
way (d) For one off production of complex ge-
(d) V-slideway ometries
3.8 Ribs are provided in machine tool structures 3.14 Production machine tools are
to (a) Used for small batch manufacture
(a) Increase the weight of the structure (b) Normal machine tools fitted with jigs or
(b) Increase the rigidity of the structure fixtures
(c) Improve the appearance of the structure (c) Used for large production volumes
(d) Store the chips during the machining op- (d) For one off production of complex ge-
eration ometries
3.15 Forming a surface by a machine tool is done (c) Controlling the motion of the cutting
by tool and the work piece to generate the
(a) Controlling the motion of the cutting profile
tool to generate the profile (d) Controlling the motion of a general pur-
(b) Transferring the shape of the cutting tool pose cutting tool to generate the profile
directly to the work piece
Answers to MCQs
3.1 (b) 3.2 (c) 3.3 (d) 3.4 (b) 3.5 (c)
3.6 (b) 3.7 (c) 3.8 (b) 3.9 (b) 3.10 (b)
3.11 (b) 3.12 (c) 3.13 (c) 3.14 (b) 3.15 (b)
Centre Lathe
4
Objectives
Centre lathe is the most common and versatile machine found in practically all machine shops.
After completing this chapter, the reader will be able to
❯ Understand the importance of lathe and its many varieties
❯ Understand the basic structure of a centre lathe
❯ Choose various aids that are used to locate and support work pieces in a lathe
❯ Select the large variety of cutting tools that can be used in a lathe
❯ Practice a variety of common operations that can be performed in a lathe
❯ Understand the various methods used to carryout the taper turning operations in a lathe
❯ Understand the requirements and the methods to be used to cut precision threads in a lathe
❯ Estimate the machining time and power required for any given operation in a lathe
❯ Plan typical setups that can be done in a lathe
4.1 IntroductIon
Lathe is the oldest machine tool invented, starting with the Egyptian tree lathes. In the Egyptian tree lathe,
one end of the rope wound round the work piece was attached to a flexible branch of a tree while the other
end was pulled by the operator, thus giving the rotary motion to the work piece. This primitive device has
evolved over the last two centuries to be one of the most fundamental and versatile machine tool with large
variants to be used in practically all the manufacturing shops.
The principal form of surface produced in a lathe is the cylindrical surface. This is achieved by rotating
the work piece while the single point cutting tool removes the material by traversing in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation as shown in Fig. 4.1 and termed as turning. The popularity of lathe is in view of the fact
that a large variety of surfaces could be produced.
Considering the versatility, a large number of variants of lathes are used in manufacturing shops. The
variations are:
1. Centre lathe
● Bench Lathe
Dog plate
Dog
Rotation of the
Depth of cut work piece
Dead centre
Feed
Live centre
Fig. 4.1 Cylindrical turning operation in a lathe
The centre lathe is the most common of the lathes, which derives its name from the way a work piece is
clamped by centres in a lathe, though this is not the only way in which the job is mounted. This is sometimes
also called engine lathe in view of the fact that early lathes were driven by steam engines. This is used for
more general applications and thus the construction of the machine tool is more rigid. This is discussed in
greater detail in this chapter.
The tool room lathe is generally meant for applications of tool making, where the accuracy desired is
much higher than is normally required for general production work. Also the range of sizes and materials
handled would normally be large. Thus the machine would have a higher range of speeds and feeds along
with greater rigidity. Also the range of accessories and attachments would generally be larger.
The special purpose lathes are developed from the centre lathe, to cater to special forms of application
which cannot be handled by the conventional centre lathe.
Capstan and turret lathes and automatic lathes are the form of lathes to cater for high rate production and
thus would be used for very special applications. These have the special features to help in improving the
production rate and also work unattended if necessary. These are discussed in the next chapter.
Headstock
Adjustment
Spindle Feed
revolves Spindle speed
Toolpost
Carriage (saddle)
Cross-slide
Spindle does
not revolve
Tailstock
Feed change
gear box
Compound
rest and
Feed rod
slide (swivels)
Bed
Lead screw
Fig. 4.2 General view of a centre lathe showing various mechanisms and features
The tailstock is towards the right-most end on the bed, and houses the tailstock spindle for the purpose of
locating the long components by the use of centres. The tailstock is movable on the inner guideways provided
on the bed to accommodate the different lengths of work pieces. It also serves the purpose of holding tools
such as centre drill, twist drill, reamer, etc. for making and finishing holes in the components, which are
located in line with the axis of rotation.
The third major element in the lathe mechanism is the carriage, which provides the necessary longitudinal
motion for cutting tool to generate the necessary surfaces. This also houses three parts: the cross slide for
giving motion (cross feed) to the cutting tool in a direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation, the compound
slide which provides an auxiliary slide to get the necessary special motion for specific surface generations,
and the tool post which allows for the mounting of the cutting tool.
The motion from the spindle motor is communicated to the carriage through a lead screw. Engagement
of the lead screw with the carriage is through the use of a half nut. Though the lead screw could be used
for feeding the cutting tool in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation, many a times a separate feed rod
is provided for this function. The main reason is that the lead screw would be more accurate and would be
sparingly used only for thread cutting, such that it maintains its accuracy. For routine feeding, the feed rod
is used.
diameter of the job that can be turned in the lathe Fig. 4.3 Capacity specifications for a lathe
machine, generally restricted to small length jobs.
● Swing over the cross slide—this specifies the maximum diameter of the job that can be turned in the
lathe machine with the job across the cross slide, which is generally the case.
Though the above give the basic capacity of the machine as shown in Fig. 4.3, there are a number of other
factors that should also be specified to fully describe the lathe machine. They are:
● horse power of the motor
● cutting speed range
● feed range
Further specifications would be based on the accessories used with the machine tool and their respective
capabilities.
The most common form of work holding device used in a lathe is the chuck. Chucks come in various
forms with a varying number of jaws. Of these the three jaw chuck or the self-centring chuck as shown in
Fig. 4.4 is the most common one. The main advantage of this chuck is the quick way in which the typical
round job is centred. All the three jaws would be meshing with the flat scroll plate. Rotating the scroll plate
through a bevel pinion would move all the three jaws radially inward or outward by the same amount. Thus,
the jaws will be able to centre any job, whose external locating surface is cylindrical or symmetrical, like
hexagonal. Though it is good for quick centring, it has limitations in terms of the gripping force and also the
accuracy is gradually lost due to the wear of the mating parts.
Bevel teeth
on scroll plate
Jaw
Scroll
plate
Bevel
pinion
The independent jaw chuck has four jaws, which can be moved in their slots independent of each other
(Fig. 4.5), thus clamping any type of configuration. Since each of these jaws could move independently any
irregular surface could be effectively centred. Better accuracy in location could be maintained because of the
independent movement. However more time is spent in fixturing a component in a 4-jaw chuck compared to
the 3-jaw chuck. This is generally used for heavy work pieces and for any configuration.
Jaw screw
Jaw
Concentric
circles
The jaws in a 4-jaw chuck could be reversed for clamping large diameter work pieces as shown in Fig. 4.6.
The soft jaws are sometimes used in these chucks for clamping surfaces of a component whose surface is
already finished and which is likely to be disfigured by the hard surface of the normal jaws used in them.
Chuck
Depth of cut
Feed
The 3-jaw and 4-jaw chucks would normally be suitable for short components. However in the case of
long components, supporting is done at only one end, because in the case of chucks would make it deflect
under the influence of the cutting force. In such cases the long work pieces are held between the centres. The
work piece ends are provided with a centre hole as shown in Fig. 4.7. Through these centre holes the centres
mounted in the spindle and the tailstock would rigidly locate the axis of the work piece.
Dog plate
Dog
Depth of cut
60
Dead centre
Feed
Live centre
Centres as shown in Fig. 4.7 would be able to locate the central axis of the work piece, however would not
be able to transmit the motion to the work piece from the spindle. For this purpose, generally, a carrier plate
and a dog, as shown in Fig. 4.8, are used. The centre located in the spindle is termed live centre while that in
the tailstock is termed the dead centre. The shank of the centre is generally finished with a Morse taper which
fits into the tapered hole of the spindle or tailstock.
Live centre rotates with the work piece, and hence it remains soft. Whereas the dead centre does not rotate,
it is hardened as it forms the bearing surface. However, in case of heavier work pieces the relative movement
between the work piece and the dead centre causes a large amount of heat to be generated. In such cases, a
revolving centre is used. In this the centre is mounted in roller bearings thus it rotates freely reducing the
heat generation at the tailstock end. In cases where a facing operation is to be carried out with centres, a half
centre would sometimes be used.
Driver plate
Headstock
Work piece Dead centre
Fig. 4.8 Dog carrier and revolving centre, half centre, and steady
enough to be consistent with the diameter of the work. For heavier work this may be changed to 75°
or 90°.
● The bearing must take place on the countersunk surfaces and not on the bottom of the drilled hole.
When the job becomes very long, it is likely to deflect because of its own weight as well as due to the
cutting force acting away from the supports provided at both the ends. A steady is used for supporting the
work piece at the maximum deflection point. Sometimes a steady is fixed to the carriage, so that it moves
with the tool thus effectively compensating for the acting cutting force.
For odd shaped components a faceplate is more widely used where the locating and clamping surfaces
need not be circular. This has radial slots on the plate as shown in Fig. 4.9 for the purpose of locating the
component and clamped by means of standard clamps. The method is somewhat similar to the clamping of
work pieces on a milling machine table using the T-slots on the table. However, in view of the fact that the
faceplate rotates, it is possible that the component is off centre. This would cause vibrations due to the mass
unbalance. A balancing mass would therefore be provided as shown in Fig. 4.9. Sometimes angle plates along
with the faceplate may have to be used for typical components where the locating surface is perpendicular to
the plane of the faceplate as shown in Fig. 4.9.
For holding components with locating holes, for the purpose of generating external surfaces, a mandrel is
generally used. Various types of mandrels used are shown in Fig. 4.10.
Work piece
Mandrel
The given work holding devices are more useful for general purpose work. However, for production work
such devices would mean that considerable time is spent in locating and holding individual work pieces. In
production machine tools it is therefore necessary to use work holding devices which require very less time
for clamping purpose. Collet is one such device, which provides good clamping accuracy with very little time
required for clamping and unclamping.
Collet has a sleeve as the holding part, which is slit along the length at a number of points along the
circumference as shown in Fig. 4.11. When uniform pressure is applied along the circumference of the sleeve,
these segments would elastically deflect and clamp the component located inside. Since the deflection of the
sleeve is in the elastic range, it would spring back once the clamping pressure is removed, thus releasing the
component located inside. This clamping method is very accurate and fast in operation, in addition to the
fact that it would hold the work uniformly over the entire circumference. However, the size range in which a
collect becomes operational is very small in view of the limit on the elastic deformation allowed. Thus a large
number of chucks need to be maintained in the inventory to cater to the variety of diameters to be worked in
the machine tool. These are normally used for large scale production where saving in terms of the locating
and clamping time would be desirable.
Cutting
Bar stock tool
Steady Rest
The steady rest, also called a centre rest, should be used when turning or boring long work pieces. It is
also used for internal threading operations where the work piece projects a considerable distance from the
chuck or faceplate. The steady rest (Fig. 4.12) is clamped to the lathe bed at the desired location (where the
maximum deflection is likely to occur) and supports the work piece with three adjustable jaws. The jaws
must be carefully aligned to properly locate the axis of rotation of the work piece. The area of contact must
be lubricated frequently. The top section of the steady rest swings away from the bottom section to permit
removal of the work piece without disturbing the jaw setting. For machining with very high cutting speeds,
steady rests as shown will generate substantial heat, so they will be provided with a ball or roller bearings
built into the jaws. Another problem with this type of rest is that since the carriage cannot pass it, the work
piece needs to be turned in two set-ups by reversing after the first portion is machined.
Work piece
Cutting tool
Cross slide
Lathe bed
Fig. 4.13 Follower rest used to support long, slen-
Fig. 4.12 Steady rest used to support long, der work pieces in centre lathe which
slender work pieces in centre lathe moves with the carriage
Follower Rest
The follower rest (Fig. 4.13) on the other hand has two jaws that bear against the work piece. The follower
rest is fastened to the lathe carriage so that it will follow the cutting tool and bear upon the portion of the
work piece that has just been turned. The cut must first be started and continued for a short longitudinal
distance before the follower rest may be applied. The rest is generally used only for straight turning and for
threading long, thin work pieces. Steady rests and follower rests can be equipped with ball-bearing surfaces
on the adjustable jaws. These types of rests can be used without excessive lubricant or having to machine a
polished bearing surface.
Tool face
Nose radius
Tool base
Table 4.2 Recommended tool angles in degrees for high speed steel cutting tools
Work Material Back Rake Side Rake Side Relief Front Relief Side Cutting End Cutting
Angle Angle Angle Angle Edge Angle Edge Angle
Steel 8 – 20 8 – 20 6 6 10 15
Cast steel 8 8 6 6 10 15
Cast iron 0 4 6 6 10 15
Bronze 4 4 6 6 10 10
Stainless steel 8 – 20 8 – 20 6 6 10 15
Table 4.3 Recommended tool angles in degrees for carbide cutting tools
Work Material Back Rake Side Rake Side Relief End Relief
Angle Angle Angle Angle
Aluminium and magnesium alloys 0 – 10 10 – 20 6 6
Copper 0–4 15 – 20 6–8 6–8
Brass and bronze 0–5 –5 – 8 6–8 6–8
Cast iron –7 – 0 –7 – 6 5–8 5–8
Plain carbon steels –7 – 0 –7 – 6 5–8 5–8
Alloy steels –7 – 0 –7 – 6 5–8 5–8
Stainless steels –7 – 0 –7 – 6 5–8 5–8
Titanium alloys –5 – 6 –5 – 0 5–8 5–8
The tools have primary cutting edge by means of which the direction of the movement of the tool for
removing the metal is indicated. The direction is termed as right or left depending upon the movement
direction. The tool is termed right when it cuts during the movement towards the head stock. It is derived by
the fact that when the right palm is placed on the tool, the direction of the thumb indicates the direction of
tool motion. Similarly the left hand tool cuts during its motion in the direction of tailstock.
The variations in the type of tools are indicative of the variety applications for which these tools are used.
The large variety is needed because of the large number of surfaces to be generated. For example, by the side
cutting edge angle of the tool, it is possible to know the application of pockets for which the tool could be
used. Similarly some tools would be required for facing applications while others are used for boring.
Form tools are generally used for machining short profiles. Typical form tools are shown in Fig. 4.17. The
Fig. 4.17 shows two types of form tools that are generally used. The circular form tool shown in Fig. 4.17(a)
is held in a holder mounted on the cross slide. The centre of the tool should be mounted slightly above the
centre of the work piece in order to get a clearance angle such that the tool will not rub the work. The circular
form tool has a long life as it can be continuously sharpened as shown in the Fig. 4.17(a) over 270° of the
tool. The straight or flat form tool shown in Fig. 4.17(b) is the simplest type. It is sharpened by grinding the
top face that reduces the strength of the tool.
Bar stock
Rotation of the
Rotational axis of work piece
the spindle
Sharpened
here
Direction of
feeding and
Offset to provide
return
clearance
Hole for
mounting
(a)
Sharpened
here
Angle to
provide
clearance
Dovetail to
fit holder
(b)
Fig. 4.17 Form tool types used in centre lathe, (a) Circular form tool, (b) Straight form tool
As of now a majority of the tools used are of the cemented carbide type with indexable insert type. It
therefore becomes necessary to understand the ISO coding systems for these to be able to easily make the
selection. The ISO coding system (as per ISO 1832–1991) for tungsten carbide inserts and external turning
tools is shown in extracted form in Fig. 4.18 and 4.19.
The actual selection of the tools for a particular application has to carefully match the geometry. Generally
the manufacturer’s catalogue provides such application information. For example, referring to Fig. 4.20 the
use of PDJNR type tools is for the external turning requires that the maximum contour angle be 30° as shown
in Fig. 4.20. It also shows the other type of features that can be machined by the tool.
Insert
clearance
angle
N–0° Cutting
B–5° edge
C–7° length
T N M G 22 04 08
Fig. 4.18 The ISO coding system for tungsten carbide inserts used in turning
Clamping system
Insert
C–top clamping
clearance
D–Rigid clamping
angle
M–Top and hole
clamping N–0° Cutting
P–Hole clamping B–5° Shank Shank edge
S–Screw clamping C–7° height width length
P C L N R 16 16 H 09
Fig. 4.19 The ISO coding system for tungsten carbide turning tool holders used in external turning (SCEA -
side cutting edge angle, ECEA - end cutting edge angle)
Fig. 4.20 Typical contour capability of external turning tools (Courtesy Seco Tools, Germany. Redrawn from
Seco Catalogue)
R= r 2 – h2 (1)
a = sin -1 Ê ˆ
h
(2)
Ë r¯
Rake angle
R R
r r
t
h
End clearance
angle
Fig. 4.21 Tool setting errors
The above angle decreases the actual rake angle a while the clearance angle increases by the same amount.
Thus the cutting forces increase because of the reduction in the rake angle. In the case of setting the tool
above the centre, it causes the rake angle to increase, while the clearance angle reduces. This would cause for
more rubbing to take place in the flank face.
The following example shows the magnitude of error that is involved in a cutting tool setting.
Example 4.1
While turning a diameter of 90 mm, the turning tool is set below centre line by an amount equal to 5 mm.
Find out the change in the effective cutting tool geometry.
a = sin -1 Ê ˆ = 6.37937°
5
Solution (3)
Ë 45 ¯
If the actual back rake angle is 10°, the effective rake angle would be (10 – 6.38) = 3.62°.
Similarly if the clearance angle is 5°, the effective clearance angle would be (5 + 6.38) = 11.38°.
If the tool is set at a point above the centre line, there would be a corresponding increase in the rake angle
by the same amount, while the clearance angle would be (5 – 6.38) = –1.38°, which would cause rubbing
(interference) with the work piece.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.22 Chip breaking groove, (a) Cutting with a tool without chip breaking groove; (b) Cutting with chip
breaker. Notice the chip being broken by the extra curl taken by the chip.
Chip-breaker groove
Carbide insert
4.5.1 Turning
Turning is by far the most commonly used operation in a lathe. In this the work held in the spindle is rotated
while the tool is fed past the work piece in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation. The surface thus gener-
ated is the cylindrical surface as shown in Fig. 4.1.
4.5.2 Facing
Facing is an operation for generating flat surfaces in lathes as shown in Fig. 4.24. The feed in this case is
given in a direction perpendicular to the axis of revolution. The tool used should have a suitable approach
angle so that it would not interfere with the work piece during the tool feeding.
Chuck
Rotation of the
Machined flat
work piece
surface
Feed
Also the radius of work piece at the contact point of the tool varies continuously as the tool approaches the
centre, thus the resultant cutting speed also varies in facing, starting at the highest value at the circumference
to almost zero near the centre. Since the cutting action and the surface finish generated depend upon the
actual cutting speed, the finish becomes very poor as the tool approaches the centre. Also while choosing the
rotational speed of the work piece due care has to be taken of this fact.
4.5.3 Knurling
Knurling is a metal working operation done in a lathe. In this a knurling tool having the requisite serrations
is forced on to the work piece material, thus deforming the top layers as shown in Fig. 4.25. This forms a top
surface, which is rough and provides a proper gripping surface.
Oil freely
Feed
90°
3 mm min.
Revolving
head
Knurling
tool
Work piece
4.5.4 Parting
Parting and grooving are similar operations. In this a flat nosed tool would plunge cut the work piece with a
feed in the direction perpendicular to the axis of revolution as shown in Fig. 4.26. This operation is generally
carried out for cutting off the part from the parent material. When the tool goes beyond the centre, the part
would be severed. Otherwise a rectangular groove would be obtained. It is also possible, in similar operation,
to use a special form of tool to obtain the specific groove shape.
Chuck
Work piece
Rotation of the
Groove
work piece
Feed
Parting tool
Fig. 4.26 Parting tool in operation
4.5.5 Drilling
Drilling is the operation of making cylindrical holes into the solid material as shown in Fig. 4.27. A twist
drill is held in the quill of the tailstock and is fed into the rotating work piece by feeding the tailstock quill.
Since the work piece is rotating, the axis of the hole is very well maintained, even when the drill enters at an
angle initially. The same operation can also be used for other hole making operations such as centre drilling,
counter sinking and counter boring. This operation is limited to holes through the axis of rotation of the work
piece and from any of the ends.
Faceplate
Clamp
Tailstock quill clamp
Feed
Tailstock
Tailstock clamp
4.5.6 Boring
Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole already made by a single point boring tool termed as boring bar
as shown in Fig. 4.28. The operation is somewhat similar to the external turning operation. However, in view
of the internal operation, it is more restricted. The cutting forces experienced are somewhat more than the
external operation. Also the tool used is less rigid compared to turning tool and as a result it cannot withstand
the large cutting forces. Thus the process parameters used are somewhat lower than those used for turning.
Boring is used for generating an accurate hole with good surface finish.
Boring bar
Another method that is normally used for production applications is the use of special form tool for
generating the tapers as shown in Fig. 4.30. The feed is given by plunging the tool directly into the work.
This method is useful for short tapers, where the steepness is of no consequence, such as for chamfering.
Work piece
Too
a l
Feed
Chuck
Work piece
Tool
Feed
Chuck
When turning long tapers with form tools, the tool is likely to chatter (vibrate) resulting in poor surface finish.
However, care of the form tools, particularly for regrinding is a careful exercise. The cutting edge should be
perfectly straight for good accuracy.
Still another method sometimes used is the method of offsetting the tailstock from the centre position.
By offsetting the tailstock, the axis of rotation of the job is inclined by the half angle of taper as shown in
Fig. 4.31. The feed to the tool is given in the normal manner parallel to the guideways. Thus the conical
surface is generated.
Referring to Fig. 4.31, the offset can be calculated as follows:
BC
sin a = (4)
AB
S = AB sin a = L sin a (5)
Tailstock
Taper angle = 2a set-over
Lathe axis C
B
a
A
Tool movement
parallel to lathe
axis BC
(a)
Offset = x
B ½a C
A
(b)
Fig. 4.31 Tail stock offset
Example 4.2
Find the setting required turning a taper of 85 mm diameter to 75 mm diameter over a length of 200 mm,
while the total length of the job is 300 mm between centres. Tailstock offset is to be used for generating the
prescribed taper.
(75 – 60)
Solution S = 300 = 11.25 mm (9)
2 ¥ 200
Still another method for turning tapers over a comprehensive range is the use of taper turning attachment.
In this method a separate slideway is arranged at the rear of the cross slide. This slide can be rotated at any
angle to be setup. The block that can slide in this taper slide way is rigidly connected to the cross slide as
shown in Fig. 4.32. The cross slide is made floating by disconnecting it from its lead screw. As the carriage
moves for feeding, the block moves in the inclined track of the slide, it gets the proportional cross movement
perpendicular to the feed direction, the cross slide and in turn the cutting tool gets the proportional movement.
Thus the tool tip follows the taper direction set in the attachment. However, in this condition, the cross slide
cannot be used for normal turning operations.
Direction
of feeding
Rotation of
the work piece
Compound rest
Cross-slide
This method is most commonly used for a range of tapers. Setting of the cutting tool is most important,
since the form of the taper cut would be affected by the position of the cutting tool with respect to the work
piece. For example consider the case of a cutting tool set below the centre line of the work piece as shown in
Fig. 4.33. The work piece is to have r as radius at the small end and R as the radius at the big end, with L as
the length of the taper. The original taper angle, a to be produced is given by
R–r
tan a = (10)
l
R Y
r
B F A O
E
C G D
Fig. 4.33 Possible error in taper turning using taper turning attachment because of the wrong positioning
of the cutting tool.
DE = OD 2 – OE 2 = r 2 - h2 (11)
If we consider a section along the length at a distance of x, from the small end, the radius, y at that point
is given by
y2 = r2 + x2 sin2 a (12)
This can be rearranged as
y2 x 2 tan 2 a
– =1 (13)
r2 r2
This is the equation of the taper produced, which is a hyperbola. Thus, the surface produced by a tool
located away from the centre is hyperboloid.
To find the taper angle, we may calculate the radius at the big end for a corresponding small end diameter
r as follows. From the Fig. 4.33
OC2 = OE2 + CE2 = OE2 + (CD + DE)2 (14)
2
= h 2 + ÈÎ1 tan a + r 2 - h 2 ˘˚ (15)
Since OC = OB = Radius of big end
AB = OB – r
The taper angle generated is given by
AB
tan a1 = (16)
l
( l tan a + r 2 - h2 ) + h2
tan a1 = (17)
l
Example 4.3
While turning a taper using taper turning attachment, the setting was done for 4°, but the tool is set 3 mm
below the centre. If the work piece diameter at the small end is 40 mm, calculate the actual taper produced.
Solution The taper angle is 4°, and the big end of the work piece considering the length of the taper to be
100 mm.
R = 100 tan 4° = 6.9927 mm
2
OC2 = 32 + ÎÈ100 tan 4 + 202 - 32 ˚˘ = 725.44 (18)
OC = 725.44 = 26.933 mm (19)
The produced taper angle is therefore
È 26.933 – 20 ˘
a = tan -1 Í ˙˚ = 3.9657°
Î 100
The error produced is
Error in half taper = 4 – 3.9697 = 0.0303° = 2¢
Minor
Major
diameter diameter
Thread
angle
Thread cutting can be considered as another form of turning since the path to be travelled by the cutting
tool is helical. However, there are some major differences between turning and thread cutting. Where as in
turning the interest is in generating a smooth cylindrical surface, in thread cutting the interest is in cutting
a helical thread of a given form and depth which can be calculated from the formulae for different forms of
threads as given in Table 4.3.
The shape of the cutting tool is of the same form as the thread to be generated.
For the purpose of feeding the tool for generating the thread, the feed is given by the lead screw. Feed is
same as the lead of the pitch to be generated. In normal turning the thickness of the uncut chip is same as the
feed rate chosen, whereas in the thread cutting case it is controlled by the depth of cut, d, in view of the thread
form being generated as shown in Fig. 4.35(a). The uncut chip thickness, tu, can be shown to be
tu = 2 ¥ d ¥ tan a (20)
The depth of cut in the case of thread cutting can be given in two ways: plunge cutting as shown in
Fig. 4.36(b) or compound cutting as in Fig. 4.35(a).
In the case of plunge cutting, the cutting of the thread takes place along both the flanks of the tool. This
would mean that the cutting tool would have to be provided with a zero or negative rake angle. In addition
the relief along the cutting edges cannot be provided in view of the form to be achieved. Cutting is also taking
place along a longer length of the tool. This gives rise to difficulties in machining in terms of higher cutting
forces and consequently chattering (violent vibrations). This results in poor surface finish and lower tool life,
thus this method is not generally preferred.
With the compound feeding, the tool needs to be moved in both the directions (along the bed as well as
a direction perpendicular to it) simultaneously to position the tool tip along one flank of the thread. This
configuration helps in smoother flow of chips as the cutting takes place only along one cutting edge. This
method therefore is much preferred compared to the earlier method. Only problem is to move the tool for
giving the depth of cut along the flank of the thread, which can be achieved by the use of compound slide for
giving the depth of cut as shown in Fig. 4.36, while feed is given by the carriage in the conventional manner.
Work piece
Spindle
Tool fixed
to nut via
carriage
Lead screw
the tool along the length of the job. In turning the engaging of tool at any point would be of no consequence
since the surface to be generated is cylindrical. However in thread cutting it is essential that the tool tip should
always follow the same thread profile generated in the first cut, otherwise no thread would be generated.
One of the methods that can be followed in this case is to reverse the spindle while retaining the engagement
between the tool and the work piece. The spindle reversal would bring the cutting tool to the starting point
of the thread following the same path in reverse. After giving a further depth of cut the spindle is again
reversed and the thread cutting is continued in the normal way. This is easy to work and is somewhat more
time consuming due to the idle times involved in the stopping and reversing of the spindle at the end of each
stroke.
Another alternative method is to use a chasing dial to help in following the thread. As shown in Fig. 4.38
the chasing dial consists of a worm gear located inside the carriage in mesh with the lead screw. A vertical
shaft connected with the worm gear has a dial with separate markings to indicate equal divisions of the
circumference. Since the worm gear is in continuous contact with the lead screw, which is in continuous
engagement with the spindle, markings on its surface indicate the precise position of the thread being cut on
the work piece. Thus it is possible to engage with the work piece at any desired location.
Graduated dial
4
12
3
Shaft
It is also possible to cut threads on a tapered surface by combing the thread cutting concepts as explained
above along with the taper turning attachment as shown in Fig. 4.39.
Taper-turning
attachment Semi-angle
Lathe Motion Y
of taper
r
slide of slide
Axis of screw
90° 90°
qw a
H r
CL Machine
Spindle h
q/2 q/2 r
+
+
+
P
Motion (Z) Motion (x) of
of carriage (b) Typical taper thread form
cross-slide
Leadscrew
(a) Producing a taper screw thread on a lathe
using a taper turning attachment
Spindle for
milling tools
Input power
qw Cross-slide
Radius
arm length
equal to
component
radius, R
R
+
+
+
Turning:
The cutting speed in turning is the surface speed of the work piece. Thus,
p DN
V= (21)
1000
where, V = cutting speed (surface), m/min
D = diameter of the work piece, mm
N = rotational speed of the work piece, rpm
The diameter, D to be used can be either the initial diameter of the blank or the final diameter of the work
piece after giving the depth of cut. However, there is practically not much change in the values obtained by
using either of the values. To be realistic, the average of the two diameters would be better.
From the above equation, we get
1000 V
N= (22)
pD
The rpm obtained from the previous equation may not be an exact value of the speed available on the lathe
machine, since any lathe would only have limited range of rpms available. It therefore is necessary to adjust
the values obtained to that available in the speed range considering the work and tool material combination.
This is demonstrated later using an example.
The time, t for a single pass is given by
L + Lo
t= (23)
fN
where L = length of the job, mm
Lo = over travel of the tool beyond the length of the job to help in the setting of the tool, mm
f = feed rate, mm/rev
The over travel to be provided depends upon the operator’s choice but usual values could be 2 to 3 mm
on either side.
The number of passes required to machine a component depends upon the left-over stock (stock allowance).
Also depending upon the specified surface finish and the tolerance on a given dimension, the choice would
have to be made as to the number of finishing passes (1 or 2) while the rest of the allowance is to be removed
through the roughing passes. The roughing passes, Pr is given by
A – Af
Pr = (24)
dr
where A = Total machining allowance, mm
Af = Finish machining allowance, mm
dr = Depth of cut in roughing, mm
The value calculated from the above equation is to be rounded to the next integer.
Similarly the finishing passes, Pf is given by
Af
Pf = (25)
df
Example 4.4
Estimate the actual machining time required for the 120
component (C40 steel) shown in Fig. 4.42. The available
spindle speeds are, 70, 110, 176, 280, 440, 700, 1100, 1760
and 2800. Use a roughing speed of 30 m/min and finish
speed of 60 m/min. The feed for roughing is 0.24 mm/ Ø42
rev while that for finishing is 0.10 mm/rev. The maximum
depth of cut for roughing is 2 mm. Finish allowance may
be taken as 0.75 mm. Blank to be used for machining is 50 Fig. 4.42 Machining time example 1
mm in diameter.
50 - 42
Solution Stock to be removed = = 4 mm
2
Finish allowance = 0.75 mm
Roughing:
Roughing stock available = 4 – 0.75 = 3.25 mm
Since maximum depth of cut to be taken is 2 mm, there are 2 roughing passes.
Given cutting speed, V = 30 m/min
50 + 42
Average diameter = = 46 mm
2
1000 ¥ 30
Spindle speed, N = = 207.59 RPM
p ¥ 46
The nearest RPM available from the list is 176 RPM as 280 is very high compared to 207 as calculated.
(120 + 2 )
Machining time for one pass = = 2.898 minutes
0.24 ¥ 176
Finishing:
Given cutting speed, V = 60 m/min
1000 ¥ 30
Spindle speed, N = = 439.05 RPM
p ¥ 42
The nearest RPM available from the list is 440 RPM.
(120 + 2 )
Machining time for one pass = = 2.77 minutes
0.10 ¥ 440
Total machining time = 2 ¥ 2.888 + 2.77 = 8.546 minutes
Facing:
In facing the choice of the spindle speed is affected by the fact that the cutting tool is engaged with the work
piece at a gradually changing radius. As a result the actual cutting speed changes from the highest value at
the surface to almost zero at the centre. Thus the diameter used for calculating the rpm in Eq. 20 should be
the average of blank diameter and the lowest diameter (zero in case of complete facing) of the face being
generated.
Taper turning:
The time calculation of taper turning depends upon the method used for the purpose. In the case of taper
turning attachment, the calculation is similar to turning, as the feed motion is given by the carriage parallel
to the axis of rotation. However, when the tailstock offset method is used, the motion of the tool is parallel to
the actual taper surface generated and then that length should be used in Eq. 21.
All the other operations are similar to turning where care has to be taken to find the actual distance
travelled in the operation.
Example 4.5
In Fig. 4.43 a component is shown to be machined from a stock of CRS C40 steel, 40 mm in diameter
and 75 mm long. Calculate the machining times required for completing the part with (a) HSS tool and
(b) Carbide tool.
75 75
40
Ø40
Ø22 Ø32
2
1
The machining is to be carried out in two stages as pockets marked in Fig. 4.43(b) as 1 and 2.
Power required in Turning: The power required at the spindle for turning depends upon the cutting speed,
depth of cut, feed rate and the work piece material hardness and machinability. The power required depends
upon the cutting force, which was shown in Chapter 2 to be a power function of feed rate, f and depth of cut,
d. However, for the sake of gross estimation it can be safely assumed that
Cutting force, F = K ¥ d ¥ f
where K is a constant depending on the work material, which is given in Table 4.7.
Then Power, P = F ¥ V
Example 4.6
Calculate the power required for roughing and finishing passes in Ex. 4.4.
Solution
Roughing:
Given feed rate, f = 0.24 mm/rev
Depth of cut, d = 2 mm
p ¥ 176 ¥ 46
Cutting speed, V = = 25.43 m/min
1000
The value of K from Table 4.7 = 1600 N/mm2
1600 ¥ 25.43 ¥ 0.24 ¥ 2
Power = = 325.5 W = 0.326 kW
60
Finishing:
Given feed rate, f = 0.10 mm/rev
Depth of cut, d = 0.75 mm
p ¥ 440 ¥ 43.5
Cutting speed, V = = 60.13 m/min
1000
1600 ¥ 60.13 ¥ 0.10 ¥ 0.75
Power = = 120.26 W = 0.120 kW
60
Example 4.7
Calculate the power required for roughing and finishing passes in Ex. 4.5.
Solution
Pocket 1: HSS Tool
Assume Cutting speed, V = 30 m/min
Feed rate, f = 0.30 mm/rev.
Depth of cut = 2 mm
The value of K from Table 4.7 = 1600 N/mm2
1600 ¥ 30 ¥ 0.3 ¥ 2
Power = = 480 W = 0.48 kW
60
Carbide Tool
Assume Cutting speed, V = 145 m/min
Feed rate, f = 0.38 mm/rev.
Depth of cut = 2 mm
1600 ¥ 145 ¥ 0.38 ¥ 2
Power = = 2939 W = 2.94 kW
60
For the second pocket also, the power required remains the same since the processing parameters did not
change.
Ø22 Ø16
Op. 3: Under cut and part off Op. 4: Face and chamfer other end
Fig. 4.44 Typical process pictures for machining a pin from a cylindrical bar on a lathe involving only
external features
Example 2 The second component shown in Fig. 4.45 is a bit more complex for processing in view of the
close tolerances specified on some dimensions.
As shown the close tolerances cannot be achieved by turning and hence a grinding allowance is left on the
32 mm diameter portion and the rest is completed in the centre lathe as shown in Fig. 4.46.
In this case, since the large diameter of the component is in the middle, the part needs to be machined at
least in two setups, with the part being clamped from both the sides alternatively. First the part is held from
the right side and the outer diameter is turned leaving the allowance for finishing using a right hand turning
tool. In the second operation the part is gripped from the turned side and the two steps are created on the other
side using a right hand turning tool, leaving the allowance for the next operation. In the next operation the two
shoulders are faced to get the squareness desired in the part. Finally the undercut is made with a form tool and
the part leaves the centre lathe for finishing.
137
+0.02 +0.15
19–0.02 38–0.02
55 25
0.00
Ø 22 Ø 45 Ø 32–0.02 Ø 19
R1
. 5
R1 1.5
Fig. 4.45 Typical component (pin) normally produced on a lathe
137
+0.02 +0.15 137
55 19-0.02 38-0.02 25
0.00
Ø22 Ø45 Ø32 -0.02 Ø19 Ø46
R1
.5
R1 1.5
Stock
20 38 24
Part
Op. 1: Rough turn one end Op. 2: Rough turn opposite end
19 38 25 19 38 25
Example 3 Next example is a component with both external and internal details as shown in Fig. 4.47. In
this though the part diameter is toleranced, the accuracy is achievable in a centre lathe. In the first operation
the part is drilled to make the central hole with a twist drill held in the tailstock. After this the part is turned to
get the outside diameter using a right hand turning tool. In the next operation, boring of the hole is done to get
the necessary finish and accuracy. After the boring operation the facing of the shoulders is done to complete
the processing of operation from one end. Then the part is reversed in the chuck and turned and faced on the
other side to complete the machining of the part.
64
51
44.05
Ø54 Ø26 Ø 44.00
Part Stock
Op. 1: Drill the central hole Op. 2: Turn the external dia.
summary
Lathe is the most important and common machine tool found in practically all machine shops. It is one
of the oldest known machine tool, though major developments have appeared in the last two centuries.
● A large variety of lathes have been developed to cater to the different processing requirements.
● A lathe consists of a bed, headstock, tailstock and a carriage as major components along with a few
● There are a large variety of operations such as turning, facing, knurling, contouring, etc. that can be
carried out in a lathe. In fact practically all types of surfaces can be generated in a lathe.
● Taper turning is a special type of operation that requires the tool to be moved in two different
directions simultaneously to generate the surface. For this purpose, a variety of methods are used in
a lathe such as compound slide, tailstock offset or a special attachment.
● Precision threads can be cut in a lathe using the lead screw and special methods.
● There are various special attachments such as a milling attachment, grinding attachments, etc. that
enhance the range of surfaces that can be generated in a lathe.
● Machining time for different operations can be estimated using the cutting process parameters and
the geometry of the part.
Q u e s t io ns
4.1 What type of work holding devices are generally used in a lathe? Give the typical applications,
comparative accuracies, precautions and disadvantages for each type of work holding device.
4.2 How is a lathe specified? Explain with a neat sketch the relevance of each of the specification points.
4.3 What type of work holding devices are generally used in a lathe? Give the typical applications,
comparative accuracies and disadvantages.
4.4 What are the applications, achievable (comparative) accuracies and disadvantages of the following
type of work holding device:
(a) 3-jaw chuck (b) 4-jaw chuck
4.5 Compare the applications, accuracies and disadvantages of 3-jaw and 4-jaw chucks.
4.6 What are the types of surfaces that can be generated in a centre lathe? Show with the help of sketches
how these are achieved?
4.7 Explain the methods used for the generation of threads in lathe.
4.8 How is thread chased in a lathe?
4.9 What are the precautions and settings to be done for cutting single start threads on a centre lathe? Give
a practical method that will allow the cutting tool to follow the thread.
4.10 What are the various methods available for taper turning in a lathe? Explain their specific advantages
and limitations.
4.11 Describe the method of generation of a long and small taper in a centre lathe.
4.12 Explain the procedure for turning a job, which is very long. List the various operations and tools
(cutting and holding) required for the operation.
4.13 What are the various methods available for taper turning on a centre lathe? Explain in detail with a
sketch the method used for machining steep tapers of short length.
4.14 What are the various methods available for supporting long components and frail components in a
lathe? Explain with sketches.
4.15 Draw a setup required for cutting external threads on a centre lathe. Explain clearly the various
methods that are followed for the purpose of engaging the cutting tool for giving the depth of cut in
threading.
4.16 What are the types of lathes you are familiar with and give their applications?
4.17 What are the applications, achievable (comparative) accuracies and disadvantages of the following
type of work holding device when used in a centre lathe? State the any precautions to be used with
their application.
(a) Face plate (b) 4-jaw chuck
4.18 Explain the steady rest and follower rest as used in engine lathes. Give their functions.
Pro b le ms
4.1 A grey cast iron shaft is machined in a centre lathe in 1 minute with a single cut. The shaft is 100 mm
long and 75 mm in diameter. If the feed used is 0.30 mm/revolution, what cutting speed was used?
[7.854 m/min]
4.2 In a centre lathe equipped with a taper turning attachment, a 3° taper is to be produced. The small
end of the work piece is 25 mm in diameter. The taper attachment is set at 3° but the tool is set 3 mm
below centre. Calculate the error in taper due to the incorrect setting of the tool. [0.018°]
4.3 Calculate the maximum possible error (distance from the centre of the work piece) in setting the
turning tool with a clearance angle such that the tool starts rubbing at the clearance face (clearance
angle become zero). The work piece is 50 mm in diameter. If the rake angle is 10°, what is the
effective rake angle for this condition? [5°]
4.4 A high speed steel tool has a tool life of 105 minutes while turning cast iron at a cutting speed of 20
m/min. If the tool life is given by the Taylor’s tool life equation as VT0.1 = C, calculate the tool life for
a cutting speed of 15 m/min. [1862.9 minutes]
4.5 While taper turning a taper of 1 in 6, the tool is wrongly set at a distance 4 mm below the work piece
centre. If the small end of the work piece is 35 mm in diameter, calculate the actual taper obtained.
[9.42°]
4.6 The taper turning attachment of a lathe is set to turn a taper of 1 in 6. The larger end of the work piece
is 50 mm in diameter and the length is 100 mm. If the tool is set 5 mm below the centre of the work
piece, calculate the actual taper produced. [9.425°]
4.7 A work piece of 30 mm diameter is being turned on a centre lathe. The tool angles are a rake of
12° and clearance of 7°. If the tool is set at a distance of 0.8 mm above the centre line, calculate the
resultant tool angles. [3.94°]
4.8 A work piece with 25 mm diameter is turned in a centre lathe with a back rake angle of 12° and front
relief angle of 7°. Calculate the actual cutting angles if the cutting tool is set (a) 0.8 mm above the
centre line of the work piece, and (b) 0.8 mm below the centre line of the work piece.
[3.33°, 10.67°]
4.9 A work piece with 50 mm diameter is turned in a centre lathe with a back rake angle of –12° and front
relief angle of 7°. Calculate the actual cutting angles if the cutting tool is set (a) 1.2 mm above the
centre line of the work piece, and (b) 1.2 mm below the centre line of the work piece.
[4.25°, 9.75°]
4.10 A work piece with 100 mm diameter is turned in a centre lathe with a back rake angle of 15° and front
relief angle of 8°. Calculate the actual cutting angles if the cutting tool is set (a) 1.5 mm above the
centre line of the work piece, and (b) 1.5 mm below the centre line of the work piece.
[16.72°, 6.28°, 13.28°, 9.72°]
4.11 A work piece with 125 mm diameter is turned in a centre lathe with a back rake angle of –10° and
front relief angle of 8°. Calculate the actual cutting angles if the cutting tool is set (a) 1.2 mm above
the centre line of the work piece, and (b) 1.2 mm below the centre line of the work piece.
[–8.9°, 6.9°, –11.1°, 9.1°]
4.12 Calculate the tailstock offset required for a taper of 8° on a job that is 120 mm long. With the same
setting, what would be the taper produced if the length of the shaft change by ± 3 mm.
[7.8°, 8.21°]
4.13 Calculate the power required for turning a mild steel bar of 50 mm diameter with a spindle speed of
140 RPM. Assume a depth of cut of 3 mm and a feed rate of 1 mm/rev. [1.76 kW]
4.14 The following component (Fig. 4.48) is to be manufactured at the rate of 500 components per month.
Specify the machine tools and cutting tools to be used for the component. The machining faces are
identified with the help of the letter ‘f’. Justify your choice. If an alternative, less economical choice
is possible just mention it with explanation.
4
6
+0.05
60° Ø24.05 Ø6 Ø18 Ø20
+0.1
79
130
Lathe dead centre
All dimensions in mm
T103 steel
Fig. 4.48
4.15 Component shown in Fig. 4.49 is to be manufactured from a C45 steel bar stock of 75 mm diameter. A
batch of 10 such components need to be manufactured using the general purpose machines available
in the shop. The tolerances on all dimensions are ± 0.100 mm. Mention the machine tool used along
with any accessories and tools needed. Calculate the actual machining time (ignoring the idle times)
for a single component. Make any valid assumptions. [7.44 minutes]
110 80
100Ø 60Ø
270
Fig. 4.49
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
4.1 Lathe specification of swing over bed (d) Any type of work piece to locate the axis
specifies of rotation
(a) Maximum diameter of job that can be 4.6 A face plate is used in a lathe to clamp
turned in the lathe (a) Only for cylindrical work piece to locate
(b) Minimum diameter of job that can be the axis of rotation
turned in the lathe (b) Only for eccentric work piece to locate
(c) Maximum radius of job that can be the axis of rotation
turned in the lathe (c) Only for square bar to locate the axis of
(d) Minimum radius of job that can be rotation
turned in the lathe (d) Any odd shaped work piece to locate the
4.2 Lathe specification of distance between axis of rotation
centres specifies 4.7 The most common included angle for the
(a) Minimum length of the job that can be centre hole is
turned (a) 45º (b) 60º
(b) Maximum length of the job that can be (c) 90º (d) 75º
turned 4.8 A collet chuck is used for holding
(c) Minimum diameter of the job that can be (a) Cylindrical work piece to locate the axis
turned of rotation quickly
(d) Maximum diameter of the job that can (b) Eccentric work piece to locate the axis of
be turned rotation quickly
4.3 Spindle of a lathe is housed in (c) Square bar to locate the axis of rotation
(a) Tailstock quickly
(b) Headstock (d) Any type of work piece to locate the axis
(c) Carriage of rotation quickly
(d) Apron 4.9 For proper cutting, the cutting tool in a lathe
4.4 3-jaw chuck is used in a lathe to clamp should be set
(a) Cylindrical work piece to locate the axis (a) Slightly below the axis of the work piece
of rotation so that no rubbing takes place
(b) Eccentric work piece to locate the axis of (b) Exactly at the centre of the axis of the
rotation work piece
(c) Square bar to locate the axis of rotation (c) Slightly above the axis of the work piece
(d) Any type of work piece to locate the axis so that no rubbing takes place
of rotation (d) Anywhere, since the work piece is actu-
4.5 4-jaw chuck is used in a lathe to clamp ally rotating
(a) Only for cylindrical work piece to locate 4.10 Facing operation in a lathe is used for
the axis of rotation producing
(b) Only for eccentric work piece to locate (a) A cylindrical surface
the axis of rotation (b) A plane surface
(c) Only for square bar to locate the axis of (c) A tapered surface
rotation (d) A hole
4.11 Knurling operation in a lathe is used for (c) It increases the threading tool life
producing (d) It reduces the cutting forces
(a) A plane surface 4.17 Giving the depth of cut using the plunge
(b) A cylindrical surface cutting method in thread cutting in a lathe is
(c) A serrated surface (a) Preferred because it improves the sur-
(d) A tapered surface face finish
4.12 Boring operation in a lathe is used for (b) Preferred because it increases the thread-
(a) Generating a plane surface ing tool life
(b) Enlarging a hole (c) Not preferred because the surface finish
(c) Generating a serrated surface is poor
(d) Generating threads (d) Preferred because it produces accurate
4.13 Taper turning using the compound slide is thread
used for 4.18 Giving the depth of cut using the compound
(a) Only for small tapers over long length cutting method in thread cutting in a lathe is
(b) Only for large and steep tapers (a) Preferred because it improves the sur-
(c) Only for small and steep tapers face finish
(d) For all types of tapers (b) Not preferred because it decreases the
4.14 Taper turning using the tailstock offset threading tool life
method is used for (c) Not preferred because the surface finish
(a) Only for small tapers over long length is poor
(b) Only for large and steep tapers (d) Preferred because it produces accurate
(c) Only for small and steep tapers thread
(d) For all types of tapers 4.19 Centre lathe is used
4.15 Taper turning using the taper turning attach- (a) For high production rates
ment is used for (b) In normal workshops and repair shops
(a) Only for small tapers over long length (c) For large production volumes
(b) Only for large and steep tapers (d) For automated production
(c) Only for small and steep tapers 4.20 The lead screw of a centre lathe is 6 mm. If a
(d) For all types of tapers thread of 1.5 mm pitch is to be cut on a work
4.16 Thread chasing is required in cutting screw piece, which is rotating at 120 rpm, what
threads because should be the rpm of the lead screw?
(a) It improves surface finish (a) 20 rpm (b) 30 rpm
(b) It is necessary to follow the thread (c) 120 rpm (d) 180 rpm
Answers to MCQs
4.1 (a) 4.2 (b) 4.3 (b) 4.4 (a) 4.5 (d)
4.6 (d) 4.7 (b) 4.8 (a) 4.9 (b) 4.10 (b)
4.11 (c) 4.12 (b) 4.13 (c) 4.14 (a) 4.15 (d)
4.16 (b) 4.17 (c) 4.18 (a) 4.19 (b) 4.20 (b)
C a S e S T U DY
process plannIng
Analyze and interpret the following components from process planning point of view for mass produc-
tion. All dimensions are in mm. Stock material is 40 mm diameter × 92 mm length AISI 4340 CRS steel.
Using the planning tables given, provide the detailed analysis of the part drawing, giving the following
information: The Brinell hardness of 4340 steel is about 250.
Manufacturing Considerations
● The overall length of the part is 90.00 mm diameter and this dimension should be within ±0.50
mm.
+0.10
● Datum A is located on the surface of the Ø18.00 mm with a tolerance of 18.00–0.00 mm with a
+0.30
length of 33.00–0.00 mm.
+0.30
● The left end is of the shaft is diameter 16.00–0.50 mm.
● The left end is of the shaft has a concentricity tolerance of 0.05 mm with datum A.
● The right (small) end of the part is having a diameter of 10.00 mm with h10 tolerance and a length
of 26.00+0.00
–0.50 mm.
+0.50
● The largest diameter of the shaft is 38.00 ±0.20 mm with a width of 10.00–0.00 mm.
● The right end of the large diameter has a perpendicularity tolerance of 0.05 mm from datum A.
● Ignore the chamfers, radial hole and the tapping to be done on the right end.
Given stock size of 40 mm diameter, chucking on one end, Facing, turning 10, and 18 mm, and
chucking on the other end turn 38 and 16 mm.
● Only one tool can be used in the normal course. Sometimes the conventional tool post can be replaced
by a square tool post with four tools.
● The idle times involved in the setting and movement of tools between the cuts is large.
● Precise movement of the tools to destined places is difficult to achieve, unless proper care is exercised
by the operator.
All these difficulties mean that the centre lathe cannot be used for production work in view of the low
production rate. Thus the centre lathe is modified to improve the production rate. The various modified lathes
are:
● Turret and capstan lathes
● semi-automatics
● automatics
The improvements are achieved basically in the following areas:
● work holding methods
● multiple tool availability
● automatic feeding of the tools
Rear
Spindle Toolpost
Ram
Bed
Headstock
Hexagonal
Cross-slide Carriage turret
turret
As shown in Fig. 5.1 the turret lathe consists of an all gear, heavy duty headstock with a greater range of
spindle speeds. The turret is mounted on a saddle, which in turn is sliding on the bed. When the saddle moves
on the bed during the return stroke it would automatically be indexed to the next tool position, thus reducing
the idle time of the machine.
The tools in the turret lathe are provided with a system of stops and trips on the feed rod which can
precisely control the actual distance moved by the tool. Thus it is possible to set and control the individual
movements of the tools as required by the component.
The type of work holding devices that can be used with turret lathes is similar to the conventional lathes,
but in view of the higher productivity demanded and greater repeatability required, generally automatic
fixtures such as collets, self centring chucks or pneumatic chucks are used.
The collet chucks come in a variety of designs as shown in Fig. 5.2. The actual clamping is done by the
movement of the collet tube along the axis of the spindle by either pushing Fig. 5.2(a) or pulling Fig. 5.2(b).
Sometimes it is possible that the bar material will be either pushed or pulled back during the closing of
the collet. This can be prevented by having an external tubular locking stop so that the axial movement is
prevented as shown in Fig. 5.2(c).
Often a large variety of components on a turret lathe are machined from raw material which is in a bar
form. For the purpose of continuous feeding of the bar special bar feeding arrangements are available which
pushes the bar by a precise amount against a stop provided on the face of the hexagonal turret at the beginning
of the cycle. The last operation in such cases is the parting off operation from the cross slide tool which
separates the machined component from the bar stock.
Most of the tools used in the cross slide tool post are very similar to those used in the centre lathe. Form
tools are generally used in the cross slide. A large variety of special tool holders are available for use in the
Spindle
Hood
Collet-operating tube
Closing Collet
Opening
Bar material
(a)
Collet
Closing
Opening
Bar material
(b)
Closing Collet
Opening
Bar material
(c)
turret for providing greater productivity. A few of such specialised tooling are shown in Fig. 5.3 and 5.4.
A box tool is generally used for long turning jobs since the tool while cutting also supports the job. They
have a cutting tool and also support rollers for providing the necessary support to the work piece. This helps
in machining of bars which are not well supported and is generally used for bar work. There are a number
of ways in which the bar can be supported during the machining operation as shown in Fig. 5.3. It is also
possible to have more than one cutting tool held in a box tool such that there is an overlap of the cuts while
also providing support for the work piece.
Support
Cutter
Work A
C
B
D E F
Combination tool holders allow for mounting multiple cutting tools with the provision for their adjustment
to suit the machining situation. These have the ability to perform more than one cutting operation at the same
time, thereby reducing the actual machining time required for the operation. Some typical tools are shown in
Fig. 5.4. They can have both the internal and external cutting tools in a single tool holder such that the work
piece support can be taken care of, thereby allowing higher accuracy to be achieved.
(a)
(b)
Many turret lathes would be fitted with taper turning attachment very similar to that used in centre lathes,
for machining tapers. Small tapers can be produced by form tools from the cross slide, while internal tapers
are produced by taper reamers.
Thus the various differences between capstan and turret lathes, and a general purpose centre lathe are:
1. Headstock has more range of speeds and is heavier to allow for higher rate of production.
2. Tool post is indexable (four tools). Any one tool can be brought into cutting position.
3. Tail stock is replaced by a tool turret with six tool positions.
4. Feed of each tool can be regulated by means of feed stops.
5. Two or more tools mounted on a single tool face can cut simultaneously.
Turret
Turret slide
Saddle
Bed
The various differences between capstan and turret lathes are given in Table 5.1.
the best tool layout. A few rules that one should consider while planning the operations on turret lathes is
given below:
1. For small batches use the standard tooling as far as possible and make the layout simple.
2. Cuts should be combined as far as possible. For example a tool from the hexagonal turret along with
another from the square tool post on the cross slide can cut simultaneously. It would also be desirable
to increase the number of tools operating simultaneously.
3. Similarly it is also necessary the handling operations be combined with the cutting operations such
that total cycle time is reduced.
4. The planning for the finishing operations must be done till the end of the cycle. In between, there
is a possibility of spoiling the finished surface. Also the combination of rough and finish operations
in the same cycle should be done only when there is no detrimental effect on the quality of surface
produced.
5. When multiple cutting tools are cutting at the same time, they should be so arranged that the cutting
forces by the different tools get balanced.
6. If a given surface is achieved in a number of cuts, a finishing cut with a single tool is desirable in the
interest of quality.
7. When concentricity is desired between two or more surfaces, all such surfaces should be machined in
single setting only.
8. Contoured form surfaces are better obtained in two cuts rather than in single cut as far as possible.
9. While doing any heavy operation such as threading, care has to be taken to consider the rigidity of
the work piece. Do not carry out any operation in the early stages, which reduces the rigidity of the
component. Examples are deep grooves or large bores.
10. It is desirable to use centre drill before final drilling in case of small size drills. This would give rise
to better drill axis location and smooth drilling.
11. Cored holes should normally be expanded and finished by boring and not by drilling.
12. In the case of stepped holes, make the large size hole first and follow with the small hole later. This
would help in reducing the total drill travel and also reduce the machining time. The small drill would
also not have to travel a long distance, which is always difficult.
13. To drill very long holes (e.g. length > 3 diameter) special care has to be taken. For example frequent
withdrawal of the tool from the hole for flushing chips lodged in the flutes with cutting fluid is
necessary in deep hole drilling, which is termed as peck drilling.
Some typical tool layouts are shown in Fig. 5.6 to 5.8 to get an idea about the range of capability and
productivity that can be obtained with the turret lathes.
Fig. 5.6 shows the tool layout and machining plan for a cast iron V-belt pulley. The casting is held in the
capstan lathe by means of a standard 3-jaw chuck. A total of 10 operations are required to complete the job.
The operational sequence and the type of tools required are shown in Fig. 5.6 which is self-explanatory.
Generally the roughing operations are completed before doing the finishing to size for accuracy consider-
ations.
Fig. 5.7 shows the tool layout for the closing sleeve of a collet chuck. The component is made of alloy
steel. The sequence of operations is as follows:
1. Drill 45 mm diameter hole
(a) Rough form 16 mm groove from the cross slide tool
2. (a) Rough bore 58.74 mm diameter
(b) Rough turn 90.5 mm outside diameter
3. Rough bore 74.6 mm diameter
Chamfer hole
5. Rough groove
1.
2.
Rough bore hole
6. 9.
Adjustable
back stop
3. Rough face flange and hub
4. Rough turn
10. Finish groove
70
0.8R 7R.0
84.15 58.78
84.12 58.74
70
90.5 74.63
74.6
0.8R.D
16
40.75
40.6
47.5
47.4
(a) Part
6
9
9A
LA
3
8
2
fig. 5.7 Tooling layout of closing sleeve of a collet chuck made of steel
A
50 D
B
f 52¢ 2p
5.3.1 Classification
The automatic lathes may be classified based on their
● size
● type
A typical classification of the automatic lathes is given in Fig. 5.9. In accordance with the arrangement of
the spindles, they are called horizontal or vertical.
The vertical machines are more rigid and more powerful than the horizontal models and are designed for
machining large diameter work of comparatively short length. Vertical machines occupy less floor space in
the shop but require higher bays than horizontal machines.
Automatic bar machines are designed for producing work pieces of bar or pipe stock while magazine
loaded automatic lathes process work from accurate separate blanks.
Automatic lathes
Horizontal spindle
Vertical spindle
Semi-automatics
Automatics
Chucking machines are employed for machining separate blanks (hammer or die forgings, castings or
pieces of previously cut-off bar or pipe stock).
Automatic bar machines are employed for the manufacture of high quality fastenings (screws, nuts
and studs), bushings, shafts, rings, rollers, handles, and other parts usually made of bar or pipe stock. The
machining accuracy obtained by these automated machines depends on the type of machine and cutting tool
employed.
Multiple spindle machines may have two to eight spindles. Their production capacity is higher than that of
single spindle machines but their machining accuracy is somewhat lower. The rate of production of a multiple
spindle automatic is less than that of the corresponding number of single spindle automatic machines. The
production capacity of a four spindle machine, for example may be about 2 ½ to 3 times more than that of a
single spindle machine.
The typical operations carried out on automatic lathes are:
● centring
● drilling
● boring
● reaming
● spot facing
● knurling
● thread cutting
● facing
● cutting off
Rear
cross slide
Headstock
Stock stop
Front
cross
slide
Tool holder
Sliding headstock
Collet chuck
Tool
Bar stock
Turned diameter
Guide bush
● Progressive action
In parallel action machines the same operation on each spindle and a work piece is finished in one working
cycle. This means that as many work pieces can be simultaneously machined as there are spindles. Such
machines have a very high rate of production but may be applied for very simple work only, since the whole
machining process takes place at one position.
These are usually automatic cutting off bar type machines as shown in Fig. 5.12 and are used to produce
the same work as single spindle automatic cut off machine.
Spindles
2
Front tool
slide Rear tool slide
3
In progressive action machines, the blanks clamped in each spindle are machined progressively in station
after station as shown in Fig. 5.13.
As a rule, these machines have a headstock mounted at the left end of the base. It contains the spindle
carrier. Independent side tool slides are provided on both sides of the spindle carrier. The end tool slide,
which accommodates tooling for all of the spindles, travels on the spindle carrier stem.
The spindles of these machines are mounted on a carrier which periodically indexes through a definite
angle. In one revolution of the spindle carrier the number of components produced is equal to the number of
spindles. It is evident then that many complex shapes can be produced by progressive type machines.
2 3
1 4
Types and Bar Capacities or Chucking Maximum Out of Maximum Taper Maximum
Capacities, mm Roundness mm per Diameter Variation
Length mm in a Single Lot, mm
Swiss type automatic
3 to 6.5 0.01 0.01 per 50 0.02
6.5 to 10 0.01 0.01 per 50 0.03
16 to 25 0.01 0.02 per 100 0.04
Automatic screw machines
10 to 16 0.015 0.02 per 50 0.04
25 to 40 0.015 0.03 per 100 0.05
Single spindle semi-automatic
80 to 100 0.015 0.03 per 100 0.08
120 to 200 0.020 0.03 per 150 0.10
250 to 300 0.030 0.03 per 200 0.15
400 to 500 0.040 0.03 per 250 0.20
Multiple spindle automatic bar machine
25 to 40 0.015 0.03 per 100 0.08
65 to 100 0.020 0.03 per 150 0.10
Multiple spindle semi-automatic chucking
machine 0.015 0.03 per 100 0.10
80 to 100 0.020 0.03 per 150 0.12
120 to 200 0.030 0.03 per 200 0.20
250 to 300 0.040 0.03 per 250 0.25
400 to 500
fig. 5.14 Cam controlling the tool stroke in automatic machine tool
3. Index the turret and knurl the external diameter using a knurling tool located in the third turret
position.
4. Index the turret and drill the small hole to the full depth using a twist drill located in the fourth turret
position. At the same time the overhang form tool is used to do the chamfering. In the same operation
(1a) turn the external profile using circular form tool located in the front cross slide.
5. Index the turret and cut the external thread using a die located in the fifth turret position.
(1) (4)
(2) (5)
(3) (6)
(2a)
fig. 5.15 Tooling layout for a knurled screw machining in a single spindle automatic
machine tool
6. Index the turret and cut the internal thread using a tap located in the fifth turret position. Simultaneously
the component is parted off using the parting tool located in the rear cross slide which is generally
used for parting off.
The cam profiles as used for carrying out the above machining operations are shown schematically in
Fig. 5.16.
0
1
95.5
87.5 97
8
85.5 87.5
2(a)
6
82
78 2
75.5
71
67
67
29
1(a)
33
3
4 54 37
39.5
43.5
fig. 5.16 Cams used for carrying out the operations shown in Fig. 5.15
Dwell
With a number of operations, the tool is given a dwell so that any spring caused by the cutting forces may
be eliminated and the correct size obtained. Normally stated in revolutions of the machine spindle, the dwell
varies from 3 to 15, depending upon the actual operation.
Overlapping Operations
A problem encountered with the majority of automatic lathe layouts arises when planning is to be done for the
simultaneous use of tools placed in both the cross slide and turret. Much depends upon the characteristics of
the component, but the aim, when considering the overlapping of one or more stages in the production cycle,
is to achieve an increase in the hourly output.
Example Knurled thumb screw shown in Fig. 5.17 is to be produced from a brass rod of 16 mm in diameter.
The analysis of the component gives the following sequence of operations:
Operation Tool Tool position
1. Turn the external dia of M8 Hollow mill Turret
2. Knurl Knurling tool Turret
3. Cut the external threads Threading die Turret
4. Form the head shape Form tool Rear cross slide
5. Parting off Parting off tool front cross slide
For the work material (free cutting brass), a feed rate of 0.15 mm/rev and spindle speed of 2100 rpm has
been selected in view of the small diameter of the component.
Step 1: Calculate the tool travel required for each of the operation.
Hollow milling tool:
Approach 0.4 mm
Cutting (20 – 0.4) 18.6 mm
Total travel 19.0 mm
Knurling tool:
Approach 1.6 mm
Length to knurl 6.0 mm
Over run 1.6 mm
Total travel 9.2 mm
25
6 19
16 M8
16
Tool position
100
35
1st turret
Stop
82
2nd turret
Turn
70
3rd turret
Knurl
70
4th turret
Screw
Front slide
Form
Rear slide
Part off
fig. 5.17 Machining plan for the knurled thumb screw in a single spindle automatic machine tool
Threading tool:
Approach 7.0 mm
Length of thread 16.0 mm
Total travel 23.0 mm
Forming tool:
Approach 0.25 mm
Cutting 0.5(16 - 8) 4.0 mm
Total travel 4.25 mm
Parting tool:
Approach to cut position 4.25 mm
Cutting 0.5(16 - 8) 4.0 mm
Allowance for trailing angle 1.40 mm
Over run 0.4
Total travel 10.05 mm
Step 2: Convert the tool travel in terms of the number of revolutions of the work piece by deciding on the
feed rate.
Hollow milling tool:
Revolutions = 19 ∏ 0.15 ª 127
Knurling tool:
Assume a feed rate of 0.50 mm/rev for running on while it is 1.0 mm/rev for running off.
Revolutions running on = 9.2 ∏ 0.50 ª 19
Revolutions running off = 9.2 ∏ 1.00 ª 10
Threading (Die) tool:
For M8 thread, pitch = 1.25 mm
Number of threads = 16 ∏ 1.25 = 12.8 ª 13
Revolutions = Number of threads + approach ª 13 + 5 = 18
The threading operation needs to be done at a lower cutting speed compared to the other operations. Hence,
taking a correction ratio of 5, the actual revolutions required is 90
Forming tool:
A feed rate of 0.06 mm/rev is assumed for this operation.
Revolutions of approach = 4.25 ∏ 0.06 ª 71
Revolutions for dwell = 10
Total revolutions 81
Parting tool:
Assume a feed rate of 0.13 mm/rev for approach while 0.06 mm/rev for cutting.
Revolutions for advancing = 4.25 ∏ 0.13 ª 33
Revolutions for cutting = 5.8 ∏ 0.06 ª 97
Total Revolutions 130
Step 3: Check for any possibility of overlapping operations.
This component allows very limited possibilities and hence no overlapping is possible.
Step 4: Tabulate the above calculations with reference to machine tool requirements. The total number of
revolutions required is 505. A check with the machine manual says that a 21 second cycle has 612 revolutions.
The number of revolutions is therefore corrected to reflect this value in the last column of the table on next
page.
Step 5: The corrected cycle having calculated along with the cam rises required are located on the type of
cams to be used for each of the slides (turret, front slide and rear slide) to get the actual cam profiles on stan-
dard cam blanks.
summary
Centre lathe is good for general machining applications in a job shop but is not suitable for production
application.
● Capstan and turret lathes improve productivity by utilising a number of tools simultaneously.
● By controlling the tool travel in sequence, capstan and turret lathes allow for controlling the precise
geometry of the part.
● A number of types of automatic lathes are developed that can be used for large volume manufacture
applications such as single spindle automatics, Swiss type automatics and multi spindle automatics.
● In automatic lathes, the tool motion is controlled by cams for precise geometry control.
● Tool layouts signify the proper sequence of the action of the tools, which can then be converted into
Q u e s t io ns
5.1 What are the various types of automatic lathes you are familiar with in the multi-spindle category?
Explain their differences and applications. Is the productivity of multi spindle machines higher
compared to single spindle automatic lathe? Explain your answer.
5.2 Describe with a simple sketch the operation of a Swiss type (sliding headstock) automatic lathe in
terms of operations possible, tools used, method of setting and types of components made on the lathe.
5.3 What are the differences between automatic lathe and capstan lathe? Give an example component
suited for capstan lathe with dimensions.
5.4 What is the classification method that could be used for the different type of automatic lathes used in
the industry? Explain briefly about each of the types in two sentences.
5.5 What is the importance of tool layout in automats? Explain with an example any one type with a
component sketch.
5.6 Briefly explain with neat sketches the types of work holding devices that are commonly employed in
automatic lathes. Specify the limitations of them.
5.7 Describe the method of operation of the Swiss type automatic lathe, with applications and tools used.
What is its speciality?
5.8 List three most commonly employed types of single spindle automatics.
5.9 Sketch four parts suitable for production on a Swiss-type automatic.
5.10 Sketch four parts not suited for production on a single spindle automatic.
5.11 What are the steps of procedure involved in changing over to a new part production on a Swiss-type
auto?
5.12 List the items of specification of a Swiss-type of automatic lathe.
5.13 Name the industry in which the Swiss type of automatic lathes are used.
5.14 How does an automatic cutting- off machine differ from a Swiss type machine?
5.15 List the number of tool locations on the Swiss-type auto.
5.16 State the features of machine construction, which lead to the attainment of high accuracy of the parts.
5.17 What is the accuracy requirement of the bar stock for this machine?
5.18 Give a sketch illustrating the principle of operation of the Swiss-type automatic.
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
5.1 Automatic lathes are used (d) When it reaches the end of the work
(a) For automated production piece
(b) In repair shops 5.4 A box tool is normally used in turret lathes
(c) For single piece production (a) For turning jobs with multiple tools
(d) For small batch production (b) For short turning jobs
5.2 Capstan lathes can be used (c) Long turning jobs since it supports the
(a) For fully automated production work piece to reduce its deflection under
(b) In repair shops cutting force
(c) For single piece production (d) For facing operation
(d) For small batch production 5.5 In an automatic lathe the motion of the tool is
5.3 In a capstan or turret lathe the tool motion is controlled
stopped (a) By cams
(a) By cams mounted on the lead screw (b) By trip dogs
(b) By trip dogs mounted on the feed rod (c) By special mechanism
(c) By special mechanism (d) By motors
5.6 Automatic lathes of cutting-off type are used (a) Any type of tool motion is possible
only for (b) Headstock slides for feeding the tools
(a) Any type of parts (c) Simple parts can be produced by cross
(b) Simple parts produced by cross feeding feeding tools
tools (d) Parts with cross holes can be produced
(c) Small parts with different contours 5.9 In a progressive action type multi-spindle
(d) Long parts automatic lathe, the spindles are arranged in
5.7 Swiss type automatic lathes are used only for such a way that
(a) Small axi-symmetric parts (a) Each spindle produces identical parts
(b) Long parts (b) Each spindle has different types of tools
(c) Simple parts produced by cross feeding and produce different surfaces on the
tools same part
(d) Parts with cross holes (c) Some spindles carry only the parting-off
5.8 Special feature of the Swiss type automatic tool
lathe is (d) Some spindles carry only the drill
Answers to MCQs
5.1 (a) 5.2 (d) 5.3 (b) 5.4 (c) 5.5 (a)
5.6 (b) 5.7 (a) 5.8 (b) 5.9 (b)
6.1 IntroductIon
In the previous chapters, discussion was centred on the lathes and the various varieties that are used for
general purpose work as well as mass manufacture. In the lathes the component is rotated while the cutting
tool is axially moved to generate cylindrical surfaces. In the present chapter, the machines which use only
reciprocating motion are discussed. The major machine tools that fall in this class are:
● Shaper
● Planer
● Slotter
The main characteristics of this class of machine tools are that they are simple in construction and as a
result are very economical in initial cost as well as cost of operations.
6.2 Shaper
The shaper is a relatively slow machine tool with very low metal removal capability. Hence it is replaced by
more versatile milling machine in many shops. This is a low cost machine tool and hence is used for initial
rough machining of the blanks. It is rarely used in production operations.
It uses a single point tool similar to a lathe which is clamped to a tool post mounted to a clapper box which
in turn is mounted to a reciprocating ram as shown in Fig. 6.1. The ram while undertaking the cutting stroke
pushes the cutting tool through the work piece to remove the material. When the ram returns, no cutting takes
place. In between the return and cutting strokes, the table moves in the horizontal direction perpendicular to
the cutting direction, which is termed as the feed direction.
● Table
Cutting tool
Table
Base
Fig. 6.1 Schematic block diagram of a shaper with main parts shown
The Base The base provides the stability for the shaper as it supports all other equipment present as well
as absorbs the forces coming due to the cutting. Generally it is made of grey cast iron and has the necessary
arrangement of bolts so that it can be bolted to the factory floor with proper levelling.
Housing (column) The housing is a box like structure to provide the necessary rigidity and also houses
all the motors and power transmission equipment. On the top of the housing the necessary guideways are
provided for the linear motion of the ram for the cutting stroke.
Ram It is the part of shaper that provides the reciprocating motion for the cutting tool. Ram gets the motion
directly from the quick return mechanism (described later) present in the housing.
Tool head (clapper box) The single point cutting tool is clamped in the tool head as shown in Fig. 6.2.
The tool head has the ability to swivel the cutting tool at any angle while clamping the tool with any overhang
depending upon the requirement. The swivelling ability is important for the tool to machine surfaces that are
not in horizontal plane. Further the tool should be firmly supported during the forward motion to carry out
the material removal. During the return stroke, the cutting tool will not do the cutting and hence will be an
idle stroke. If the tool is held firmly as in the cutting stroke, the tool will rub the already machined work piece
and also the flank surface of the tool will wear out quickly. To reduce this, the tool is lifted during the return
stroke by the clapper box arrangement as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Ram
Clapper box
Tool lifts
on return
stroke
Vise
Worktable
Fig. 6.2 Typical arrangement of work piece and the tool in shaper
Table A heavy table is present at the front end of shaper. Table is provided with T-slots for mounting the
work pieces or work holding fixtures. The table can be moved up and down along the guide ways provided
on the cross rail attached to the housing.
A shaper is generally used for machining flat surfaces in horizontal, vertical and angular directions. It can
also be used for machining convex and concave curved surfaces. The actual surface generated is by means
of the linear motions of the cutting tool. The feed rate and the depth of cut are so arranged that the resultant
surface is a flat surface as shown in Fig. 6.3 schematically.
Because of the nature of the tool geometry, the actual surface generated consists of triangular hills with the
angles that are based on the tool geometry. The feed rate has to be reduced to lower the hill to valley height
and thereby improve the surface finish. This is schematically shown in Fig. 6.4 for different feed rates. It is
also possible to use a broad nosed cutting tool, which has a flat cutting edge parallel to the work piece surface,
to provide a surface that is smoother. This allows for larger feed rates thereby reducing the machining times.
However, these are prone to chatter.
Cutting
speed
Work piece
Tool
Depth of cut
Feed
Fig. 6.3 Generation of a flat surface with a single point tool
Tool
Depth of cut
Feed
Tool
Depth of cut
Feed
Feed
Tool
Depth of cut
Feed
Feed
Fig. 6.4 Effect of feed per stroke on the flat surface generated in shaping
Crank for
positioning the
ram
Ram
Tool head
A R
Rocker arm
Stationary pivot
Cutting
+
Velocity O
–
Return
Displacement
The motor drives the bull gear, which carries a pin in a circular motion. The RPM of the bull gear is
controlled by the motor. This pin fits into the slot of the rocker and is free to slide in a straight line path. As
the bull gear rotates, the rocker arm oscillates about its pivot point. The end of the rocker arm is connected
to the ram of the shaper through a link arm. The length of the stroke is changed by changing the radius of the
circle in which the pin on the bull gear rotates. The length of travel should be a little longer than the actual
length of the work piece. This allows sufficient time for the tool block of the clapper box to swing back to
its position for cutting.
The typical velocity profile of the crank mechanism is shown in Fig. 6.5(b). As can be noticed the cutting
speed continuously varies through the entire rotation of the bull gear. Also, the return stroke has higher
velocity while the forward stroke has lower velocity.
An alternative to the crank mechanism as described above is a geared shaper, where one or two racks
are fixed on the underside of the ram. The rotary motion from the motor is converted by the rack-pinion
arrangement through appropriate belting and idling pulleys. Adjustable dogs on the ram, engage the belt
shifting linkage to move the forward belt onto the fixed pulley for the cutting stroke, replacing it with the
reverse belt for the return stroke.
difference is that the cutting stroke is when the ram moves towards the body rather than the away motion, as
is most common in the mechanical shapers.
Vertical shaper It is similar to a mechanical shaper except the reciprocating axis here is vertical. This is
similar to a slotter (described later) in action and often used interchangeably. The vertical shaper is a much
smaller version of the slotter, and was developed for tool room work. The stroke of the ram is generally
limited below 300 mm. The main difference between the two is that while the slotter only allows for vertical
motion, the vertical shaper has the ability to adjust the ram in the vertical position about 15° from the vertical.
This will help in cutting of proper clearances in tools and dies.
Cutting
+
Velocity 0
-
Return
¯ Displacement
Velocity diagram
Tool head
Ram
Trip dogs
Pilot valve
Cylinder
Overload
relief
valve
Tank or sump
In a hydraulic shaper, the ram is connected to a hydraulic cylinder, which is controlled by means of a
4-way valve. The hydraulic fluid is pumped to the hydraulic cylinder through the 4-way valve. The 4-way
valve is also connected to the sump. 4-way valve controls the direction of high pressure fluid into the cylinder
thereby controlling the direction of motion, either the cutting stroke or return stroke. The flow control valve
controls the flow rate of the hydraulic fluid thereby controlling the speed with which the ram moves.
A finger operated lever serves the purpose of starting and stopping the machine. An adjustable trip dog
operated lever controls the operation of the 4-way valve to control the reversal of the ram.
Advantages of hydraulic shaping
1. Cutting speed remains constant throughout most of the cutting stroke unlike the crank shaper where
the speed changes continuously.
2. Since the power available remains constant throughout, it is possible to utilise the full capacity of the
cutting tool during the cutting stroke.
3. The ram reverses quickly without any shock due to the hydraulic cylinder utilised. The inertia of the
moving parts is relatively small.
4. The range and number of cutting speeds possible are relatively large in hydraulic shaper.
5. More strokes per minute can be achieved by consuming less time for reversal and return strokes.
Disadvantages
1. It is more expensive compared to the mechanical shaper.
2. The stopping point of the cutting stroke in hydraulic shaper can vary depending upon the resistance
offered to cutting by the work material.
Work
Fig. 6.8 Swivelling of the tool head in shaper to suit the work piece surface
The cutting speed in the case of shaping is the speed of the cutting tool in the forward direction during
actual cutting. In the case of mechanical shaper it is the average speed. Let N be the rotational speed of the
bull gear and L be the length of the stroke. The speed ratio indicates the proportion of time actual cutting is
taking place and is defined as
Time for forward stroke N f 3
The speed ratio, r = = = (normally)
Time for return stroke Nr 2
The value of r for typical mechanisms is about 1.5. This means that the time for completing the stroke is
Nf
Time for completing the cutting stroke =
N ¥ (N f + N r )
The cutting speed is the speed of the ram in the cutting direction.
L ¥ N (Nr + N f )
Thus the cutting speed, V =
Nf
The time for completing one stroke, T is
L
T= minutes
N
Feed in shaping is the small lateral movement given to the tool in a direction perpendicular to the cutting
speed direction. It is given before the beginning of each cutting stroke. This feed is specified as mm/stroke.
Number of strokes, SN required for removing one layer of material from the surface of the work piece
depends upon the width of the work piece, W and the feed rate, f employed.
W
Number of strokes required, SN =
f
Total machining time = T ¥ SN
Example 6.1
A shaper is operated at 120 cutting strokes per minute and is used to machine a work piece of 250 mm in
length and 120 mm wide. Use a feed of 0.6 mm per stroke and a depth of cut of 6 mm. Calculate the total
machining time to for machining the component. If the forward stroke is completed in 230°, calculate the
percentage of the time when the tool is not contacting the work piece.
Solution Let the approach distance = 25 mm
Length of stroke, L = 250 + 25 = 275 mm
120
Number of strokes required, SN = = 200
0.6
The time for completing one stroke, T is
275
T= = 2.292 minutes
120
Total machining time = 2.292 ¥ 200 = 458.33 minutes
The forward stroke is during 230°.
360 - 230
Percentage of time when tool is not cutting = = 36.11%
360
275 ¥ 120 ¥ 360
The cutting speed, V = = 51.65 m/min
1000 ¥ 230
Example 6.2
A part measuring 250 mm ¥ 100 mm ¥ 40 mm is to be machined using a hydraulic shaper along its wide face
(250 mm ¥ 100 mm). Calculate the machining time taking approach as well as over travel as 20 mm each.
Take cutting speed as 5 m/min, and a machining allowance on either side of plate width is 3 mm and feed is
1 mm/stroke.
Solution Given the approach and over travel distance = 20 mm
Length of stroke, L = 20 + 250 + 20 = 290 mm
Width of the plate to be completed = 3 + 100 + 3 = 106 mm
Given Feed = 1 mm/stroke
106
Number of strokes required, SN = = 106
1
Cutting speed, v = 5 m/min = 5 000 mm/min = 83.3333 mm/s
For calculating time for one stroke, the total distance travelled is twice the stroke length (taking the return
distance). The time for completing one stroke, T is
2 ¥ 290
T= = 6.96 seconds
83.3333
Total machining time = 6.96 ¥ 106 = 737.76 s = 12.296 minutes
Power consumed
In a very simple way the power consumed can be calculated using the following formula.
Power = K ¥ MRR HP
Where MRR = material removal rate in mm3
Example 6.3
Calculate the power in shaping steel with a hardness of 375 BHN with a depth of cut of 2.8 mm, the cutting
speed 65 m/min and the work diameter is 40 mm. The feed rate used is 0.4 mm/rev.
Solution Material removal rate = V f d = 1000 ¥ 65 ¥ 2.8 ¥ 0.4 = 72.8 ¥ 103 mm3
Power required = 79 ¥ 72.8 ¥ 103 ¥ 10-6 = 5.3 HP
Table 6.1 The constant K for calculating the horse power consumed.
Material Hardness Constant K ¥ 106
BHN Machining Operation
Turning/Shaping Drilling Milling
Aluminium alloys 30–150 12 12 18
Copper alloys 20–80 RB 37 31 37
80–100 RB 61 49 61
Cast iron 110–190 49 49 49
190–320 85 79 98
High-temperature alloys 200–360 98 98 122
Nickel alloys 80–360 110 110 128
Steels 85–200 61 49 61
300–375 79 67 73
375–500 98 85 98
500–600 110 98 110
Stainless steel 135–275 73 61 67
300–450 73 67 79
● Cross Rail
● Tool head
Bed The bed of a planer, generally made of cast iron, is large in size and consequently is heavier to sup-
port the heavy machine. Levelling jacks, or pads, are included on the bottom of the bed to provide a means
of levelling it during installation. The bed is a little more than twice the length of the table to provide the full
reciprocating motion for the entire part mounted on the table. Guide ways both V and flat as described in
chapter 3 are used depending upon the size of the planer are present along the entire length of the bed.
Column Column
Tool head
Table
Bed
Table The table is the platform where the work will be setup for machining. The table supports and recip-
rocates the heavy work pieces during the cutting action. The table moves back and forth on the bed, carrying
the work past the stationary tool. T-slots are provided on the entire length of the table for securely fastening
the work pieces to the table. In addition to the T-slots, a row of holes are provided on the table to accept stop
pins that prevent the movement of the work under the heavy cuts common to the planer. To reverse the table
automatically at the end of each stroke adjustable dogs are provided on the side of the table. Tool feed is
normally adjusted to occur during the return stroke of the work.
Similar to a shaper, the planer also has a quick return mechanism to save on idle time during the return
stroke of the table. However the type of mechanism used is different. The customary return stroke of a planer
is three or four times faster than the cutting stroke. This is normally achieved by the use of DC reversible
motor and an associated pinion and herringbone rack under the table. The herringbone gears equalize the side
thrust which is present when cutting tools are used.
Column On either side of the bed two heavily ribbed columns are located. Two tool heads can be mounted,
one on each of these columns. Within the columns are the various mechanisms that transmit power to the
upper parts of the machine from the main drive motor.
Cross Rail A cross rail is connected to the two columns to help in accommodating a third tool head. If
necessary an additional tool head can be mounted on the cross rail. The rail can be clamped at any position
on the columns by means of hand or power clamps. The tool heads can be fed manually or more generally
by automatic feeding arrangement with the power coming from the motor and feed gearbox that is housed
within the table.
Arch
Rail
head Cross
rail Column
Bed
Tool head The tool head in planer is similar in construction to the clapper box of a shaper and is mounted
on the cross rail through a saddle. The tool head can be moved along the cross rail for the feeding action while
the depth of cut can be controlled by moving the tool downwards. The tool head can be tilted for any given
angle cut on the work piece. The tool heads will be provided with counterweights for force equalization and
smooth movement. As shown in Fig. 6.10, it is possible to mount more than one tool head on the cross rail as
well as on the columns on both sides, so that multiple surfaces can be completed simultaneously. This helps
in reducing the total machining time since planing is a relatively slow operation like shaping.
The types of surfaces that are generally produced in planers are:
● Flat surfaces either in the horizontal plane or vertical plane
● Curved surfaces
Typical examples of parts machined on a planer include the following: large castings, bases and tables for
different types of machine tools, lathe beds, frames for printing presses, textile machines, forging-hammer
die blocks, large fixtures and moulds, rolling-mill parts, and parts for large hydraulic presses.
The work piece during the machining operation will have to remain fixed to the table. Since heavy cuts
are made in planing, the cutting forces are also large and the work piece should not be shifted due to these
forces. Most of the time complex work pieces will be machined, so the setting up process requires heavy duty
T-bolts, clamps, angle plates, planer jacks, step blocks and stops to cater to the wide variety of geometries
that can be handled.
The cutting tools used in planers in general are single point cutting tools similar to shapers. However in
view of the heavy cuts taken these normally have large cross section and are more rigid. If the entire tool is
made from high speed steel, it becomes expensive. Tool holders made from less expensive heat-treated steel
may be used to hold the high speed steel bits that are used for actual cutting. Cemented carbides tools can also
be used with planers to get higher material removal rates. The tool geometries are similar to that of the shaper.
Similar to shapers, planers also can be mechanically or hydraulically driven.
margins around the housings. The height refers to the maximum height of the work that can be planed while
the length of a planer refers to the maximum table stroke or to the maximum length of a piece of work that
can be planed on the machine. In addition to these geometric specifications, the rest of the specifications are
similar to that explained for shapers.
W Ê l
+ aˆ˜
l
Planing time, t = +
f ÁË Vc Vr ¯
Example 6.4
The flat surface of a large cast iron part measuring 2 m ¥ 1 m ¥ 300 mm is to be machined using a planer
along its face (2 m ¥ 1 m). Estimate the machining time taking approach as well as over travel as 20 mm each.
Take cutting speed as 20 m/min, return speed is 40 m/min and a machining allowance on either side of plate
width is 5 mm and feed is 1 mm/stroke.
Solution Given the approach and over travel distance = 20 mm
Length of stroke, l = 20 + 2000 + 20 = 2040 mm = 2.04 m
Width of the plate to be completed = 5 + 1000 + 5 = 1010 mm
Given Feed, f = 1 mm/stroke
Cutting speed, Vc = 20 m/min; Vr = 40 m/min
Take a = 0.02 minutes
W Ê l
+ aˆ˜ =
1010 Ê 2.04 2.04
+ 0.02ˆ = 174.73 minutes
l
Planing time, t = + +
f ÁË Vc Vr ¯ 1 Ë 20 40 ¯
1000 Ê 2
Neglect the allowances, Planing time, t = + 2 + 0.02ˆ = 170 minutes
1 Ë 20 40 ¯
Example 6.5
Estimate the time required to machine a grey cast iron part measuring 6 m long ¥ 1.25 m wide on a double
housing planer. Cutting tools used are made of carbide which can take a cutting speed of 80 m/min and return
speed is 160 m/min. To finish the part it requires two rough cuts with a feed of 1.5 mm/stroke and two finish
cuts with a feed of 0.5 mm/stroke. Assume the time for reversing the table is 0.02 minutes.
Solution Length of stroke, L = 6 m
Width of the plate to be completed = 1.25 m = 1250 mm
Roughing Passes:
Given Feed = 1.5 mm/stroke
Cutting speed, v = 80 m/min; Return speed = 160 m/min
Take a = 0.02 minutes
W Ê l
+ aˆ˜ =
1250 Ê 6
+ 0.02ˆ = 110.417 minutes
l 6
Planing time, t = + +
f ÁË Vc Vr ¯ 1.5 Ë 80 160 ¯
Finishing Passes:
Given Feed = 0.5 mm/stroke
Cutting speed, v = 80 m/min; Return speed = 160 m/min
Take a = 0.02 minutes
W Ê l
+ aˆ˜ =
1250 Ê 6
+ 0.02ˆ = 331.25 minutes
l 6
Planing time, t = Á + +
f Ë Vc Vr ¯ Ë
0.5 80 160 ¯
● Column
● Ram
Base Similar to a shaper and planer the base of the slotter is a heavy structure to support all the weight of
the machine tool and the accompanying cutting forces. Since the cutting force in slotting is directed against
the table, the base of the machine is rigidly built. Precision guide ways are provided on top of the base for
the cross-slide to move.
Table Table is generally a circular one similar to the rotary table of a milling machine. T-slots are cut on
the table to facilitate the fixing of work pieces utilizing various fixturing elements such as T-bolts, clamps,
etc. Tables on slotters can be rotated as well as moved longitudinally or transversely. With such flexibility in
the feed direction, a slotter can cut any type of groove, slot, or keyway.
Column The column of a slotter is a support structure to the cutting tool and its reciprocating motion. It is
also massive and houses the power and drive mechanism used for the reciprocation of the cutting tool.
Ram The ram holds and supports the tool head during the cutting action. Since gravity acts on the ram
during its upward travel, a counterweight is added to equalize the power requirements on the upward and
downward strokes. This will provide a smooth action to the machine. The actual cutting takes place during
the downward motion of the tool. The stroke length can be adjusted suitably depending upon the part.
The types of tools used in slotter are very similar to that of a shaper except that the cutting actually takes
place in the direction of cutting. However in view of the type of surfaces that are possible in the case of
slotter, a large variety of boring bars or single point tools with long shanks are used. A typical component that
is being machined in a slotter is shown in Fig. 6.12.
Ram
Column
Cutting tool
Work piece
Table
Base
Tool Work
Rotary table
SuMM ary
Unlike other machines tools, this class of machine tools do not have any rotating spindle, and the material
gets removed by the reciprocating motion of a single point cutting tool. There are three types of machine
tools that are normally found in this category.
● Shaper is by far the simplest type of machine tool in this category.
● Mechanical shapers are the simplest and low cost machine tools used for small size parts for
● Planers are with reciprocating table rather than the tool. As a result large size parts can be machined.
● Slotters are used to cut small grooves generally along the vertical axis similar to the keyways in
shafts.
Q u e s t io ns
6.1 Explain with a neat sketch the operation and need for a clapper box in a mechanical shaper.
6.2 Give a schematic sketch of a shaper labelling important parts and their functions.
6.3 What are the applications of shaping machines in a typical machine shop?
6.4 Explain the following principal parts of a mechanical shaper.
(a) Ram
(b) Tool post
(c) Quick return motion
6.5 Give the details of different types of shapers and their applications.
6.6 Give the various details that need to be specified for a shaping machine.
6.7 Describe the operation of the quick return motion in a mechanical shaper.
6.8 How are the tools held in a shaper?
6.9 Describe the methods of holding the work pieces in shapers. Give simple sketches of the same.
6.10 Give a neat sketch of the mechanical feed drive of a horizontal shaper and explain its function.
6.11 Describe with a schematic sketch the operation of a hydraulic shaper.
6.12 Give the advantages of Hydraulic shaper compared to mechanical (crank) shaper.
6.13 Compare the shaper and planer in terms of the operation, and type of work pieces.
6.14 What are the different planing machines used in industrial shops? Explain double housing planer and
plate planer (edge-planing machine).
6.15 What is a planing machine? Explain the principal parts of a planing machine with neat sketches.
6.16 What type of work holding is normally used in planing machines?
6.17 Give the various details that need to be specified for a planing machine.
6.18 Give similarities and differences among shaping and planing machines with respect to constructed
features, applications and working.
6.19 Write a small note on slotting machines.
6.20 Give a neat sketch of a slotter and describe its main parts.
6.21 Give similarities and differences among shaping, planning and slotting machines with respect to
constructed features, applications and working.
6.22 Give similarities and differences among shaping, and slotting machines with respect to constructed
features, applications and working.
6.23 What is the main difference between a vertical shaper and slotter?
Pro b le ms
6.1 Calculate the RPM of the bull gear of a mechanical shaper if the cutting speed is 35 m/min with the
stroke length adjusted to 250 mm. Assume the ratio of cutting stroke to idle stroke as 1.5.
[233.333 RPM]
6.2 Calculate the machining time required for shaping a flat surface of 250 mm long and 200 mm wide
on a hydraulic shaper using a cutting speed of 40 m/min and feed of 0.5 mm per stroke. The depth of
cut is 4 mm. Calculate the material removal rate and the power required.
[80 000 mm3/stroke, 4.88 HP]
6.3 A hydraulic shaper is used for shaping a plane surface of 30 ¥ 250 mm with a cutting speed of 60 m/
min and feed of 0.6 mm per stroke. Calculate the machining time and material removal rate if the
depth of cut is 3 mm. Also calculate the power consumed in the process.
[0.306 minutes, 108 000 mm3/stroke, 6.588 HP]
6.4 The two faces of a 90° V-block with dimensions of 50 mm each and width 150 mm is to be cut on
a mechanical shaper. Calculate the actual machining time required. Make judicious assumptions if
required and justify them. [145.833 minutes]
6.5 A 60° male dovetail with a dimension of 100 mm and width 50 mm is to be cut on a mechanical
shaper. Calculate the machining time required. Make judicious assumptions if required.
[100 minutes]
6.6 A part measuring 300 mm ¥ 100 mm ¥ 40 mm is to be machined using a hydraulic shaper along its
wide face (300 mm ¥ 100 mm). Calculate the machining time taking approach as well as over travel
as 25 mm each. Take cutting speed as 15 m/min, and a machining allowance on either side of plate
width is 5 mm and feed is 0.4 mm/stroke. [12.83 minutes]
6.7 The flat surface of a large cast iron part measuring 1 m ¥ 0.5 m ¥ 300 mm is to be machined using
a planer along its face (1 m ¥ 0.5 m). Take cutting speed as 20 m/min, return speed as 40 m/min and
feed is 1 mm/stroke. Neglect the over travel and approach distances in calculating the planing time.
Assume the time for reversing the table is 0.02 minutes. [47.5 minutes]
6.8 Estimate the time required to machine a grey cast iron part measuring 5 m long ¥ 1.50 m wide on
a double housing planer. Cutting tools used are made of carbide which can take a cutting speed of
85 m/min and return speed is 170 m/min. To finish the part it requires two rough cuts with a feed of
1.5 mm/stroke and two finish cuts with a feed of 0.5 mm/stroke. Assume the time for reversing the
table is 0.02 minutes. [14.43 hours]
6.9 A casting made from a class 30 gray iron is to be machined on a planer with a high speed cutting tool.
The feed rate to be used is 0.4 mm/stroke for roughing and 0.15 mm/stroke for finishing. Cutting
speed to be used is 20 m/min and while return speed is 40 m/min. Estimate the machining time if
the surface area to be machined is 2 m long ¥ 1.25 m wide. For finishing two roughing cuts and one
finishing cut is required. Assume the time for reversing the table is 0.02 minutes. [64.93 hours]
6.10 A shaper is operated at 2 cutting strokes per second and is used to machine a work piece of 150 mm
length at a cutting speed of 0.5 m/s using a feed of 0.4 mm per stroke and a depth of cut of 6 mm.
(a) Calculate the total machining time to produce 800 components each 100 mm in width.
(b) If the forward stroke is over 230°, calculate the percentage of the time when the tool is not
contacting the work piece. State any assumptions made.
[27.78 hours, 36.11%]
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
6.1 Which of the following machine tools has (c) Power available varies during the cutting
only linear motion for the cutting tool and the stroke
work piece for generating any type of surface? (d) Cutting speed remains constant through-
(a) Lathe machine out the cuttings stroke
(b) Shaper 6.6 The cutting tool moves in a vertical
(c) Milling machine reciprocating motion in this machine tool
(d) Grinding machine (a) Shaper
6.2 In which of the following machines, the (b) Slotter
work piece reciprocates while the cutting tool (c) Planer
remains stationary during cutting? (d) Vertical Lathe
(a) Planer 6.7 In a planer the reciprocating motion of the
(b) Shaper table is obtained by
(c) Milling machine (a) Slider crank and connecting rod mecha-
(d) Grinding machine nism
6.3 For generating flat surfaces with large (b) Cams and trip dogs
material removal rates, the following process (c) Rack and pinion with associated belt
is the most economical drives and trip dogs
(a) Facing (d) None of the above
(b) Shaping 6.8 In a shaper the reciprocating motion of the
(c) End milling table is obtained by
(d) Surface Grinding (a) Slider crank and connecting rod mecha-
6.4 One of the advantages of a hydraulic shaper nism
compared to the mechanical shaper is (b) Cams and trip dogs
(a) Variable cutting speed during the cutting (c) Rack and pinion with associated belt
stroke drives and trip dogs
(b) Cutting speed remains constant through- (d) None of the above
out the cuttings stroke 6.9 The best machine tool to cut an internal spine
(c) Higher cutting speed at the start in steel is
(d) Higher cutting speed in the end (a) Milling machine
6.5 One of the disadvantages of a hydraulic (b) Slotting machine
shaper compared to the mechanical shaper is (c) Lathe
(a) Stopping point of the cutting stroke can (d) None of the above
vary depending upon the resistance of- 6.10 In which of the following machines the cut-
fered to cutting ting tool reciprocates while the work piece
(b) Less strokes per minute remains stationary during cutting?
(a) Lathe machine 6.13 The standard work table in the following
(b) Shaper machine tool can have rotary motion in
(c) Milling machine addition to the translatory motion
(d) Grinding machine (a) Slotter
6.11 The best machine tool to cut T-slots on a (b) Shaper
large milling machine table is (c) Planer
(a) Slotter (d) Milling machine
(b) Shaper 6.14 The machine tool that has the cutting stroke
(c) Planer (removes material) when the ram moves
(d) Milling machine towards the body is
6.12 More than one tool head can be used in which (a) Universal shaper
of the following machine tools? (b) Draw cut Shaper
(a) Slotter (c) Mechanical shaper
(b) Shaper (d) Vertical shaper
(c) Planer
(d) Milling machine
Answers to MCQs
6.1 (b) 6.2 (a) 6.3 (b) 6.4 (b) 6.5 (a)
6.6 (b) 6.7 (c) 6.8 (a) 6.9 (b) 6.10 (b)
6.11 (c) 6.12 (c) 6.13 (a) 6.14 (b)
Milling
7
Objectives
Milling is a versatile machine tool that uses a rotating milling cutter while the work piece
reciprocates in contact with the cutting tool. After completing this chapter, the reader will be
able to
❯ Understand the characteristic features of the milling process
❯ Know the various types of milling machines and their applications
❯ Select the various types of milling cutters based on the application
❯ Understand the different types of milling operations that can be done in the milling machines
❯ Select the type of work holding device to be used for a given part surface
❯ Understand different types of indexing possibilities for parts
❯ Understand the mechanics of milling operations to appreciate the effect of different process
variables on the performance
❯ Calculate the machining time and power based on the material properties
❯ Setup special operations in the milling machine for specific types of surfaces
7.1 IntroductIon
After the class of lathes, milling machines are the most Cutter axis of rotation
widely used machine tools for manufacturing applica-
tions. In milling, the work piece is fed into a rotating
milling cutter, which is a multi-point tool as shown
schematically in Fig. 7.1. It is unlike a lathe, which uses
a single point cutting tool. The tool used in milling is Feed
called milling cutter. Machined Chip
The milling process is characterised by: surface
Work
Interrupted cutting Each of the cutting edges piece
removes material for only part of the rotation of the Peripheral milling
milling cutter. As a result, the cutting edge has time to
Fig. 7.1 Schematic of milling operation
cool before it removes material again. Thus the milling
operation is much cooler compared to the turning operations seen earlier. This allows for much larger material
rates.
Small size of chips Though the size of the chips is small, in view of the multiple cutting edges in contact,
a large amount of material is removed and as a result the component is generally completed in a single pass
unlike the turning process which requires a large number of cuts for finishing.
Variation in chip thickness This contributes to the non-steady state cyclic conditions of varying cutting
forces during the contact of the cutting edge with the chip thickness varying from zero to maximum size or
vice versa. This cyclic variation of the force can excite any of the natural frequencies of the machine tool
system and would be harmful to the tool life and surface finish generated.
This is one of the most versatile machine tools. It is adaptable for quantity production as well as in job
shops and tool rooms. Versatility of milling is because of the large variety of accessories and tools available
with the milling machines. Typical tolerance expected from the process is about ± 0.050 mm.
Spindle
Column
Table Saddle
Knee
Base
feed mechanism and mounts the saddle and table. The table basically has the T-slots running along the X-axis
for the purpose of work holding. Table moves along the X-axis on the saddle while the saddle moves along
the Y-axis on the guide ways provided on the knee. The feed is provided either manually with a hand wheel
or connected for automatic feed by the lead screw, which in turn is coupled to the main spindle drive. The
knee can move up and down (Z-axis) on a dovetail provided on the column.
The massive column at the back of the machine houses all the power train, including the motor and the
spindle gearbox. The power for feeding the table lead screw is taken from the main motor through a separate
feed gear box. Sometimes it is possible that a separate feed motor is provided for the feed gearbox as well.
While the longitudinal and traverse motions are provided automatically, the raising of the knee is generally
made manually.
The spindle is located at the top end of the column. Arbour used to mount the milling cutters is mounted in
the spindle and is provided with a support on the other end to take care of the heavy cutting forces by means
of an over-arm with bearing. As shown in Fig. 7.2 the over arm extends from the column with a rigid design.
The spindle nose has the standard Morse taper, the size of which depends upon the machine size.
The milling cutters are mounted on the arbour at any desired position, the rest of the length being filled
by standard hardened collars of varying widths to fix the position of the cutter. The arbour is clamped in the
spindle with the help of a draw bar and then fixed with nuts.
Milling machines are generally specified based on the following:
● Size of the table, which specifies the actual working area on the table and relates to the maximum size
machines may come with 1 to 3 hp while the production machines may vary from 10 to 50 hp.
Another type of knee and column milling machine is the vertical axis type (Fig. 7.3). Most of the
construction is very similar to the horizontal axis type except the spindle type and location. The spindle is
located in the vertical direction and is suitable for using the shank mounted milling cutters such as end mills.
In view of the location of the tool, the setting up of the work piece and observing the machining operation is
more convenient.
The vertical axis milling machine is more flexible (Fig. 7.4) and suitable for machining complex cavities
such as in die cavities in tool rooms. Also the vertical head is provided with swivelling facility in horizontal
direction whereby the cutter axis can be swivelled. This is useful for tool rooms where more complex milling
operations are carried out.
Spindle
Column
Head
Movement of
the head
Spindle nose
Accurate screw
for moving table
Knee
Base
Ways
Column
Work piece
Face milling cutter
Quill
Column
Spindle
Work piece
Head
Table
Base
Ways
Column
Work piece
Face milling cutter
Column
Spindle
Table
Quill
7.3.1 Types
Milling cutters are classified into various types based on a variety of methods.
Based on construction
● Solid
Based on mounting
● Arbour mounted
● Shank mounted
● Nose mounted
Base on rotation
● Right hand rotation (Counter clockwise)
Based on helix
● Right hand helix
Milling cutters are generally made of high speed steel or cemented carbides. The cemented carbide cutters
can be with brazed tip variety or more commonly with indexable tips. The indexable variety is more common
since it is normally less expensive to replace the worn out cutting edges than to regrind them.
(a) Slab milling cutter (b) Slab milling cutter (c) Slitting saw
(d) Side and face cutter (e) Two side and face cutter (f) Staggered tooth cutter (g) Side and face cutter
Light duty slab milling cutters generally have a face width, which is small of the order of 25 mm. They
generally have straight teeth and large number of teeth.
The heavy duty slab milling cutters come with smaller number of teeth to allow for more chip space. This
allows taking deeper cuts and consequently high material removal rates.
Helical milling cutters have a very small number of teeth but a large helix angle. This type of cutter cuts
with a shearing action, which can produce a very fine finish. The large helix angle allows the cutter to absorb
most of the end load and therefore the cutter enters and leaves the work piece very smoothly.
Slitting Saws
The other common form of milling cutters in the arbour mounted category is the slitting saw. This is very
similar to a saw blade in appearance as well as function. Most of these have teeth around the circumference
while some have side teeth as well. The thickness of these cutters is generally very small and is used for
cutting off operation or for deep slots.
(a) Angle milling cutter (b) Angle milling cutter (c) Shell end mill
(d) Form relieved circular cutter (e) Form relieved circular cutter (f) Woodruff key cutter
Fig. 7.8 Arbor mounted milling cutters special forms
Angular milling cutters are made in single or double angle cutters for milling any angle such as 30, 45 or 60°.
Form relieved cutters are made of various shapes such as circular, corner rounding, convex or concave shapes.
T-slot milling cutters are used for milling T-slots such as those in the milling machine table. The central
slot is to be milled first using an end mill before using the T-slot milling cutter.
Woodruff key seat milling cutters as the name suggests are used for milling Woodruff key seats.
Some other special form cutters are:
● Dovetail milling cutters
End Mills
These are shank mounted as shown in Fig. 7.9 and are generally used in vertical axis milling machines. They
are used for milling slots, key ways and pockets where other type of milling cutters cannot be used. A depth
of cut of almost half the diameter can be taken with the end mills.
Length overall
Length of cut
Radius
Shank
dia Dia
Two flute
(d) Ball end mill
Fig. 7.9 Shank mounted milling cutters, various types of end mills
The end mills have the cutting edge running through the length of the cutting portion as well as on the
face radially upto a certain length. The helix angle of the cutting edge promotes smooth and efficient cutting
even at high cutting speeds and feed rates. High cutting speeds are generally recommended for this type of
milling cutters.
There are a large variety of end mills. One of the distinctions is based on the method of holding, i.e. the
end mill shank can be straight or tapered. The straight shank is used on end mills of small size and held in
the milling machine spindle with the help of a suitable collet. The tapered shank can be directly mounted in
the spindle with the help of the self holding taper. If the taper is small compared to the spindle taper, then an
adopter accommodating both the tapers is used.
The end teeth of the end mills may be terminated at a distance from the cutter centre or may proceed till
the centre. Those with the cutting edge upto the centre are called slot drills or end cutting end mills since they
have the ability to cut into the solid material. The other type of end mills, which have a larger number of teeth,
cannot cut into solid material and hence require a pilot hole drilled before a pocket is machined.
The cutting edge along the side of an end mill is generally straight and some times can be tapered by
grinding on a tool and cutter grinder such that the draft required for mould and die cavities can be automatically
generated. Further the end face can be square with the side as in the normal case or a ball end shape to be used
for milling three dimensional contours such as in die cavities. It can also have a rounded corner for milling
special round edged pockets as shown in Fig. 7.10.
End mill
Section A – A
Large size end mills are called shell end mills, which do not have any shank and can be mounted with
the help of a central hole. Consequently these can be used in horizontal axis as well as vertical axis milling
machines. These will be mounted with the help of a stub arbor on to the spindle as shown in Fig. 7.9.
Face milling cutters (Fig. 7.12) are used for machining large, flat surfaces. They have the cutting edges on
the face and periphery. It is generally mounted directly on the nose of the spindle with the entire face free for
machining. The teeth on the face do most of the machining while those on the side are used for cleaning the
surface. These are generally made of carbide insert variety in view of the large material removal involved,
though high speed steel types are also used.
d
w
w
d
Axial
dimension
Radial
dimension
(a) Peripheral milling (b) Face milling
In connection with the milling cutter designation the following terms are often used.
Hand of cut This refers to the direction in which the cutter is rotated. When viewed towards the spindle,
if the cutter moves counter clockwise it is called right hand rotation while the opposite is called the left hand
rotation.
Hand of helix In case of helical milling cutters, when viewed from the end if the flutes move in a clock-
wise direction it is called the right hand helix while the opposite is called the left hand helix. The axial cutting
force direction depends upon the hand of the helix. If two milling cutters of different helices are arranged side
by side in a gang milling operation, the net axial force can be reduced to zero depending upon the cut taken
by each of the milling cutters.
While selecting a milling cutter for a given application the following points should be considered.
● Use standard tools whenever possible.
● Use a short overhang from the spindle and largest possible mounting type.
● Select a cutter diameter 30% larger than the width of cut (face milling).
The slab milling cutter can have cutting teeth, which can be straight and parallel to the axis of rotation.
Alternatively they can be at an angle to the axis along a helix as shown in Fig. 7.13.
Clearance angle
(a) Straight teeth
Helix angle
Radial rake angle
Clearance angle
(b) Helical teeth
The straight teeth as shown in Fig. 7.13(a) will always have one tooth in contact with the work piece.
When the cutting starts, the chip thickness is maximum, which gradually reduces to zero, before the next
tooth comes into contact with the work piece. As a result, the cutting force rises to maximum value and then
rapidly drops to zero before rising again as shown in Fig. 7.14(a) schematically. This force variation gives
rise to impact loads on the milling cutter and may induce vibrations. In the case of the helical milling cutter
each tooth is longer than the straight tooth. As a result, at any given time more than one tooth will be in
contact with the work piece each having a different chip thickness. As a result, the cutting force variation will
be steadier as shown in Fig. 7.14(b).
Force variation
Force
Time
Helix angle = 0
(a)
Trailing edge
Leading edge
Force variation
Force
Time
Helix angle π 0
(b)
Up Milling
In up milling the cutting tool rotates in the opposite direction to the table movement. In the conventional
or up milling, the chip starts at zero thickness and gradually increases to the maximum size as shown in
Fig. 7.15(a). This tends to lift the work piece from the table. There is a possibility that the cutting tool will
rub the work piece before starting the removal. However, this process is inherently safe.
Direction of rotation
Work piece
Depth of cut
d d
h h
Feed h1 Feed h1
The initial rubbing of the cutting edge during the start of the cut in up milling tends to dull the cutting edge
and consequently have lower tool life. Also since the cutter tends to cut and slide alternatively, the surface
generated is left with the machining marks.
Advantages
1. Suited for machine thin and hard-to-hold parts since the work piece is forced against the table or
holding device by the cutter.
2. Work need not be clamped as tightly.
3. Consistent parallelism and size may be maintained, particularly on thin parts.
4. It may be used where breakout at the edge of the work piece could not be tolerated.
5. It requires upto 20% less power to cut by this method.
6. It may be used when cutting off stock or when milling deep, thin slots.
Disadvantages
1. It cannot be used unless the machine has a backlash eliminator and the table jibs have been tightened.
2. It cannot be used for machining castings or hot rolled steel, since the hard outer scale will damage the
cutter.
T-bolt Clamp
Thin work piece
Work
Y-block Step block
Mill
table
Parallel strips
(a) (b)
Correct Incorrect
Block
Block
Work Work
Correct Incorrect
Block Block
Work Work
Correct Incorrect
String Milling
In this method small work pieces which are to be milled are fed into the milling cutter one after the other. In
other words a number of the work pieces will be kept on the machine table in a line, hence are called ‘string
milling’ or ‘line milling’. The main advantage is that if individual work pieces are milled, the milling cutter
will have to keep the approach distance, which is substantial. By having a number of work pieces kept in line
the approach distance will be only at the beginning and end of the line, thus considerably saving the machine
time.
machine table. This will save the setting time of the work Side and face milling cutter
pieces and keeps the machine cutting all the time except
Slab mill
during the indexing of the rotary table. The rotary can be
integral with the milling machine or a separate accessory
fixed to the milling machine table.
Gang Milling
In gang milling a number of milling cutters are fastened
to the arbor to suit the profile of the work piece to be
machined. For example, two side and face milling cut-
ter with a slab milling cutter at the centre, to mill an in-
verted U-shape. The advantage of gang milling is that
several surfaces are machined at the same time. It is also
possible to combine form cutters along with the general
purpose cutters.
One of the major problems is the choice of the cutting
speed, which is determined by the largest cutter diameter. Fig. 7.18 Gang milling
Hence it is desirable that all the cutters should be similar
in size and shape to allow for larger speeds and feeds. In production milling operations, gang milling is
generally preferred.
Straddle Milling
Straddle is a special form of gang milling where only side and face milling cutters are used.
A typical sequence of processes used and the milling cutters required for a component machined in a
milling machine is shown in Fig. 7.19.
Slab mill
Slot mill
1 2
Finished
part
3
4
Shell end
End mill
mill
5
Angle
mill
Worm wheel
Spindle
Index pin
Index clamp
Clamp nut
Index plate
The index plate of a dividing head consists of a number of holes with a crank and pin. The index crank
drives the spindle and the live centre through a worm gear, which generally has 40 teeth as shown in Fig. 7.21.
As a result, a full rotation of the work piece is produced by 40 full revolutions of the index crank. Further
indexing is made possible by having the index plates with equi-spaced holes around various circles. This
would allow for indexing the periphery of the work piece to any convenient number of divisions.
Worm wheel
Index head spindle 40 teeth
Sector arm
Index pin
Index crank
15 16 17 18 19 20
Fig. 7.22 Index plate no. 1 of Brown and Sharpe Dividing head
The index plates available with the Brown and Sharpe milling machines are
Plate no. 1: 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes
Plate no. 2: 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes
Plate no. 3: 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes
The index plate used on Cincinnati and Parkinson dividing heads is
Plate 1: Side 1 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42 and 43 holes
Side 2 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 57, 58, 59, 62 and 66 holes
It is also possible to get additional plates from Cincinnati to increase the indexing capability as follows:
Plate 2: Side 1 34, 46, 79, 93, 109, 123, 139, 153, 167, 181, 197 holes
Side 2 32, 44, 77, 89, 107, 121, 137, 151, 163, 179, 193 holes
Plate 3: Side 1 26, 42, 73, 87, 103, 119, 133, 149, 161, 175, 191 holes
Side 2 28, 38, 71, 83, 101, 113, 131, 143, 159, 173, 187 holes
Example 7.1
Indexing 28 divisions.
40 3
Solution The rotation of the index crank = = 1 turns.
28 7
This can be done as follows using any of the Brown & Sharpe plates
One full rotation + 9 holes in a 21-hole circle in plate no. 2.
One full rotation + 21 holes in a 49-hole circle in plate no. 3.
Example 7.2
Indexing 62 divisions.
40 20
Solution The rotation of the index crank = = turns.
62 31
This can be done as follows using any of the Brown & Sharpe plates
20 holes in a 31-hole circle in plate no. 2.
Example 7.3
Indexing 77 divisions.
Solution The indexing required is 77 considering the worm.
40
It is necessary to convert this fraction into two fractions corresponding to the two hole circles in the same
plate. Use trial and error method to obtain the same.
First step in compound indexing is to factorise the number into a suitable hole circles available in a single
plate.
77 = 11 ¥ 7
This can be achieved by using plate 2 with
3 holes in 33-hole circle, and
3 holes in 21-hole circle.
This means that 33 and 21 are the hole circles that have been identified for this indexing. The next step is to
find the exact indexing required.
X ± Y = 360 = 40
21 33 693 77
33 ¥ X ± 21 ¥ Y = 360
By trial and error, we get, X = 9, and Y = 3
33 ¥ 9 + 21 ¥ 3 = 360
9 3 40
+ =
21 33 77
Hence the indexing required is 9 holes in the 21-hole circle added to 3 holes in the 33-hole circle to get
77 divisions.
Example 7.4
Indexing 141 divisions.
Example 7.5
Calculate the indexing for 41°.
41 = 4 5
Solution Indexing required =
9 9
This is equivalent to 4 full rotations of the crank followed by 10 holes in the 18-hole circle in plate no. 1.
Example 7.6
Calculate the indexing for 15° 30¢.
15.5 6.5 13
Solution Indexing required = =1 =1
9 9 18
This is equivalent to 1 full rotation of the crank followed by 13 holes in the 18-hole circle in plate no. 1.
Example 7.7
Calculate the indexing for 16° 40’.
16 2 72
3 3 23
Solution Indexing required = =1 =1
9 9 27
This is equivalent to 1 full rotation of the crank followed by 23 holes in the 27-hole circle in plate no. 2.
move in the same direction to that of the indexing crank movement. In the case of a compound gear train an
idler is to be used when the index plate is to move in the opposite direction. The procedure of calculation is
explained with the following example.
Change gears,
Change gear mounted at compound gearing
Work piece back end of the spindle
Dog Idler Milling
Spindle gear machine
table
Centre
Change gear
Example 7.8
Obtain the indexing for 97 divisions.
Solution Required indexing is 40 which cannot be obtained with any of the index plates available. Choose
97
40 2 8
a nearest possible division. For example the indexing decided is = =
100 5 20
The actual indexing decided is 8 holes in 20-hole circle. This indexing will be less than required. Ideally
the work piece should complete one revolution when the crank is moved through the 97 turns at the above
identified indexing. Actual motion generated when the crank is moved 97 times is
97 ¥ 40 3 ¥ 40
40 - =
100 100
Hence, the index plate has to move forward by this amount during the 97 turns to compensate for the
smaller indexing being done by indexing crank. Hence, the gear ratio between the spindle and the index
crank is
3 ¥ 40 6
=
100 5
Driven 6 48
Change gear set used is = =
Driver 5 40
An idler gear is to be used since the index plate has to move in the same direction.
Example 7.9
Obtain the indexing for 209 divisions.
40
Solution Required indexing is which cannot be obtained with any of the index plates available.
209
40
Choose a nearest possible division. For example, the indexing decided is = 4.
200 20
The actual indexing decided is 4 holes in 20-hole circle. This indexing will be more than required. Ideally
the work piece should complete one revolution when the crank is moved through the 209 turns at the above
identified indexing. Actual motion generated when the crank is moved 209 times is
209 ¥ 40 9 ¥ 40
40 - =-
200 200
Hence, the index plate has to move in the reverse by this amount during the 209 turns to compensate for the
larger indexing being done by indexing crank. Hence the gear ratio between the spindle and the index crank is
9 ¥ 40 36
=
200 20
Gear on spindle 36
Change gear set used is =
Gear on index crank 20
A few points to be remembered during the differential indexing is
(a) Use the hole circles for indexing which will easily factorise with the available gear set. For example,
in the case of Brown & Sharpe, 18, 20, 21 and 27 hole circles should be used.
(b) The difference from the actual to the approximate indexing should be a small value such that the
change gear set can accommodate this ratio. For example a total difference of 0.5 to 1.5 will be most
convenient.
(c) The idler gear has to be provided when the index plate has to move in the opposite direction to that of
the crank movement.
2 2
ÊD ˆ - ÊD - dˆ = d (D - d )
Approach distance, A = Ë2¯ Ë2 ¯
Feed, f
A
Example 7.10
A C50 steel flat surface of 100 ¥ 250 mm is to be produced on a horizontal axis milling machine. A HSS slab
mill of 100 mm diameter and 150 mm width is to be used for the purpose. The milling cutter has 8 teeth.
Calculate the machining time assuming that entire stock can be removed in one depth of 2 mm.
Solution Given Z = 8
D = 100 mm
D = 2 mm
From the table,
Cutting speed, V = 20 m/min
Feed rate, f = 0.13 mm/tooth
1000 ¥ 20
Spindle speed, N = = 63.66 ª 65 rev/min
p ¥ 100
150 + 2 ¥ 14
Time for machining = = 2.633 minutes
0.13 ¥ 8 ¥ 65
Fig. 7.26 shows the situation of face milling operation using a vertical axis milling machine.
,f
Feed
Example 7.11
A surface 115 mm wide and 250 mm long is to be rough milled with a depth of cut of 6 mm by a 16-tooth
cemented carbide face mill 150 mm in diameter. The work material is alloy steel (200 BHN). Estimate the
cutting time.
Solution Given Z = 16
D = 150 mm
d = 6 mm
W = 115 mm
From the table,
Cutting speed, V = 60 m/min
Feed rate, f = 0.18 mm/tooth
1000 ¥ 60
Spindle speed, N = = 127.32 ª 125 rev/min
p ¥ 150
D
Since W <
2
Approach distance, A = 115(150 - 115) = 63.44 ª 65 mm
250 + 2 ¥ 65
Time for machining = = 1.06 minutes
0.18 ¥ 16 ¥ 125
Table 7.4 Tool wear factors for power calculation (Machinery’s handbook)
Operation Tool-wear Factor
Slab milling and end milling 1.10
Light and medium face milling 1.10 to 1.25
Heavy face milling 1.30 to 1.60
Example 7.12
Calculate the power required to rough mill a surface 115 mm wide and 250 mm long with a depth of cut of
6 mm by a 16-tooth cemented carbide face mill that is 150 mm in diameter. The work material is alloy steel
(200 BHN).
Solution Given Z = 16; d = 6 mm; W = 115 mm
From Table 7.1, Cutting speed, V = 60 m/min
Feed rate, f = 0.18 mm/tooth
1000 ¥ 20
Spindle speed, N = = 63.66 ª 65 rev/min
p ¥ 100
Where fm = feed rate in mm/min = f ZN = 0.18 ¥ 16 ¥ 65 = 187.2 mm/min
Material removal rate (Q) is
f m wd 187.2 ¥ 115 ¥ 6
Q= cm3 /s = = 2.1528 cm3 /s
60 000 60 000
From Table 7.2, Kp = 1.88
From Table 7.3, C = 1.11
From Table 7.4, W = 1.30
Milling power (Pm) in horse power units at the cutting tool is
Pm = 1.88 ¥ 2.1528 ¥ 1.11 ¥ 1.30 = 5.84 hp
The hand of the helix whether right hand or left hand is controlled by the presence of an idler gear in the
gear train.
Example 7.13
The milling machine has a table lead screw with a lead of 5 mm. Calculate the gear train necessary to cut a
helix of lead of 480 mm.
Solution Lead of the machine = 40 ¥ 5 = 200 mm
Gear on index plate shaft 200 40 32
= = ¥
Gear on table lead screw 480 48 64
When the dividing head is used in a horizontal axis milling machine, it is necessary to orient the arbor
mounted milling cutter to be rotated by an angle equivalent to the helix angle such that the milling cutter will
not interfere with the side of the helix being cut a shown in Fig. 7.27. For this purpose it is necessary to use a
universal machine where the table will be swivelled by the helix angle. Helix angle, a is given by
p ¥ Diameter of the work
tan a =
Lead of helix
If the helix is cut by a vertical milling machine using an end mill, then no table swivelling is required since
the cutting portion of the end mill is perpendicular to the cut surface.
Axis of
the spindle
Table feed
Work piece
Example 7.14
A left hand helical flutes are to be milled in a reamer that is 40 mm in diameter with a lead of 800 mm. If
the flutes are 8 mm deep and the machine lead screw has a lead of 5 mm, calculate the necessary settings
required.
To calculate the helix angle, a, take the average depth of the flute
p ¥ Diameter of the work p ¥ 32
tan a = = = 0.1257
Lead of helix 800
or, Helix angle, a = 7° 10¢
Cam blank
End mill
Cam blank
Dividing
Chuck head
a
End mill
a
Blank at the
start of the cut
The cam after one
complete revolution
Table
B (a)
A a
C
End mill
(b)
The shaft of the dividing head index plate is connected to the table lead screw by gears as in spiral milling.
The plate cam blank is held in the spindle of the dividing head, which is inclined to the horizontal at an
angle, a. The end mill is also inclined at the same angle such that the axis of the cutter and axis of the cam to
be milled are parallel. As the table starts moving, the plate cam rotates through the dividing head spindle and
the distance between the cutter and the cam becomes smaller, thereby machining the cam profile. Since the
lead of the table lead screw is constant, the rise or fall of the cam machined also becomes constant, the actual
value depending upon the machine setting.
The inclination angle, a, that is set can be calculated as follows:
Lead of the cam ¥ Gear ratio
sin a =
Machine lead
If the setting angle is zero, the lead of the cam becomes zero as shown in Fig. 7.29. Any suitable gear ratio
can be used.
End mill
Cam blank
a
Dividing head Cam blank End mill
Feed Feed
Example 7.15
Calculate the necessary settings for milling a plate cam with 10 mm rise in 60° revolutions. Lead screw of
the machine has a lead of 5 mm.
Solution Machine lead = 40 ¥ 5 = 200 mm
10 ¥ 360
Lead of the cam = = 60 mm
60
Assume a gear ratio of 2. Then the angular setting required is
Lead of the cam ¥ Gear ratio 60 ¥ 2
sin a = = = 0.6
Machine lead 200
Setting angle, a = 36° 52¢
entirely differently. The thread milling is a process that produces threads by circular ramping movement of
thread shaped rotating milling cutter as it moves round the work piece. One of the major disadvantages of
tapping is that a different size tap is required for each size of hole that requires thread. This is particularly
inconvenient because it can consume a large number of valuable, but limited positions in the CNC tool
magazine. Plus, having to switch tapping tools for all of the various sized holes increases the cycle time.
The shape of the thread milling cutter is shown in Fig 7.30 where the similarity to the tap can be seen. The
thread milling cutter is inserted into the hole along the axis of the spindle, and follows a helical path with both
circular and vertical feed motions as shown in Fig 7.30. During this circular motion the thread mill must be
moved along the Z-axis of the machine one thread pitch (or lead) to produce a thread. This combination of
circular and vertical feed motions is termed as “helical interpolation”. The CNC controller of the machine to
be used should have the capability of helical interpolation. After completing the machining, the cutter returns
to the centre of the hole and is extracted from the part.
Work piece
Axis of the
work piece
Thread milling cutters are available in HSS, indexable carbide and solid carbide depending upon the
application and the hole sizes. HSS thread mills are generally produced by powder metallurgy and are coated
with TiN, TiCN, or TiAlN to enhance the tool life. These are generally used for softer materials such as those
with hardness less than HRC 30/32. Solid carbide is generally used for production of threads for materials up
to HRC 62. These are used for smaller thread sizes. Indexable carbide thread mills are used for sizes 20 mm
or larger, and accommodate a variety of pitches by replacing the insert.
The quality of thread obtained by threading, particularly the small size holes will appear a bit jagged
because the chips do not have sufficient space to be removed during the machining process.
Some of the situations where thread milling is preferred compared to tapping:
● Cutting threads in thin-walled components
● Cutting threads in tough materials that are likely to generate high cutting forces
● Likelihood of the tap breaking inside expensive parts as thread milling cutters can be easily removed
unlike a broken tap
● To reduce the tool inventory
suMM ary
Milling is a machining operation using a multi-tooth cutter that rotates and generates short chips.
● Milling machines can be classified based on the axis orientation, or the machine tool structure.
● There are a variety of milling machines used for various production applications.
● A large variety of milling cutters are used to generate some of the most complex shapes in the parts.
● Arbour mounted cutters such as plain milling cutter and side and face cutters are used in horizontal
surfaces.
● Milling operations are classified, based on the direction of rotation of the cutter and the movement
● A number of milling setups are used to cater to the wide range of machining applications that are
geometry.
● Milling power can be estimated based on the material properties using empirical relations.
● Special setups such as cam milling can be used for milling special surfaces.
Q u e s t io ns
7.1 Explain the characteristics that distinguish a milling process from other machining processes.
7.2 Describe the differences between a lathe and milling machine in terms of the types of surfaces
generated, the types of tools used, and applicability for general and production applications.
7.3 Give a brief classification of various milling machines used in the industry giving a brief note on their
application.
7.4 How is a milling machine specified?
7.5 What are the various types of milling cutters that are used in milling?
7.6 Describe the application and relative merits of various types of milling cutters that are used in milling.
7.7 List the motions of the arbour mounted milling cutter with respect to the work piece.
7.8 What are the various work holding devices used in milling? Explain their relative applications and
disadvantages.
7.9 What are the various types of end mills used in milling? Explain their applications.
7.10 Differentiate between up-milling and down milling. Explain their applications mentioning the most
commonly used method.
7.11 Explain the difference between straight and helical slab mills bringing out the advantages of the use
of helical teeth.
7.12 Explain the applications and differences with neat sketches, the following with reference to milling:
(a) Straddle milling (b) Gang milling
7.13 Sketch typical setups for
(a) Reciprocal milling (b) String milling
7.14 Explain the construction of a dividing head giving the applications for which it can be used.
7.15 What are the differences between compound indexing and differential indexing? Explain the relative
merits.
7.16 Explain with a sketch what you understand by the words ‘helix angle’ and ‘direction of cut’ in the
case of milling. What is their importance with respect to machining performance? Explain the basis
on which these are selected.
7.17 Briefly explain some of the problems caused in milling. Give their causes and probable remedies.
7.18 Describe a method used for manufacturing (machining) the flutes on a twist drill with a neat sketch.
7.19 Describe the setup that one can use for milling cams in a milling machine. Explain neatly with a
sketch, the various attachments that one needs to use for such machining. Explain the limitations of
such a setup.
7.20 Make a sketch for milling cams on a horizontal knee and column type milling machine. If the lead on
the cam is to be r, show the necessary setup. Explain any necessary precautions.
Pro b le ms
7.1 A 20 mm ¥ 150 mm diameter HSS side and face milling cutter is to be used to cut a groove into a
piece of brass with one cut. The groove is 20 mm wide, 4 mm deep and 250 mm long. Calculate the
total machining time. Justify the assumptions made if any. [0.558 minutes]
7.2 In a slab milling operation, the milling cutter has 20 teeth and is 100 mm in diameter. The rotational
speed of the cutter is 5 RPS. If the flat surface to be generated is 200 mm by 50 mm and feed per tooth
is 0.013 mm/rev., calculate the machining time required for 100 pieces. The depth of cut may be taken
as 6 mm. Specify any assumptions made. [1.15 minutes]
7.3 A surface 115 mm wide and 250 mm long is to be rough milled with a depth of cut of 6 mm by a
16-tooth cemented carbide face mill 150 mm in diameter. The work material is medium hard cast iron
(220 – 260 BHN). Estimate the cutting time and justify the process parameters used.
[4.6296 minutes]
7.4 A flat surface of 250 ¥ 350 mm is to be produced on a horizontal axis milling machine. A slab mill
of 100 mm diameter and 150 mm width is to be used for the purpose. Calculate the machining
time assuming that entire stock can be removed in one depth of 1 mm. Make only the requisite
assumptions. [6.25 minutes]
7.5 A grey cast iron casting plane surface, which is 150 mm wide and 450 mm long is to be finished by
milling. It can be machined using a face mill of 200 mm diameter with 10 teeth made of cemented
carbide. The cutting speed is 70 m/min and feed per tooth is 0.25 mm. Calculate the machining time
for finishing the job if all the stock is removed in a single cut. [17 500 mm3/min]
7.6 The job in Problem 7.5 can also be done by using a high speed steel slab mill of 150 mm diameter and
200 mm wide with 8 teeth. If the cutting speed is 40 m/min and feed per tooth is 0.25 mm, compare
the machining times and material removal rates in both cases.
[3.75 minutes, 10 000 mm3/min]
7.7 The above job can also be completed by shaping using a high speed steel single point cutting tool
on a hydraulic shaper. The feed can be taken as 0.4 mm/stroke while the cutting speed is 40 m/min.
Compare the machining times and material removal rates in all cases.
[6.68 minutes, 16 000 mm3/stroke]
7.8 Calculate the following indexing requirements:
(a) 41 divisions (b) 76 divisions
(c) 187 divisions
[40 in 41; 10 in 19; Differential – 4 in 18 with change gears 56 and 40 with idler gear]
7.9 Calculate the following indexing requirements:
(a) 10° 26¢ (b) 41° 34¢
(c) 55° 45¢
[1 rotation plus 4 in 27; 1 rotation plus 11 in 18; 1 rotation plus 5 in 27]
7.10 Calculate the indexing requirement for 127 divisions on a milling machine equipped with a differential
indexing head. The index plates available are
Plate no. 1: 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes
Plate no. 2: 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes
Plate no. 3: 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes
The change gear set available is
24, 24, 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86, 100
[6 in 18 plus change gear 56 and 24 with idler gear]
7.11 A plate cam of thickness 10 mm and radius 75 mm is to be milled on a horizontal axis milling
machine. The cam has a uniform rise of 40 mm over 90°. Explain with a neat sketch how this can be
accomplished. What modifications in the setup are required, if dwell is to be machined over part of
the cam periphery? If the table lead screw is having 6 mm lead, calculate the actual machining time
for cutting the uniform rise portion. Make any necessary assumptions, but justify them.
[23° 34¢ 41≤]
7.12 A helix of lead 150 mm on a shaft of diameter 80 mm is to be milled on a horizontal axis milling
machine. Show the setup used with a neat sketch. Explain the precautions to be taken during the setup.
If the table lead screw is having 6 mm lead, calculate the actual machining time for cutting the helix
considering the length of helix to be one half of the lead. Make any necessary assumptions, but justify
them. [59° 10’]
7.13 A C20 steel disc of 300 mm diameter and 10 mm thick is to be cut at 93 equally spaced points on the
periphery. The milling machine is equipped with a simple dividing head without any change gear set.
Calculate the necessary setting required. Assume that the dividing head is provided with a 40 teeth
worm wheel. [9 in 27 plus 3 in 31 – Compound indexing]
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
7.1 An important characteristic of a milling pro- (b) Can be used for machining castings or
cess unlike any other machining processes is rolled steel directly
(a) Interrupted cutting (c) Work piece need not be clamped tightly
(b) Small size chips (d) Can only be used for rigid parts
(c) Variable chip thickness
7.7 Disadvantage of down milling (climb mill-
(d) All of the above
ing) compared to up milling (conventional
7.2 Identify the machine tool that is most versatile milling) is
from the following list of machine tools
(a) Cannot be used in machines without
(a) Gap bed lathe
backlash eliminator
(b) Vertical axis milling machine
(b) It requires more power to cut
(c) Pillar drilling machine
(c) Work piece need to be clamped tightly
(d) Surface grinding machine
(d) Can only be used for rigid parts
7.3 The following type of milling machine is
normally used for very high production rates 7.8 String milling is used for
(a) Horizontal knee and column milling ma- (a) Large work pieces
chine (b) Small work pieces
(b) Vertical knee and column milling ma- (c) Heavy work pieces
chine (d) All of the above
(c) Simplex bed type milling machine 7.9 Gang milling is used for
(d) Duplex bed type milling machine (a) Large work pieces
7.4 The following milling cutter is used for (b) Small work pieces
machining rectangular slots on a horizontal (c) A number of milling cutters are used to
knee and column milling machine cut simultaneously
(a) Slab milling cutter (d) Only one milling cutters is used to cut
(b) Face mill heavy work piece
(c) Side and face milling cutter
7.10 To cut an involute gear on a milling machine
(d) Shell end mill
the following is required
7.5 The following milling cutter is used for
(a) Angle milling cutter
machining rectangular slots on a vertical
(b) Differential indexing head
knee and column milling machine
(c) Slab milling cutter
(a) End mill
(d) None of the above
(b) Ball end mill
(c) Slitting saw 7.11 Poor surface finish on the milled work pieces
(d) Side and face milling cutter is caused by
7.6 Advantage of down milling (climb milling) (a) Higher feed rates
compared to up milling (conventional mill- (b) Milling cutter is worn out and needs re-
ing) is sharpening
(a) Can be used in machines without back- (c) Cutting speed is low
lash eliminator (d) All of the above
7.12 Chatter (large amplitude vibration) during 7.13 An end mill having 4 teeth is rotating at 250
milling is caused by RPM. If the feed per tooth is given as 0.1
(a) Milling machine is less rigid mm, what is the table feed in mm/min?
(b) High depth of cut increasing the cutting (a) 100 mm/min
force (b) 10 mm/min
(c) No cutting fluid is applied (c) 250 mm/min
(d) All of the above (d) 25 mm/min
Answers to MCQs
7.1 (d) 7.2 (b) 7.3 (d) 7.4 (c) 7.5 (a)
7.6 (c) 7.7 (a) 7.8 (b) 7.9 (c) 7.10 (b)
7.11 (d) 7.12 (d) 7.13 (a)
8.1 IntroductIon
Machining round holes in metal stock is one of the most common operations in the manufacturing industry.
It is estimated that of all the machining operations carried out, about 20% are hole making operations.
Practically any work piece will not leave the machine shop without making a hole in it. The various types of
holes are shown in Fig. 8.1.
Whereas drilling is used for making a hole in solid material, all the other operations are used to enlarge the
hole or improve the quality of the hole, depending upon the requirement. Comparative process capabilities
of these processes are given in Table 8.1. In the Table l is the length of the hole and D is the diameter of the
hole. In this chapter the basic details related to all these operations will be discussed.
8.2 drIllIng
8.2.1 Twist Drill Geometry
The cutting tool used for making holes in solid material is called the twist drill. It basically consists of two
parts; the body consisting of the cutting edges and the shank which is used for holding purpose. This has
two cutting edges and two opposite spiral flutes cut into its surface as shown in Fig. 8.2. These flutes serve
to provide clearance to the chips produced at the cutting edges. They also allow the cutting fluid to reach the
cutting edges.
The drill blanks are made by forging and then twisted to provide the torsional rigidity. Then the flutes are
machined and hardened before the final grinding of the geometry. Twist drill geometry is shown in Fig. 8.2.
These are made with either straight or taper shank. Straight shank drills are held in the machine spindle in a
drill chuck. The taper shank drills are directly held in the spindle with the help of the self-holding taper. The
tang at the end of the taper shank fits into a slot in the spindle. The tang helps to drive the drill, prevents it
from slipping and provides a means of removing it from spindle.
Drill axis
Tang
Shank
Overall
length
Helix
angle
Body
Land or margin
Back tapered
Flute over this length
length
Lead
of
helix Body
clearance
Point angle
Face
Lip length
Diameter
The surface on the drill, which extends behind the cutting lip to the following flute, is termed as flank. Face
is the portion of the flute surface adjacent to the cutting lip on which the chip moves as it is cut from the work
piece. The cutting lip is the edge formed by the intersection of the cutting edge or face and the flank face. Land
or margin is the cylindrically ground body surface on the leading edge of the drill sometimes also termed as
cylindrical land. The cutting edge is reduced in diameter after the margin to provide a body clearance.
Axial rake angle is the angle between the face and the line parallel to the drill axis. At the periphery of the
drill, it is equivalent to the helix angle. Helix angle is the angle between the leading edge of the land and the
axis of the drill. Sometimes it is also called spiral angle. The lip clearance angle is the angle formed by the
portion of the flank adjacent to the land and a plane at right angles to the drill axis measured at the periphery
of the drill. Lead of the helix is the distance measured parallel to the drill axis, between corresponding point
on the leading edge of the land in one complete revolution.
The chisel edge is formed by the intersection of the two flanks. In order to provide strength to the drill the
cutting edge is thickened gradually from the bottom. It is termed as web. Also a back taper is provided on the
body towards the shank to provide longitudinal clearance.
The shape of the drill point is the most important. The lip angle should be correct for the given application.
In general 118º is found to be suitable for mild steel and other general materials. Larger values are used for
hard and brittle materials, while smaller values are used for soft materials. Some representative values are
given in Table 8.2.
The two cutting edges of the drill should be equal in length as well as the same angle with the drill axis.
Otherwise, there will be unequal cutting forces along the cutting edges causing a torsional load. This will
cause the drill to wear out quickly. Also the holes produced with such a drill tend to be oversized.
The rake angle in case of drilling is complex since it depends upon the helix angle of the flutes, the point
angle and the feed rate. The various rake angles possible are shown in Fig. 8.3. Thus the thrust force is the
maximum at the web where the material is compressed and extruded rather than sheared to the minimum
value at the end of the cutting edge.
Since the web does not cut, sometimes direct drilling of large diameter holes makes it difficult to achieve
the positional tolerance. For these situations a centre hole is made first with a centre drill or a small hole drill
as a pilot hole. The size of the pilot hole drilled takes care of the web portion and thereby allows for more
accurate location of the hole.
Twist drills are designed with the web, which gradually thickens as it moves from the point along the
length of the flutes as shown in Fig. 8.4. This is necessary for providing strength and rigidity to the cutting
tool. A twist drill is re-ground at the cutting lip to remove the worn out portion. This gradually decreases
the total length of the drill. However, along with it the web thickness also increases as shown in Fig. 8.4. As
explained above, the web will only compress the material and as a result, the thrust on the drill increases with
an increase in the web thickness. Also, it is likely that out of round and over sized holes may result, because
of the additional thrust.
Chisel
edge a Tool
a
t
Work
Section A – A
X
Chip
D
Thrust
force N
a = Rake angle
A
Work L
piece
A
fr
D
2
Fig. 8.4 Change in thickness of the web due to the regrinding process
Oil hole
Indexable insert
Drill Press
Typical drill press is shown in Fig. 8.7. The cutting tool in this case called the drill bit is mounted into the
spindle either with the help of the drill chuck for small sized drills that are straight shank type, or by means of
the spindle taper. The spindle is located inside a quill, which can reciprocate by means of manual operation or
by means of power feed. The work piece is normally placed on the table and clamped using a suitable work
holding device. These are relatively simple and less expensive in operation. However, these are not suitable
for mass production.
Radial Drilling
The radial drilling machine is more versatile than the drill press as described earlier. The schematic of radial
drilling machine showing the principal parts and motions is shown in Fig. 8.8. The drill head can move along
the radial arm to any position while the radial arm itself can rotate on the column, thus reaching any position
in the radial range of the machine. They are more convenient to be used for large work pieces, which cannot
be moved easily because of their weight, such that the drill head itself will be moved to the actual location on
the work piece, before carrying the drilling operation. In addition to the twist drills other hole making tools
will also be used.
Spindle
Belt
Hand feed
lever
Quill
Column
Drill chuck
Throat distance
Gang Drilling
Gang drilling machines are the equivalent
of the progressive action type multiple
Radial arm
spindle lathes. These machines have a
number of spindles (often equal to four)
laid out in parallel. Each of the spindles can
have different drills or other hole making
operation tools fixed in sequence. The work
piece will move from one station to the Column
other, with each completing the designated
hole making operation. These are used for
volume production with the work pieces
located in a jig, with reasonable size to allow
the operator to move the part with jig to the Drill head
next station generally on a roller conveyor.
Work Holding
Work holding in drilling machines is simi-
lar to milling. Most of the small components
are held in vices for drilling in job shops.
However, for production operations, it is Work piece
not only necessary to locate and clamp the
Table
work piece properly, but also to locate and
guide the drill. Hence jigs are used to serve Fig. 8.8 The radial drilling machine
this function. An example of a drilling jig is
shown in Fig. 8.9.
Pivot
Part
Supports Locators
Hardness HSS
Work Material
BHN Speed m/min Feed mm/rev
Cast iron 200 25–35 0.13–0.30
Cast steel 280–300 12–15 0.06–0.19
AISI 1020 110–160 35 0.20–0.50
AISI 1040 170–200 25 0.13–0.30
Manganese steel 185–215 5 0.06–0.19
Nickel steel 200–240 18 0.06–0.19
Stainless steel 150 15 0.13–0.30
Spring steel 400 6 0.06–0.19
Tool steel 150 23 0.20–0.50
Tool steel 200 18 0.13–0.30
Tool steel 215 15 0.13–0.30
Tool steel 300 12 0.06–0.19
Tool steel 400 5 0.06–0.19
Malleable iron 110–130 26 0.20–0.50
Aluminium 95 275 0.13–0.90
Aluminium alloys 170–190 18 0.13–0.30
Copper 80–85 21 0.06–0.19
Brass 190–200 70 0.20–0.50
Bronze 180–200 54 0.20–0.50
Zinc alloys 110–125 70 0.20–0.50
Glass 4.5 0.06–0.19
Table 8.4 Cutting speeds for drilling using tungsten carbide tip drills
Work Material Cutting Speed m/min
Aluminium 50 to 150
Brass 50 to 100
Bronze 50 to 100
Cast iron soft 30 to 55
Cast iron chilled 10 to 15
Cast iron hard 30 to 45
Steel over 450 BHN 25 to 35
Table 8.5 Feed rates for drilling using tungsten carbide tip drills
Drill Size Feed mm/rev
Up to 1.5 mm 0.010 to 0.025
1.5 to 3.0 mm 0.025 to 0.075
3 to 5 mm 0.05 to 0.10
6 to 8 mm 0.08 to 0.13
9 to 11 mm 0.10 to 0.20
12 to 18 mm 0.15 to 0.25
19 to 25 mm 0.20 to 0.30
The drill will have to approach the start of the hole from a distance and also traverse beyond the actual hole
by a distance termed as the total approach allowance, A. The initial approach is generally a small value for
positioning the drill above the hole. This distance, AI can generally be taken as 2 to 3 mm. The traverse
distance beyond the hole is often termed as the breakthrough distance and is required because of the conical
shape of the twist drill as shown in Fig. 8.10. This value is dependent upon the drill diameter and the lip angle
and is given by
D
Breakthrough distance, A =
2 tan a
For the most common case of a = 59°, it is given by
D
A=
3.3286 L l
Total length of tool travel, L = l + A + 2 mm
A
Where l = length of the hole, mm
L minutes
Time for drilling the hole =
fN a
Where f = feed rate, mm/rev Fig. 8.10 End of the twist drill showing the
breakthrough distance
The total volume of the material present in the hole
indicates the material removal rate. In the case of a solid material without coring, the material removal rate
MRR is given by the area of cross-section of the hole times the tool travel rate through the material. Thus,
p D2 f N
MRR =
4
Example 8.1
A hole of 40 mm diameter and 50 mm deep is to be drilled in mild steel component. The cutting speed can be
taken as 65 m/min and the feed rate as 0.25 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time and the material removal
rate.
Solution Given, V = 65 m/min
f = 0.25 mm/rev
D = 40 mm
L = 50 mm
1000 ¥ 65
Spindle speed, N= = 517.25 rev/min
p ¥ 40
= 520 rev/min
40
Breakthrough distance, A = = 12.02 mm
2 tan 59
Total length of drill travel, L = 50 + 12 + 3 = 65 mm
65
Time for drilling the hole = = 0.50 minutes
0.25 ¥ 520
p ¥ 402 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 520
The material removal rate is MRR = = 163362.82 mm3/min
4
= 163.363 cm3/min
Example 8.2
Estimate the force and thrust for a 20 mm drill with a feed of 0.2 mm/rev rotating at 150 rev/min, while drill-
ing mild steel.
Solution From the table C = 616
Torque acting is M = 616 ¥ 201.9 ¥ 0.20.8 = 50392.0 N.mm
= 50.392 Nm
Some common problems that are found in the case of drilling are shown in the following Table 8.8.
Back taper
Outer angle
Margin
Cutting fluid
passage
Wear pad
Dub-off
Flute
Inner angle
(a) Gun-drilling tool
Cutting fluid
Spindle
Feed
Bed
Fig. 8.11 Gun drilling operation, (a) Gun drilling tool, (b) Schematic of a gun drilling machine
8.2.8 Trepanning
Trepanning produces a hole in solid material by directly cutting the circumference of the hole and not the full
hole. After the trepanning operation the core at the centre of the hole which forms bulk of the material is left
intact and can be re-used for other purpose. There are two forms of trepanning: one type used for thin sheets
while the other is used on much heavier material.
The tool used for thin sheet trepanning consists of a single point tool that is fixed to an adjustable arm
that revolves around a pointed centre shank as shown in Fig. 8.12. The centre locates the tool to generate the
required geometry and also keeps it rigid. This operation is very similar to drawing circles using a compass for
engineering drawing. Using this tool disks up to 6 mm thick and 150 mm in diameter can be machined. The
main advantage of the process is that the centre disk can be re-used for other purpose instead of converting
into chips as in solid drilling.
To make deep and large holes (greater than or equal to 50 mm in diameter), another trepanning tool has to
be used. This process is similar to gun drilling where once the cutting starts forced lubrication and cooling is
used. This process is faster (10 to 15% compared to solid drilling) with very few chips produced and gives a
straighter bore because the tool is self-truing. Straightness and diametric tolerances are almost comparable to
gun drilled holes. Since the central portion of the bore is not converted into chips, it can be salvaged which is
an advantage in case of expensive alloys.
The trepanning tool is essentially a tube with one end fixed with a Spindle
shank and the other end consists of a tool bit wider than the width of
the tool to provide the clearance. Similar to gun drilling cutting fluid
is introduced around the tool and the chip and spent fluid evacuates
through the tool’s centre. The cutting fluid flow rate increases as the
tool advances into the work material. For re-circulating the cutting
fluid it has to be filtered to remove all the chips with a fine mesh
Tool
and cooled to improve the efficiency of machining. For this purpose
the coolant tank is larger than that used in conventional machine Work piece
tools. This process can deliver tolerance on the hole diameter up to
±0.050 mm and surface finishes from 2 to 3 μm. Fig. 8.12 Thin sheet trepanning
operation
8.3 reamIng
Reamer is a multi-tooth cutter, which rotates and Table 8.9 Limits of tolerance on reaming
moves linearly into an already existing hole. The
Diameter, mm Limits of Tolerance, mm
previous operation could be drilling or prefera-
bly boring. Reaming will provide smooth surface High (+) Low (–)
as well as close tolerance on the diameter of the 1 to 3 0.009 0.002
hole. Generally the reamer follows the already 3 to 6 0.012 0.004
existing hole and therefore will not be able to 6 to 10 0.015 0.006
correct the hole misalignment. Typical geometry
10 to 18 0.018 0.007
of a reamer along with its nomenclature is shown
in Fig. 8.13. Typical limits of tolerances that can 18 to 30 0.021 0.008
be obtained by reaming are given in Table 8.9, 30 to 50 0.025 0.009
which can be used for process selection purpose. 50 to 80 0.030 0.011
A reamer is more like a form tool, since 80 to 120 0.035 0.013
the cylindrical shape and size of the reamer is
reproduced in the hole. In reaming very little
material is removed. The normal reaming Table 8.10 Reaming allowances
allowances are shown in Table 8.10. At the Size of Stock Allowance, mm
bottom of the reamer the flutes (cutting edges) Reamed Hole, When Predrilled When Precore Drilled
are made slightly tapered to facilitate its entry mm
into the existing hole. Generally the reamer is Up to 10 0.30 0.20
expected to cut from the sides and not from the 10 to 14 0.40 0.25
end. These are most suitable for reaming through 14 to 18 0.50 0.25
holes. However for reaming blind holes with flat
18 to 30 0.50 0.30
bottom, special end cutting reamers that look
similar to end mills will have to be used. They 30 to 50 1.00 0.40
have the cutting edges also formed in the end.
The reamer flutes are either straight or helical. The helical flutes promote smoother cutting and should be
used specifically for the holes that are not continuous such as those with keyways parallel to the axis of the
hole. The cutting action of the helical flutes is smoother and helps in preventing chatter, which is likely in
view of the large area of contact between the tool and the work piece.
The reamers are termed as left hand or right, depending upon the direction in which they are moved,
starting from the shank to the cutting portion. Also the reamer as it is rotated to the right advances towards
Overall length
Shank length
Tang
Taper shank
Flute length
Overall length
Shank Length Neck Flute length Neck Pilot
guide Starting
taper
Axis
the cutting portion and is termed as the right hand helix. The reverse is termed as the left hand helix. The right
hand reamer with right hand helix is used for roughing cuts, since the tool tends to go into the work piece
more efficiently and thereby promote the material removal. Similarly a right hand reamer with left-hand
flutes is used for finishing cuts.
Since the reamer follows the already existing hole, Table 8.11 Cutting speeds for reaming
any misalignment present in the hole is likely to break
Work Material Cutting Speed, m/min
the reamer if mounted in the conventional spindle.
Hence floating reamer holder is used between the Aluminium and its alloys 45–70
machine spindle and the reamer to adjust for any small Brass 45–70
misalignment between the spindle axis and hole axis. Bronze 15–20
The cutting speeds used in reaming are relatively Cast iron, soft 20–35
small and the feeds generally large compared to an
Cast iron, hard 15–20
equivalent drilling operation to assure the required
surface finish. Suggested cutting speeds are given in Steel low carbon 15–20
Table 8.11. Steel medium carbon 12–15
Since reaming is used essentially to achieve a good Steel high carbon 10–12
surface finish along with high dimensional tolerance, Steel alloy 10–12
use of cutting fluids is essential. Suggested cutting fluids
Stainless steel 5–20
for different work materials are given in Table 8.12.
Chatter is often caused in reaming due to the lack of rigidity in the operation. To reduce the chatter,
reduce the cutting speed, increase the feed rate, add a chamfer to the hole being reamed to facilitate the easier
entrance of the reamer, or use a reamer with a pilot. The work piece should be properly supported during the
reaming operation, otherwise over sized holes will be produced. If the reamer axis is misaligned with the axis
of the hole, a bell mouthed hole will result.
Work piece
using the multiple point cutting tools in addition to the single point tool as explained earlier. Boring with
a single point cutting tool being a semi-finishing operation very small amount of stock is left out to be
removed. Typical boring allowances are given in Table 8.13.
Major problem of boring with a boring bar with single point turning tool is lack of rigidity of the boring
bar. The size of boring bar is dictated by the size of the hole to be bored, while its length depends upon the
geometry of the bore. Typically up to a length of boring bar equal to 5 times the diameter of the bar, simple
boring bars would be able to serve the purpose. However beyond this length, chatter becomes predominant
reducing the finish of the bore produced. It is necessary to use special damped boring bars for boring above
this range.
Different spindles are available depending upon the power and speed requirements of the different
operations planned. The headstock also provides a station on which other attachments can be mounted.
The spindle feed and hand feed controls are contained in the headstock.
● Column: The headstock is supported by the column and guides it up and down accurately by means
of guideways. Columns are attached to bases. Some columns are stationary while others move with
their bases.
● Column base: This base supports and secures the column. It houses the various gear and driving
mechanisms.
● End-support column: An additional column is sometimes required for operations that involve the use
of long boring bars or heavy tools. An outboard bearing in this column is utilized to support the end of
the bar. This is also called backrest.
● Runways: These are used to carry the main column and end-support column in some machines.
● Table and saddle: It is provided for locating and clamping work piece. The table has accurate
guideways to move the table in two perpendicular directions (X and Y in horizontal plane).
● Bed: Similar to the bed for heavy machine tools to support most of the machine tool parts.
● Floor plate: Similar to a stationary bed and is provided with T-slots for mounting work piece.
● Cross rail: The cross rail is similar to the cross rail of a planer.
Table-type horizontal boring machine (Fig. 8.15): This is the most common boring machine seen in the ma-
chine shops. As can be seen in Fig. 8.15 it has a headstock, column, column base, table, saddle, end support,
and bed.
End support
Column
Spindle
Table Headstock
Saddle
Bed
Floor-type horizontal boring machine (Fig. 8.16): This is normally used for very large work pieces. It has a
headstock, column, column base, runway, end support, end-support runway, and floor plate to accommodate
large work pieces. Because of the heavy nature of the work pieces machined on this machine they remain
stationary while the spindle and its support are traversed along the runway past the work.
End support
Column
Spindle
Runway
Planer-type horizontal boring machine (Fig. 8.17): The table in this machine is similar to a planer with
reciprocating table. It has a headstock, column, runway, end support, end-support run-way, table, and bed.
Guideways for reciprocating are provided in the bed. This machine is used for long work where exceptional
rigidity is required. The tool remains stationary while the work moves past the tool.
End support
Column
Spindle
Table Headstock
Multiple-head-type horizontal boring machine (Fig. 8.18): This type of machine has multiple units of head-
stock (two to four), two columns with a cross rail, bed, and table. This machine looks and works like a planer-
miller described in chapter 6. All the headstocks have the capability of swivelling for angular cuts. Because
of the way the headstocks are positioned it can do both vertical and horizontal boring, and milling.
Column Column
Cross rail
Spindle
Bed
Tools Used
On horizontal boring machines practically all hole making operations such as reaming, counter boring, and
tapping can be done in addition to boring. Regular boring bars as well as stub boring bars are used depend-
ing upon the hole geometry to be bored. Work always remains stationary while the tool is rotated to remove
the metal. For enlarging holes which are close to the column offset boring bars are used. The offset boring
bars are adjustable by means of a dovetail slide, and are provided with a fine graduate scale. The tool can be
moved outward by a precise amount and clamped in any position depending upon the diameter to be bored.
To reduce the machining time, regular boring bars have several slots to add multiple single point tools in
sequence. These can be used for roughing, semi-finish and finish tools all in a single setup. Also all types of
milling cutters can be used.
Cross rail
Tool head
Table
Bed
8.4.4 Jig Boring Machine Fig. 8.20 Schematic of a Vertical Turret Lathe
A jig boring machine (Fig. 8.21) is similar to a vertical
axis milling machine (Chapter 7) with the table closer Spindle head
to the floor and built with heavy, rigid and accurate
construction. Table and saddle are mounted on the Column
rigid bed that provide the necessary two axes (X and
Quill
Y) movement for the work piece. A massive column
supports all the necessary drives to provide power to
the spindle. To provide the Z-axis movement the spindle Spindle housing
moves inside a quill which is rigidly supported by the Spindle
spindle head. The quill can also move vertically thereby
providing a telescoping movement with added rigidity
to extend the range of Z-axis movements for the tool. All
the mechanisms involved in the three axes movement Table
are manufactured under extremely careful and exacting Saddle
conditions so that there will be no motion lost during
tool movement. The materials for the housing are also Bed
carefully chosen so that thermal expansions due to the Fig. 8.21 Schematic of a Jig Boring Machine
changes in temperature are minimized. The jig boring
machine must be rugged enough for heavy cuts while remaining sensitive enough for light cuts. Accurate
system of measurement is provided in jig boring machines for locating the tool positions precisely.
8.5 tappIng
In chapter 4 we discussed the machining of screw threads using a single point tool in a lathe. A faster way of
producing internal holes is by the use of tapping operation. A tap is a multi-fluted cutting tool with cutting
edges on each blade resembling the shape of threads to be cut. A tap of the required size is to be used after
carrying out the pre-drilling operations. The tapping drill sizes for ISO metric threads are given in Table 8.15.
Similar tables can be seen for other forms of threads from the handbooks. Important features of the taps are
shown in Fig. 8.22.
Overall length
Shank length Thread length
Size of Core dia
square Length
of SQ Axis Chamfer
Chamfer
relief
Point
dia
Flute
Shank dia 90° Thread lead External centres
angle Internal centre
Pitch
Tap crest
Basic crest
Land Tangential
measurement
Hook angle
(chordal
measurement)
Zero rake
Negative Positive
rake angle rake angle
Fig. 8.22 Important features of a tap
The cutting edges being of the same shape as that of the Table 8.15 Recommended cutting speeds
thread to be machined, the helical angle forces the chips to to be used in tapping
be moved ahead through the flutes. The flutes therefore are Material Tapping Speed, m/min
straight increasing the strength of the tap.
Aluminium 15 to 50
Tap is basically a form tool and therefore care has to
be taken while re-grinding to maintain the form as well as Brass 15 to 75
dimensions. The leading end of the tap is tapered as shown Bronze 15 to 35
in Fig. 8.15 to help in starting the tap and to distribute the Cast iron 15 to 35
majority of the cutting action over a number of threads. Copper 10 to 20
This type of tap is used for tapping through holes only. For
Magnesium 25 to 65
blind holes requiring a flat bottom, special bottoming taps
without taper have to be used. Malleable iron 10 to 20
While tapping, care has to be taken to see that the tap is Steel free machining 13 to 25
started in proper alignment with the hole. Once started, the Stainless steel 2 to 10
tap is automatically drawn into the hole by the threads and Zinc 20 to 50
hence it should not be forced in. Sometimes it may become
necessary to reverse the tap slightly to break the chips and clear the chip space and then continue in the
normal way. Use of copious quantity of cutting fluid is essential since tapping is a heavy and slow material
removal operation.
Tapping speeds used are generally smaller compared to drilling in view of the large feeds that are used.
Typical tapping speeds are given in Table 8.15. These are considered as the starting values, and if any problem
is noticed during the tapping operation, they need to be adjusted based on the problem. The speed need to
be lowered as the length of the hole increases because of the problem of the chip removal and their potential
ability to get welded to the tap, thereby reducing its cutting ability.
For machine tapping the tap should be held in a floating holder to allow for sufficient flexibility for the tap
to follow the existing hole. The tap should be rotated in the reverse direction to extract it from the hole after
completing the tapping operation.
Generally the speeds and feeds used for counter boring are slightly smaller than those used for the
corresponding drilling operation. Typical starting values for cutting speed are given in Table 8.16, while the
recommended feeds are given in Table 8.17.
Spot Facing
Spot facing is similar to the counter boring, but removes only a very
small portion of material around the existing hole to provide a flat
surface square to the hole axis. This is normally done to provide a
bearing surface for a a-washer or a nut or the head of a bolt. This has
to be done only in cases where the existing surface is not smooth.
The tool used can be same as that for counter boring or the tool as
shown in Fig. 8.17.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to spot face a surface that is not
accessible from the outside. For this purpose inverted spot facers are
developed. These have the cutting portion that can be easily attached
to the holder as shown in Fig. 8.18. First the holder is passed through
the hole then the spot facer is attached at the end. After completing
the operation, the spot facer is removed and the holder is taken out.
Counter Sinking
Counter sinking is also similar to counter boring; except that the Fig. 8.25 Inverse spot facing
additional machining done on a hole is conical to accommodate the application
counter sunk machine screw head as shown in Fig. 8.25. Again the
depth of counter sinking should be large enough to accommodate the screw head fully flush with the surface.
summary
There are a large number of hole making operations depending upon the geometry of the hole to be made.
● Drilling is the most common hole making operation.
● Twist drill geometry with two cutting lips arranged helically around the central web acts as the main
● Tapping is used to make inside threads where a finished hole is already present.
● Tapping is an operation using slow cutting speeds.
● Counter boring, spot facing and counter sinking are the other operations that are used to finish the
Q u e s t io ns
8.1 Explain the different types of hole types and the processes used for manufacturing them.
8.2 Explain briefly the construction of a radial drilling machine with emphasis on how the requisite
motions are obtained.
8.3 Explain different types of drilling machines that are used in machine shops and their features.
8.4 Show with sketches the principal features of any three hole making operations you are familiar with
along with the tools used.
8.5 Show with neat sketches the constructional features of a twist drill and label the important features.
8.6 Explain briefly the construction of a drill press with emphasis on how the requisite motions are
obtained.
8.7 What are the different types of drills used? Explain the function of each of the type of drill.
8.8 Define cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut as they are referred to drilling and explain how machining
time in drilling is calculated.
8.9 Write a brief note on deep hole drilling operation.
8.10 Describe (a) Gang Drilling, and (b) Multiple spindle drilling operations.
8.11 Discuss about the problems faced in drilling operation with their causes and possible remedies.
8.12 Show with neat sketches the constructional features of a hand reamer and label the important features.
8.13 Explain the following terms related to reamers; a) left and right hand reamers, and (b) left hand and
right hand helix in reamers. Explain their applications.
8.14 Is it possible to correct an out-of-round hole with a reamer? If not give reasons. If possible specify the
type of reamer used for the purpose.
Pro b le ms
8.1 A series of 5 mm holes (total number 6) are to be drilled in a circle of 150 mm diameter on a 6 mm
glass sheet. Describe the method of manufacture to be used with a neat sketch of the setup. What are
the process variables to be controlled giving their effect on the final hole quality and the production
rate? [Normal drilling cannot be done but use USM]
8.2 A hole of 25 mm diameter and 35 mm deep is to be drilled in mild steel component. The cutting speed
can be taken as 35 m/min and the feed rate as 0.20 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time and the
material removal rate. [0.511 minutes, 43 197 mm3/min]
Calculate the drilling torque and thrust force acting in the above example.
[969.373 N mm, 686.35 N]
In C40 steel sheet of 25 mm thickness, 3 holes of 15 mm diameter are to be drilled. The cutting speed
can be taken as 30 m/min and the feed rate as 0.15 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time and the
material removal rate. [0.6984 minutes, 16 700 mm3/min]
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
8.1 Back taper is provided on a drill to 8.3 Helix angle of a drill is
(a) Increase the strength of the drill (a) The angle between the leading edge of
(b) Provide longitudinal clearance the land and the axis of the drill
(c) Decrease the cutting thrust (b) The angle between the face and the line
(d) Decrease the cost of the drill parallel to the drill axis
8.2 Axial rake angle of a drill is (c) The angle formed by the portion of the
(a) The angle between the leading edge of flank adjacent to the land and a plane at
the land and the axis of the drill right angles to the drill axis
(b) The angle between the face and the line (d) None of the above
parallel to the drill axis 8.4 The lip clearance angle of a drill is
(c) The angle formed by the portion of the (a) The angle between the leading edge of
flank adjacent to the land and a plane at the land and the axis of the drill
right angles to the drill axis (b) The angle between the face and the line
(d) None of the above parallel to the drill axis
(c) The angle formed by the portion of the 8.9 The cause for very poor surface finish of the
flank adjacent to the land and a plane at hole being drilled is
right angles to the drill axis (a) Point improperly ground
(d) None of the above (b) High feed rate
8.5 The lip angle used in a drill for common (c) Fixture not rigid
drilling applications is (d) All of the above
(a) 128º 8.10 The machining operation used to enlarge an
(b) 136º existing hole is termed as
(c) 118º (a) Drilling
(d) 125º (b) Boring
8.6 The following type of drill cannot be used for (c) Counter sinking
drilling into a solid material (can only enlarge (d) Reaming
an existing hole) 8.11 Boring operation is used for
(a) Twist drill (a) Drilling a hole
(b) Core drill (b) Enlarging a hole
(c) Spade drill (c) Drilling a stepped hole in solid material
(d) Oil hole drill (d) None of the above
8.7 A 15 mm through hole is to be drilled in a 8.12 The operation to be used for obtaining smooth
mild steel plate of 20 mm thickness. Take the and close toleranced hole is
over travel of the drill as 5 mm. What is the (a) Drilling
drilling time if the feed rate is 125 mm/min. (b) Reaming
(a) 2 min (c) Tapping
(b) 0.2 min (d) Gun drilling
(c) 0.02 min 8.13 The type of reamer used for rough reaming
(d) 0.1 min operation is
8.8 The cause for experiencing a lot of drill (a) Left hand reamer with right hand helix
chatter (large vibrations) (b) Right hand reamer with left hand helix
(a) Loose moving parts of the machine (c) Right hand reamer with right hand helix
(b) Reduce overhang (d) None of the above
(c) Fixture not properly clamped
(d) All of the above
Answers to MCQs
8.1 (b) 8.2 (b) 8.3 (a) 8.4 (c) 8.5 (c)
8.6 (b) 8.7 (b) 8.8 (d) 8.9 (d) 8.10 (b)
8.11 (b) 8.12 (b) 8.13 (c)
9.1 IntroductIon
Grinding is a process carried out with a grinding wheel made up of abrasive grains for removing very fine
quantities of material from the work piece surface. The required size of abrasive grains are thoroughly mixed
with the bonding material and then pressed into a disc shape of given diameter and thickness. This can be
compared to a milling process with an infinite number of cutting edges.
Grinding is a process used for
● Machining materials which are too hard for other machining processes such as tool and die steels and
hardened steel materials,
● Close dimensional accuracy of the order of 0.3 to 0.5 mm, and
The depth of cut taken by each of the grain is very small. However, a large number of grits act simultaneously,
hence the material removed is large. Also cutting speeds employed are large. Chips produced as a result are
very small and are red hot. Often they get welded easily to the abrasive grain or to the work piece. Thus the
grinding process is a very inefficient one compared to the conventional metal cutting processes.
Specific energy of grinding ª 50 J/mm3
Specific energy of other processes ª 2 to 5 J/mm3
● Diamond
and nickel base and cobalt based super alloys. CBN grains have 55 times higher thermal conductivity, four
times higher the abrasive resistance and twice the hardness of the aluminum oxide abrasives. They can retain
their strength above 10,000°C. CBN is very expensive, 10 to 20 times that of the conventional abrasive such
as aluminium oxide.
Diamond
Diamond is the hardest known (Knoop hardness ~ 8000 kg/mm2) material that can be used as a cutting tool
material. It has very high chemical resistance along with low coefficient of thermal expansion. Also it is inert
towards iron.
Coarse grains are good for higher material removal rates. These have better friability and as a result are
not good for intermittent grinding where they are likely to chip easily.
9.2.3 Bond
The function of the bond is to keep the abrasive grains together under the action of the grinding forces. The
commonly used bond materials are:
● Vitrified
● Silicate
● Synthetic resin
● Rubber
● Shellac
● Metal
Vitrified
This is the most commonly used bond. The bond is actually clay mixed with fluxes such as feldspar, which
hardens to a glass like substance on firing to a temperature of about 1250°C and develops the strength. This
bond is strong, rigid and porous, and not affected by fluids. However, this bond is brittle and hence sensitive
to impacts. This bond is also called ceramic bond.
Silicate
This is sodium silicate (NaSiO3) or water glass and hardens when heated. Not as strong as vitrified. This can
be used in operations that generate less heat. It is affected by dampness but less sensitive to shocks. Relatively
less used.
Rubber
Of all the bonds used, this is the most flexible. The bond is made up of natural or synthetic rubber. The
strength is developed with vulcanisation. This has high strength and is less porous. This bond is affected
by dampness and alkaline solutions. Generally used for cutting off wheels, regulating wheels in centre less
grinding and for polishing wheels.
Shellac
This is relatively less used bond. Used generally for getting very high finish. Typical applications are rolls,
cutlery, and cam shaft finishing.
Metal
This is used in the manufacture of diamond and CBN wheels. The wheel can be made of any high thermal
conductive metal such as copper alloys or aluminium alloys. The periphery of the wheel up to a small depth
of the order of 5 mm or less contains the abrasive grit. The choice of the metal depends on the required
strength, rigidity and dimensional stability. In view of the strong bond, the grit will not be knocked out till it
is fully utilised. Powder metallurgy techniques are used to make the abrasive periphery.
9.2.4 Grade
It is also called the hardness of the wheel. This designates the force holding the grains. The grade of a wheel
depends on the kind of bond, structure of wheel and amount of abrasive grains. Greater bond content and
strong bond results in harder grinding wheel. Harder wheels hold the abrasive grains till the grinding force
increases to a great extent. The grade is denoted by letter grades as indicated in Fig. 9.1.
Soft wheels are generally used for hard materials and hard wheels are used for soft materials. While
grinding hard materials the grit is likely to become dull quickly thereby increasing the grinding force, which
tend to knock of the dull abrasive grains. This keeps the grinding wheel in sharp condition. In contrast the hard
grinding wheel while grinding soft materials will be able to retain the grit for longer periods thus improving
the material removal. Typical suggested wheel hardnesses for various materials are shown in Table 9.4.
9.2.5 Structure
The structure of a grinding wheel represents the grain spacing. It can be open or dense and is shown in
Fig. 9.2 conceptually. It is generally denoted by numbers as shown in Fig. 9.1. The spacing between the
grains allows for chips to collect as shown schematically in Fig. 9.3. This helps avoiding the loading of the
grinding wheel. Open structures are used for high stock removal and consequently produce rough finish.
Dense structures are used for precision forms and profile grinding.
Fig. 9.3 Illustration showing how the spaces between grit help in clearing the grinding chips
The grinding wheel marking system should be able to specify the abrasive used, grain size, grade, structure
and bond used in the sequence as shown in Fig. 9.1.
Typical grinding wheel selections are given in Table 9.5.
Type 1 Straight
Type 2 Cylinder
Type 1 Cut-off
Type 12 Dish
Type 13 Saucer
the straight shape, shown as type 1 in Fig. 9.4 which is used for a variety of cylindrical grinding applications.
The type 1 wheel will have further modification of the end shape as shown in Fig. 9.5 to suit specific appli-
cations. The cylinder shown as type 2 is used for grinding flat surfaces. Similarly the flaring cup is used for
grinding the cutting tools.
T T
45°
90° 65° 60° R 60° 60° R
R = 0.3 T
T
R=
2
R R
R R T
23° 23°
65° 65° 80° 60° 60°
S R
T T
T
T T T R=T
R=æ R=æ R=æ
8 8 8
T
S=æ
3
Fig. 9.5 Various faces of grinding wheel form for the straight (Type 1) wheel shown in Fig. 9.4
In static balancing the grinding wheel is rotated on an arbour and the balance weights adjusted until the
wheel no longer stops its rotation in any one specific position. To do this the balance weights are removed
and the wheel is kept on the balancing ways. The wheel is allowed to rotate such that the heavier portion
of the wheel settles at rest. Place a chalk mark at the heavier portion (bottom most point). Try to rotate the
wheel slightly and see where the wheel is resting. The chalk mark should always point to the bottom, which
confirms that the heaviest portion is identified. Two weights are now inserted such that they are equidistant
from the heavy mark and slightly above the horizontal mark in that position as shown in Fig. 9.6(a). If the
wheel stops again at the same point, then move the weights closer. If the wheel stops in the opposite direction,
move the weights further apart. It should be possible to find a point of proper balance by repeating this
process. If it is not possible by any combination to find a balance, then add more balance weights as shown in
Fig. 9.6(b).
Horizontal Horizontal
marks marks
Wheel
mount Wheel mount
Heavy mark Heavy mark
(a) (b)
Wheel
Diamond should rotation
be located about 6 mm
left of vertical Diamond
centre line holder
Diamond at Magnetic
15° angle Chuck
Fig. 9.7 Truing of a Grinding wheel using a diamond dresser on a surface grinder
Wheel
Centre of work
above centres
of wheels
Regulating
wheel
Work
Grinding wheel rest
(c) Centreless grinding
Grinding
wheel
movement
Infeed
Work
movement
Work piece
Wheel spindle traverse
Work centres
Fig. 9.9 Cylindrical Grinding operation
Wheel speed
Work speed
Work speed
Wheel speed
Wheel speed
Cross-feed
In-feed
Infeed
Work
Regulating wheel
Grinding wheel
Grinding wheel
Regulating wheel
(b) (c)
Fig. 9.12 Centre less Grinding operations; (a) Through feed, (b) in feed and (c) end feed
supported by the rest blade and held against the regulating wheel by the grinding force. As a result the work
rotates at the same surface speed as that of the regulating wheel. The regulating wheel is generally a rubber
or resinoid bonded wheel with wide face. The axial feed of the work piece is controlled by the angle of tilt of
the regulating wheel. Typical work speeds are about 10 to 50 m/min.
There are three types of centre less grinding operations possible as shown in Fig. 9.12. They are
(a) Through feed centre less grinding Fig. 9.12(a) as described above.
(b) In feed centre less grinding shown in Fig. 9.12(b), where the grinding is done only by plunge feeding
so that any form surface could be produced. This is useful if the work piece has an obstruction which
will not allow it to traverse past the grinding wheel. The obstruction could be a shoulder, head, round
form, etc. The work piece will be loaded into the machine while the work rest blade and the regulating
wheel are withdrawn.
(c) End feed centre less grinding shown in Fig. 9.12(c), where tapered work pieces can be machined.
Advantages of centre less grinding
1. There is no need for having and maintaining centres and centre holes.
2. Work pieces can be loaded and unloaded from the machine rapidly. Grinding is almost continuous for
through feed grinding.
3. Backing up the work piece by the regulating wheel and work rest blade practically eliminates any
deflection of the work piece. This permits maximum material removal rates.
4. Minimum wear is observed in view of the large grinding wheels used. This minimises the adjustments
needed for staying within dimensional tolerances and maximises the periods of time between wheel
dressings.
5. Work pieces may often be loaded into the machine by the automatic feeding devices.
6. Less grinding allowance may be required, because the out-of-roundness is corrected across the
diameter rather than the radius.
Limitations of centre less grinding
1. Setup time for a centre less grinding operation is usually large.
2. This process is useful only for large volume production. It may be necessary to have special equipment
and additional setup time for special profiles.
3. This process is not suitable for large work piece sizes.
CF = D sin q (3)
2
Using Eq. 2, Eq. 3 may be written as
Ê Dˆ È d ¸ ˘
2 2
Ï
CF = Á ˜ Í 1 - Ì1 -
2
˝ ˙ (4)
Ë 2¯ Î Ó D /2 ˛ ˚
Or
CF = Dd - d 2 (5)
l = Arc length of BC ª Chord length BC
l = BC = CF 2 + d 2 = Dd (6)
The shape of the chip can be approximated as shown in Fig. 9.15. In that case
2
d Êdˆ
t = CE sin q = 2 CE - (7)
D ÁË D ˜¯
2 E
Êdˆ
From this, Á ˜ can be neglected, as d/D is very small.
Ë D¯ t
CE is the distance moved by the table during the time the grinding wheel
C q G B
makes 1/K revolutions.
Fig. 9.15
K is the number of abrasive grains on the surface.
vt
CE = (8)
KN
where, vt = Table speed, and
N = Grinding wheel rpm.
Hence,
2 vt d
t= (9)
KN D
If there are C grains per cutting unit square of the surface of the wheel, and if the average width of each cut
is b, then
K = p DbC (10)
2 vt d
t= (11)
bC Vw D
It is possible to show for cylindrical grinding case, the expression would be as follows:
4 vt d d
t= ± (12)
bc Vw + vt D Dw
where
+ for external grinding
– for internal grinding
Dw = Work diameter
As t increases the grinding force increases which increase the wheel wear. This is equivalent to SOFT grade
of the grinding wheel.
Let us now consider an example to get an idea of the quantities involved.
vt = 30 m/min
Vw = 1800 m/min = 30 m/s
b = 0.1 mm
C = 2 (generally from 0.1 to 10 per mm2)
d = 0.05 mm
D = 200 mm
● In feed
● area of contact
As can be seen from the above equations, as the wheel speed is increased, wheel wear as well as the size
of the chips produced is reduced. The general range of values is from 20 to 40 m/s.
As the work speed is increased, wheel wear is increased while the heat produced is reduced. The general
range of values is from 10 to 20 m/min.
As the in feed is increased, wheel wear is increased while the surface finish deteriorates.
The traverse feed is specified as a fraction of the width of the wheel. As the work speed is increased, wheel
wear is increased while the surface finish deteriorates. The general range of values is from 1/2 to 3/4 of wheel
width for steels while for cast irons from 3/4 to 5/6 of wheel width.
In surface grinding the stock removal rate, Q is given by
Q = bdv
In the case of cylindrical grinding it is
Q = 2pRwdf
where d = depth of cut
v = work velocity for surface grinding
b = width of cut for surface grinding
f = wheel traverse velocity (feed rate)
Rw = Work radius
The above equations apply provided the wheel does not wear too rapidly, so that d remains constant.
where Fh = the average horizontal force (tangential to the grinding wheel for the small cuts taken during
grinding) and V is the grinding wheel peripheral velocity.
The specific energy in grinding has been found to be higher than that for single point tool processes by a
factor of about 10. This may be explained from the concept of ‘size effect’. Due to the very small undeformed
chip thickness in the case of grinding, there are few or no dislocations in the chips. Thus the deformation has
to be carried on a perfect metal by breaking the metallic bond and this requires more grinding forces.
● Work speed
● Traverse speed
● In feed
● Area of contact
The recommended grinding wheel speeds based on the type of operation are given in Table 9.8. Similarly
the suggested work speeds for various work materials are given in Table 9.9.
Depth of
cut
Cross feed
N D
Feed, f
Grinding
wheel Work piece
Fig. 9.16 Grinding operation
This value is very small since the depth of cut, d is very small in grinding. However, to allow for the
table reversal at each end of the table stroke, the radius of the grinding wheel is assumed as the approach
allowance. Thus
Length + Diameter
Time for one pass =
Table feed rate
Width
Number of passes required =
Infeed rate
Example 9.1
Using a horizontal axis surface grinder a flat surface of C65 steel of size 100 X 250 mm is to be ground. The
grinding wheel used is 250 mm in diameter with a thickness of 20 mm. Calculate the grinding time required.
Assume a table speed of 10 m/min and wheel speed of 20 m/s.
1000 ¥ 20 ¥ 60
Solution The rpm of the grinding wheel = = 1528 rpm
p ¥ 250
Let approach distance = 125 mm
250 + 250
Time for one pass = = 0.05 minutes
10 ¥ 1000
Assuming an in feed rate of 5 mm/pass
Number of passes required = 100/5 = 20
Total grinding time = 20 ¥ 0.05 = 1 minute.
Fig. 9.17 shows the situation of a surface grinding operation using a vertical axis machine.
Control of
depth of cut
Grinding
wheel
Depth of
cut
Work piece
D Feed, f
A = W (D -W ) for W < D
2
Where W = width of cut
Example 9.2
For the above example, if vertical axis surface grinder is to be used, calculate the grinding time. The wheel
to be used is 200 mm in diameter with a wheel thickness of 20 mm.
Solution Given, W = 100 mm, and D = 200 mm
Approach distance, A = 100 mm
250 + 200
Total machining time = = 0.045 minutes
10 ¥ 1000
Hard Soft
wheel wheel
Cutting
fluid jet
High-volume
cutting fluid
Depth
of cut
Fast Slow
Depth
of cut
The cutting forces and consequently the power required increases in the case of creep feed grinding,
but has a favourable G-ratio. It is necessary to continuously dress the grinding wheel (to reduce the wheel
dullness) for efficient operation. This however causes wheel wear and the necessity to adjust the wheel
head.
Use soft and open wheels to take care of the wheel dressing and accommodate large volume of chips
generated in the process. The grinding wheel speeds used are also low of the order of 18 m/s compared to the
30 m/s used in the conventional grinding operations. Also the in feed rates used are low of the order of 0.005
mm/pass. The grinding fluids used are oil based in view of the low grinding speeds employed. However,
the volume of grinding fluid is much more compared to the conventional grinding, in view of the high heats
generated in the process. It is possible to achieve higher material removal rates by employing continuous
dressing of the grinding wheel using a diamond dresser wheel as shown in Fig. 9.19.
Diamond-
dressing Soft wheel
wheel
High-volume
cutting fluid
Depth
of cut
Fast
9.7 honInG
Honing is a low abrading process using bonded abrasive sticks (Fig. 9.20) for removing stock from metallic
and non-metallic surfaces. However, it can also be used for external cylindrical surfaces as well as flat surfaces,
for which it is rarely used. Commonly it is used for internal surfaces. This is an operation performed as the
final operation to correct the errors that result from the previous machining operations. The characteristics
that can be achieved by the honing process are:
● Correction of geometrical accuracy
■ Out of roundness
■ Taper
■ Axial distortion
● Dimensional accuracy
● A finish surface pattern is generated by the characteristic motion of the abrasive grains that provide the
Hole wall
Work
Abrasive grains are bonded in the form of sticks by a vitreous or resin material and the sticks are presented
to the work so that their full cutting forces are in contact with the work surfaces. Since a large number of
abrasive grains are presented to the work surface simultaneously, substantial material removal takes place.
For cylindrical surfaces the abrasive grains are given a combination of two motions - rotation and
reciprocation. The resultant motion of the grains is a cross hatch lay pattern as shown in Fig. 9.21 with an
included angle of 20 to 60°.
Driver Over-run
Working stroke
Abrasive
sticks
C of work
(ii) scratch pattern for (i) superimposed
(a) (b)
The abrasive grains put more pressure on the high spots. After the crests are removed, the bore is made
straight. Since a large number of grains are in contact with the total surface, uniform surface finish is obtained.
Also the honing force and temperature are never concentrated at any one point. This results in less surface
damage compared to other machining processes.
9.8 lappInG
Lapping is generally the final finishing operation done with loose abrasive grains. The process is employed
to get
● Extreme accuracy of dimension
In order to achieve uniform abrasion of the work surface, it is necessary to ensure that all the points on the
work are subjected to the same amount of abrading by careful manipulation of the lap. For this purpose the
manual lap is moved in a figure 8 fashion as shown in Fig. 9.22.
Force Abrasive in a
vehicle
work piece Abrasive in a vehicle
Lap
Figure-eight
type of motion
Lapping
plate
Special lubricants generally called vehicles are used during the lapping process. The desirable properties
of fluids used as vehicles are:
1. Abrasive should be held in uniform suspension during the operation.
2. It should not evaporate easily.
3. It should be non-corrosive.
4. It can be easily removed by normal cleaning.
The materials which satisfy the above criteria are water soluble cutting fluids, vegetable oils, mineral oils
and greases.
Lapping speed is 100 to 250 m/min. The material removed depends upon the lapping speed. Higher
lapping allowances require higher lapping speeds. The lapping pressure applied is 0.01 to 0.03 MPa for soft
materials and 0.07 MPa for hard materials. Higher pressures are likely to cause scouring of the work surface.
Lapping allowance depends on the previous operation carried and the material hardness. Typical values are
given in Table 9.13.
Lapping can be carried out on flat surfaces as well as any other forms such as cylindrical or any form
surfaces. The lap has to match the form surface required.
A few points to be noted with lapping operation are:
● It is more difficult to lap soft metals than hard metals.
● Lap should be softer than the work material.
● The hardness of the abrasive should be based on the hardness of the work material. Softer work
materials require softer abrasives and vice versa.
● The lapping medium should preferably be a little viscous to hold the abrasive so that it resists the
movement or rolling of abrasive granules to help with the removal of the material.
● The lapping medium should be used sparingly. The increase in lapping medium may increase the
material removal rate but not its ability to correct the errors in the part.
● Laps with serrations or grooves are preferable for flat surfaces with large areas while laps with no
● Reduce surface stresses and burns and thus restore surface integrity.
Oscillation
traverse if necessary Pressure
on work
Stone
Work piece Rotation
0.50
0.40
Profilometer reading mm, rms
0.30
0.20
0.10
0
0 1 2 3
Application of stone, min
Fig. 9.24 Variation of surface finish obtained with contact time in super finishing operation
Abrasive
belt
Rotary
feed
tables
Indexing
turret
This method is most suitable for flat surfaces. However, cylindrical surfaces can also be belt ground by
using a suitable contact wheel. Abrasive belt with a very fine grit may be used for polishing application.
suMMary
Grinding is a process utilising bonded abrasives to remove material from very hard surfaces, and in the
process generates good surface finish and high dimensional accuracy. It is however inefficient in material
removal consuming more energy compared to other processes such as milling.
● Grinding wheel is characterised by the type of abrasive used, as well as its size, bond used and
structure.
● Conventional abrasives such as aluminium oxide and silicon carbide are more commonly used for
a majority of grinding operations. Cubic boron nitride and diamond are more expensive and hence
are used for special applications.
● Grinding wheel need to be properly balanced before operations. Also dressing and truing are the
necessary operations carried on the grinding wheel to keep it sharp and maintain the necessary form.
● Cylindrical grinding machine is used for axi-symmetric components, while surface grinders are
used for plane surfaces. Surface grinding machines have both horizontal axis as well as vertical axis.
● Centre less grinding machines are used for large volume manufactures to get very high accuracies
chosen properly for a given operation such that faster grinding can be done for the required accuracy
and finish.
● Creep feed grinding is an operation used for large material compared to the conventional grinding
cylindrical shapes.
● Lapping is an operation used to generate extremely high surface finish on flat surfaces using loose
abrasive.
Q u e s t io ns
9.1 What are the various abrasive machining operations you are familiar with? Explain their application
and limitations.
9.2 How is grinding different from other machining operations? Explain its applications in view of its
capabilities.
9.3 What is the classification method that could be used for the grinding machine? Give the applications
of each variety of grinding machine.
9.4 How is the abrasive selected for a grinding operation? Your answer should indicate the reasons for the
selection.
9.5 What is the marking system followed in case of grinding wheels? Explain the individual elements of
the marking system from the standpoint of the functioning of the wheel.
9.6 What are the grinding process parameters that are of interest? Explain their effect on the grinding
performance and the wear rates.
9.7 Describe briefly about creep feed grinding. Mention the method along with the application and the
precautions to be taken during its operation.
9.8 What are the various types of surface grinding approaches that are possible? What would be their
individual advantages and applications? Give explanations for your reasoning.
9.9 What are the advantages and limitations of using centre less grinding?
9.10 Describe about the dressing and balancing requirement in grinding.
9.11 A high speed steel (70W18Cr4V1 variety) rod of size 50 mm diameter ¥ 250 mm long is to be
manufactured to a tolerance of j6. Describe the process to be used with a neat sketch and the suggested
process parameters to be used in the manufacturing process. If the same job is to be produced in mass
what would be the production process best suited? Explain your answer.
9.12 Describe in details the various arrangements of centre-less grinding with neat sketches. Mention the
applications in each case.
9.13 Write short note on the following:
(a) Brazed carbide tools
(b) Grade of a grinding wheel
(c) Geometry of a single point turning tool
(d) Surface grinding machines
9.14 Mention the various types of bonds used in the making of the grinding wheels. Also mention their
applications.
9.15 Write short note on the following:
(a) Lapping process
(b) Structure of a grinding wheel
9.16 Describe grinding wheel structure with the help of a neat sketch and state different bonding and
abrasive materials used in it. What would you like as an abrasive for grinding steel?
9.17 Give the specifications for the wheel to be employed for external cylindrical grinding of a shaft 50
mm diameter of steel SAE 1020?
9.18 What change in specification should be made for internal grinding of the hole of 50 mm diameter in
the same steel? Give reasons for the change suggested.
9.19 What is the marking system followed in case of grinding wheels? Explain the individual elements of
the marking system from the standpoint of the functioning of the wheel. Which grinding wheels are
used for the following applications?
(a) Rough grinding of C70 steel
(b) Finish grinding of bronze rods
(c) Cup grinding wheels for grinding single point turning tools
9.20 Specify the honing parameters to be considered for good honing practice.
9.21 Differentiate between dressing and truing along with their definitions.
9.22 Compare grinding, honing and lapping operations.
9.23 Give the advantages and limitations of honing and lapping.
Pro b le ms
9.1 A flat surface of C70 steel of size 75 ¥ 150 mm is to be ground using a vertical axis surface grinder.
The grinding wheel to be used is 200 mm diameter with a thickness of 20 mm. Calculate the machining
time required for finishing. Assume any suitable values for the grinding process parameters while
justifying. If the same surface is to be ground on a horizontal axis grinding machine with a grinding
wheel of 250 mm diameter and wheel thickness of 25 mm, what would be the grinding time? From
the two times obtained compare the performance of the two grinding machines regarding their
application. [0.6875 min, 0.244 min]
9.2 A high speed steel (70W18Cr4V1 variety) rod of size 22 mm diameter ¥ 250 mm long with a tolerance
of j6 from a bar stock of 25 mm diameter, is to be manufactured in a lot of 100. Describe the process
to be used with a neat sketch and the suggested process parameters to be used in the manufacturing
process. If the same job is to be produced in quantities of 50,000 per month, what production process
will be best suited? Explain your answer. [Cylindrical grinding]
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
9.1 Grinding is a process used for (a) Coarse
(a) Machining materials which are too hard (b) Fine
for other machining processes (c) Grain size does not affect surface finish
(b) Close dimensional accuracy (d) None of the above
(c) High degree of surface smoothness 9.6 In grinding the grade of the grinding wheel
(d) All of the above should be chosen based on the hardness of
9.2 Among the conventional machining process- the work material.
es, the most inefficient process is (a) Yes. Hard grinding wheels are chosen
(a) Turning for hard materials
(b) Grinding (b) Yes. Soft grinding wheels are chosen for
(c) Drilling hard materials
(d) Milling (c) Yes. Soft grinding wheels are chosen for
9.3 For grinding steels, the preferred abrasive is soft materials
(a) Silicon carbide (d) No. Hard grinding wheels are preferred
(b) Aluminium oxide over soft wheels for all types of materi-
(c) Diamond als
(d) Cubic boron nitride (CBN) 9.7 In a cylindrical grinding machine
9.4 For grinding non-ferrous materials, the pre- (a) Grinding wheel rotates while the work
ferred abrasive is does not rotate
(a) Silicon carbide (b) Both grinding wheel and the work rotate
(b) Aluminium oxide in the same direction and same speed
(c) Diamond (c) Both grinding wheel and the work rotate
(d) Cubic boron nitride (CBN) in the opposite directions
9.5 In grinding to get good surface finish, the (d) Both grinding wheel and the work rotate
grain size of the abrasive to be used is in the same direction but work rotates
slowly compared to the grinding wheel
9.8 The grinding machine suitable for grinding (c) Improve surface finish
large flat areas is (d) Decreased wheel wear
(a) Surface grinder with a horizontal spindle 9.14 Higher work speeds in grinding cause
and rotating table (a) Increased heat produced
(b) Surface grinder with a vertical spindle (b) Increased wheel wear
and rotating table (c) Improve surface finish
(c) Surface grinder with a horizontal spindle (d) Decreased wheel wear
and reciprocating table 9.15 The main difference between creep feed
(d) Surface grinder with a vertical spindle grinding and the conventional grinding opera-
and reciprocating table tion is
9.9 The grinding machine suitable for grinding (a) In creep feed grinding hard grinding
cylindrical work pieces without actually fix- wheels are used
ing them in the machine is (b) In creep feed grinding the entire depth of
(a) Cylindrical grinding machine cut is completed in one pass only using
(b) Surface grinding machine very small in feed rates
(c) Centre less grinding machine (c) In creep feed grinding higher feed rates
(d) Internal grinding machine are used
9.10 One of the main advantages of centre less (d) In creep feed grinding higher work
grinding is speeds are used
(a) There is no need for having and main- 9.16 The characteristics of the work piece
taining centres and centre holes produced by honing is
(b) Less grinding allowance may be re- (a) Out of roundness is corrected
quired, because the out-of-roundness is (b) Higher dimensional accuracy
corrected across the diameter rather than (c) Axial distortion is corrected
the radius. (d) All of the above
(c) Work pieces may often be loaded into 9.17 The characteristics of the work piece
the machine by the automatic feeding produced by lapping is
devices. (a) Correction of minor imperfection of
(d) All of the above shape
9.11 One of the main disadvantage of centre less (b) Extreme accuracy of dimension
grinding is (c) Close fit between mating surfaces
(a) Setup time for a centre less grinding op- (d) All of the above
eration is usually large. 9.18 The abrasive process that uses a loose
(b) Grinding allowance required is large. abrasive grit is
(c) Work pieces cannot be fed automatically (a) Honing
(d) Work piece is not properly supported (b) Lapping
9.12 Higher grinding wheel speeds cause (c) Grinding
(a) Increased chip size (d) Creep feed grinding
(b) Increased wheel wear
(c) Chip size is not affected
(d) Decreased wheel wear
9.13 Higher feed rates in grinding cause
(a) Increased chip size
(b) Increased wheel wear
Answers to MCQs
9.1 (d) 9.2 (b) 9.3 (b) 9.4 (a) 9.5 (b)
9.6 (b) 9.7 (d) 9.8 (b) 9.9 (c) 9.10 (d)
9.11 (a) 9.12 (d) 9.13 (b) 9.14 (b) 9.15 (b)
9.16 (d) 9.17 (d) 9.18 (b)
C a s e s T u dy
abrasIve Flow MachInInG (aFM)
Nearly 15% of the manufacturing cost is spent on finishing objects. Traditional finishing processes
are developed taking the part geometry into account in providing the type of motion to the finishing
tool. As a result, these processes are limited to the geometries for which it is designed and is difficult
to adopt for other geometries. Also manual finishing methods are usually difficult to automate. Further
internal features are difficult to finish by the traditional finishing methods. Small precision parts in
hard and difficult-to-machine materials such as super alloys, ceramics, refractory materials, carbides,
semiconductors, quartz, composites etc. requires special finishing methods. Abrasive Flow Machining
(AFM) was developed by Extrude Hone Corporation of USA in 1960s for such purposes. The objective
of this process is to produce nano level finish on the machined components. AFM is characterized by
high volumes of production and ease of finishing areas that are difficult to access. In this process, the
abrasive medium is passed back and forth between two opposed cylinders (Fig. 1). Abrasive action
is obtained when the flow of the medium is restricted. Performance of AFM varies with the abrasive
medium. Highly viscous fluids are used for larger passages while lower viscosities are fine for contour
finishing. AFM produces surfaces of consistent quality compared to other finishing methods. AFM
machines are available at different extrusion pressures ranging from 7-220 bar with over 380 L/min
flowrate. Productivity of the process can be improved using dies with more than one passages for
the abrasive medium. Usually, the machines with higher MRR would require some sort of cooling
mechanism.
Upper
Cylinder
Work Work
Abrasive
medium
Lower
Cylinder Piston
Piston rod
Another advantage of AFM is that only simple fixtures are sufficient. For finishing external surface,
the abrasive medium is forced between the external surface of the work piece and the internal surface
of fixture. Use of such simple fixtures makes AFM advantageous for finishing complex objects like
turbine parts. A turbine engine fuel spray nozzle when processed with AFM, the surface produced is of
highly predictable quality with very small dimensional reductions. Typically, about 90% improvement
in surface roughness is obtained with 10% reduction in stock. AFM can be used for parts with difference
sizes, typically ranging from 0.2 mm to 50 mm. AFM is used in finishing MEMS components such as
micro-channels, fuel injectors, and micro filters, ink-jet printer nozzles, as well as industrial components
such as gears. AFM offers various advantages and is well suited for the present scenario of automation.
1. Rhoades, L. (1991). Abrasive flow machining: a case study. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 28(1-2), 107-116.
10.1 Sawing
Sawing is one of the basic machining operations carried out in a narrow cutting zone through the successive
removal of chips by the teeth on a saw blade. The teeth represent the cutting edges. Each of the teeth removes
a part of the chip, which is contained in the chip space of the saw blade, till the tooth comes out of the mate-
rial as shown in Fig. 10.1.
Saw blade
Cutting
speed V Feed
Slot or kerf
Sawing is one of the most economical processes because of the removal of a very small amount of material
which consumes less power and at the same time is able to cut large sections. The process can be very easily
automated thereby reducing the labour cost as well.
Clearance
angle
Saw width
Direction of movement
for cutting
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.2 Commonly used saw tooth forms
Tooth spacing It is very important since it determines the size of teeth as well as the amount of chip space
available. Large tooth spacing gives more space for the chips as well as strong teeth. Tooth spacing also deter-
mines how many teeth are in contact with the work piece at any given time. Ideally, at least 4 teeth should be
in contact with the work piece during sawing. This problem becomes acute when dealing with the sawing of
thin stock such as pipes. If only one tooth is in contact with the work piece in such cases, there is a possibility
that the teeth may be stripped from the saw blade. Generally coarse pitch is used for wider materials and fine
pitch for narrow materials as shown in Fig. 10.3. Also for sawing softer materials coarse pitch blades are used
since they produce long chips, while fine pitch blades are used for sawing harder materials.
Fig. 10.3 Effect of saw tooth pitch while sawing materials of different widths
Tooth set This refers to the way the teeth are offset with respect to the centre line of the blade width as
shown in Fig. 10.4. The tooth set makes the saw cut, termed as kerf, wider to facilitate the easy movement of
the saw blade for cutting. The straight set as shown in (a) is used for non-ferrous materials and plastics. The
raker set is used for general purpose machining of ferrous materials. The wavy set is used in the fine pitch
tooth blades for cutting thin sheets and tubes.
Saw
set
Saw
set
Saw
set
Typical circular saw blade teeth are shown in Fig. 10.5. These consist of large disks with the teeth cut at
the periphery. Small sizes will have the teeth directly cut into the disk while the larger sizes have segmented
or inserted teeth as shown in Fig. 10.5. The teeth are made of high speed steel or tungsten carbide while the
disk is made of low alloy steel. Their metal removal rate is high and also produce smooth surface comparable
to that of slitting saws used in milling.
12° to 25°
7° to 11°
Segment
Disk
Return
Feed
Saw blade Cut
Work piece
Band Saw
These basically have a continuous band of saw blade rotated between two disks such that the cutting action
will be continuous unlike the power hack saw. Typical construction of a vertical band saw machine is shown
in Fig. 10.7. These are generally used for cutting off single stationary work pieces that can be held on to the
table of the band saw. The saw blade can be tilted up to 45° to permit cutting at any angle.
Upper wheel
idler
Cutting speed
Throat depth
Saw band
Workpiece
Table
Table may be
tilted to desired
angles as shown
The band saw operates continuously such that the cutting force is always directed against the table. This is
relatively safer compared to the hack saw and can cut work pieces without even clamping them to the table.
Contour band saw machines are similar to band sawing machines and are used for sawing of any
predefined contours in the work piece. The contour need not start from the edge of the work piece, but can
start anywhere inside the work piece. In these machines the saw band can be broken and then inserted through
a predrilled hole in the work piece. After that the blade is butt welded into a continuous circle and sawing is
completed. After completing the sawing operation, the band is again broken to remove the work piece and
the cycle continued. Also, these have swivel tables which permits angular cutting required for die blocks.
These machines are equipped with flash butt welder, annealing and grinding units for the purpose of welding
the saw blade.
Circular Saw
A typical circular sawing operation is shown in Fig. 10.8. These have the ability to run the saw at very high
cutting speeds up to about 130 m/s and large feed rates. The stock can be cut very quickly and therefore care
has to be taken for the selection of the parameters to maximise the productivity.
Saw
Work piece
Feed
10.2 Broaching
Broaching is a multiple-tooth cutting operation with the tool similar to the sawing operation described earlier.
The similarities end there, since in broaching the machining operation is completed in a single stroke as the
teeth on the cutting tool called broach, are at a gradually increasing height corresponding to the feed per tooth
of a milling cutter. The material removal using the broach teeth is shown schematically in Fig. 10.9. Here
the dotted line indicates the amount of material removed by the successive individual teeth. Using broach-
ing, Tolerances of the order of ±0.013 mm can be easily obtained. Very high surface finish is not the aim of
broaching, and as a result it is possible to get 0.80 μm with normal broaching. A better finish can be obtained
by sacrificing tool life and employing expensive fixtures.
Since each successive tooth removes only a small material at a time, the tool life of a broach is very high.
It is possible to produce 2,000 to 10,000 accurate parts with a broach, since sharpening depends on the work
piece and tool materials used.
Some typical examples of internal shapes that can be very conveniently machined by using the broaching
process are shown in Fig. 10.10.
Cut
Broach
Work piece
Tail
Pull end Root diameter Rear pilot
Roughing teeth
The last set of teeth is called the finishing or sizing teeth. Very little material will be removed by these
teeth. The necessary size will be achieved by these teeth and hence all the teeth will be of the same size as
that required finally. With the progress of time, when the first teeth wears out, then the next teeth and so on,
will be able to provide the sizing function.
The face of the tooth is ground with a certain hook (rake) angle depending upon the work piece material.
Soft steel work pieces usually require greater hook angles; hard or brittle materials, smaller hook angles. The
land is required to support the cutting edge against stresses. A slight back-off angle is ground onto the land
to reduce friction (Fig 10.11).
If the broach tooth engagement is irregular, vibrations may be caused. The depth of cut taken by each tooth
called the tooth rise is calculated so that it does not impose too great a strain on individual teeth. A large tooth
rise increases power requirements while if it is too small causes glazed or galled finish.
The pitch as shown in Fig 10.11 determines the length of cut and chip thickness that a particular broach
can handle.
The total stock, Ds to be removed is distributed among the teeth uniformly as depth of cut per tooth, DT,
and then the length of broach, LB can be given as
Ê DS ˆ
Length of broach, LB = Á + Zf ˜ P
Ë DT ¯
Where Zf = the number of teeth required for finishing the operation and is assumed to be 4 or 5 teeth.
L L
The broaching time, TB in min = +
1000 ¥ V f 1000 ¥ Vr
The pull end of the broach (Fig. 10.11) is attached to the pulling mechanism of the broaching machine with
the front pilot aligning the broach properly with respect to the work piece axis before the actual cutting starts.
The rear pilot keeps the broach in a square position, as it leaves the work piece after broaching.
Broaching speeds are relatively low of the order of 6 to 15 m/min. However the production rate is high
with the cycle times about 5 to 30 seconds including the work piece and tool handling times. The low cutting
speeds are conducive to very high tool lives with very small tool wear rates.
Broaches are generally made of high speed steel in view of its high impact strength. Sometimes the
titanium nitride coating helps to improve the tool life further. Also the carbide insert type broaches are used
for surface broaching of cast iron for very large volume production to reduce the frequent re-sharpening of
the broach, which is a very difficult operation.
Standard broaches are available for common and more often used forms such as round and square holes,
keyways, etc. These are relatively inexpensive compared to the custom designed broaches, which will have
to be used for other specific designs.
The very high cutting forces in broaching require the use of proper fixtures to support the cutting force.
Also since broaching is used for mass production, high cost of fixturing can be easily justified. The general
principles followed for broaching fixture is similar to those of other fixtures as given in Chapter 14.
Advantages of broaching
1. It is the fastest way of finishing an operation with a single stroke.
2. Since all the machining parameters are built into the broach, very little skill is required from the
operator.
3. Broaching machine is simple since only a single reciprocating motion is required for cutting.
4. Final cost of the machining operation is one of the lowest for mass production.
5. Any type of surface, internal or external, can be generated with broaching.
6. Many surfaces which are very difficult or impossible by other means can be done by broaching. For
example, square hole and internal splines can be easily produced by broaching.
7. Good surface finish and fine dimensional tolerances can be achieved by broaching, often better than
boring or reaming.
Limitations of broaching
1. Custom made broaches are very expensive and can therefore be justified only for very large volume
production.
2. A broach has to be designed for a specific application and can be used only for that application. Hence
the lead time for manufacture is more for custom designed broaches.
3. Broaching being a very heavy metal removal operation requires that the work piece is rigid and
capable of withstanding the large forces.
4. Broaching can only be carried out on the work piece whose geometry is such that there is no
interference for the broach movement for the cutting.
● The maximum length of stroke of the ram, e.g. 450 mm which provides an indication of the maximum
Sliding member
C
Broach teeth B
Work piece
material to
be removed
A
Clamp
Clamp
Broaching Work piece
fixture
Fixture
Work piece
Fixture clamps
Fixture clamps automatically
automatically locked released
Hinged bonnet
Broach
assembly
Load Drive
sprocket
45 mm
200 mm
45 mm
involute curve along which they roll and slide while transmitting the motion. An involute curve is generated
by unwinding a tautly held string from a base circle. The involute curve is chosen because it is simple, easy
to manufacture and allows the centre lines to be varied between the mating gears.
Pitch circle, which is an imaginary circle on the gear, corresponds to the diameter of the wheel. For proper
operation, the two pitch circles must be tangential at the point where the centre line connecting the two
centres of rotation intersects the pitch circle. To reduce the friction, gears are designed such that the teeth
have rolling motion rather than the sliding motion. Gear tooth size is identified as module. Some important
parameters of gears that are relevant for gear manufacture are given below. The rest of the details will be
found in gear design books.
Pitch diameter = No. of teeth ¥ module
Tooth thickness = 0.5 ¥ p ¥ module
Total depth = 2.25 ¥ module
Spur gear is the most common and easy to make. It has straight teeth on the periphery of a cylinder. It
transmits motion between two parallel shafts. A rack is a gear with infinite radius, having the teeth that lie on
a straight line. These are used for converting rotary motion to a straight line or vice versa.
Cutter
The work piece is actually mounted on the dividing head. The machining process is repeated after indexing
gear blanks by one tooth. Sometimes it may be necessary to index by more than one tooth since the work
material gets heated by the heavy material removal, which may affect the accuracy of the surface generated.
The tooth space actually depends upon the number of teeth. Accordingly a range of cutters with numbers
1 to 8 are available to cover the entire range of gears to be machined as shown in Table 10.1. This is made
possible by approximating the tooth profile by considering the fact that profile variation is relatively small
between the gears with close range teeth. For achieving closer accuracy, addition of 7 cutters to account for
the intermediate range of gears are also available, as shown in Table 10.1 in the third and fourth columns.
Though form milling of gears is relatively common process in machine shops, it is suitable for small
volume production, particular for one off quantities. With a smaller number of cutters, it is possible to
produce a large range of gears. The process is also suitable for producing spur, helical and worm gears. For
small volumes the process is economical.
However, the accuracy of the gear is dependent upon the accuracy of the dividing head as well as the
profile accuracy of the cutter for the given gear. Thus it is not to be used for very high accuracy requirements.
Further this is a slow process. Internal gears cannot be produced by this process.
each other without slipping. Since the rim of the gear blank is soft the gear teeth will be pressed and theoreti-
cally correct teeth will be formed on the gear blank. The teeth so formed will mesh with any other involute
gear of the same module regardless of the number of teeth.
In actual gear shaping operations, the gear cutter is not actually pressed but removes the material by
reciprocation similar to a vertical shaper. The gear shaper cutter, which is very similar to the gear, but the
teeth are form relieved to act as the cutting edges as shown in Fig. 10.16.
Sharpened by grinding
on this face
Base line
Identical involutes
struck from the same
base circle Outline on section
x–x x
The gear shaper cutter is mounted on a vertical ram and is rotated about its axis as it performs the
reciprocating action. The work piece is also mounted on a vertical spindle as shown in Fig. 10.16 and rotates
in mesh with the shaping cutter during the cutting operation. The relative rotary motions of the shaping cutter
and the gear blank are calculated as per the requirement and incorporated with the change gears.
The cutter will slowly move into the gear blank surface with incremental depths of cut, till it reaches the
full depth. The cutter and gear blank are separated during the return (up) stroke and comes to the correct
position during the cutting (down) stroke.
Gear shaping can cut internal gears, splines and continuous herringbone gears that cannot be cut by the
other processes. This process can also cut gears close to a shoulder with very small clearance. The length of
stroke of a gear shaper limits the maximum width of gear that can be produced. However since the approach
and over travel are small, this process is fast for narrow gears. Otherwise, the production rate of a gear shaper
is lower compared to the other generating process, i.e., gear hobbing. For producing helical gears special
oscillating motion has to be provided on a gear shaper for the reciprocating of the cutter.
The process described above is called the ‘Fellows gear shaping’ process since it is invented by E. R.
Fellows. There is another variation of the same process, termed as gear planing. In the ‘Sunderland gear
planing’ process a rack cutter is used in place of a pinion cutter, as in Fellows gear shaping. The rack will
move tangential to the gear blank while reciprocating. Since the length of the rack is limited, it needs to be
periodically indexed to bring the rack back to its starting position. This has a facility for the vertical axis
to be swivelled in the vertical plane such that single helical gears can be produced without any additional
mechanisms.
A hob may have one, two or more threads of cutting edges. When a gear blank of N teeth is cut with a
single thread hob, the blank turns a complete revolution when the hob completes N revolutions. For a multi-
threaded hob, the gear blank rotates as many times more as the number of starts. Thus a multiple threaded
hob is much faster in production compared to a single threaded hob. However, the single threaded hobs are
more accurate compared to the multi-threaded ones.
The work piece is mounted on a vertical axis and rotates about its axis. The hob is mounted on an inclined
axis whose inclination is equal to the helix angle of the hob as shown in Fig. 10.18. This brings the gear
blank teeth in the same plane as that of the gear hob teeth, which is termed as the generating plane. The hob
is rotated in synchronisation with the rotation of the blank and the hob is slowly moved into the gear blank
till the required tooth depth is reached in a plane above the gear blank. Then the hob is fed slowly in the axial
direction of the gear blank till the complete tooth face width is achieved.
Linear movement of
the theoretical rack
Theoretical rack
For hobbing helical gears, the hob is swivelled by an additional angle to the helix angle of the gear to be
made. Hobbing process though used for gears and splines more frequently, is also suitable for other shapes
such as ratchets and sprockets.
Since hobbing is a continuous process, it is fast, economical, and the most productive gear machining
process. It is also possible to mount more than one gear blank in the work axis to increase production rate.
However, this process cannot be used for machining internal gears or gears with shoulders and flanges,
because of the clearance needed for the hob.
Summary
These are some special machine tools that are used for specific applications and are not as common as the
other machine tools that were discussed so far.
● Sawing is an operation performed with a saw blade having evenly spaced teeth on the periphery. This
is the most economical operation for cutting-off of parts in view of the simplicity of the machine.
● Broaching is also similar to sawing with multi-tooth tool that reciprocates the cutting. However
broaching is used to make specific profiles of interest rather than cutting. This is mostly used for
internal details which are difficult to produce economically by other methods. This process is
suitable only for mass production in view of the high cost of the tool.
● Gear forming is used for cutting gears in small quantity. It is an approximate method of making
gears.
● Gear hobbing and shaping are the generating methods to cut accurate gears. These processes are
Q u e s t io ns
10.1 Why is sawing the most economical cutting operation?
10.2 Describe the important features of saw teeth.
10.3 What are the various types of sawing machines used in the industry? Give their applications.
10.4 Give the applications of the following from the application point of view in sawing:
(a) Tooth set, (b) Tooth spacing
10.5 What is the importance of saw tooth form with respect to the application of sawing?
10.6 What is the difference between form cutting and generation of gears with respect to the principle?
10.7 List the motions the gear milling cutter has with respect to the work piece.
10.8 What is a DP cutter? Why is it used for gear milling?
10.9 What are the characteristics of DP cutters used for involute gear cutting?
10.10 In form cutting of gear, the cutter is changed (different number for the cutter is used) whenever the
number of teeth on the gear to be produced falls in a different range. Is it true? Give the reasons for
your answer.
10.11 Give a comparison of the various gear machining methods in terms of their application, accuracy and
process.
10.12 What are the various gear manufacturing methods you are familiar with? Give brief explanation about
them.
10.13 Sketch a gear shaping cutter and label its elements.
10.14 Sketch a gear hob and label its elements.
10.15 Explain the principle of gear shaping.
10.16 Explain the principle of gear hobbing.
10.17 Compare the gear shaping and gear hobbing giving the process and product requirements.
10.18 Explain briefly the cutting action of a broach. What are the factors that contribute to the increased
production rate in broaching?
10.19 Describe the various broaching machines used in industry. List their typical applications, advantages
and limitations.
10.20 Describe about the continuous broaching machine and explain the type of component surfaces for
which it is useful.
10.21 Give a simple sketch of a broaching tool and explain various elements.
10.22 Give the reasons for robust fixtures in broaching.
10.23 What are the parameters related to a broach that are important? Explain how the length of a broach is
determined.
10.24 How is the milling cutter used for gear cutting re-sharpened?
10.25 Compare broaching operation with that of any other metal machining operation for the purpose of
generating constant inside contours. Show sketches of some example jobs done using broaching.
10.26 A hollow steel tube with 4 slots along the axis is to be machined. Specify all the possible processes to
be used for machining the internal details. Your answer should clearly indicate the application where
each of the process is applicable, with reasons.
f75.00
150
All dimensions in mm
C35 steel
All tolerances +0.050
Fig. 10.19
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
10.1 In sawing operation, the saw blade large (a) Broaching
(coarse) tooth spacing is used (b) Sawing
(a) For sawing soft materials (c) Gear hobbing
(b) For sawing hard materials (d) Slotting
(c) For thin materials 10.7 Advantage of broaching operation is
(d) For non-ferrous materials (a) It is the fastest way of finishing an op-
10.2 You need to cut a piece of 20 mm diameter eration with a single stroke.
C20 CRS steel into four equal length pieces. (b) Final cost of the machining operation is
The original stock is 550 mm long. If the saw one of the lowest for mass production.
blade produces a 1.5 mm kerf, how long will (c) Broaching can do many surfaces that
each piece of material be after cutting? are very difficult or impossible by other
(a) 137.500 mm methods. For example, square holes and
(b) 136.375 mm internal splines.
(c) 136.000 mm (d) All of the above
(d) 135.000 mm 10.8 Disadvantage of broaching operation is
10.3 In sawing operation, the saw blade with (a) It is the slowest way of finishing an op-
straight tooth set is used for eration.
(a) Ferrous materials (b) Overall cost of machining with a broach
(b) General purpose work is very high compared to other machin-
(c) Non-ferrous materials ing operations
(d) None of the above (c) Broaching can only be carried out on the
10.4 Which of the following machining operations work piece whose geometry is such that
does not utilise reciprocating action for there is no interference for the broach
cutting metal movement for the cutting.
(a) Broaching (d) Final dimensional tolerances are poor
(b) Sawing compared to other machining operations
(c) Turning 10.9 Which of the following operations produces
(d) Shaping a gear which is not very accurate
10.5 Which of the following machining opera- (a) Gear forming
tions utilises reciprocating action for cutting (b) Gear shaping
metal (c) Gear hobbing
(a) Broaching (d) Gear planing
(b) Turning 10.10 Internal gears cannot be produced by which
(c) Gear hobbing process.
(d) Milling (a) Gear shaping
10.6 Which of the following machining operations (b) Gear hobbing
can be used only with very large volume (c) Gear forming
manufacture because of the high cost of the (d) Gear planing
tooling used
10.11 Which of the following is not a gear 10.12 The process used for cutting a gear on a
generating process milling machine is called
(a) Gear shaping (a) Gear forming
(b) Gear hobbing (b) Gear shaping
(c) Gear forming (c) Gear hobbing
(d) Gear planing (d) Gear planing
Answers to MCQs
10.1 (b) 10.2 (b) 10.3 (c) 10.4 (c) 10.5 (a)
10.6 (a) 10.7 (d) 10.8 (c) 10.9 (a) 10.10 (c)
10.11 (c) 10.12 (a)
extensive use. Further in some applications a very high accuracy is desired besides the complexity of the
surface to be machined. These processes are not meant for replacing the conventional processes, but are in
fact supplements to them.
There a number of processes available in this category. They are:
● Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
The conventional metal cutting processes makes use of the shearing process as the basis for material
removal. However, the non-traditional processes depend on a number of other factors such as the vaporisation
of the metal, electrolytic displacement, chemical reaction and mechanical erosion.
A comparison of the various processes is given in Table 11.1 for comparison purpose.
The main reasons for using the non-traditional machining processes are:
● High strength alloys: The hardness of the work material is often higher than the cutting tool material or
sometimes it becomes necessary to use the machining process on hardened material. In such cases the
electro-chemical processes described would be required.
● Complex surfaces: At times very complex surfaces in three dimensions need to be produced, such as
those in moulds and dies where the work piece surface being hardened tool steel, it would be difficult
to be processed by the conventional means.
● Higher accuracies and surface finish: The accuracy and surface finish desired in hard work piece
materials require the conventional machining to be done very slowly, as well as adding a number of
finishing processes, making the process very slow and uneconomical.
● Difficult geometries: In addition to the complex geometries, sometimes it is required to produce
difficult geometries such as long holes with length to diameter ratio approaching 100, or very small
size holes such as those with less than 0.1 mm in diameter, which are almost impossible to be produced
by the conventional methods.
● Automation
The relative economic comparison of these processes is given in Table 11.2.
piece and the tool. They have found this process to be extremely useful for machining hard metals such as
tungsten or tungsten carbide.
Resistor
–
Electrode (Tool)
dc power –
Capacitor
source +
Work piece
+
fig. 11.1 Relaxation circuit as used by Lazarenko
Interest in the spark machining process was ignited and a number of studies in the process were initiated
during the 1950s. Machine tool industries from Switzerland were involved very early in this market, with
Agie that was founded in 1954, while les Ateliers des Charmilles produced their first machine in 1955. They
are still the major players in the EDM technology.
The wider adoption of the process could not materialize during this period due to the poor quality of
electronic components. However in the 1960’s, the development of the semi-conductor industry permitted
considerable improvements in EDM machines. Die-sinking machines became reliable and produced surfaces
with controlled quality. Also with a large amount of research that went into the process, it became possible
to know the process capability with reasonable accuracy. Then with the availability of numerical control in
the 1960’s and early 1970’s, the movements of electrodes became much more precise. With the development
of the microprocessor in the 1970’s and the development of Computer Numerical Controlled systems (CNC)
further improved the performance of EDM. Thus though EDM is generally considered as a non-traditional
method because of the nature of the material removal process, because of its wide adoption particularly by
the tool rooms, it has become a common place in all manufacturing shops. Excellent historical study of the
EDM process is given by SME.
11.2.2 Principle
It has been recognised for many years that a powerful spark will cause pitting or erosion of the metal at
both the anode (+) and cathode (–), e.g. automobile battery terminals, loose plug points, etc. This process is
utilised in Electric Discharge Machining (EDM). This process is also called spark machining or spark ero-
sion machining. The EDM process involves a controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by the
initiation of rapid and repetitive spark discharges between the tool and work piece separated by a small gap
of about 0.01 to 0.50 mm. This spark gap is either flooded or immersed in a dielectric fluid. The controlled
pulsing of the direct current between the tool and the work produces the spark discharge.
Initially the gap between the tool and the work piece, which consists of the dielectric fluid, is not
conductive. However, the dielectric fluid in the gap is ionised under pulsed application of DC as shown in
Fig. 11.2, thus enabling the spark discharge to pass between the tool and the work. Heat transfer from the
spark to both tool and the work piece melts, partially vaporises and partially ionises the metal in a thin surface
layer. Due to the inertia of the surrounding fluid, the pressure within the spark becomes quite large and may
possibly assist in ‘blasting’ the molten material from the surface leaving a fairly flat and shallow crater. The
amount of metal removed per spark depends upon the electrical energy expended per spark and the period
over which it is expended.
Tool
cathode
Dielectric
Spark
gap
lonised
fluid
Work
anode
Tool
Surface irregularities
on work piece
Work piece
fig. 11.3 Schematic of the arc forming at the smallest distance between the tool and the work piece in the
EDM process
Tool
Surface irregularities
on work piece
Work piece
fig. 11.4 Schematic of the arc moving to the next smallest distance between the tool and the work piece in
the EDM process
Tool
cathode
Tool
Dielectric cathode
fluid
Work
anode Work
anode
(a) (b)
fig. 11.5 Typical surface generation in EDM process, (a) Initial shape of electrode and work piece, (b) Final
complimentary shapes of electrode and work pieces after machining
11.2.3 Schematic
A typical schematic of the various elements present in a commercial EDM machine is shown in Fig. 11.6. The
main power unit consists of the required controlled pulse generator with the DC power to supply to the power
pulses. The pulse frequency as well as the on and off time of the pulses can be very accurately controlled
using electronic controllers.
Servo-controlled
feed
Voltmeter
dc power
supply
Ammeter Tool
Dielectric
Reservoir
High Pressure
Pump pressure gauge
pump
Filter
Reservoir
fig. 11.6 Typical schematic of the components that form a typical EDM machine
The gap between the electrode and the work piece increases with the removal of metal. The EDM power
supply voltage is dependent upon the spark gap, which needs to be maintained constant. A servo-controlled
electrode feeding arrangement would be available which continuously senses the spark gap and moves the
tool (electrode) to maintain this gap.
Typical parameters used in EDM process are:
Spark gap 0.0125 to 0.125 mm
Current 0.5 to 400 A
Voltage (DC) 40 to 300 V
Pulse duration 2 to 2000 ms
Dielectric pressure < 0.2 MPa
The metal removal rates are about 16.4 cm3/hour per 20 A of current. This can go as high as 250 cm3/hour
per 20 A of current.
Surface finish 3 to 10 mm Rough
0.8 to 3 mm Finish
Specific gravity Dielectrics normally used today have a specific gravity of 0.750-0.820. The shorter the
chain of hydrocarbon molecules lower is its specific gravity. The heavier chips settle down in the lighter di-
electric reducing the gap contamination and possibilities of secondary discharge and/or arcing.
Odour The unused dielectric should normally be odourless and should not begin to smell, even when
heated.
Effect on health The effect of the dielectric on the health of the operator is of paramount importance. Of
particular importance are its effects on skin irritation, toxicity, and smoke generation.
Typical properties of the dielectric fluids is given in Table 11.4.
Flushing refers to the method in which the dielectric fluid flows between the tool and the work gap.
The efficiency of machining depends to a greater extent on the efficiency of the flushing. The wear debris
present in the spark gap should be removed as quickly as possible. With poor flushing there is a possibility
of build-up of the machined particles in the gap resulting in the short-circuiting and lower material removal
rates. Problems with improper flushing are: uneven and significant tool wear affecting accuracy and surface
finish; reduced removal rates due to unstable machining conditions and arcing around regions with high
concentration of debris. It is noted during an experimental study that there is an optimum dielectric flushing
rate of about 13 ml/s while machining AISI O1 tool steel, where the crack density and average thickness of
the recast layer are at a minimum.
The flushing method that can be used in EDM depends upon the work piece geometry and can be classified
as:
● Normal flow
● Reverse flow
● Jet flushing
● Immersion flushing
Normal flow In this method, fluid is introduced, under pressure, through one or more passages in the tool
and then it is forced to flow through the gap between the tool and work piece as shown in Fig. 11.7. The
location of the flushing holes should generally be in areas where the deepest material is to be removed. It is
generally good to have a single hole rather than a number of holes. This will help in improving the flow of
the dielectric fluid. However the choice will also depend upon the work piece geometry and sometimes it may
become necessary to have a number of holes to facilitate the flow of the dielectric fluid to the different areas
in the work piece that need to be cut.
Normal flow flushing gets facilitated if there is a hole present in the work piece or a hole can be made
without harming the work piece geometry. In this case there will be no need to make a hole in the tool as
shown in Fig. 11.8. In this method electrolyte is pumped into the manifold under pressure, which will then
flows through the hole in the work piece. This arrangement is normally used in situations where it becomes
difficult to drill a hole in the tool because of the tool’s length or because the cross-section area is too small.
Dielectric fluid
Tool (electrode)
Tool electrode
Work piece
Dielectric
Work piece fluid Manifold
fig. 11.7 Normal flow flushing tech- fig. 11.8 Normal flow flushing techniques used with
niques used with the dielectric the dielectric flow through the work piece in
flow through the tool in the the EDM process
EDM process
Dielectric
Under certain circumstances there is a possibility of fluid
tapered surfaces being produced by normal flow as shown in Tool
Fig. 11.9. Chips produced by the tool at the end face such as
Work piece
those shown in A and B need to pass through the gap as
shown in figure 11.9. As they move, their conductivity will C
reduce the gap between the tool and work piece thereby
prompting for additional side arcs, which will remove
material from the work piece. This will cause the vertical
B
walls to become tapered as shown. As the mouth widens as
shown at C, more chips need to be aligned in order produce
a side arc, which is less probable. As a result this part of the A
wall will remain vertical without any taper. fig. 11.9 Production of tapered surfaces
during normal flow flushing tech-
Reverse flow To reduce the taper produced the reverse
nique in the EDM process
flow can be used. In this case the gap between the tool and
work piece is completely submerged in the dielectric fluid and then a vacuum is applied to the manifold as
shown in Fig. 11.10. Since the chips will be flowing through the work piece there is no possibility of side arc.
However the flow rate that can be achieved is limited depending upon the vacuum applied. Typical pressure
differentials that could be achieved are about 65 to 90 kPa. This is particularly suitable for deep-cavity dies.
Tool (electrode)
Work piece
Dielectric
fluid Manifold
fig. 11.10 Reverse flow flushing techniques used in the EDM process
Instead of vacuum, a positive pressure can be applied to achieve reverse flow as shown in Fig. 11.11.
Dielectric fluid is introduced into the gap through an expendable cover placed on top of the work piece as
shown in Fig. 11.11. Tool will first machine the cover with a clearance at C. As the tool advances to machine
the work piece some fluid may be lost through the gap, but it will be possible to provide higher pressures and
consequently higher dielectric flow rates.
Dielectric Tool
fluid C Clamp
Cover
Work piece
fig. 11.11 Reverse flow flushing techniques used in the EDM process
Jet flushing A simpler flushing technique is the use of direct spray or jet of the fluid at the machining zone
as shown in Fig. 11.12. This is sometimes used for machining of a long narrow slot or cavity in a work piece.
However machining times are longer with this technique. For jet flushing of an array of shallow cavities,
important considerations are distribution of the nozzles, flow rates, angles at which the nozzles are directed
at the gap, and layout of the cavities.
Dielectric
fluid
Tool (electrode)
Work piece
Immersion flushing It is also possible to allow the cutting to takes place without any pumping of the
fluid and by simple immersion. A little agitation may be provided by the relative movement of the tool and
adding a vibration. This is called immersion flushing.
A closed-form mathematical expression for the fluid pressure and fluid velocity under a “no-sparking”
condition at all points in the electrode-to-work piece gap of a typical EDM set up was derived by Earnest Y.
Seborg. The volume flow rate of the fluid and the force developed on the tool electrode by the fluid flow are
derived directly from the expressions for velocity and pressure. The EDM setup is a round electrode with a
Flushing gap P1
R1
Tool electrode
h
R
Gap
P0
Work electrode
fig. 11.13 Fluid flow passage through the electrode in the EDM process
central hole for electrolyte flow as shown in Fig. 11.13. The following assumptions were made in deriving
the equations:
● Electrode and work piece surfaces with which the electrolyte is coming into contact are perfectly
smooth
● The electrolyte flow is laminar (Reynolds number < 2000)
● Inside radius of the flushing line (R1) is much larger than the flushing gap.
( P1 - P0 ) ln (R0 /r )
Pressure distribution in the flushing gap, P ( r ) = P0 +
Ê R0 ˆ
ln Á ˜
Ë R1 ¯
p ( P1 - P0 ) h
3
Flow rate of the electrolyte, Q =
6 ÊR ˆ
m ln Á 0 ˜
Ë R1 ¯
p ( P1 - P0 ) ( R02 - R12 )
Net force acting on the electrode, Fnet =
Ê R0 ˆ
2 ln Á ˜
Ë R1 ¯
Where
R0 = radius of the electrodes
R1 = radius of flushing hole
h = gap spacing
P0 = atmospheric pressure
P1 = pressure in flushing hole
11.2.5 Electrodes
As explained earlier, in the EDM process the shape of the electrode is impressed on the work piece in its com-
plimentary form. The shape and accuracy of the electrode plays a very important role in the final accuracy of
the work piece machined.
The electrode material should have the following characteristics to serve as a good tool.
1. It should be a good conductor of electricity and heat.
2. It should be easily machinable to any shape at a reasonable cost.
3. It should produce efficient material removal rates from the work pieces.
4. It should resist the deformation during the erosion process.
5. It should exhibit low electrode (tool) wear rates.
6. It should be available in a variety of shapes.
Various electrode materials used: Graphite, Copper, Copper graphite, Brass, Zinc alloys, Steel, Copper
tungsten, Silver tungsten, Tungsten, etc. Some of the physical properties of the common electrode materials
are given in Table 11.5. The detailed considerations for the selection of the individual electrode materials are
given below:
Copper
Pure copper or electrolyte grade copper is extensively used as an electrode material. It is most often used
when fine finishes are required in the work piece. It is also excellent for no wear EDM. It exhibits a very
small wear ratio. Machining of copper is a major problem because of its poor machinability.
Tellurium Copper
The main problem with copper is during the grinding for fine finish, wheel loading takes place. In such cases
the tellurium-copper electrodes may replace copper electrodes. Tellurium-copper has machinability rating
compared to 100% for free machining brass. EDM characteristics of tellurium-copper are same as that for
copper. The only disadvantage of tellurium-copper is its scarcity.
Brass
Free machining brass is often used as an electrode material. The main advantage is that it is easily available
and can be readily machined. The wear ratio is more of the order of 1 to 6 for small electrodes. It is often used
for tubular electrodes in specialised small hole EDM drilling machines where high wear is acceptable. Brass
is a good electrode material for some alloys of titanium under poor chip removal conditions. However it is
not used on tungsten carbide because of high wear. Its main advantage is that it is available in small tubing
and shim stock.
Graphite
Graphite is perhaps the most widely used EDM electrode material because of good machinability and wear
characteristics. Graphite permits fast material removal rates as well as best wear ratio. It offers excellent
stability.
Grain size is the most important property of graphite electrodes. Coarse particle graphite is normally used
for large volume EDM work, where there is little or no fine detail to be produced. Alternatively the fine
particle high-density graphite is used where fine details and accuracy are required, since its strength makes it
capable of producing thin cross-sections. Since graphite is a sintered material, it contains porosity. This must
be taken into account while machining three-dimensional cavities, which require fine surface finish. Coarse
particles have more porosity and produce rougher finishes. Medium grade graphite usually works well when
machining through holes in steels.
Care should be exercised when machining tungsten carbide. During the machining of tungsten carbide by
graphite electrodes, if the chip removal conditions are not good, cutting surface will become carbonised and
uncontrolled arcing may result. This uncontrolled arcing is also known as DC arcing and sometimes is quite
dangerous.
The DC arcing is caused by the carbon deposited on the work surface being heated to the point that de-
ionisation of the dielectric fluid does not takes place. Without de-ionisation, current flows across the same
point between electrode and work piece causing excessive heating.
While machining tungsten carbide with graphite, it is generally recommended that only fine particles and
high density graphite be used. Its main advantages are:
1. It is comparatively inexpensive.
2. It has wear ratio equivalent to that of copper-tungsten alloys.
3. Large electrodes can be made by adhesive bonding of laminations.
4. It produces high material removal rates.
Copper - Graphite
Copper-graphite is graphite that has been infiltrated with copper. Its flexural rigidity is higher than the
comparable grade of graphite and has the best characteristics of both copper and graphite. However, it is
1.5 to 2 times more expensive than graphite. It has more conductivity than graphite but corner wear is not as
good as that of the pure graphite. It works well under poor flushing conditions. It works well for machining
tungsten carbides.
Steel
Steel is not a satisfactory electrode material. However, its use is limited to match the parting planes of the
moulds in which half of the mould is used as the electrode and the other half is used as the work piece. Mate-
rial removal rate is very slow and the wear ratio is suitable only for certain combination of steels.
Copper - Tungsten
Copper-tungsten is also a sintered electrode where copper infiltrates the tungsten powder compact. The
machinability is fair and has good wear and finish characteristics. It is used for close tolerances, fine detail
and low wear. It has good strength and is less prone to breakage or fracture when machined into thin sections
and fine details. It has high density, strength and good thermal and electrical conductivity.
Tungsten
Tungsten has high rigidity as well as good ratio. It is used for making small holes that are less than 0.2 mm
for which electrodes with small flush holes are not available. The disadvantage is its high cost.
Zinc Alloys
The main application of zinc alloys is for high production where a large number of identical electrodes are
required which can be mass produces by pressure die casting or coined. Complex shapes of electrodes can
be easily die cast compared to machining used with other electrodes. Cost of the electrodes is less while high
currents up to 150 amperes can be used with them. The main disadvantage is the rapid corner wear and very
poor wear ratio.
Comparative capabilities of the individual electrode materials is given in Table 11.6.
Rc L RL
ic id
Vo V C
Rs Vs
Charging Sparking
fig. 11.14 Relaxation circuit used for generating the pulses in EDM process
Vo t
-
ic = e t
Rc
Vo2 t È 1 -
t
1 -
2t ˘
P= Í -e + e t
t ˙
Rc Í 2 2 ˙˚
Î
If tc = time for charging the capacitor up to the breakdown voltage, then the average power, Pav is given by
Vo2 t È 1 ˘
tc 2tc
- -
Pav = Í -e t + 1 e t ˙
Rc t c Í 2 2 ˙˚
Î
Discharge circuit:
Neglecting the inductance.
t
-
Vs = Vc e RLS C
Where RLS = RL + RS
The discharge current, id is given by
Vs
id =
RLS
Since the RL and RS are so arranged that the frequency of discharge oscillation, fd is not affected. The
frequency of discharge is given by
1 1
fd =
2p LC
This means that spark reversal will take place. However, the energy available for the reverse spark is so
small because of the resistance that there is no reverse spark.
For satisfactory metal removal the spark must be completely quenched between the charging cycles. This
will allow the spark gap to be de-ionised. This will be the limiting condition for the maximum frequency of
sparks to be provided for material removal.
An approximate criterion for arcing is that the charging circuit maintains the maximum spark current, idmax
indefinitely, i.e.,
Vo - id max R = VC
Vc R
Hence, Vo - = Vc
L
C
Assuming Vo - Vc ª Vc
R min ª L
C
L
R min ª 30
C
t c = R min C = 30 LC
1 0.03
Frequency of cutting = =
ts + tc LC
The material removal rate, MRR is proportional to the product of frequency of charging and the energy de-
livered per spark.
1
Energy delivered per spark = CVc2
2
Thus,
MRR µ 1 f c Vc2 C
2
È Ê t ˆ
-Á ˘
˜
Since Í
Vc = Vo 1 - e Ë Rc C ¯ ˙
Í ˙
ÍÎ ˙˚
t = Rc C log e 1
or,
Ê Vc ˆ
ÁË1 - V ˜¯
o
fc = 1
t
Charging voltage
Breakdown
Capacitor
voltage
voltage
Time
Voltage
Current, A
tc ti
to
Time Time
fig. 11.16 Variation of pulse voltage and current with time
T T
Tool Tool
– – –
Osc Micro-
+ E + E computer
–
+ +
Work piece Work piece
(a) (b)
fig. 11.17 Pulse generator type power supplies for EDM
● Electrode material
1 A 2 A 3 A 4 A
fig. 11.18 Schematic representation of the effect of the current in each spark, which
determines the material removed
However, decreasing the current in the spark, but increasing its frequency will improve the surface finish
in view of the small crater size, but at the same time the material removal rate can be maintained by increasing
the frequency. The same is shown schematically in Fig. 11.19.
fig. 11.19 Schematic representation of the effect of spark frequency on the material
removed and the surface finish
The side sparks affects the accuracy of the surface produced. Two possible inaccuracies are shown in
Fig. 11.20.
D
Taper The side sparks between the tool and the machined
surface produces taper. As a result, the taper increases as the
depth of the machined surface increases. It is empirically
0.15
noted that the taper is proportional to the square of the
diameter as given below:
Over cut, mm/side
Taper is given by
D-d 0.10
= KT d 2
2H
Where KT is an empirical constant. 0.05
Over cut Similarly the over cut produced by the side
sparks is shown in Fig. 11.20(b). Lazarenko has obtained the
following relationship for the over cut in the case of EDM 0
using a relaxation circuit. 0 10 20 30
Capacitance, mF
Overcut, O = A C0.333 + B
fig. 11.21 Variation of over cut with the
Where A and B are constants given in Table 11.7. capacitance in a relaxation type
The dependence of over cut on the capacitance of the EDM machine; Tool: Copper,
power supply is shown in Fig. 11.21. Work: Mild steel, Voltage: 150 V
Metallurgical modification The surface of the work piece melts and gets quickly solidified by the cool-
ing action of the dielectric fluid. The layer of the re-solidified metal is very small with low powers, but will
become thicker with the EDM higher powers used. Next to the re-solidified material is the heat-affected
material, which is usually less than 0.25 mm in thickness. It is necessary to remove the heat-affected layer for
higher fatigue strength of the component.
11.2.9 Applications
The EDM process is extensively used because of its many advantages. A few of them are discussed below:
There is no physical contact between the tool and the work piece and hence no cutting forces acting on the
work piece. Even fragile work pieces can be machined using this process.
● Any complex shape required in dies and mould can be easily produced to the required degree of
accuracy and finish. Since the process copies the tool shape in a complimentary form, making a male
electrode is easier than the complimentary female form required.
● The process is not affected by the hardness of the work material. Hence even the hardened material can
be machined thus avoiding the possible distortions due to heat treatment on the final geometry.
● The material removal rates are almost comparable with that of the conventional machining processes.
● Since there are no cutting forces acting on the tool, high aspect ratio surfaces can be machined using
EDM process.
● Though the material is removed by the heat produced by the spark, there is thermal damage to the work
piece material.
● The process is generally highly automated with very little operator skill required.
● The actual surface produced by EDM consists of small craters, which may help in the retention of the
lubricants.
Disadvantages
● The wear rate on the electrode is considerably higher. Sometimes it may be necessary to use more than
one electrode to finish the job.
● The work piece should be electrically conductive to be machined using the EDM process.
● The energy required for the operation is more than that of the conventional process and hence will be
more expensive.
The process generally described so far is termed as EDM die sinking. The other processes that are possible
are described below:
EDM Drilling Drilling of very small and high aspect ratio of the order of 30 is one common example of
EDM application. A typical example to demonstrate the capability of the process is the drilling of a hole of
0.3 mm diameter through a 20 mm hardened ball bearing. The aspect ratio is 67 and the process is completed
in 90 seconds.
Fresh
Rotation wire spool
Work piece
Electrode Kerf
wire
Rotation
Used Wire
wire spool path
fig. 11.23 Principle of wire EDM process fig. 11.24 Close-up of wire EDM cutting process
The close-up view of the cutting process is shown in Fig. 11.24. Kerf is the width of the cut produced by
the wire.
Wire EDM is used for machining the sheet metal dies, extrusion dies and prototype parts. It is relatively a
very slow process (linear travels of the order of 100 mm/hour 25 mm thick steel) utilising computer controlled
machines.
Flow of Flow of
Iron electrons electrons
anode Cathode
OH
Fe H2
Dissolution Fe H2
of iron Generation
from anode of hydrogen
at cathode
Iron hydroxide
The reaction taking place at the anode is the dissolution of anode by the electrolyte.
Fe → Fe ++ + 2e
Similarly at the cathode, hydrogen gas is released from the water contained in the electrolyte.
H2O + 2e → H2 + 2OH–
Combining the above two reactions, the iron and hydroxyl ions would combine to form the iron hydroxide
as follows:
Fe++ + 2OH– → Fe (OH)2
The net reaction of all the above three reactions can be shown as
Fe + 2H2O → Fe (OH)2 + H2
It is further possible that the iron (ferrous) hydroxide may further react with water and oxygen forming the
ferric hydroxide as shown below:
4Fe (OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 → 4Fe (OH)3 + H2
What is interesting to note at this stage is that the net result of all this is that iron gets dissolved from the
anode and forms the residue consuming the electricity and water and nothing else. The reaction products are
ferric hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Based on this it is possible to make the following observations:
● The metal from the anode is dissolved electrochemically and hence the metal removal rate based on the
Faraday's laws will depend upon atomic weight, valency, the current passed and the time for which the
current is passed, and on no other parameter.
● At the cathode only hydrogen gas is evolved and no other reaction takes place, so the shape of the
cathode is unaffected.
Based on the above observations, the ECM process can now be conceived as a process involving a tool
cathode which has the complimentary shape of the part to be produced and the work to be done as anode, as
shown in Fig. 11.26. In the small gap between the work piece and the tool a suitable electrolyte is pumped at
high pressure. Note that in the final position the shape of the tool remains the same as when it started, which
is one of the major advantages of the ECM process.
Cathode
Tool feed
cathode
Tool
Initial cathode
Electrolyte gap
flow
Work Work
anode anode
Enclosure
Mist collector
exhaust
Feed
Voltmeter
–
dc power
supply
+
Ammeter Tool
Electrolyte
Work pan
Work piece
Reservoir
High
Pump pressure Pressure
pum p gauge
Filter
Heat
exchanger
Thermostat
Reservoir
fig. 11.27 Schematic of the various elements present in a commercial ECM machine
11.3.3 Electrolyte
Electrolytes used in ECM should be carefully selected such that they provide the necessary reactions without
plating the cathode. The typical functions expected to be served by an electrolyte in ECM are:
● Completes the electrical circuit between the tool and the work piece,
The properties that should be carefully looked into during the selection of the electrolyte to serve the
function are:
● High electrical conductivity
The salt solutions with water forming a large proportion satisfy many of the above conditions and therefore
are generally used. Some general electrolytes used are:
● Sodium chloride or potassium chloride up to 0.25 kg/litre. Most widely used because of low cost
and stable conductivity over a broad range of pH values. However it is corrosive and produces large
amount of sludge. It cannot be used on tungsten carbide or molybdenum.
● Sodium nitrate up to 0.50 kg/litre. Less corrosive but forms a passive film on the work piece surface.
Hence not used as a general purpose electrolyte. It is used for machining aluminium and copper.
The electrolyte, when drilling a hole, is allowed to flow through the tool under high pressure and exit
through the work piece. Since the electrolysis takes place as long as the current is flowing through the tool,
there is a steep taper produced by an uninsulated tool as shown in Fig. 11.28. To reduce this taper, it is
necessary to insulate the sides of the tool as shown in Fig. 11.28(b), which will produce straight walls.
Tool Insulation
Taper Tool
Insulated electrode as shown in Fig. 11.18(b) produces straight walls, but the over cut of the hole produced
gets reduced in the process since material is only being removed from the bottom surface. Also the sharp
corners experienced by the electrolyte flow causes turbulence which is not good for the process. Hence
streamlining can be done by providing an uninsulated tool tip at the bottom as shown in Fig. 11.29. The tool
tip provides the dual purpose of increasing the over cut slightly and at the same time promoting the smooth
flow of the electrolyte thereby reducing the pressure drops across the machining gap.
Tool
tip
Sometimes the reverse flow of electrolyte through the tool as shown in Fig. 11.30 would be useful since it
decreases the metal removed, by leaving a large slug at the centre of the hole produced. Also this is the best
arrangement for the electrolyte flow since the finished surface is not affected by the electrolyte containing
the metal debris.
Example 11.1
Calculate the material removal rate and the electrode feed rate in the electrochemical machining of an iron
surface that is 25 mm ¥ 25 mm in cross-section using NaCl in water as electrolyte. The gap between the tool
and the work piece is 0.25 mm. The supply voltage is 12 V DC. The specific resistance of the electrolyte is
3 W cm.
Solution Given, AGap = 25 ¥ 25 = 625 mm2
H = 0.25 mm
V = 12 V
r = 3 W cm.
For iron, Valency, Z = 2
Atomic weight, A = 55.85
Density, ra = 7860 kg/m3
V 12
Current, I = = = 1000 A
R 0.0012
The material removal rate (MRR) in ECM (taking 100% current efficiency) is
AI 55.85 ¥ 1000
MRR = = = 0.2893 g/s = 289.3 ¥ 10-6 kg/s
ZF 2 ¥ 96540
= 0.03677 ¥ 10–6 m3/s
The feed rate of the electrode is
MRR 0.03677 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 60
Feed rate = = = 3.53 mm/min
Surface area 625 ¥ 10 -9
Flow analysis:
To calculate the fluid flow required, match the heat generated to the heat absorbed by the electrolyte.
The heat generated in the gap, H is given by
H = I2 ¥ R
q= I2 R
re ce ( q B - q o )
Example 11.2
For the above example, estimate the electrolyte flow rate. Specific heat of the electrolyte is given as
0.997 cal/g°C. The ambient temperature is 35°C and the electrolyte boiling temperature is 95°C.
Solution Given,
Density of the electrolyte, re = 1.0 g/cm3
Specific heat of the electrolyte, ce = 0.997 cal/g °C
● Good stiffness
● Easy machinability
Generally aluminium, copper, brass, titanium, cupro-nickel and stainless steel are used as tool materials.
Tool design requires careful considerations to maintain a constant gap over the entire work piece surface.
Also the flow characteristics of the electrolyte need to be considered during the tool design. The modification
of the tool profile to get the required final surface is relatively complex. It is generally done using empirical
methods. Alternatively the modern complex analysis methods such as finite element can also be used to get
the final tool design.
11.3.7 Applications
ECM is used for regular production of components in a number of industries because of its many advantages
as shown below:
Advantages
● Complex 3 dimensional surfaces can be machined accurately.
● Since there are no cutter marks, surface finish will be higher.
● The tool wear is practically nil which results in a large number of components produced per tool.
● The ECM process does not thermally affect the work piece.
Limitations
● Use of corrosive media as electrolytes makes it difficult to handle.
● Sharp interior edges and corners (< 0.2 mm radius) are difficult to produce.
● Very expensive machine.
Because of the nature of the ECM process, the machining surface can be at any inaccessible location as
well. The tool design and tool motion can take care of reaching such surfaces as blind cavities and pockets in
the walls. It is used for the machining of the gas turbine blades.
Electrically
conducting
grinding Abrasive
wheel particle
Electrolyte
Work piece
The material is removed by a combination of electrochemical action as well as grinding. The rotation
of the grinding wheel draws the electrolyte into the gap. Within the contact area of the wheel and the work
piece, the material is removed by the electrochemical action in the beginning. But as the wheel advances the
electrolyte becomes weak and the electrochemical action reduces where the abrasive grains will be able to
remove the material by mechanical action.
The material removal rates are high compared to conventional grinding processes by as much as 10 times
to an average of about 1.6 cm3/min/1000 amperes. Surface finish range from 0.15 to 0.40 mm. Tolerances are
not as good as conventional grinding and range between ±0.012 mm to ±0.025 mm.
The most common application of ECG is the grinding of tungsten carbide tool inserts.
is transmitted to the tool made of soft material through a mechanical coupler known as tool holder. The tool
shape is a close complimentary shape of the final surface to be generated.
High frequency
power supply
Transducer
Support
Feed Toolholder
Pump
Vibration
Cooler
Tool
Abrasive slurry
Vibration stroke
of the tool Fixture Work piece
Tank
Transducer
The transducer in USM is utilised to convert the electrical energy to vibratory motion utilising either the
piezoelectric or magnetostrictive principles. Piezoelectric materials such as quartz or lead zirconate titanate
increase in size when an electric current is applied to them and return to normal size when the current is
removed. Such piezoelectric transducers can be used up to a power of 900 W. The magnetostrictive transducers
are constructed from nickel, permalloy (Ni 45% and Fe 55%) or permedur (Co 49%, Fe 49% and V 2%) plates
when exposed to strong magnetic field will change the length. These are more rugged than the piezoelectric
transducers and can be used for higher power up to 2400 W. However, their conversion efficiency is low of
the order of 20 to 35% and hence get heated when in use. So a separate cooling arrangement has to be made
to remove this waste heat.
Abrasive Slurry
A large variety of abrasives are available for using in USM. The abrasive selected should be harder than the
material being machined. Typical abrasives used are aluminium oxide, silicon carbide and boron carbide.
Aluminium oxide wears fast and is good for glass and ceramics. Boron carbide is the most popularly used
abrasive, harder than silicon carbide and more expensive. It has faster material removal rate and can with-
stand high vibrational forces. It is best for tungsten carbide, tool steel and precious stones. Diamond dust is
sometimes used for good accuracy, surface finish and cutting rate. It is used for diamonds and rubies.
Abrasive grain sizes used are from 200 to 2000. The choice of grain size depends upon the finish desired.
Generally sizes 20 to 400 are used for roughing while 800 to 1000 grit sizes are used for finishing.
The abrasive is suspended in a liquid with about 30 to 60% by volume of abrasive. The liquid serves
several functions. It acts as an acoustic bond between the vibrating tool and the work piece, to give efficient
transfer of energy between the two. It acts as a coolant on the tool face. It also provides a medium to carry the
abrasive to the cutting zone and carry the spent abrasive and swarf away.
The liquid requires the following properties.
● A density approximately equal to that of the abrasive.
● Good wetting properties, to wet the tool, the work and the abrasive.
● A low viscosity to carry the abrasive down the sides of the hole between tool and work piece.
● A high thermal conductivity and high specific heat for efficient removal of heat from the cutting zone.
Water is most commonly used while benzene and glycerol are also used.
Typical process capability of the USM process for a variety of materials is given in Table 11.9. It can be
noted from the table that the wear ratio increases directly for softer work piece materials. For example in the
case of tool steel the wear ratio is 1:1 which means that for every mm3 of material removed, equal amount of
material is also removed from the tool.
Table 11.9 Typical process characteristics of USM process (Tool material: Low carbon steel, Slurry –30 to
40% of 180–240 grit boron carbide, Amplitude of vibration –0.025 to 0.035 mm, frequency
–25 kHz)
Work Material Material Removal Rate Max. Practical Wear Ratio
Volume, mm3/min Penetration Rate Tool Area, mm2
mm/min
Glass 425 3.8 2580 100:1
Ceramic 185 1.5 1935 75:1
Ferrite 390 3.2 2260 100:1
Quartz 200 1.7 1935 50:1
Tungsten carbide 40 0.4 775 1.5:1
Tool steel 30 0.3 775 1:1
Advantages of USM:
● USM is used for machining hard and brittle materials to complex shapes with good accuracy and
reasonable surface finish.
● It is not affected by the electrical or chemical characteristics of the work material.
● Holes of any shape can be produced.
Limitations of USM:
● Metal removal rates are low.
● Depth of hole produced is limited.
● Flat surfaces cannot be produced at the bottom of the cavity because of the ineffective slurry distribution.
the work piece well to reduce any possibility of stray etching due to maskant de-bonding.
● Apply a chemical resistant mask on the work piece surface where no material is to be removed.
● Dip the work piece into the chemical solution called etchant and leave it for sufficient time to get the
necessary depth of etching. The etchant is either continuously sprayed onto the work piece surface
or the part is immersed in a tank of constantly agitating etchant solution. This helps in removing the
material uniformly from all the exposed surfaces of the part. The strength of the etchant is maintained
since it becomes weak by absorbing the work piece material with time.
● Remove the mask and clean the work piece.
During the etching process, the removal of material takes place in the depth wise unexposed portions as
well as in the inward direction under the mask as shown in Fig. 11.34. The distance etched under the mask is
termed as undercut, while the distance etched in the exposed portion is termed as the depth of cut.
Undercut
Mask
Depth of cut
Work piece
Mask
fig. 11.34 Chemical machining process
The undercut is dependent upon the depth of cut, the strength of the etchant solution and the work piece
material. It is necessary during the design of the maskant to take the undercut into account to get the actual
size required. The relationship between the undercut and the depth of cut is termed as the etch factor and
defined as:
Undercut
Etch factor =
Depth of cut
Masks
The selection of maskants for a given application depends upon a number of important considerations. They
are:
Chemical resistance Thicker maskants can resist the erosive action of the etchant for a longer period and
hence larger depth of cut is possible with them.
Quantity of parts For large volume production, the masking process should be as simple as possible to
reduce the cost.
Ease of removal Delicate parts require that the maskant be easier to remove since the mask should be
removed before the part is used.
Required resolution Thicker masks are generally less accurate, though the method of making the mask
also contributes to it.
There are three generally followed methods for making the masks.
Cut and peel This is generally a neoprene, butyl or vinyl based thick material, which is applied by dip,
spraying or flow coating. Afterwards the pattern is scribed on the mask using a pattern and peeled away
exposing the areas to be etched. The thickness of the mask can range from 0.025 to 0.125 mm, which allows
it to be used for large depths of cut. It can also be used for step etching application.
Screen-printing The maskant is transferred to the work piece using a fine mesh screen such as those
used for silk screen-printing. This is fast and economical for large volume production with relatively less
accuracy. The thickness of the mask is relatively small (less than 0.05 mm) and hence used for shallower
etching depths.
Photo resist masks This is the most versatile compared to the other mask making technologies. Due to
the use of these masks the process is called ‘Photochemical machining (PCM)’, though the rest of the pro-
cessing remains the same as chemical machining.
The first step in preparing the mask is developing the engineering drawing of the pattern in a scale 2 to 20
times larger. The larger drawing helps in improving the accuracy when it is reduced photographically to the
actual size. The etching factor has to be taken into account while making the pattern.
In the next step the pattern is photographed and reduced to the more accurate actual size master transparency
pattern. This master pattern will be used to transfer the mask onto the work piece using a photoresist coating.
The steps involved in preparing the mask are shown in Fig. 11.35.
Apply photoresist
Work piece coating
The work piece is carefully cleaned of the entire dirt and oxides. Then it is coated with a light activated,
etchant resistant material called photoresist and baked dry. After this the work piece is exposed to a strong
ultra-violet light to expose the photoresist. After the exposure the photoresist is developed to remove the
coating from all the areas where etching is desired. After the photoresist is developed, the component is
chemically etched to complete the operation.
Etchants
The function served by the etchant is to dissolve the metal from the part by converting it to a salt, which then
goes into the solution. The choice of an etchant depends upon a number of factors. They are:
Surface finish Some etchants promote the formation of surface oxides, which is detrimental to the surface
finish.
Removal rate Active etchants remove material faster reducing the machining time, but also are likely to
attack the maskant, gives poor surface finish and are also likely to generate more heat.
Material type The etchant while removing the material should not cause inter-granular attacks, hydrogen
embrittlement or stress corrosion cracking.
Some etchants generally used are iron chloride, chromic acid, hydro flouric acid and nitric acid.
Applications
Chemical machining is generally used when very small amounts of material are to be removed from the
surface in any application. In the aerospace application, (Fig. 11. 36) removal of a large volume of unwanted
material from the surface to reduce the weight, thereby increasing the stiffness to weight ratio, can be conve-
niently done with chemical machining.
A A
SECTION A–A
fig. 11.36 Example of Chemical machining process to remove the bulk of material form an aircraft part to
increase the stiffness to weight ratio
The components of complex profiles in very thin metals used in instrumentation and sensors are machined
by photochemical machining. Chemical machining can also do engraving of any type on the metal.
The main advantage of the process is that a large number of work pieces can be simultaneously machined,
thereby improving the productivity. It requires very little capital investment for the basic equipment. Tooling
costs are also low.
changes directly from solid state to vapour state without going through the molten state and is used in some
laser markers.
There are a number of advantages claimed for the use of laser beam machining because of which it has
become the more common material processing method in many industries. Some of these are:
1. Laser beam machining does not apply any direct force because it is a non-contact machining. This
allows for the use of very little clamping force on the work piece to be applied. This is a big advantage
particularly when machining delicate materials.
2. Laser beam machining can be localized to a small area thereby removing a very small amount of
material scale. This results in a very small kerf in LBM while maintaining a low depth, which gives
it a great flexibility.
3. Since the heat is localized, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in laser beam machining is small. Also the
distortion in laser beam machining is negligible.
4. Laser beam machining can be applied to any material that is not reflective and can properly absorb
the laser irradiation.
5. There is no need to have multiple passes to complete machining in laser beam machining. Also high
aspect ratio holes with very small diameters can be done using lasers.
6. Laser light can be transmitted and reflected using simple mechanisms at very high speeds. This gives
the laser beam machining a lot more flexibility.
The Nd:YAG system is a solid-state laser. The Neodymium atoms are responsible for the laser action
and are held in suspension in a low-percentage mixture within the YAG synthetic crystal. This type of laser
develops about 40 watts of laser energy per cubic centimetre of crystal volume, with efficiency between 2 to
4 percent. The Nd:YAG systems emit radiation at 1.06 µm wavelength. The YAG laser is especially suited
for drilling and cutting metals. For typical drilling operations, certain YAG systems can penetrate up to
25 mm thickness of material. Hole sizes range from 0.1 mm up to a maximum of about 1 mm without beam
manipulation. With beam or part manipulation, almost any size or shape of hole can be cut. Also, the laser
does well at cutting holes at an angle to the surface, down to 20 degrees from the surface.
CO2 (carbon dioxide) gas lasers use a mixture of CO2, helium and nitrogen gases in a laser tube to create
a laser beam. The laser action is created by the CO2 molecule. The helium is utilized to cool the gas mixture
by transferring the energy to the water-cooled walls of the flow system. The nitrogen acts as a catalyst to
enhance the CO2 laser action. CO2 laser systems are excellent for cutting organic materials, such as plastics,
rubbers, cloth and paper. They are also excellent for cutting, welding and heat-treating iron and its alloys.
Clear plastic and glass can be cut with a CO2 laser.
Focal length
Flash lamp
Laser Work piece Vaporisation
beam
Total
reflecting
mirror Lasing material
Protective
Partial Lens tape
mirror
Flash lamp
Monochromatic Fixture
coherent light
Cooling Power
system supply
Table
The laser-drilled holes exhibit a taper and also lack a high degree of roundness. Hole size can be controlled
to within 0.025 mm, with some taper being evident in thick materials. Holes larger than 1.25 mm cannot be
drilled because the power density will decrease. Hence laser cutting is used rather than laser drilling. In the
laser cutting operation, a high velocity gas jet is used in conjunction with the laser beam. The gas jet helps to
rapidly remove the metal from the hole.
11.7.2 Equipment
A typical AWJM system consists of the following major sub systems:
● An intensifier pump to provide high-pressure water,
● The abrasive delivery system and a cutting head for producing the abrasive water jet,
● Computer controlled manipulator to provide the desired motion of the cutting head, and
Intensifier
Water Abrasive
supply tank
inlet
Cutting head
Nozzle
Hydraulic unit
Work piece
(Pump + Valve)
Table
Catcher
For the proper functioning of the system, pure water without any contaminants is to be used. For low
pressure applications up to 280 MPa direct drive pumps are used. However for very high pressures, these
become unreliable so intensifiers upto 4000 MPa are used to boost the pressure. In the intensifiers there are
two circuits, a hydraulic circuit and a water circuit. The intensifier acts as an amplifier as it converts the
energy from the low-pressure hydraulic fluid into ultra-high-pressure water as shown in Fig. 11.39.
Ultra-high-pressure
water to cutting
component
Attenuator
Water Piston
inlet
Hydraulic fluid
Electronic
Controls/PLC
M
The hydraulic pump pressurises the oil to about 200 MPa. This pressurized oil is sent to the manifold
where manifold’s valves create the stroking action of the intensifier by sending hydraulic oil to one side of
the piston. The intensifier is a reciprocating pump, with the piston reciprocating back and forth, delivering
high-pressure water out from one side of the intensifier while low-pressure water fills in the other side. The
hydraulic oil pushes against the piston. A plunger with a face area of 20 times less than the piston pushes
against the water. Therefore, the 200 MPa oil pressure is “intensified” twenty times, yielding 4000 MPa water
pressure. The attenuator damps pressure fluctuations from the intensifier and delivers a constant and steady
stream of ultra-high-pressure water to the cutting tool.
The cutting head converts the pressurised water into a cutting instrument. Abrasive particles enter the water
jet in the mixing chamber as shown in Fig. 11.40. The abrasive particles generally used are crushed garnet,
olivine sand, or aluminium oxide, with particle sizes ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 mm. The typical hardnesses of
the abrasive materials is given in Table 11.10. Garnet is widely used because of its relatively low cost and
high cutting speed. Abrasive particles enter the water jet with negligible velocity. They are accelerated by
the incoming water jet in such a way that the velocity direction of the abrasive particles is nearly parallel to
the direction of the water jet. The smaller the inner diameter of the focusing tube, the more concentrated the
total energy. The minimum diameter is related to the abrasive particle size, which is about five times or more
of the particle diameter. Longer tubes produce a more coherent jet compared with shorter tubes, but the wall
friction results in lower abrasive jet velocities. New materials have increased the focusing tube life from 3 or
4 h to 100 h. Some typical lives of mixing tube materials are given in Table 11.11.
Mixing
tube Table 11.11 Mixing tube materials and their lives
Tube Material Life
Tungsten carbide 4 to 6 hours
Cutting jet
Low cost Composite carbide 35 to 60 hours
fig. 11.40 Close-up view of the nozzle Mid-life Composite carbide 80 to 90 hours
in the AWJM process
Premium Composite carbide 100 to 150 hours
A tank kept below the nozzle catches the water and abrasives after they have completed the cutting action.
A lot of energy is still left in the jet stream and therefore the catcher should be robust, reliable and have a long
life. It is designed as an energy absorbing bed, filled with water, steel pellets or alternatively ceramic pellets,
as the absorbing media. If filled with water, it should have a depth of at least 0.6 m to be able to dissipate the
jet energy.
● Feed rate
Jet velocity
The jet has to impinge on the work material with a minimum velocity for the material removal to take place,
since that indicates the kinetic energy present in the abrasive grains. As the velocity increases the material
removal rate increases which will have an effect on the quality of the surface produced.
The velocity, V for a given quality is given by the following empirical equation [Olsen]
1.15
Ê fa ¥ M ¥ P1.594 d 1.374 Ma 0.343 ˆ
V =Á ˜
Ë 163 Q H Dm0.618 ¯
Where P = Stagnation pressure of the water jet in Ksi (50,000 psi = 50Ksi)
d = Orifice Diameter in inch typically 0.014 inches
Ma = Abrasive Flow Rate in lb/min typically 0.8 lb/min
fa = Abrasive Factor (1.0 for garnet)
Feed Rate
Feed rate is the speed with which the jet moves past the work piece surface to generate the cut. As the feed
rate of the jet increases the jet has lower time to erode the surface and consequently the surface finish of the
cut edge will be rough. It also affects the part quality by increasing the drag as discussed later. It is important
that the feed rate be controlled such that it is increased to the maximum possible for straight cuts for the given
surface quality, and decrease at the corners where the drag is likely to be a problem. Generally the operating
software of the machine should achieve this function.
Part Accuracy
Some of the accuracy problems that need to be given proper atten-
tion during the operation of AWJM are as follows:
Jet Drag
Jet motion
As the abrasive jet moves through the material, the lower portion
of the jet lags behind the upper section as shown in Fig. 11.41. The
amount of drag depends upon a number of parameters such as the
flow rate, material thickness and jet speed. If the cut is straight
then this may not constitute a problem. However, when the jet has
to make a corner or bend, the jet should be slowed to control the Drag
amount of lag. This is normally accomplished in the software that
fig. 11.41 Water jet lags the leading
controls the jet velocity to some extent. However it is always not edge during the cutting
possible and as a result the tolerances on the part due to the drag process in the AWJM pro-
need to be considered particularly as the part thickness increases. cess
Jet Kerf
Kerf is the thickness of the cut made by the jet. This is Water-jet nozzle
controlled by the rate at which the nozzle moves across the Cut
work piece surface. The slower a jet nozzle moves across material
the material being cut, the wider is the kerf width. This ef-
fect is generally negligible for harder or thinner material, Stand-off distance
but is considerable in thick material or soft material.
Taper
As the jet moves along the thickness of the material it Taper distance
loses its kinetic energy, and thereby its cutting ability. Taper angle
As a result as the cut thickness increases, the size of the
cut decreases as shown in Fig. 11.42. This is termed as fig. 11.42 Water jet lags the leading edge
during the cutting process in the
taper. Taper becomes larger as the material thickness and
AWJM process
traverse speed increase. In very thick materials the taper
becomes barrel shaped, where the top and bottom of the part may measure out accurately, but the middle part
may be significantly off. Also it is noticed that the softer materials exhibit larger taper.
Standoff
Standoff is the distance between the face of the nozzle and the surface of the work piece as shown in
Fig. 11.42. As the standoff increases, the depth of cut decreases and the taper increases. Too small a standoff
will not have enough room for the jet to start the hole. A typical standoff used is about 1 mm. If the upper
surface of the part being cut is having a very rough surface then the standoff is likely to vary and this will
have an effect on the taper produced.
11.7.4 Applications
Some of the advantages that can be expected from the use of abrasive water jet machining are:
● Cuts through any material irrespective of the hardness or any other material characteristic.
● The quality of the cut achieved by AWJ machine virtually eliminates additional finishing. In most
of the cases no additional finishing is required while in some cases, secondary processes are greatly
reduced.
● AWJM is faster than other methods, especially for materials that would otherwise require a lot of
additional finishing.
● AWJM does not generate a lot of heat during the cutting process. As a result, there is no heat-affected
zone. Most of the heat generated during the AWJM process dissipates through the removed material.
● Scrap material left after using the AWJM remains unaltered and hence can be reused.
● Since the side forces are low, it is possible to cut thin (as low as 0.5 mm) walled parts. Also it is
possible to have very close nesting thereby saving the scrap material.
● Very little fixturing is required for most parts.
● In many cases, material can be stacked to decrease production costs.
● Since the jet does not affect the left over material scrap material can be minimized. In fact, parts can
be nested very close to each other to maximize the material utilization. It is even possible to share the
cutting line between parts.
● No start hole is required such as for wire EDM. The water jet nozzle can be placed where the actual
cutting is to begin.
● Since the water jet cuts with very little force, the amount of burr generated is extremely small, if at all
present.
A comparison of the different processes that can be used for cutting is given in Table 11.13.
Cathode
(Electron gun)
Anode
Electron beam
Positioning
diaphragm
Electromagnetic
lens
Work piece
fig. 11.43 Schematic of electron beam machining set up with work piece in a vacuum chamber
It is necessary that electron beam has to remain in a vacuum chamber with a level of vacuum in the order
of 10–1 to 10–3 mTorr. Maintenance of suitable vacuum is essential so that electrons do not lose their energy
colliding with the air molecules and a significant life of the cathode cartridge is obtained. Such vacuum is
achieved and maintained using a combination of rotary pump and diffusion pump. The process parameters,
which directly affect the machining characteristics in electron beam machining are:
● The accelerating voltage, 30 kV to 175 kV
● The beam current, 200 μA to 1 A
● Pulse duration, 50 μs to 15 ms
● Energy per pulse, > 100 J/pulse
● Spot size, 10 to 100μm
form burr and provides a rounding edge for the hole. Though this process utilizes heat to remove the metal
similar to EDM, the heat affected zone is relatively small of the order of 20 to 30 μm. Since EBM does not
apply any force on the work piece, simple work holding will be sufficient.
Typical applications of EBM are gas orifices for pressure-differential devices, wire-drawing dies, light-ray
orifices, round or profile shaped holes on sleeve valves, rocket-fuel injectors, or injection nozzles on diesel
engines.
Limitations
● Since the process requires a vacuum chamber EBM is limited to certain part sizes. Also the time
required to achieve the desired vacuum is significant.
● EBM equipment is expensive and can only be justified for the type of part dimensions and accuracy
requirements.
● The hole shape is affected by the depth of the work piece. Because of the divergence of the beam away
from the focal point the hole will have an hour glass shape.
● Extraction grids for removing the ions from the plasma, and accelerating them towards the substrate
Baffled
argon gas inlet
Heated
cathode
Anode
Neutralisation
filament Fully neutralised
ion beam
fig. 11.44 Schematic of ion beam machining set up with work piece in a vacuum chamber
they interact with argon atoms in the plasma source, to produce argon ions. The produced ions are then
extracted from the plasma towards the work piece, which is mounted on a water-cooled table having a
tilting angle of 0° to 80°. The ions are removed from the plasma by means of extraction grids. The grids
are normally made of two or three arrays of perforated sheets of carbon or molybdenum that can withstand
erosion by ion bombardment. The perforations in each of the sheets are aligned above one another.
Ion beam machining can be utilized to etch selectively materials typically the silicon or gallium arsenide
wafers by utilizing the masking tapes similar to chemical machining without the use of dangerous chemicals.
IBM has been used in smoothing of laser mirrors as well as reducing the thickness of thin films without
affecting their surface finish [McGeough, 1988]. Also polishing and shaping of optical surfaces by direct
sputtering of pre-forms in glass, silica, and diamond can be done by using patterning masks [El-Hofy, 2005].
get it ionized while the secondary gases or water flow Primary (plasma)
are often used to help clean the kerf of molten metal gas flow
during cutting.
The secondary gases used also called as shielding
gases depend upon the material being machined. Secondary gas
Hydrogen is often used as a shielding gas for stainless or water flow
steel, aluminium, and other nonferrous metals.
Carbon dioxide is also used for ferrous and nonferrous
materials, while air or oxygen can be used with mild
steel. In place of the shielding gas if water is used, it
is noticed that the quality of the cut is improved in
addition to the beneficial effect of cooling the torch.
Outer shell
Only a small portion of the energy is actually
utilised in PAM for material removal. In a typical
PAM cutting or machining operation, up to 45% of
the electrical power delivered to the torch is used to
remove metal from the work piece [SME, 1998]. Rest
of the power is wasted in the form of heating the cool
water in the plasma generator, the work piece and the
gas.
Typical parameters that are used with plasma arc
machining are [El-Hofy, 2005]:
Work piece (+)
● Velocity of plasma jet – 500 m/s
3
● Material removal rate – 150 cm /min fig. 11.45 Schematic of plasma arc machining
3 set up
● Specific energy – 100 W/cm .min
● Voltage – 30 to 250 V
● Current – up to 600 A
Applications
The major application of PAM is in cutting. It can cut any electrically conductive metals. Coupled with a
CNC table, PAM can be used to cut any shapes such as straight line, circle, or complex profiles. Often PAM
is combined with a CNC turret punching press (Amada Coma 567 turret press with plasma cutting) for wide
ranging fabrication jobs.
It can also be used in an operation similar to turning where the plasma torch is applied to a rotating
cylindrical surface. The torch is kept tangentially in contact with a rotating cylindrical surface. This is
normally used with difficult to turn machines since PAM will not have any advantage in easy-to-machine
materials such as steel, aluminium or copper alloys. So it is normally used for difficult-to-machine materials
such as Inconel, stainless steel and hastelloys.
Advantages
● It is equally effective on any electrically conductive material regardless of its hardness or refractori-
ness.
● It does not directly contact the work piece thereby simplifying the setup process.
● It does not require any special surface preparations or use any dangerous chemicals for cleaning after
machining.
Disadvantage
● The process because of the intense heat used allows for a large heat affected zone which needs to be
removed later using other operations.
sUMMary
Unconventional machining processes were developed to machine hard and heat resistant materials. These
processes are based on various principles that are different from the conventional processes, which rely on
the hardness of the cutting tool material.
● There are a number of processes such as EDM, ECM, USM, etc. each of which rely on different
principle to displace material from the work piece. These processes have a lot of differences that
make each of them applicable only for specific applications.
● Electric discharge machining (EDM) removes metal by the heat generated by the spark generated
between the electrode and the work piece. Electrode materials include copper, graphite and tungsten,
though graphite is the most commonly used electrode material. Dielectric fluid needs to be applied
to continuously flush out the debris generated during the material removal process. Most widely
used process to machine complex dies and moulds used for die casting and injection moulding.
● Electrochemical machining (ECM) utilises the principle of anodic dissolution of material to remove
the material from the work piece. The accuracy of the work piece achieved is excellent with very
little wear of the electrode. Electrolyte flow between the electrode and work piece is very critical
since it completes the electrical circuit while removing the heat generated and products of reaction
away from the machining zone.
● Ultrasonic machining (USM) removes material by abrading a brittle material by the abrasive in a
slurry using the ultrasonic vibrations. It is a simple equipment however the tool wear is high and the
material removal rates are low.
● Chemical Machining (CHM) is essentially the removal of material by dissolving in a chemical
solution.
● Laser beam machining (LBM) uses the focused energy of the light beam to partially melt and
blow away the material to cut at very precise locations. Used predominantly to make holes and cut
complex contours.
● Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) utilises very high speed jet of water mixed with abrasive
to cut any type of material. This is being increasingly utilised in the industry since it can cut any
material and also will not affect the work piece material in any way.
● Electron beam machining (EBM) uses the high-energy electron beam to melt and vaporize the metal
in its path to remove metal. This is used for small holes with extremely high aspect ratio.
● Ion beam machining (IBM) removes metal by the sputtering process where the atoms are displaced
by the collision of ions. This is used specifically for small parts without using any harmful chemicals.
● Plasma arc machining (PAM) uses the ionised gas plasma to melt the material at a very fast rate.
This is generally used for cutting of very thick metal plates.
Q u e s t io ns
11.1 Explain the need for the use of unconventional machining processes compared to the conventional
ones.
11.2 Give a comparison of the unconventional processes in terms of process, material removal rate and
applications.
11.3 Explain the reasons why the unconventional machining processes are used.
11.4 Explain the principle of EDM with a neat sketch.
11.5 Explain why the tool shape in EDM should be complimentary to the final form.
11.6 Draw a typical relaxation circuit used for the EDM power supply and derive the expression for the
material removal rate.
11.7 Explain the disadvantages of relaxation circuit and show the alternative arrangement of pulse
generator used in EDM.
11.8 Briefly explain the working of an EDM machine showing important elements.
11.9 What are the functions served by the dielectric fluid in EDM?
11.10 Briefly explain the flushing techniques used in EDM giving their relative merits and applications.
11.11 What are the characteristics required for a good electrode material in EDM?
11.12 Explain the application of the following electrode materials in EDM:
(a) Copper (b) Graphite
11.13 What are the important parameters that control the material removal rate in EDM? Briefly explain any
two factors.
11.14 What possible errors are caused in EDM?
11.15 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of EDM.
11.16 Write a short note on wire EDM process.
11.17 Explain the principle of ECM with a neat sketch.
11.18 What are the principal features of ECM process?
11.19 Briefly explain the working of an ECM machine showing important elements.
11.20 What are the functions served by the electrolyte in ECM?
11.21 Describe the factors that should be considered in selecting an electrolyte in ECM.
11.22 Briefly explain the electrolyte flow methods used in ECM giving their relative merits and applications.
11.23 What factors should be considered in selecting the tool materials in ECM?
11.24 Briefly explain the various process parameters that affect the material removal rate and surface quality
in ECM.
11.25 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of ECM.
11.26 Write a short note on ECG.
11.27 Explain how material is removed in USM.
11.28 Briefly explain about the functions of transducer and tool cone in USM.
11.29 What is the function of abrasive slurry in USM? Explain how the abrasive selection is made.
11.30 Briefly explain the working of an USM machine showing important elements.
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
11.1 Unconventional (non-traditional) machining 11.2 The dielectric fluid in electric discharge
processes are used specifically for machining (EDM) process should
(a) Very high hardness of the work material (a) Ionise rapidly after the spark discharge
(b) Complex surfaces that cannot be easily has taken place.
obtained by conventional machining (b) Have a high viscosity
operations (c) Be chemically neutral so as not to attack
(c) Difficult geometries that cannot be easily the electrode
produced by conventional machining (d) Have a low flash point.
operations 11.3 The following is not a dielectric fluid to be
(d) All of the above used in electric discharge machining (EDM)
process
11.15 Better surface finish in electro chemical (b) Laser beam machining can be localized
machining (ECM) process can be obtained to a small area thereby removing a very
by small amount of material
(a) Low electrolyte concentration (c) Since the heat is localized, Heat Affected
(b) Low electrolyte temperature Zone (HAZ) in laser beam machining is
(c) Low voltage small
(d) All of the above (d) All of the above
11.16 Limitation of the electro chemical machining 11.20 Increasing the feed rate in abrasive water jet
(ECM) process machining (AWJM)
(a) Use of corrosive media as electrolytes (a) Improves the surface finish
makes it difficult to handle (b) Decreases the drag
(b) Poor surface finish (c) Surface finish gets deteriorated
(c) Poor accuracy of the work piece dimen- (d) None of the above
sions because of the large tool wear 11.21 The machining process that will be most
(d) There will be thermal damage to the appropriate to drill a rectangular hole in a
work piece high strength alloy
11.17 The following process is suitable for (a) Drilling
machining brittle materials such as glass (b) Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
(a) Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) (c) Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
(b) Electro Chemical Machining (ECM) (d) Chemical machining (CHM)
(c) Ultrasonic Machining (USM) 11.22 The machining process that will be most
(d) Chemical machining (CHM) appropriate to drill a rectangular hole in a
11.18 Limitation of the Ultrasonic Machining ceramic material
(USM) process is (a) Drilling
(a) Metal removal rates are large (b) Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
(b) Tool wear is high and sharp corners can- (c) Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
not be produced (d) Chemical machining (CHM)
(c) It is affected by the electrical or chemi- 11.23 The machining process that will be most
cal characteristics of the work material appropriate to machine a turbine blade with
(d) Cannot be used with brittle materials an aerofoil cross section in a high strength
11.19 Advantage of laser beam machining (LBM) material
is (a) Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
(a) Laser beam machining does not apply (b) Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
any direct force because it is a non-con- (c) Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
tact machining (d) Chemical machining (CHM)
Answers to MCQs
11.1 (d) 11.2 (c) 11.3 (b) 11.4 (a) 11.5 (d)
11.6 (c) 11.7 (b) 11.8 (c) 11.9 (c) 11.10 (d)
11.11 (d) 11.12 (b) 11.13 (b) 11.14 (a) 11.15 (d)
11.16 (a) 11.17 (c) 11.18 (b) 11.19 (d) 11.20 (c)
11.21 (c) 11.22 (b) 11.23 (a)
C a s e s T u dy
tUrBiNe Blade MachiNiNg
Engine components for airplanes which need to maintain low weight, high temperature resistance and
increased thermal efficiency require that these be manufactured with high nickel and titanium alloys.
The commonly used materials are Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 718. The geometry of turbine blade is com-
plex and these blades are arranged on the rotor disk with specialized geometry that facilitates the flow
of gases. The gap between the blades is relatively small and has complex geometry, the machining
of which requires a very careful planning. Being hard materials these alloys can be machined using
conventional milling, Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) and Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
processes.
In this case study, these alloys were machined using conventional milling, EDM and ECM processes
in order to compare the material removal rates and economics. The conventional milling is done
with trochoidal milling which is a method of machining used to create a slot wider than the milling
cutter diameter. This is accomplished by moving the cutter through a series of circular cuts known
as a trochoidal tool path. This provides a low radial depth of cut and a high axial depth of cut and
achieves good material removal rate. In the EDM setup, initial roughing was done using the regular
EDM process and then Wire EDM was used. The table below shows the variation of MRR among the
processes.
Economic analysis for titanium alloy machining led to the inference that with low tool development
costs, ECM and milling costs are in similar range and not much change is observed with changes in
the batch sizes. However, EDM cost increases with the production volume. Therefore, except for small
batch sizes of 20 or less, EDM will be uneconomical.
1. Apparently, ECM works better than other processes in Inconel alloy, but not for Titanium alloy.
Find out the possible reasons based on the governing mechanics.
2. What are the possible reasons for cost effectiveness of ECM compared to EDM?
Micro-Manufacturing
12
Objectives
Miniaturization is taking place at a rapid rate and this chapter provides a summary of some
of the micro-manufacturing methods that are employed for this purpose. After completing this
chapter, the reader will be able to
❯ Understand the need for micro-manufacturing
❯ Recognize the classification of different micro-manufacturing methods practiced
❯ Study different traditional micro-manufacturing processes
❯ Study different nontraditional micro-manufacturing processes
❯ Understand different steps in semiconductor manufacturing methods used in MEMS and nano
applications.
❯ Learn a case study in the processing of a MEMS device
12.1 IntroductIon
Technology is getting miniaturized at a relatively fast pace. This requirement is dictated by the need for
enhancing the functionality and at the same time reducing the dimensions. At one point of time not long ago
the wristwatch parts were the only industrial microproducts manufactured. But the desire is to have ever
smaller parts for all the electronic gadgets that are utilized today such as cell phones, medical implants, fuel
injection nozzle for automobiles, micro surgical tools, micro end effectors and semiconductor devices. Many
of these products also need extremely fine finish in the range of nanometer level with complex geometries.
The quality and reliability of the products that are demanded today is phenomenally high, and this requires a
special class of manufacturing methods. A few examples are the microfluidic devices, drug delivery systems,
diagnostic devices, micro pumps, micro engines, inkjet printer printing heads (cartridges), etc.
Achieving micro dimensions such as those used in the MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) devices
in the range of 1 to 999 µm require a very special class of processes that are different from the traditional
machining processes that are normally used. Fig. 12.1 shows the progress of machining technologies over the
years along with change in accuracy limits. In Fig. 12.1 on the right side some of the machining technologies
corresponding to the accuracy requirements can be seen. It may be noticed that at this point in time the ability
to manipulate at the atomic level is possible along with the corresponding accuracy requirements for working
models of parts either mechanical or biological.
0.01
Ultra Precision Machining Free Abrasive Machining
0.001
Atomic Lattice Separation Ion Beam Machining
Molecular Manipulation
0.0001
1940 1960 1980 2000
Fig 12.1 The progress of machining technologies over the years along with change in accuracy limits
Micromanufacturing Processes
CVD Microwelding
Traditional Advanced Casting Forming
PVD M Bonding
MAJM Micropunching
Fig 12.2 Classification of micro-manufacturing methods based on the manufacturing principle. MEDM
– Micro-EDM; MEBM- Micro EBM; MLBM- Micro-LBM; MECM-Micro-ECM; MAJM-Micro-AJM; CVD-
Chemical Vapor deposition; PVD-Physical Vapor deposition; LIGA- Lithographie Galvanoformung
Abformung (Lithography, Electroplating and Molding); MAM- Micro Additive Manufacturing
methods; Adopted from [3].
Micro-turning
Micro-turning is the process used for axi-symmetric parts that are small in size requiring high precision. The
machine tool used should therefore be similar to a production lathe with miniaturized dimensions and high
precision as explained earlier. Diamond tipped tools are used for precise turning. Micro-turning should be able
to achieve accuracies of the order of 1 µm or less with surface finishes in the range of 0.002 to 0.005 µm Ra.
Tools typically used are natural and synthetic diamond tips. Typical applications of micro-turning are small
diameter shaft like components, optical lenses, molds for contact lenses, intraocular lenses, etc.
Micro-milling
Micro-milling is a versatile process that can be used for many different geometries. The diamond tool used
for this purpose with the cutting point located away from the spindle in a cantilever form is a weak link.
Monocrystalline diamond is the most suitable tool material. Two fluted end mills made from tungsten carbide
powder (0.3 µm grain size) up to 100 µm diameter are commercially available with an edge radius of the order
of 1–2 µm. Micro-milling similar to the conventional milling is used for prismatic shapes such as grooves,
cavities, and 3D concave and convex shapes in miniaturized components. Micro-milling is also used for
making structured molds that are used for micro-molding of structured optical elements such as Fresnel lenses.
Micro-drilling
Micro-drilling uses small drills similar to a spade drill and utilizes peck drilling cycle for efficient removal
of the chips. Larger micro-drills can be similar to twist drills. The tool material used is micro-grain tungsten
carbide. Micro-drilling being a mechanical process will not be affected by the electrical properties of the work
piece similar to micro-EDM. Therefore, all metals, nonmetals, plastics and composites, can be machined
easily. One typical example is the drilling of holes in laminated circuit boards. Very hard or brittle materials
are difficult to machine.
Micro-grinding
Similar to the above processes micro-grinding is also a mechanical process that removes the material by
means of mechanical force that is used for grinding very small work pieces that require very fine finish.
Micro-grinding is the process that removes material using micro abrasive grains with very small depth of cut.
As a result brittle materials can be mirror polished using this process. The grinding tool is generally in the
form of a wheel consisting of the micro abrasive grains in a matrix. The grain depth of cut with this wheel
has to be kept to less than 100 nm to obtain smooth surfaces of less than 10 nm peak to valley depth. The
application of micro-grinding in the fabrication of 2D or 3D micro-cavities requires tools that are smaller
than the cavity required. For this purpose a tool with a micro-sized tip is used. In such cases a micro grinding
pin with the smallest diameter, typically 30 mm, tools will be used. Because of the considerable grinding
force, deep micro-holes or deep, narrow cavities cannot be produced by micro-grinding.
Micro-EDM
As discussed in Chapter 11, Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) vaporizes the material to be removed by
the intense heat generated by the electric spark between the electrode and the work material. As a result the
shape of the electrode transfers to the work piece. The size of the tool used being small the corresponding
detail produced in the work piece is also small. Typical tools are available with a tool diameter of 5 µm. The
3-dimensional control of EDM tool with CNC help to produce complex surfaces as well. Because the size
of the tool is extremely small the arc need to be struck for a relatively lesser time to make sure that tool
wear is minimized. Table 12.1 provides major differences between the conventional EDM and Micro-EDM.
Micro-EDM can be further divided into Micro-EDM drilling, Micro-EDM die-sinking, Micro-EDM milling,
Micro-wire EDM and Micro-wire EDG, depending upon the type of surface that needs to be obtained.
The preferred tool materials are tungsten carbide and copper. Electrically conductive CVD diamond is
also used as tool material because of its almost zero electrode wear. Simple cylindrical tools are used most of
the time. It is also possible to use hollow electrodes in drilling when the size is above 100 mm.
Micro-ECM
Electro chemical machining (ECM) is characterized by zero wear and as a result, the quality of the parts
will be maintained over a complete batch and there is no need to change tools in between. It is also possible
to remove higher amounts of material from the work. Since this process does not add stresses in any way
to the parts, it is a process of choice for ultra-precision components used in avionics, biotechnology, etc.
ECM is also adopted for machining micro-parts in the range of 5 to 500 mm with tolerances in the range of
microns. Further impetus for adopting micro-ECM is the use of ultra-short pulses of nanosecond duration
that help the process to be confined to very small locations down to nanometer precision, to achieve high
resolution. A comparison of the operating parameters between the convention ECM and micro-ECM are
given in Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 Operating parameters as used in conventional ECM vs Micro-ECM [Adopted from 12].
In view of the many advantages micro-ECM is the process of choice for the micro-electronic devices. It
has been used for machining inkjet nozzle plates, conducting lines in PC boards, high accuracy holes, etc.
The process variations are micro-hole drilling, micro-ECM using masks that are used in semiconductor
manufacturing that is covered separately in 12.3.3, micro-electrochemical milling, wire electrochemical
machining, laser electrochemical micro machining (LECMM), etc.
■N-type and P-type dopants both give linear conduction, but from fundamentally different
mechanisms
■ N-type touching P-type forms a diode
Semiconductor manufacturing unfortunately is not a single process, but involves a number of processes
depending upon the final result to be achieved. The basic steps to form microstructures are:
● Deposition (the additive process)
● Etching (the subtractive process)
These processes are applied in any order and any number of times depending upon the final design that is
required. Some of the steps may be skipped or repeated a number of times. Lithography is the most important
step that controls where the materials stay or where they need to be removed by providing a patterned mask.
Typical sequence of processing steps in a photolithography process are shown in Fig. 12.3. The first step
is getting the appropriate wafer that will act as the substrate. This then needs to be added with a layer of
photoresist (in the form of liquid) for the purpose of transferring the required image of the surface. The coat
thus obtained is then baked so that it can move to the next step for transferring the design. The required design
in a transparent sheet is aligned with the wafer ultraviolet light is used to transfer the image to the photoresist.
The latent image in the photoresist will be developed in the next stage so that subsequent operations can be
carried out. The developed image provides areas that will be masked from UV light penetration so that the
material under them will not be affected during the next stage of etching. Next step is etching where chemical
solutions will be utilized to remove the metal that is not masked to get the necessary structure of details. The
last operation will be to clean and remove the mask (photoresist left) to complete the operation.
Substrate wafer
Silicon Wafer
The starting point of any MEMS or semiconductor process is the single crystal silicon wafer. More than 75%
of all single crystal silicon wafers grow via the Czochralski (CZ) method. In this method silicon is heated
above 1420°C in a quartz crucible. The required dopant combinations are added to the liquid and once they
are liquefied a seed crystal that has the same crystal orientation required in the finished ingot is brought to
the top of the melt surface. In order to achieve the uniformity in doping of the silicon boule, the seed crystal
and the quartz crucible rotate in opposite directions. Once the system reaches proper conditions for crystal
growth, the seed crystal slowly lifts out of the melt. The seed crystal is rapidly pulled to continue the growth
of the crystal. This minimizes the number of crystal defects within the seed at the beginning of the growing
process. Later the speed is reduced to allow the diameter of the crystal to increase. When the desired diam-
eter of the crystal is reached, the growth conditions are stabilized to maintain the diameter. As the seed is
slowly moving above the melt, the surface cools, with the atoms in the melted silicon orienting themselves
to the crystal structure of the seed. Growing a silicon ingot can take anywhere from one week to one month,
depending on many factors, including size, quality and the specification.
The standard size of a monocrystalline silicon wafers are given in Table 12.3. The ingot is ground to
the rough final diameter and a flat is machined to indicate the type of wafer. The ingot is then sliced with a
diamond edge saw and inspected for quality. The wafers are now lapped to remove any imperfections on the
surface because of the slicing process. Then the surface is etched and cleaned to remove any microscopic
cracks and/or surface damage that may have come about during lapping process. Then the wafer is polished
in a clean room with a mirror finish. This polished surface is used for device fabrication and must be free of
topography, micro-cracks, scratches, and residual work damage. Now the wafer is ready as raw material for
any intended work.
the liquid film. Then it is baked on a hotplate at about 80–500°C for 10–1000s (volume reduction by ½). Due
to the high thermal conductivity of silicon, the photoresist is heated to the hot plate temperature quickly (in
about 5 seconds for hard contact). When the wafer is removed from the hotplate, baking continues as long as
the wafer is hot. After cooling, the wafer is ready for its lithographic exposure.
Physical vapor deposition PVD is fundamentally a vacuum coating technique that can be done in two
ways. In one method the metal is vaporized to a plasma of atoms or molecules in a vacuum and deposited on
the silicon wafer. The wafer is secured in a fixture and placed in the vacuum deposition equipment chamber.
The metal to be coated such as aluminum or gold is kept in a tungsten crucible and is evaporated by a high
intense heat source. The evaporated metal then coats the wafer which is directly above, so that the metal coat-
ing is produced simply by line of sight.
PVD has the advantage that it does not require any gases or other chemicals for operation and provides
an even coating on flat surfaces. However, since the process depends on vapor pressure, low vapor pressure
species will require a very high vacuum environment. Also alloys tend to be difficult to deposit as different
metals have different vapor pressures. High aspect ratio features such as sidewalls will not be evenly
deposited. It is still widely used for optical coatings and other surface processes.
Another method of depositing is sputtering. Sputtering is a plasma-assisted technique that creates a vapor
from the source target through bombardment with accelerated gaseous ions (typically Argon). Argon plasma
sputters atoms off target (coating material), takes ballistic path to wafers and deposits on the wafer. It requires
high vacuum depending on material. The wafer substrate is spun to achieve uniform thickness.
Chemical vapor deposition CVD process requires precursor gas or gases to flow into a chamber
containing the heated wafer to be coated. Gases dissociate on surfaces at high temperature. Chemical reactions
occur on the hot surfaces, resulting in the deposition of a thin film on the surface. This is accompanied
by the production of chemical by-products that are exhausted out of the chamber along with unreacted
precursor gases. The main problem is the use of dangerous gases such as silane, arsine, phosphine, etc. It is
typically done at low pressure (LPCVD) rather than atmospheric (APCVD). In LPCVD pressures are around
300 mTorr (0.0004 bar).
Lithography
Lithography is the process that uses light or other forms of radiant energy to change the chemical properties
of thin layers of films that have been deposited on the wafer that acts as the substrate. When the pattern is
transferred using lithography then the latent image of the shape of the object to be obtained will be embedded
into the coating. This image then will be developed and can be used as a mask for selective removal of the
material from the substrate. The terms used in lithography are:
Lithography – The transferring (writing) of a pattern-usually to a “resist”
Resist – Medium into which pattern on a mask, on a mold, or in computer file is transferred. Used in most
types of lithography
Developer – Needed in some types of lithography to bring out the pattern written in the resist
There are a number of lithography types that are employed in semiconductor manufacturing depending
upon the resolution required. Some of them are:
● Photo Lithography
● Embossing Lithography
● Stamp Lithography
● Molding Lithography
Photo-lithography In this book only photolithography is discussed, as the others are beyond the scope of
this book. The basic principle behind the operation of a photoresist is the change in solubility of the photore-
sist in a developer upon exposure to light (or other types of exposing radiation). Photolithography uses light
energy passing through a patterned mask that is already deposited on the photoresist with a silicon substrate.
The light is focused onto the photosensitive surface through a photomask typically made of quartz with a
chrome plating that controls where the radiant energy will strike the photoresist. Photomasks can be made
with electron beam patterning tools to create fine features. There are several ways to accomplish this:
● Contact/proximity printing: Contact and proximity lithography are the simplest methods and offer
high resolution (down to about the wavelength of the radiation), but practical problems such as mask
damage and resulting low yield make this process unusable in most production environments.
● Projection printing: An optical system focuses the light source and reduces the mask image for
exposure on the surface. It provides higher resolution and the lens system reduces diffraction error.
The disadvantages could be errors due to the focus of lens system , and the limiting factor in resolution
can be due to the optical system used.
● Projection scanning: Used for higher resolution.
Lithography opens up certain areas on a silicon wafer surface for further processing. When the substrate
is exposed to radiation through a mask, properties of the resist changes chemically. Subsequent development
removes the exposed resist, leaving these regions defined, but not permanently changed. The etch process
removes the species from the exposed areas, permanently changing the makeup of those areas.
Etching
Etching is a process to remove material chemically or by some other process. Any etch process is character-
ized by certain properties:
The etch rate, often given in angstroms/minute, indicates how quickly the process proceeds. In determining
throughput, this is a key indicator. It gives the amount of material removed from the wafer over a defined
period of time.
Uniformity, the evenness of the removal over the entire surface of the wafer. A non-uniform etch could
over etch certain areas of the wafer, removing protective masking or more of a layer than necessary, while
leaving other areas correctly processed.
Profile could be isotropic in which etching proceeds at equal rates in both horizontal and vertical directions
Fig. 12.4(a) or anisotropic where etching proceeds faster in one plane than in another Fig. 12.4(b).
Mask Mask
Silicon substrate
Silicon substrate
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.4 Anisotropy in etching
Selectivity is the ability of the etch process to distinguish between the layer to be etched and the material
not to be etched.
Etching can be carried out using one of the following processes:
● Wet chemical etching
● Dry physical etching
● Dry chemical/physical etching or Reactive ion etching (RIE)
Wet chemical etching The process of using liquid chemicals or etchants to remove material from the
wafer is termed as wet etching. The actual pattern to be obtained is already present on the wafer in the form
of mask. Materials that are not protected by the masks are etched away by liquid chemicals. Some of the wet
etching agents for silicon are potassium hydroxide (KOH), ethylene diamine pyrocatechol (EDP), or tetra
methyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH). Because of the nature of silicon crystal planes the etching with these
etchants will be anisotropic as shown in Fig. 12.8 (a). To get isotropic wet etching, a mixture of hydrofluoric
acid, nitric acid, and acetic acid (HNA) is the most common etchant solvent used for silicon. The concentra-
tions of each etchant determines the etch rate. Silicon dioxide or silicon nitride is usually used as a masking
material against HNA.
Dry physical etching In dry physical etching plasmas or etchant gases are used to remove the substrate
material. Etching properties of a plasma depend on the gas or gases it is made from, and the power pumped
into the plasma. In dry physical etching, the high energy particles knock out the atoms from the substrate
surface, and the material evaporates after leaving the substrate. It will be anisotropic because ions move from
plasma toward substrate and therefore tend to bombard normal to the overall surface, knocking everything off.
Dry chemical/physical etching or Reactive ion etching (RIE) It is a mixture of chemical and physical
etching using plasmas. Argon is used in a plasma as a physical etching process. The anisotropy of this process
is retained, and the physical removal process causes the surface to continually be exposed to the chemical
etching taking place from the radicals in the gas that have been formed from the plasma. Etching properties
are tailored by adjusting relative importance of bombardment (physical) etching and chemical etching (from
sources such as radicals). Degree of anisotropy can be adjusted by adjusting gas composition and power into
plasma.
suMM ary
In this chapter an overview of the micro-manufacturing methods is presented that are commonly used
for making small, precision part making. The developments have progressed gradually with the develop-
ments in the miniaturization of electronics. These methods can be classified, similar to the traditional
manufacturing processes, into material forming, material removal, material joining and material addition
methods. In each category there are a variety of processes developed for specific applications. By min-
iaturizing the traditional processes it is possible to achieve the nanometer surface finishes by mechanical
removal processes. In a similar way the micro nontraditional removal processes are able to produce micro
and nanometer sized functional parts that are similar to their macro parts. Semiconductor manufacturing
is essentially the non-traditional material removal operation for a special class of materials that are aug-
mented with many processes specific to the type of parts that are mass produced. The operation involves a
number of processes that need to be completed in sequence in order to achieve the required functionality.
Fortunately the processes are well developed and could be used with certainty to achieve the mass manu-
facturing with identical functionality. Micro-pressure sensor manufacturing demonstrates the sequence of
operations in semiconductor manufacturing methods as a case study.
Q u e s t io ns
12.1 Explain the need for micro-manufacturing in the modern scenario.
12.2 Give some examples of products that require micro-manufacturing.
12.3 Give a classification of the micro-manufacturing methods based on their manufacturing approaches.
12.4 Give the capabilities and applications of micro turning method.
12.5 Give the applications of the following processes: micro-milling, micro-drilling and micro-grinding.
12.6 Write a short note on micro EDM process with its applications.
12.7 Compare micro-EDM and micro-ECM processes from the standpoint of process and applications.
12.8 Why is silicon the preferred choice for the semiconductor manufacturing?
12.9 Give a list of all the materials that are used in semiconductor manufacturing.
12.10 What are the basic steps used in semiconductor manufacturing? Give a brief description of each of
them.
12.11 Write a short note on material modification as related to semiconductor manufacturing.
12.12 What is the purpose of lithography in semiconductor manufacturing? Give the names of different
methods that are used.
12.13 Give some of the characteristics that are relevant to etching as related to semiconductor manufacturing.
12.14 Give the various process steps that are required for making the micro pressure sensor.
C a s e s T u dy
MeMs Pressure sensor ManuFacturIng Process
(This part is developed with assistance from Dr. Matthias Pleil, Support Center for Microsystems
Education (http://scme-support.org/), The University of New Mexico)
Micro pressure sensors are extensively used in a number of MEMS applications such as tyre pressure
measurement, automobile ABS, digital blood pressure monitors and ventilators, etc. Pressure sensing is
done using the diaphragm technology where the differential pressure on both sides of the diaphragm is
measured by the change in the resistance of piezo-resistive material that is attached to the diaphragm.
Pressure induced strain increases the resistance value of the radial resistors. The transverse resistors
also increase in resistance, but much less because of the low strain in that direction. The principle of the
pressure sensor is shown schematically in Fig. 1. The piezo-resistors are integrated in the diaphragm as
shown in Fig. 1. The pressure acting on the diaphragm deflects it because of the differential pressure on
both sides of the diaphragm. The piezo-resistors integrated in the diaphragm are part of a Wheatstone
bridge circuit whose voltage output is directly proportional to the pressure difference after calibration.
The resistor components are formed by deposition and patterning of piezo-resistive materials onto
the pressure sensor diaphragm, which is a thin layer of silicon nitride. The diaphragm seals the top
of a cavity which is used as the reference pressure chamber. The other side of the cavity is open to
the environment and subjected to air pressure variations. As the diaphragm moves due to pressure
difference, the piezo-resistors mounted on the diaphragm also stretch. The shapes of the resistances
formed on the pressure membrane side of the diaphragm are as shown in Fig. 2.
Pressure
Piezo
resistors Diaphragm
Substrate
p-type diffused
Si diaphragm Bondpad piezoresistor
Metal conductors
n-type
epitaxial
layer
p-type substrate
and frame
Anodically
bonded
Etched cavity pyrex
Backside port substrate
Fig. 2 The layout of the pressure measuring piezo-resistors R1 to R4 with a photograph of an actual
sensor. (Courtesy SCME, UNM)
The process steps for micromachining the pressure sensor are schematically shown in Fig. 3.
1. Bare Silicon
Starting point is standard monocrystalline silicon wafer having <100> crystal orientation.
2. Silicon Nitride Deposition
The surface of the silicon wafer is deposited on both sides with 1 µm silicon nitride with low
pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) process. The silicon nitride layer is used to form
the pressure sensor’s membrane on the wafer’s frontside. The silicon nitride acts as a membrane
on the frontside and also acts as a hard mask for etching the cavities on the backside of the wafer.
3. Backside Photolithography
The backside of the wafer is patterned using a three step photolithography process: coat, expose,
and develop. This process identifies the areas to be etched to create the reference chamber.
(a) Frontside and Backside Coat
The wafer is initially coated with HMDS (hexamethyl disilazane) and followed with the
photoresist. HMDS helps the photoresist to adhere to the wafer surface. This step will coat
the front side of the wafer first for protection against scratches, then the backside of the
wafer will be coated.
(b) Backside Photolithography – Expose
In this step select areas of the photoresist are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. The
areas where UV light has exposed the photoresist are subsequently developed. The mask
contains the pattern that will be used to create the reference chambers.
Silicon nitride
Step 6b
Step 2
Photo resist
Step 6c
Step 3a
Metal
Step 7
Step 3b
Step 8
Step 4
Step 9
Step 5
Step 10
Fig. 3 Schematic flow diagram of the process steps in the manufacture of the pressure sensor.
13.1 IntroductIon
The surface of components produced by the machining processes depends mostly on the process of their
generation. As a result, the quality of surface produced depends upon the accuracy of the various movements
of the machine tools concerned. It therefore becomes important to know the capability of the machine tool
by evaluating the accuracy of the various mechanisms that are directly responsible for generating the surface.
For this purpose, a large variety of tests have been designed. A brief review of these is given in this chapter.
the rigidity of the mandrel. The measuring length of the mandrel may vary from 100 mm to 500 mm for most
cases.
Straight edges Heavy and internal stress free straight edges of sufficient length made of steel or cast iron
would be used. They should have sufficiently large bearing area and ground to close tolerances with square-
ness of the order of ± 0.01 mm.
Spirit levels Before carrying out the machine tool tests it is necessary to level the machine tool both in
the longitudinal direction as well as the lateral direction. For this purpose, the spirit levels are used. The spirit
level with sensitivity of the order of 0.01 mm per metre length would be sufficient.
Test mandrel
fig. 13.3 Test setup for true running of the spindle of a milling machine
Mandrel
fig. 13.6 Test setup for the spindle alignment of a milling machine with that of the over arm support
● Parallelism between the tail stock sleeve taper and the slideways by mounting the test mandrel into the
fig. 13.8 Test setup for the parallelism of the tail stock sleeve
● Parallelism between the line of centres and the slideways (Fig. 13.9).
Mandrel
fig. 13.9 Test setup for the parallelism of the line of centres in a lathe
fig. 13.10 Test setup for the parallelism between the table and the spindle axis in a
horizontal milling machine
● Parallelism between the table surface and the longitudinal movement of the table is shown in Fig. 13.11.
Traverse table
fig. 13.11 Test setup for the parallelism between the table and the longitudinal
movement in a horizontal milling machine
● Parallelism between the spindle axis and the transverse movement of the table. The test setup is similar
to the test in (a), except that this time the reading is taken with the table moved to the extreme positions
in the transverse direction (Fig. 13.10).
● Perpendicularity between the spindle and the vertical column by moving the knee. The dial indicator
is fixed to the spindle and a square is clamped to the table as shown in Fig. 13.12. The dial indicator
plunger touches the vertical leg of the square. The knee is then raised to take the reading at the two
extreme ends of the vertical leg of the square.
Lower knee
fig. 13.12 Test setup for the perpendicularity between the spindle and the vertical
movement in a horizontal milling machine
In the case of radial drilling machines, the following tests can be conducted:
● Parallelism between the drilling head slideways and the base plate.
● Perpendicularity between the spindle axis and the base plate (Fig. 13.13). The spindle is rotated by
360° and the reading of the dial indicator whose plunger touches the base plate is taken.
fig. 13.13 Test setup for the perpendicularity between the spindle and the base
plate of a radial drilling machine
● Perpendicularity between the feed movement and the base plate (Fig. 13.14). A square is placed on the
base plate with the dial indicator mounted in the spindle. Readings are taken by moving the spindle up
and down the vertical leg of the square as shown in Fig. 13.14.
fig. 13.14 Test setup for the perpendicularity between the feed movement and the
base plate of a radial drilling machine
The above are only a sample of the possible testing that can be done. More details can be obtained from
the Schlesinger’s book or from the manufacturer’s catalogues.
suMMary
Testing machine tools for their ability to deliver the required precision is an important attribute and needs
to be done periodically.
● The various elements of machine tools that need to be tested are the slide ways, spindle and other
associated components that directly result in the quality of the component.
● Alignment tests make sure the elements being tested are true to their design specifications.
● These tests are designed depending upon the motions executed by the different types of machine
tools.
14.1 IntroductIon
During the component design stage, it is important to consider whether any of the surfaces present in the
component need to be machined. If so, it then becomes necessary to do the analysis of the part, to determine
if the machining is cost effective or not. The methodologies for such analysis are now well established and are
normally grouped into what is called ‘Design for Manufacture and Assembly’ or DFMA in short. Assembly
is combined with manufacture since a product rarely consists of a single component.
The Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA) allows for a reduction of the assembly costs and
component count along with a reduction of the overall costs while improving the reliability of the product.
Boothroyd and Dewhurst have developed the methodologies and computer solutions for the same. The
methodology to be adopted is shown in Fig. 14.1. The following three principles are recursively applied to all
the assemblies to develop a low cost assembly.
1. During the operation of the product, does the part move relative to all other parts already assembled?
2. Must the part be of a different material or be isolated from all other parts already assembled?
3. Must the part be separate from all other parts already assembled because otherwise necessary assembly
or disassembly of the other separate parts would be impossible?
Also each of the components is further analysed to see if the selected material and manufacturing process
is the best or a better low cost option can be obtained. The concept of features will help a lot in this process.
Design concept
Prototype
Production
As
0.8 mm 3.1 mm cast
Fig. 14.2 Type of tolerances and surface finishes that necessitates machining. Decreasing
them may reduce the cost of machining or can eliminate it
3. Limit the manufacturing processes to those that are readily available, including the necessary
expertise in them. This will make the available expertise to be better utilised while reducing the
cost of acquiring new methods and technologies. However, care has to be taken while applying this
principle, since sometimes adopting a new technology may be expensive initially, but may reduce the
overall costs in the long run.
4. Reduce the variety of machining processes used. The total cost of machining increases with the
number of setups used which automatically increases with the variety of processes used. Also the
tolerances start increasing with the variety of processes used.
5. Use standard (off the shelf available) components in the design. Off the shelf components such as
bearings, bolts and nuts, are normally produced in large volumes which allow for higher tolerances
and lower costs, which cannot be achieved by the small batch volumes.
6. Provide liberal tolerances such that overall manufacturing cost could be lowered (Fig. 14.2).
7. Use more standard shapes such as rectangular or circular shapes, which can be easily produced by
simple motions with the conventional machine tools. Surfaces such as tapers and contours call for
special tools or attachments, which increase the machining cost.
8. Use materials that have better manufacturability.
9. The cutting forces in machining are generally very high and will be acting on the parts. Hence the
parts which needs to be produced by machining needs to be rigid enough to withstand these forces.
As shown in Fig. 14.4(a), the cutting force is likely to deflect the thin rib as shown.
10. Since many of the secondary operations such as grinding and finishing require additional cost, they
be minimised or avoided.
11. The design process should be commensurate with the level of production expected of the part.
12. When a particular process is identified, exploit the special features of the process to get better
economies.
Milling cutter
Deflection
Work piece
(a) Thin support for (b) No deflection
cutting forces
Fig. 14.4 Parts to be machined should be rigid enough to withstand the cutting forces
External groove
Internal
groove
Fig. 14.6 Machining of external surfaces is easier compared to the internal surfaces
3. The grooves other than the rectangular grooves should have the side faces with sufficient taper to
allow for a normal contouring tool to enter. For example as shown in Fig. 14.7(a), if a surface is
normal, then the tool approach becomes difficult. Generally the grooves as shown in Fig. 14.7(b) are
preferable since they can be machined relatively easily.
4. The exact blending of different surfaces such as cylindrical and spherical surfaces as shown in
Fig. 14.8(a) will be very difficult to achieve because of the uncertainty in the machining process.
Hence the two nearby surfaces are made deliberately different (the larger diameter in the case of
Fig. 14.8(b) such that during the machining process no mismatch in the surfaces will be noticeable.
*D
5
D
.5*
0.
>0
=
R
D D
Surface
blending
difficult
(a) Not preferred (b) Preferable
Fig. 14.8 Different part surfaces should not be exactly matched
5. When holes are produced by a turning machine, it is very difficult to produce a blind hole with a flat
bottom. Hence it should be avoided. Ideally the bottom of the hole should have the same configuration
as that of the twist drill to be used, so that no additional machining is to be done to produce the bottom
surface as shown in Fig. 14.9(c). If it is not possible to have the same geometry, a small conical shape
of at least 3 mm size would be required to help in the movement of the boring bar to that location as
shown in Fig. 14.9(b).
Same as the
At least twist drill
3 mm or more bottom
6. Sharp corners are very difficult to produce at the intersecting surfaces as shown in Fig. 14.10(a). The
two cylindrical surfaces should preferably be separated with the help of an undercut between the two
as shown in Fig. 14.10(b). The undercut will also be useful if a further operation is to be done on the
smaller cylinder such as thread cutting or knurling. However, if only turning is to be done, then the
corner radius at the intersection of the surfaces, same as the nose radius of the turning tool to be used,
should be provided.
Tool
7. Special contoured surfaces can only be justified for a large volume production since they normally
entail the use of special form tools which need to be designed.
8. The work piece should be provided with rigid surfaces to withstand the action of the cutting forces. It
is generally preferable to have short and large diameter work pieces compared to the long and small
diameter work pieces as shown in Fig. 14.11.
9. The design should not have interrupted surfaces because they are likely to cause impact forces.
accuracy to suffer as shown in Fig. 14.12(a) and 14.13(a). In such cases, the part geometry needs to
be modified to make the entry surface perpendicular as shown in (b).
2. Use the standard twist drill sizes as far as possible. This reduces the cost of grinding the standard tool
for the given size.
3. Through holes are easier to produce compared to the blind holes. Through holes facilitate the easy
flow of chips and cutting fluid compared to a blind hole.
4. Too small hole sizes should be avoided, since the small size drills break easily and cause interruptions
in the production process.
5. Standardise the hole sizes to be used, to help reduce the inventory of various hole making operations
such as drills, boring bars and reamers.
6. Drilling of holes with inclined axis should be avoided. The web portion of the drill is likely to drift,
which can affect the location of the hole. If necessary, the inclined holes should be provided with an
entry surface normal to the drill axis as shown in Fig. 14.14(b).
7. Preferably, drilled holes should not have interrupted surfaces during the drilling process. The
interrupted surface as shown in Fig. 14.15(a), will cause the removal of material by only one of the
cutting edges, thus providing an unbalanced force on the drill. This would cause the drill to deflect.
8. Deep holes more than three times the diameter of the hole is difficult to be produced by conventional
drilling. This is because of the large volume of chips generated. The work materials that produce
continuous chips will further compound this problem. Special deep hole drilling methods are to be
used which are expensive.
9. Deep holes that are to be bored should not be more than five times the diameter, since the boring bar
becomes very slender, causing chatter. Special boring bars are to be used for such purposes.
10. Production drilling operations require that jigs be used for hole making operations. The jig bush is
used to locate and support the drill during the drilling operation. This requires that the jig be designed
such that the access of the jig bush is as close to the hole as possible, as shown in Fig. 14.16(b).
Jig bush
Jig bush
Part
Part
(a) Extra long drill required (b) Normal drill required
Fig. 14.16 Provision for jig bush to stay as close to the hole entry surface should be ensured
suMMary
The cost of machining can be reduced a lot by the careful analysis of the geometric design of the part.
● Make sure that the tolerances on part dimensions be specified as required, which will reduce the
cost.
● Use only the processes that are commonly available and the standard stock sizes to reduce the costs.
● Try to reduce the number of setups required for machining a part which will reduce the overall cost
15.1 IntroductIon
The accuracy achieved during a machining process depends upon the precision with which the tool and the
work piece are mounted in the machine tool along with their accurate movement. Normal work holding de-
vices such as chucks and vices are suitable for general purpose work, but when required to be used repeatedly
for a large number of identical parts, the setup and clamping time become unacceptable. Hence for produc-
tion work involving large number of parts, it is necessary to have separate jigs and fixtures to be designed for
specific application such that the setup time is reduced to the absolute minimum that is possible.
Jigs and fixtures are the production devices that are used for the accurate production of repeated parts
essentially for mass production. The required accuracy is achieved by maintaining the precise relationship
between the various surfaces of the fixture and the part to be manufactured. A jig or fixture needs to provide
the following functionality to be an effective production device:
● Location
● Clamping
● Support
Modular Fixtures
In Chapter 3, some general purpose work holders were discussed. These are used for all types of work pieces
and as such are inexpensive in the long run. However they require a lot of time for setting up and therefore
cannot be used even for small volume manufactures. For small volume manufactures a dedicated fixture may
become expensive in terms of cost as well as lead time involved.
Modular fixturing is used for quickly rigging up a fixture for a specific component using the off-the-shelf
components. Modular elements are available such as grid plates shown in Fig. 15.3. Grid plates are generally
used as one of the fixturing bases. The grid plates are provided with precisely drilled and tapped holes to
facilitate the clamping operation. Since the holes on these grid plates are made at precise positions, the
operator would know the exact location of the component depending upon where he is clamping. These grid
plates can be permanently clamped on the machine tool table if necessary.
Fig. 15.3 A grid plate with holes which can be used as a machine table
In addition to these standard fixture bases, a large number of fixture elements such as angle blocks, base
elements, locators, and clamping elements (Fig. 15.4) are available for assembling a fixture. Depending upon
the outer contour of the component, it is possible to identify the various elements required from the stock
elements and assemble a fixture. Since these elements are reusable, the overall cost of fixturing is less.
Fig. 15.4 Modular fixture elements used for supporting complex work pieces
of different types of fixtures that are used in machine shops. There are many distinct variations within each
general classification, and many work holders are actually combinations of two or more of the classifications
shown.
● Basic geometry
The finish of the surface to be achieved is often a limiting factor in choosing a given surface for machining
besides the other criteria. More discussion on the choice of machining surfaces would be done in the latter part
of this chapter. There are certain surfaces in the part which should be identified because of their functional
importance from the following stand point of
● location
● clamping
Location Surfaces
Location surfaces are the most critical surfaces in a component from the machining point of view. They
are required to be correctly identified since the accuracy achieved in a dimension depends upon the correct
choice of location surface, with a view to get the lowest cost. They can generally be identified easily with
the help of base lines in dimensioning or high finish already achieved in the previous operation. A complete
discussion on their choice would be done at a later stage.
Support Surfaces
This is the type of surface chosen in the end after all the surfaces are identified. It is not necessary that all
work pieces are to be provided with support for all operations. At times, for some components the cutting
forces or clamping forces would distort a part of the work piece, because of the low rigidity of that section.
As far as possible this should be avoided, but the geometry of the work piece may not allow it. In such cases
proper support would have to be provided before clamping the work piece at critical points. Thus the need
arises for the methods to be followed in order to identify the surfaces for support. The following are some
principles that could be used while selecting the support surfaces.
● Select a surface where there is maximum likelihood for the part to deflect under the action of clamping
Clamping Surfaces
The selection of clamping (holding) surfaces should be done in such a
way that clamping of the part can be done easily in the shortest possible
time with little skill. The following are some principles that should be
considered while selecting areas for clamping. C C
● Generally the clamping surface should be opposite to that
distributed and no surface plastic deformation takes place on the component. The clamping force used
should take care of the cutting forces likely to develop and maintain the stability of the work piece
within the fixture. Thus care has to be exercised to distribute this large clamping force over a large area
of the work piece surface.
● Choose a surface with enough rigidity such that no deformation of the component takes place under
Z
3
ne Y
Pla
e3
n Y Pla
Pla ne 1
Pla 2 ne
ne e1 Pla
2 Plan
X X
Fig. 15.6 The maximum number of degrees Fig. 15.7 A component with single locator
of freedom for a component
A single locator in plane 1 would arrest the linear motion along the
X-axis as shown in Fig. 15.7. A second locator in the same plane would Z
arrest the rotary motion about the Z-axis. Another locator placed in the
same plane would arrest the rotary motion about the Y-axis.
Adding one more locator in plane 1 would not serve any purpose.
Also to locate a plane only three locators are required. Fourth locator 3 Y
ne
in any plane thus would be redundant and should not be placed on any Pla 6
single plane. Hence fourth locator can be placed in plane 2 which is Pla
ne
perpendicular to plane 1. This would restrict the linear motion along 2 1
5 ne
the Y-axis. Fifth locator can also be placed in plane 2 which can arrest Pla 3
the rotational motion about the X-axis. Sixth locator placed in plane
2 would not serve any purpose. Hence the sixth locator would have 2
4
to be placed in plane 3 which is perpendicular both the planes 1 and 1
2 (Fig. 15.8). This would arrest the linear motion along the Z-axis.
This is the basic location principle called 3-2-1 principle.
Application of 3-2-1 principle generally gives rise to proper arresting
of all the motions, but there are a few points to be considered while
applying these principles. X
When more than one locator is placed on a surface (plane), they Fig. 15.8 A component with six
should be distributed as far apart as possible on the surface. locators
● This would help in placing the work piece on locators without much skill.
● Also the clamping forces would not be able to shift the work piece from such locators.
● A blank with irregular surface (such as sand casting) would be better located on such distributed
locators.
● Machining forces would not be able to disturb the equilibrium of the work piece in the fixture with
properly distributed locators.
● Wear of any locator contributes less to the inaccuracy of location if the locators are placed far apart.
This can be examined from the Fig. 15.9. In Fig. 15.9(a) the two locators are too close, and thus due
to small unequal wear on one locator a large error is caused. When the locators are moved apart as in
Fig. 15.9(b), the possible error gets minimised.
Angular error
(a)
Angular error
(b)
Fig. 15.9 The effect of positioning the locators apart on a given surface
Location Examples
In the above example the discussion was based on a prismatic com-
ponent having only plane faces. However, a large number of other 2
types of components would also be part of regular production. 4
1
Cylindrical Component
In the case of cylindrical components there are two surfaces avail-
able, one the circular surface and the other is the end face. In the X
case of short cylinder (height small compared to the diameter as in
Fig. 15.10 Mechanical stability of
Fig. 15.11) the three locators can be placed on the end face (since it the component can be
is the largest surface) followed by two locators on the periphery as achieved by locating
shown in Fig. 15.11. There is no other surface available for placing the largest number of
the sixth locator. The five locators would stop the five degrees of locators on the largest
freedom but the sixth (rotation about the Z-axis) is not restrained. surface area
flat, curved, or have an irregular contour and the locators are accordingly used to nest that surface as shown in
Figure 15.13(a). Concentric locators on the other hand locate a work piece from its axis. The most-common
type of concentric location is a locating pin placed in a hole as shown in Figure 15.13(b). Some work pieces
may have a cylindrical projection that requires a locating hole in the fixture, which is also a concentric locator
as shown in Fig. 15.13(b). Radial locators restrict the movement of a work piece around a concentric locator
as shown in Figure 15.13(c). Again the locator can used in an existing hole in the work piece for that purpose
or an external surface can be used as shown in Fig. 15.13(c). It is also possible to use a combination of these
location methods in a given work piece depending upon the geometry requirements.
Work piece
Work piece
Concentric
locator
(b) Concentric location
Work piece
Concentric
locator
Concentric
locator
Work piece
Concentric Radial
(c) Radial location locator Work piece locator
The cylinder is the best shape for a locator. It is easy to produce and at the same time arrests the 5 degrees
of freedom. Also, when a hole is produced in a work piece it is generally produced to a higher tolerance and
that helps in improving the locational accuracy. The next best available location is two finished plane surfaces
that are at right angles. It is also easy to use for loading and unloading the work piece from a fixture. Typical
design of a round locator is shown in Fig. 15.14. However a round locator with a flat surface can be used to
locate a flat surface as shown in Fig. 15.15.
Locators are sometimes relieved to minimize the area of contact between the work piece and the locator
as shown in Fig. 15.16. This reduces the possibility of locator jamming inside the part.
Diamond pins are often used for radial location as shown in Fig. 15.17. As explained earlier one cylindrical
locator (pin A) arrests 5 degrees of freedom, which is termed as the principal locator. The second cylindrical
locator at position B will arrest the sixth degree of freedom. The pin A will be slightly longer than the other
pin such that the part is located on it and then rotated till it is engaged with the second locator. If the two
Recess
Fixture body
Fig. 15.14 The round locator used in locating a work piece with an already finished hole
Work piece
Locator
Fig. 15.15 Three locators are used in a fixture to locate a planar surface
Locator
Work piece
Relief
Fixture body
Fig. 15.16 Relieved locator showing the reduction in the contact area between the locator and the work
piece surface
Y Y Y
Hole
Pin
X X
A B
Work-holder dimension
with tolerance Diamond-pin locator
Pin A
Work piece
Base plate
Work-holder dimension
with tolerance
holes are identical in size then any pin can be made the principal locator. However if one of the holes is larger,
then the principal locator will be placed in the larger hole. The second locator is made slightly smaller than
the hole and relieved from both sides to take care of the variation in the X direction. The cylindrical surfaces
will locate the part in the Y-direction. The construction details of the round pin and diamond pin locators are
shown in Fig. 15.18.
Locating
surface
Fig. 15.18 Round pin and diamond pin locators used in fixture design
Bullet-nose round pins (Fig. 15.19) and diamond pins are often used together (with the mating bushes) to
align two pieces of a fixture similar to a dowel. Diamond pins as explained earlier are relieved to locate only
in 1 axis. The pin’s shank diameter and the bush’s OD are the same size, to allow boring the installation hole
in both fixture pieces at the same time, for greater accuracy.
Redundant Locators
A redundant location is the case when two locators are trying to constrain one degree of freedom from two
different locations. An example is shown in Fig. 15.20(a). The part at (a) shows how a flat surface can be
redundantly located. The part should be located on only one and not both the surfaces. Since the sizes of parts
can vary, within their tolerances, the likelihood of all parts resting simultaneously on both surfaces is remote.
The part in Fig. 15.20(b) is fully located from the two pins in the holes while the other three locators are nest-
ing the outer surface of the part, restricting the already constrained degrees of freedom. It is impossible to
have part dimensions to be exactly located within these constraints. The solution is that depending upon the
locating surface used either the design shown in Fig. 15.21(b) or (c) is acceptable.
Locator
Part
Locator
Duplicate Part
(a) location (b)
Fig. 15.20 Redundant location
Reference
surface
Part
Part
Part
Duplicate
(a) locating (b) (c)
surfaces
Fig. 15.21 Improved location by removing the redundant locations
For parts that are symmetrical it is often a problem for the operator to correctly place the part in the fixture.
In such cases a fool proofing pin is located on the fixture base such that the operator will be able to place the
part in the correct orientation. If the part is loaded wrongly as shown in Fig. 15.22(b), the part will not fully
enter because of the presence of the pin as shown.
Foolproofing pin
The work piece dimension that is used for location determines the locating element size. The principal rule
to determine the size of the work piece locator is that the locators must be made to suit the MMC (Maximum-
Material Condition) of the area to be located. The MMC of a feature is the size of the feature where it has
the maximum amount of material. In the case of a cylindrical locator, make the locating pin slightly smaller
than the hole. For example, if the hole is specified as 10.00 – 10.25 mm in diameter, the locator must fit the
hole at its MMC of 10.00 mm. Allowing for a 0.015 mm clearance between the pin and the hole, desired pin
diameter is calculated at 9.985 mm. Standard locating pins that ground to several different hole tolerances are
readily available from fixture element manufacturers such as Carr Lane.
Supporting
A simple device that can often be used for supporting is the rest button. The construction of a press fitted
rest button is shown in Fig. 15.23. It actually serves the purpose of supporting the part from any direction as
shown in Fig. 15.24.
Fig. 15.23 Rest button (Courtesy Carr Lane Fig. 15.24 Use of Rest button for supporting
Manufacturing) the part in the fixture
Cutter
Work piece
Fixed jaw
Movable jaw
Vice
Fig. 15.25 Vice as a fixture showing the relationship between the cutter and the clamping arrangement
Cutting tool
Force direction
Work piece
Vice
Fig. 15.26 Correct arrangement for directing the cutting force against the fixed jaw thereby ensuring that
the part remains stable in the vice during the cutting operation
The following are a few simple rules that could be observed during the selection of the clamping elements
required for a fixture:
1. Always use simple clamps since complicated ones may lose effectiveness as they wear.
2. Rough work pieces call for a longer travel of the clamp in the clamping range, but clamps may be
made to dig into rough surfaces to hold them firmly.
3. The type of clamp required is determined by the kind of operation to which it is applied. A clamp
suitable for holding a drill jig leaf may not be strong enough for a milling fixture.
4. Clamps should not make loading and unloading of the work difficult, nor should they interfere with
the use of hoists and lifting devices for heavy work.
5. Clamps that are apt to move on tightening, such as plain straps, should be avoided for production
work.
6. The anticipated frequency of setups may influence the clamping means. For example, the use of
hydraulic clamps, even if simple and of low cost might be inadvisable if frequent installation and
removal of piping and valves is necessary.
● Screw Clamps
● Cam Clamps
● Toggle Clamps
● Equalizers
The tool designer has to choose the type of clamp that is simple and easier to use and at the same time
provides the right kind of productivity.
Strap Clamps
By far these are the simplest type of clamps used in jigs and fixtures. There are a variety of designs to be
used. Most of these clamps are based upon the lever principles to amplify the clamping force required. A
typical strap clamp application is shown in Fig. 15.27. By tightening the stud in Fig. 15.27, the clamping
force is transferred to the part. Heel pin is the fulcrum about which the lever acts, while the clamping force
is applied at the stud by tightening the screw. The actual force is transmitted to the part at the end of the strap
as indicated in Fig. 15.27.
The actual amplification of the applied force depends upon the distance between the stud and the heel pin
(B), and that between the stud and the part (A) as shown in Fig. 15.28. The distance A should be made as
small as possible compared to B to increase the mechanical advantage of the clamp to increase the clamping
force on the part. A variety of strap designs as shown in Fig. 15.29 are used in strap clamps. The choice of
these depends upon the clamping requirement, part geometry and the relationship of the cutter in relation to
the clamping surface.
Stud
Heel pin
Applied force
A B
Clamping force
Part
Heel pin
Stud
Fig. 15.28 Strap clamp showing the mechanical advantage by using the lever principle
Further variation of the strap clamp design depends upon the way the clamping force is applied on the
part. Three different designs are shown in Fig. 15.30. The differences between the three types of clamps is
the way the force is transferred to the part, by means of a hinge, sliding through a closed slot, or an open slot
like a latch.
Eye bolt
Sliding slot
Heel-pin
slot
Screw Clamps
Screws rarely are used for direct clamping. However, practically a large number of clamps make use of screws
for the purpose of clamping. In the strap clamps discussed earlier screws are used to apply the clamping
force. However these clamps require considerable time to fasten. A much faster way of applying clamping
is to make use of either a swing washer or a cee-washer if the work piece has a bore for clamping. A swing
washer as shown in Fig. 15.31 can be used to clamp a part having a hole. In order to release the part, the nut
needs to be opened slightly so that the swing washer becomes loose, at which time it can be swung to the
side thereby releasing the part. This helps in loading and unloading the part quickly. The only condition is
that the hole used for the clamping should be larger than the nut used for clamping as shown in Fig. 15.31.
A cee-washer as shown in Fig. 15.32 is similar to swing washer, but remains loose unlike a swing washer.
Otherwise applications of both are very similar.
Fixture body
Swing to release
Part
Swing washer
Retaining
screw
Fig. 15.31 A swing washer used for clamping a part with a hole
Cam Clamps
Cam clamps provide clamping force because of the contour of the
cam surface that comes into contact with the plate used for the
clamping. Typical cam clamp design is shown in Fig. 15.33. Use
of cam clamp is shown in Fig. 15.34. Notice that a plate is pushed
down by the cam against the spring pressure to hold the part in
place. Cam clamps are quick in operation. Cam clamps are of three
types, eccentric cam, flat spiral cam and cylindrical cam. The design
shown in Fig. 15.33 is flat spiral and is the most commonly used
clamp. The design shown in Fig. 15.34 is indirect pressure clamping
where the pressure is transmitted to the part through the plate. This Fig. 15.32 A cee-washer used for
is more stable and the vibrations during machining do not affect the clamping a part with a
clamping. hole
Compression
spring
Part
Heel pin
Fixture body
Fig. 15.33 A cam clamp used for quick Fig. 15.34 An example of a fixture held by a cam clamp
and easy clamping a part
Toggle Clamps
These are commercially available clamps in various designs. A toggle clamp is a quick-acting mechanical
linkage where two of the elements make up a toggle action. Actuating the clamp first moves it into position,
then applies clamping force by compressing or stretching the linkage elements after contacting the work piece,
then positively locks it by moving the toggle action’s centre pivot past the centreline of the other two pivots,
against a stop. There are a number of designs, and a few types of toggle clamps are shown in Figs. 15.35
and 15.36. Toggle clamps are mainly used because of their fast action for clamping and unclamping, their
ability to completely clear from the work piece, and the force amplification possible for clamping.
Fig. 15.35 A toggle clamp of hold down action type Fig. 15.36 A push pull type toggle clamp
with horizontal handle
Equalizers
When the clamping force is to be applied at more than one location, then an equalizing clamp is useful. In
this type of clamp as shown in Fig. 15.37, the link arm system is used to apply an equally divided clamping
force to a pair of clamps acting on the same component. It is also possible to use this system of clamping to
clamp two parts. This is particularly useful in a condition where the operator may be denied easy access to
one or other of the clamps.
Link arm
Fig. 15.37 An equalizing clamp
15.6 JIgS
A fixture is a device used to securely fasten a part to the machine tool table to accurately locate, support and
hold the part during the machining operation. A jig is a special class of fixture, which in addition to providing
all the functions as above, also guides the cutting tool during machining. In a fixture normally a gage will
be provided to locate the setting of the cutter with respect to the work piece. Jigs are generally used for the
operations such as drilling, boring, reaming, tapping, counter boring, etc.
The main advantage of jigs is that it minimizes tool breakage because it supports the tool during the
operation. It also minimizes the possibility of human error by loading the part into the jig in only one way
against the locators. It allows the use of less skilled Headed drill bush
labour since the skill is built into the jig. The overall
manufacturing time is reduced since the setup time for
the part and the tool is reduced to the minimum by the
use of jig bushes, locators and clamps.
in the jig plate and a slip bush is located inside the liner bush. Retaining
screw
To prevent the rotation of the slip bush, a retaining screw
is used as shown in Fig. 15.41. The liner bush guides the Slip bush
large diameter cutting tool. A renewable bush is similar to
Liner bush
the slip bush, but it will only be replaced when the bush is
worn out due to the large volume of work done. For replacing
the renewable bush the retaining screw has to be completely
removed as shown in Fig. 15.42.
The jig bush is mounted into the jig plate by means of To release
a press fit. Follow the recommendations of Carr Lane R
Manufacturing company for the recommended hole sizes in
unhardened steel or cast iron jig plates to reduce the distortion
of the jig plate. Other factors to be considered are: (1) headed
bushes require less interference to resist drilling thrust; Drill rotation
(2) longer bushes in thick plates require less interference;
(3) bushes with thinner walls are more prone to distortion;
(4) less-ductile jig-plate materials require less interference. Fig. 15.41 A slip renewable bush used for
multiple operations such as
Types of Jigs drilling followed by reaming
● Plate jigs
● Leaf jigs
● Indexing jigs
Fig. 15.42 A renewable bush used for
Template Jigs large volume drilling when the
bush needs to be replaced due
It is not a true jig since it does not incorporate a clamping to the wear
device. However these are used in a number of situations.
A template jig consists of the jig plate with the necessary locating arrangement and the provision of the jig
bushes where the hole needs to be made as shown in Fig. 15.43.
Advantages
● No clamping arrangement
● Plates with bush to guide the tool
● Directly placed on the part
● Simple
● Least expensive
Disadvantages
● Not as fool proof as other types
● Orientation of the hole pattern to work piece datums may not be as accurate as other types
● They are usually not practical when locating datums are dimensioned
Plate Jigs
This is an improvement over the template jig. A plate jig is a tem-
plate jig with an added clamping arrangement. Fig. 15.44 shows
a plate jig for drilling the six holes in a part. The part, shown as
transparent, is clamped to the central cylindrical locator under-
neath the plate with the help of a C-washer. The jig plate has
the six bushes arranged around the locator as per the part print
dimensions. Because of the open construction employed in the
plate jig, it is easy to load and unload parts and also dispose of
the chips.
Leaf Jigs
Plate jig is the simplest of all jigs in which the component is posi-
tioned between location elements, sandwiched between the base Fig. 15.44 A plate jig
and the jig plate. A pair of alignment dowels ensures that the jig plate is correctly orientated relative to the
base. The two parts are clamped together by a cam latch as shown in Fig. 15.45. The hinged leaf with bushes
will also apply the clamping force. Most of the designs are normally limited to small and simple parts for
easy handling. The main disadvantage is that as wear or distortion takes place in the pivot pins, the accuracy
of machining will deteriorate.
Cam latch
Jig plate
Pivot
Jig bush
Part
(B) Clamped position
Supports
Locators
datum to ensure the required accuracy. An example is shown in Fig. 15.47 where the part is located from the
central hole and then indexed about its axis by means of a plunger located to the left side, to drill the 4 holes
around the cylindrical surface.
Indexing plunger
A C washer for clamping Jig bush
Locator
Part
Fixture
body
Index
plate
Section A–A
A Rest button Scale 1:1
In addition to the above, there are a number of variants of these types used in the industry. In this book
only the basic types are covered, while specialized books on ‘Jigs and Fixtures’ normally provide a more
detailed coverage on all the possible types.
Let us now go through the jig design for the part shown in Fig. 15.48 to apply the above principles. The
part has a central hole, which is already finished and could be used for location. The four identical holes
around the cylindrical body need to be machined using this jig.
Based on the preliminary examination of the part, the following points emerge:
● Method of locating the part – The central hole, which is already finished, can be used for locating as
well as indexing for the holes to be drilled.
Ø38.00 35.00
8.00
Ø25.00
Ø16.00
Ø6.00
Fig. 15.48 A part for designing a jig
● Clamping can be done with a nut and a C-washer since the central hole is large enough.
● Indexing can be done with a retracting type plunger going into the previous hole drilled.
● The jig can be a simple indexing jig with a post for locating the part.
Fig. 15.50 Indexing arrangement for the part Fig. 15.51 Jig bush location for the part shown in
shown in Fig. 15.48 Fig. 15.48
Having all the essential elements in their expected locations, it can be observed that there is no interference
between any of these parts and the system will work as intended. The next step therefore is to add the jig
base to keep all these elements in their respective positions. For this purpose an L-shaped structure as shown
in Fig. 15.52 should be sufficient. It can be an integral shape (cast or extruded section) or a welded structure
depending upon the requirements. Notice the provision of the dowels for the purpose of mounting the jig
plate and the index plate. Next add rest buttons to the structure for stability as shown in Fig. 15.53. They are
standard parts, and a total of four are used so that the operator can make sure that the jig is standing square
on the machine table and is not ‘rocking’.
Fig. 15.52 Support structure for the locator for the part shown in Fig. 15.48
Fig. 15.53 Rest buttons added to the jig base for the part shown in Fig. 15.48
Add the jig plate to the jig base. It is located with two dowel pins and then secured by means two socket
head screws as shown in Fig. 15.54. The last part is to add the plunger plate as shown in Fig. 15.55 to support
the indexing plunger in proper position relative to the locator.
Fig. 15.54 Jig plate added to the jig base for the part shown in Fig. 15.48
Fig. 15.55 Support plate for the indexing plunger for the part shown in Fig. 15.48
The last components to be added are the clamping screw and the C-clamp for holding the part in place as
shown in Fig. 15.56. Now the jig is complete. It can be tested with a sample component added as shown in
Fig. 15.57.
Fig. 15.56 Clamping arrangement with a C-washer and a nut for the part shown in Fig. 15.48
Fig. 15.57 Completed jig with a sample part loaded in the jig for the part shown in Fig. 15.48
A few principles are enunciated below, that if adhered to, will ensure a better-designed drill jig.
1. Drill jigs should be as light as possible consistent with rigidity to facilitate handling.
2. A jig, which is not bolted to the machine table, should be provided with feet, preferably four, opposite
all surfaces containing jig bushes.
3. Make the jig fool-proof so that the component cannot be loaded in the wrong way.
4. Clearance holes or burr slots should be provided in the jig to allow for the burr formed when the drill
breaks through the component and for swarf clearance, particularly from locating faces.
5. Make all component clamping devices as quick acting as possible.
6. Locate clamps so that they will be in the best position to resist the pressure of the cutting tool when
at work.
7. Avoid complicated clamping and locating arrangements, which are liable to wear or need constant
attention.
8. If possible make all locating points visible to the operator when placing the component in position in
the jig so that the component can be seen to be correctly located. The operator should also be able to
have an unobstructed view of the clamps.
9. Clamps should be positioned above the points supporting the component, in order to avoid distortion
and should be strong enough to hold the component without bending.
10. The process of inserting and withdrawing the component from the jig should be as easy as possible.
Ample space should be left between the jig body and the component for hand movements.
15.8 FIxtureS
As explained earlier the function of a fixture is to securely fasten the part to the machine tool table, with
accurate location of the part during the machining operation. In addition to the function of holding the work
piece, the fixtures also provide for setting the cutting tool for the actual machining operation as shown in
Fig. 15.58. Generally a fixture is supposed to be securely fastened to the machine tool table during the ma-
chining process.
Setting block
C-washer
Hex nut
Fixture body
Part
Fixtures are widely used in large batch production to ensure the easy setup and achieve the desired
accuracy. They can be used in a variety of machine tools such as lathe, milling, grinding, etc. though the
milling fixtures are the most widely used in view of the complex requirements for the milling operation.
These are called by the name of the machine tool on which it is supposed to be used. For example milling
fixture, lathe fixture or broaching fixture.
Similar to a jig, the fixture consists of five main parts, the base, locators, clamps, supports, and a setting
block (Fig. 15.58).
Base
It consists of a base plate which has a flat and accurate bottom surface and provides a base for all other
components of the fixture to be mounted. The base is provided with slots for the purpose of clamping the
fixture to the milling machine table. The bottom surface of the base mates with the milling machine table and
thus forms the reference plane for all other components of the fixture. The materials used in its construction
are either mild steel or cast iron, depending upon the size and complexity of the part. The major consideration
in its choice is the cost and the ability to maintain dimensional accuracy. The type of construction used in
the base could be either welding followed by stress relieving to make sure that the base is stress free and
consequently distortion free, or sand casting.
Locators
These are similar in principle and design to jigs, which has been covered earlier.
Clamps
The types of clamps used are similar in principle to that used in jigs. However the cutting forces are high in
milling, and also because of the nature of interrupted cutting in milling there is the possibility of vibrations.
So the clamping design has to take this into consideration.
Supports
These are also similar in principle to jigs, covered earlier.
Setting Block
It is necessary to have a proper location on the fixture for setting the correct location of the milling cutter. It is
called setting block or setting gage and is permanently attached to the fixture body away from the work piece
as shown in Fig. 15.60. The reference surfaces of the setting block are located at a predetermined distance
(usually 3 mm) below the proper cutter setting, as shown in Fig. 15.60. The operator uses a feeler gage to
determine when the cutter is in the correct position. This helps to keep these surfaces accurate for the life of
the fixture, since the milling cutter will not be directly contacting these surfaces.
Milling
cutter
Feeler
gauge
Work piece
Setting
gauge Feeler
gauge
Machine table
Fig. 15.60 Setting gage or Setting block
Before discussing the milling fixture design it is important to know the type of production milling
operations for which the fixtures are required. This helps in understanding the design requirements for
different situations. The types are shown in Fig. 15.61.
Fig. 15.61 Different types of production milling operations; (a) simple milling, (b) String milling,
(c) Reciprocal milling, (d) Straddle milling
Simple Milling
This is the traditional milling Fig. 15.61(a) where a single work piece is held in a vise or fixture and fed
through the milling cutter.
String Milling
In this, a series of identical small work pieces are mounted in the direction parallel to the table feed movement
Fig. 15.61(b) and fed into the milling cutter. This process saves on the over travel allowance but the work
pieces should be kept as close together as possible.
Reciprocal Milling
In this there are two fixtures that are mounted on the milling machine table with the milling cutter in the
middle Fig. 15.61(c). The operator can unload and load one work piece, while the other is being machined.
Straddle Milling
In this operation two or more milling operations with side and face milling cutters are performed simultaneously
Fig. 15.61(d).
Some principles to be considered while designing the milling fixtures are:
● The design should permit as many surfaces of the part to be machined as possible without removing
the part.
● Whenever possible, the tool should be changed to suit the part. Moving the part to accommodate one
cutter for several operations is not as accurate or as efficient as changing cutters.
● Locators must be designed to resist all tool forces and thrusts. Clamps should not be used to resist tool
forces.
● Clearance space or sufficient room must be allotted to provide adequate space to change cutters or to
load and unload the part.
● Milling fixtures should be designed and built with a low profile to prevent unnecessary twisting or
● The entire work piece must be located within the area of support of the fixture. In those cases where
this is either impossible or impractical, additional supports, or jacks, must be provided.
● Chip removal and coolant drainage must be considered in the design of the fixture. Sufficient space
should be permitted to allow the chips to be easily removed with a brush.
● Set blocks or cutter setting gages must be provided in the fixture design to aid the operator in properly
setting up the tool in production.
The design procedure outlined for jigs will hold good here as well. Two examples of milling fixtures
are shown in Figs 15.62 and 15.63. Fig. 15.62 shows a simple milling fixture where the base is fixed to the
milling machine table by means of the two bolt slots and is provided with the cutter setting block at one end.
The work piece is located by means of a round locator and a diamond pin, to fully arrest the six degrees of
freedom for the part. Two strap clamps are used to clamp the fixture to the base. Fig. 15.63 shows the string
milling fixture to mill slots in five cylindrical work pieces. The work pieces are located by the external
cylindrical surface by means of the sliding V-blocks and are clamped by means of a clamping bolt in the end.
The setting block is located at one end similar to Fig. 15.62.
Bolt slot
Work piece
Fig. 15.62 Milling fixture to mill the slot as a single milling operation
Mill slot
Work pieces
Setting gauge
Work piece
Counterweight
Work piece
Fig. 15.64 Lathe fixture for inline boring using a face plate
work pieces greatly simplifies the grinding operation. Provide coolant containment devices or splash guards
to keep the fixture from spilling coolant on the floor around the machine. Also include provisions for rapid
wheel dressing and truing in the design of the fixture, if not built into the machine.
● Cost of manufacturing
● Cost of standard parts
Cost of Material
Material cost estimation is the easiest. Once the designer has the designs of all the components completed in
CAD, the system will be able to provide the volume and weight of the part. By knowing the prevailing cost
of the raw material, it should be possible to calculate this component.
Cost of Manufacturing
This is one of the most difficult components as it depends upon the cost of machining as well as any other
finishing operations that are to be done, such as heat treatment. Since most of the time the tool engineer will
be making single pieces, the online estimation calculators will not be of much use. The ability of estimation
comes from experience. Often the experience with the making of similar parts comes very handy. Some of
the parameters that should be considered in estimating the manufacturing costs are:
● What type of machine is used to manufacture the component?
■ Lathe, horizontal mill, vertical mill, and so on.
■ Cost of machine tool, and tools used
● What are the major dimensions of the component?
■ Size of the machine required
■ The machine overhead cost
● How many machined surfaces are there, and how much material is to be removed?
■ Gives a good estimate of time required for machining
● What tolerance and surface finishes are required?
of the operator. Many a times thumb rules are used to assess this component based on the experience of the
tool designer.
Once the cost of the tool is identified, then the choice of the desired alternative is based on simple
calculations based on the costs that are to be apportioned to the parts made. This can be explained with the
help of examples.
Example 15.1
Using the listed alternatives, prepare a comparative analysis for the following tooling problem: A total of 950
flange plates require four holes accurately drilled 90 degrees apart to mate with a connector valve. Which of
the listed alternatives is the most economically desirable?
(a) Have a machinist who earns `200.00 per hour for layout and drilling each part at a rate of 2 minutes
per part.
(b) Use a template jig, capable of producing 50 parts per hour and costing `900.00, in the production
department, where an operator earns `130.00 per hour.
(c) Use a duplex jig, which costs `1875.00 and can produce a part every 26 seconds, in the production
department, where an operator earns `130.00 per hour.
Solution:
200
Option a: Cost per piece = = `6.67
30
60
Option b: Production rate = = 50 per hour
1.2
900 130
Cost per piece = + = 0.95 + 2.60 = `3.55
950 50
3600
Option c: Production rate = = 138 per hour
26
1875 130
Cost per piece = + = 1.97 + 0.94 = `2.91
950 138
Example 15.2
Same as example 1, except a total of 135 flange plates required to be made instead of 950. Which of the listed
alternatives is the most economically desirable?
Solution:
200
Option a: Cost per piece = = `6.67
30
60
Option b: Production rate = = 50 per hour
1.2
900 130
Cost per piece = + = 6.67 + 2.60 = `9.27
135 50
3600
Option c: Production rate = = 138 per hour
26
1875 130
Cost per piece = + = 13.89 + 0.94 = `14.83
135 138
Summary
Jigs and fixtures are used to improve the productivity and quality of machined components. Depending
upon the production requirements either custom made jigs and fixtures or modular fixtures are used.
● Part surfaces can be divided into location, support and clamping depending upon the function they
serve.
● A maximum of six degrees of freedom need to be arrested to make the work piece stable during the
machining operation. For this purpose 3-2-1 location principle is used.
● Round locators are more commonly used. They may need to be reduced for radial location in which
case they are called diamond pins.
● Rest buttons could be used for supporting the part or jig.
● Clamping force is directed against the locator for stability. A variety of clamps such as strap clamps,
cam clamps, and toggle clamps are used in jigs and fixtures. Their selection depends on the part
geometry, machining process and the production volume.
● There are a number of types of jigs used in practice such as template jig, plate jig, channel jig, etc.
The part geometry, accuracy required and production volumes dictate their individual choice.
● Complete jig design process is like an assembly operation. After making the individual choice of
elements that form part of the jig, they are geometrically integrated to form the jig.
● Fixtures are more specialized and varied based on the machining operation involved. They tend to
be heavier and clamped to the machine table.
Q u e s t io ns
15.1 Explain the functions served by a fixture.
15.2 What are the applications for which the modular fixtures are used?
15.3 Describe any two types of locators used in jigs.
15.4 Explain the three types of locators used in jigs and fixtures.
15.5 Explain the reasons for using a diamond pin.
15.6 Explain the concept with example of redundant location.
15.7 Why is fool proofing done in fixtures? Give an example.
15.8 Give any four points to be kept in mind to decide the clamping system in jigs and fixtures.
15.9 Explain the use of swing washer for clamping in jigs and fixtures.
15.10 What are the different types of clamps used in jigs and fixtures?
15.11 What is an equalizer?
15.12 What are the different types of jig bushes used?
15.13 Describe the applications of plate jigs.
15.14 Give at least four principles to be considered in the design of milling fixtures.
15.15 Give at least four principles to be considered in the design of lathe fixtures.
15.16 Give a brief note on vise fixtures.
15.17 Discuss the different parts that should form part of a milling fixture.
15.18 What are the requirements for the choice of a fixture base?
15.19 Discuss the construction methods used for jigs and fixtures.
Pro bl e ms
15.1 Design a drill jig to drill a 1.6 mm hole in the clevis pin shown in Fig. 15.65 made of alloy steel.
Assume large volume manufacture. All dimensions are in mm.
Ø17.50
Ø1.60 Ø4.75
2.40
Ø9.50
2.40 35.75
All dimensions in mm
Fig. 15.65 Clevis Pin
15.2 Design a drill jig to drill four 6 mm holes in the gland shown in Fig. 15.66 made of steel. Assume large
volume production. All dimensions are in mm.
Ø38
35
8 A
12.50 Ø25
Ø16
4x Ø6 Drill
SECTION A-A A
All dimensions in mm
SCALE 2 : 1
Fig. 15.66 Gland
15.3 Design a drill jig to drill a 6 mm hole in the pin fork made of mild steel shown in Fig. 15.67. Assume
small volume production. All dimensions are in mm.
6
6
6
R8 12.5
Ø6
Ø10
All dimensions in mm
16
15.4 Design a drill jig to drill six 12.5 mm holes in the flange of the adopter made of mild steel as shown
in Fig. 15.68. Assume small volume production. All dimensions are in mm.
35 Ø70
Ø44
� 12.5
Ø87
83
B
SECTION B-B
SCALE 1 : 1 All Dimensions in mm
Fig. 15.68 Adopter flange
15.5 Five hundred guide plates must be milled to receive a locating block. The tool designer has determined
three possible alternatives:
(a) Have a toolmaker, who earns `240.00 per hour, mill the plates at a rate of 25 per hour.
(b) Use limited tooling that costs `1750.00 in the production department. The machine operator in
this department, who earns `140.00 per hour, can make a part every 1.2 minutes.
(c) Use a more expensive tool that costs `5500.00 but is capable of producing a part every 24 sec-
onds. This would be done in the production department, where a machine operator earns `140.00
per hour.
Which alternative should the tool designer select as the most efficient and economical?
15.6 Using the listed alternatives, prepare a comparative analysis for the following tooling problem: A total
of 950 flange plates require four holes accurately drilled 90 degrees apart to mate with a connector
valve. Which of the listed alternatives is the most economically desirable?
(a) Have a machinist who earns `200.00 per hour layout and drill each part at a rate of 2 minutes per
part.
(b) Use a template jig, capable of producing 50 parts per hour and costing `900.00, in the production
department, where an operator earns `130.00 per hour.
(c) Use a duplex jig, which costs `1875.00 and can produce a part every 26 seconds, in the produc-
tion department, where an operator earns `130.00 per hour.
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
15.1 A diamond pin is used in conjunction with 15.4 Redundant locators in fixturing should be
a round locator for radial location in a jig avoided because
because (a) It reduces the cost of fixture
(a) Diamond is harder material and hence (b) Since the sizes of parts can vary, with-
has long life in their tolerances, the likelihood of all
(b) Reduces jamming possibility if two parts resting simultaneously on all sur-
round locators are used faces is remote
(c) Diamond pin is less expensive to make (c) It is easier to manufacture
(d) None of the above (d) None of the above
15.2 For locating an external cylindrical surface 15.5 Fool proofing of a fixture helps in
which of the following types of locator is used (a) The operator will be able to place the
(a) V-block part in the fixture in the correct orienta-
(b) Round locator tion only.
(c) Round locator with a hole whose diam- (b) It reduces the cost of fixture
eter corresponds to the diameter of the (c) It increases the cost of fixture
cylindrical surface to be located (d) It looks aesthetically better
(d) Conical locator 15.6 Principle to be followed while planning the
15.3 For locating a part in a fixture with an already clamping arrangement in a fixture
existing through hole, which of the following (a) Always use simple clamps since com-
type of locators is used plicated ones may lose effectiveness as
(a) V-block (b) Round locator they wear.
(c) Dowel pin (d) Spring loaded (b) Rough work pieces call for a longer trav-
plunger el of the clamp in the clamping range,
but clamps may be made to dig into (c) Headed drill bush
rough surfaces to hold them firmly. (d) Shaped drill bush
(c) Clamps should not make loading and un- 15.10 The following statements relate to the choice
loading of the work difficult, nor should of jig bushes. Give the correct statement.
they interfere with the use of hoists and (a) Headed jig bushes require less interfer-
lifting devices for heavy work. ence (to be assembled into the jig plate)
(d) All of the above to resist drilling thrust
15.7 The simplest and low cost clamp used in jigs (b) Less-ductile jig-plate materials require
and fixtures is more interference (to be assembled into
(a) Strap Clamp (b) Cam Clamp the jig plate).
(c) Toggle Clamp (d) Equalizer (c) Longer jig bushes in thick plates require
15.8 The main difference between jig and fixture more interference for them to be assem-
is bled into the jig plate
(a) Jigs are simpler compared to fixtures (d) Jig bushes with thinner walls are prefer-
(b) A jig guides the cutting tool during the able for accuracy.
machining operation 15.11 The main disadvantage of a template jig is
(c) Types of locators used are different (a) Expensive
(d) Types of clamping arrangement used is (b) Complex clamping arrangement
different (c) Orientation of the hole pattern to work
15.9 The jig bush most commonly used in jigs is piece datums may not be as accurate as
(a) Liner bush other types
(b) Headless drill bush (d) It is more complex than other types
Answers to MCQs
15.1 (b) 15.2 (a) 15.3 (b) 15.4 (b) 15.5 (a)
15.6 (d) 15.7 (a) 15.8 (b) 15.9 (c) 15.10 (a)
15.11 (c)
C a s e s t u dy
WeldIng FIxture
Figure 1 shows two parts- a flange and a tube made of mild steel that are to be fillet welded along the
interface between the two. The welding fixture to be designed will have to hold the two parts in proper
alignment for completing the arc welding. In the parts all the machining is completed.
The location element available for the tube is either the central hole or outside surface. Locating an
internal surface is easier because of the availability of standard cylindrical locators. In the case of flange
the two holes present will act as the locations, and is a typical case of radial location. Since there are
two holes, one cylindrical locator will be placed in one whole that will remove 5 degrees of freedom,
which leaves one degree of freedom to be removed. This can be done with the help of a diamond locator
so that the tolerance on the dimension between the two holes will be accommodated. After identifying
all the locators, the next step is to decide their relative placement in space to accommodate the parts.
Arrange the three locators on a flat surface as shown in Fig. 2. Allocate appropriate tolerances between
the locators relative to each other to satisfy the part tolerances.
Fig. 3 shows all the components along with the parts that are to be welded in the rightful place.
Notice that there is no clamping arrangement provided in the fixture.
Based on the welding fixture discussion above, deliberate the following:
● What happens when the diamond locator is replaced by a cylindrical locator?
● Is a clamp necessary for the welding fixture?
Cylindrical
locator
Cylindrical
locator
Diamond
locator
Cylindrical
locator
Cylindrical
locator inside
the tube
Diamond
locator
Fig. 3 Welding fixture complete with the parts that are aligned as required
Metrology
16
Objectives
Metrology is the science of measurement of dimensions. This chapter provides a brief review
of some of the concepts and instruments required for the measurement of dimensions and
tolerances. After completing this chapter, the reader will be able to
❯ Understand the concept of tolerances, limits and fits as they are relevant for industrial
manufacture
❯ Learn various common instruments used for making linear measurements
❯ Learn various common instruments used for making angular measurements
❯ Learn various common methods of measuring threads
❯ Understand the parameters of surface texture and their measurement
❯ Understand various gauges used for dimensional acceptance and design simple gauges
16.1 IntroductIon
It is important to know that when a dimension is produced by a manufacturing process, it is also important to
know that the dimension can be measured accurately enough, such that it can be ascertained that the dimen-
sion was actually achieved by the process. The science of measurement is termed as metrology. Measuring
can be defined as the determination of a dimension.
In order to make a measurement it is important to have a standard for the dimensions, that is universally
applicable. In fact the need for measurement standards has been recognized from the beginning of civilization
when construction activities have been attempted. For example when the Pyramids were built, the Egyptians
had to come up with a length standard. The standard of measurement then used was known as the royal cubit,
specified as the length of the Pharaoh’s arm. The royal cubit was then subdivided into hands (the width of his
hand), and digits (his finger width). This scale was then carefully inscribed on a polished strip of black granite
to create a master standard because black granite is extremely stable and holds dimensions well.
Most of the progress achieved in industrial manufacturing is credited to the interchangeable manufacture.
A Frenchman named La Blanc originally attempted the concept around 1775. However, historically Eli
Whitney has been credited with introducing it in the early 1800s when he produced 10,000 muskets using
interchangeable parts. The success of interchangeable manufacture depends upon the ability to specify the
limits on the dimensions and a way to measure that dimensional acceptance. Only in the twentieth century
interchangeable manufacture really flourished with the availability of a large number of dimensional gauging
methods at low cost.
Gauging is defined as the acceptability of a given dimension, whether it lies in its specified or allowable
limits or not. The cost and ease of manufacture are greatly controlled by the limits that can be imposed on
dimensions at the design stage. The limits should be as wide as possible to decrease the cost of manufacture.
However from the performance and maintenance point of view, the limits should be as close as possible.
The designer therefore has to strike a balance between the ease of manufacture and ease of maintenance
depending upon the product requirements.
A few of the terminologies that need to be understood in the learning of metrology are:
Accuracy It is the agreement of the result of a measurement with the true value of the measured quantity.
It refers to whether a particular dimension is within its stated size.
Precision It refers to the exactness of the dimension or the repeatability of a measuring process. It depends
upon the overall size that is being measured. If a dimension is being measured in m, then a precision of mm
may be sufficient. However if the dimension is being measured in mm, then a precision in µm is suitable. But
a precision in µm for measurement in m will be meaningless.
Reliability It is the ability to obtain the desired result to the degree of precision required.
Discrimination Discrimination refers to the degree to which a measuring instrument divides the basic
unit.
is a unilateral tolerance. Here, the nominal dimension 30 is allowed to vary between 30 and 29.99 mm.
In bilateral tolerance, the variation will be to both the sides. For example,
+ 0.05
30.00 ± 0.02 or 30.00 - 0.10
In bilateral tolerance, the variation of the limits can be uniform as shown in the formal case. The dimension
varies from 30.02 to 29.98. Alternatively the allowed deviation can be different as shown in the second case.
Here the dimension varies from 30.05 to 29.90.
Sometimes the nominal size may be outside the allowable limits. For example a given dimension is to vary
from 29.95 to 29.85. It can be written as
+0 - 0.05
29.95 - 0.10 or 30.00 - 0.15
The second form is preferred since it contains the nominal size as 30.
+ 0.05
The dimensioning can also be specified in terms of the limits. For example, in the case of 30.00 - 0.08 the
upper limit is 30.05 while the lower limit is 29.92. In drafting practice, it is customary to show the dimensions
in any of the forms. Some examples are shown in Fig. 16.1.
0.00
30 30 ± 0.05
– 0.08
30.05 – 0.05
29.92 30 – 0.15
(c) Limits (d) When nominal size is
outside allowance
Fig. 16.1 Typical tolerance specifications
In engineering when a product is designed it consists of a number of parts and these parts will be mating
with each other in some form. In the assembly it is important to consider the type of mating or fit between two
parts which will actually define the way the parts will behave during the working of the assembly.
Take for example a shaft and hole, which will have to fit together. In the simplest case if the dimension of
the shaft is lower than the dimension of the hole, then there will be clearance. Such a fit is termed as clearance
fit. Alternatively, if the dimension of the shaft is more than that of the hole, then it is termed as interference
fit. These are illustrated in Fig. 16.2.
The situation will change further by adding the tolerances on the dimensions of the shaft and hole as
shown in Fig. 16.3.
clearance
Ideal
Interference
Diameter Diameter Diameter
of of hole of Diameter
shaft shaft of hole
Fig. 16.2 Typical fits possible in engineering assemblies, (A) Clearance fit, (B) Interference fit
tolerance
Hole
tolerance
Shaft
tolerance
Diameter
Tolerance
Shaft
tolerance
Diameter
Hole
of hole
In the case of Fig. 16.3(a), the maximum size of the shaft is smaller than the minimum hole and as a result,
there will always be clearance, varying depending upon the actual sizes of the shaft and hole.
Maximum clearance = Maximum limit size of hole – Minimum limit size of shaft
Minimum clearance = Minimum limit size of hole – Maximum limit size of shaft
Such a fit is termed as clearance fit. Similarly in the case of (b), there will be interference for all sizes.
However, in (c), depending upon the possibilities of dimensions, at times there will be clearance and other
times there will be interference. Such a fit is termed as transition fit.
Maximum clearance = Maximum limit size of hole – Minimum limit size of shaft
Maximum interference = Minimum limit size of hole – Maximum limit size of shaft
Theoretically the above are the three types of fits possible. However, in actual practice, it is necessary to
define a large variety of fits within the same type to account for all the possible engineering situations. To this
extent ISO, in association with various national standards organisations, has established uniform standards
of limits and fits.
In the ISO system of limits and fits, for any given size, a range of tolerances and deviations can be
specified with reference to a line of zero deviation called the zero line. The tolerance being a function of
the basic size is designated by a number symbol called the tolerance grade. Eighteen standard grades are
identified as IT01, IT0, IT1, … IT16. The value of tolerance unit, i, is identified as
i = 0.45 ¥ 3
D + 0.001 ¥ D
Basic
size
Bilateral Shaft Shaft
hole
Unilateral Unilateral
hole based fit shaft based fit
Though there is not much to choose between the two systems, mostly the hole basis system is used
because standard tools such as drills and reamers are used for producing the holes whose size is not generally
adjustable. Generally it has been found that four classes of holes identified by the type of production method
employed will suffice most of the requirements. These are given in Table 16.1. Similarly a total of nine
classes of shafts will be able to provide all the necessary fits with the above holes. These are given in
Table 16.2.
Diameter H6 H7 H8 H11
Steps in mm ul ll ul ll ul ll ul ll
0–3 +6 0 +10 0 +14 0 +60 0
3–6 +8 0 +12 0 +18 0 +75 0
6–10 +9 0 +15 0 +22 0 +90 0
10–14 +11 0 +18 0 +27 0 +110 0
14–18 +11 0 +18 0 +27 0 +110 0
18–24 +13 0 +21 0 +33 0 +130 0
24–30 +13 0 +21 0 +33 0 +130 0
30–40 +16 0 +25 0 +39 0 +160 0
40–50 +16 0 +25 0 +39 0 +160 0
50–65 +19 0 +30 0 +46 0 +190 0
65–80 +19 0 +30 0 +46 0 +190 0
80–100 +22 0 +35 0 +54 0 +220 0
100–120 +22 0 +35 0 +54 0 +220 0
120–140 +25 0 +40 0 +60 0 +250 0
140–160 +25 0 +40 0 +60 0 +250 0
160–180 +25 0 +40 0 +60 0 +250 0
180–200 +29 0 +46 0 +70 0 +290 0
200–225 +29 0 +46 0 +70 0 +290 0
225–250 +29 0 +46 0 +70 0 +290 0
Typical fits that would be useful for most of the engineering situations are presented in Table 16.3.
Table 16.3 Typical fits that can be obtained in Hole based system
Type of Fit Shaft Tolerance Hole Tolerance
H7 H8 H9 H11
Clearance c11
d10
e9
f7
g6
h6
Transition k6
n6
Interference p6
s6
Selective Assembly
So far, the discussion is centred on the formation of fits based on the full interchangeability between the
mating parts. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to produce assemblies with tighter fits but at lower cost. The
cost of production increases with a decrease in the tolerance, which is necessary for tight fits. In such cases
selective assembly is used.
In selective assembly all the parts produced are measured and graded into a range of dimensions within the
tolerance groups. This procedure is followed for the holes as well as shafts as follows:
Shafts A (Small) B (Medium) C (Large)
Holes A (Small) B (Medium) C (Large)
Here the small, medium and large refer to the size range of the parts within the total tolerance zone. By
mating the shafts from group A with that of holes from group A ensures that the fit is much tighter than that
by choosing any hole from A, B or C with any of the shafts from A, B or C. This is convenient for reduction
of the cost of production, but creates problems for maintaining such assemblies in terms of the replacement
parts.
● Micro meter
● Height gauge
● Bore gauge
● Dial indicator
Rules
The terms scale and rule are used in the machine shop interchangeably, which is incorrect. Scale is graduated
in imaginary units, while rule has graduations that represent real units of length such as mm or inch. The
maximum discrimination on the rule helps in identifying the smallest possible measurement. A good quality
steel rule is engraved with graduated divisions.
There are a variety of rules that are available for specific applications such as flexible rules (useful for
checking lengths on relatively gentle curving surfaces), narrow rules or a standard hook rule that has a hook
attached at one end to help in reaching a slot or depth for the purpose of measurement.
Vernier
The vernier is the most common length measurement 2 Main scale
used in the shop. It makes use of a main scale and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
auxiliary (vernier) scale as shown in Fig. 16.5. The
main scale is graduated to convenient divisions, which Vernier scale
can be easily read. For example in Fig. 16.5 shows the 0 5 10 15 20 25
main scale units, further divided into smaller divisions Main scale = 2.025
of 0.025 units each. The auxiliary scale divides this Vernier scale = 0.007
Total reading = 2.032
smallest unit of 0.025 units into 25 divisions as shown
in Fig. 16.5. Thus Fig. 16.5 Vernier principle
0.025
Least count = = 0.001
25
To measure the value, note down the main scale
division and add to it the value measured by the vernier
scale or auxiliary scale. The measurement of the vernier
0.16150
is the divisions that are matching or aligned.
Digital
In Fig. 16.5 it is noted that the main scale division is meter
2.025 while the auxiliary scale reads 7 divisions. Hence,
The reading = 2.025 + 7 ¥ 0.001 = 2.032
The vernier calliper is provided with jaws which Gauge head
can do the end to end measurement on a component
relatively easily and accurately. In addition, some
typical vernier callipers are also provided with a set Stylus
of auxiliary jaws for the purpose of measuring internal
dimensions as well as the heights and depths.
With the advent of electronic measuring systems, Stand
many of the new measuring units are provided
with direct digital read-outs to reduce the possible
inaccuracies likely in reading the mechanical scales and
the associated computing to obtain the final results. An
example is shown in Fig. 16.6 of a digital vernier height
gauge that has a single measuring jaw to measure the
height from the base.
Fig. 16.6 Digital Vernier height gauge
Micro Meter
The micro meter is another end to end measuring device used for more accurate measurements. In this the
auxiliary scale is made on the thimble, which rotates about the main scale as shown in Fig. 16.7. The thimble
rotates about the main scale unlike the linear motion of the vernier scale there by improving the measurement
accuracy.
Reading to 0.01 mm
25
20
Thimble division
(each graduation
15 is 0.01 mm)
0 5 10
10
5
Major divisions
(each large Minor divisions
graduation each small graduation
is 1.00 mm) is 0.50 mm
Fig. 16.7 Micro meter principle
In this case, the smallest division is on the main scale is 0.5 mm. The thimble is divided into 50 divisions.
Thus
0.5
Least count = = 0.01 mm
50
The reading = 10.50 + 16 ¥ 0.01 = 10.66 mm
The constructional features of an outside micro meter are shown in Fig. 16.8. It is provided with a fixed
anvil and a rotating spindle between which the part to be measured is placed. The spindle and the anvil are
connected by means of a U-shaped frame. The gap indicates the maximum measurement that can be made
using the micro meter. The spindle can be rotated by means of the thimble till it touches the part surface. The
ratchet at the end ensures that only the spindle does not apply too much pressure on the part.
Barrel scale
Clamp Barrel Thimble scale
Spindle ring Thimble
Ratchet stop
Anvil
Frame
Opening
Head
A number of variations are available in the micro meters to suit the measuring function being contemplated.
The following are a few of the varieties:
● inside micro meters (Fig. 16.9) for measuring the inside diameters
● depth micro meters (Fig. 16.10) for measuring the depth of slots and blind holes
● screw thread micro meters (Fig. 16.11) for measuring the screw thread parameters discussed later.
● V-anvil micro meter (Fig. 16.12) that can be used for measuring the diameter of objects that have odd
number of symmetrical or evenly spaced features, for example for the diameter of a 3-fluted end mill.
Height Gauge
Height gages are some of the most important instruments used in the shop for precision layout purposes.
These have a flat base which will be kept on a surface plate while the tip can be moved to measure the actual
height of the part from its base as shown in Fig. 16.6.
Bore Gauge
These are used for measuring bores of different sizes
ranging from small to large sizes as shown in Fig. 16.13.
These are provided with various extension arms that can be
added for different sizes. An indicator will be attached at the
top, which will provide the deviation from the value of the
extension rod.
Dial Indicator
This is another of the more common measuring instruments
in the arsenal of a machinist. These consist of a spring
loaded plunger, A as shown in Fig. 16.14 whose tip is used
for measuring or gauging a surface. The movement of the
plunger A is magnified through the intermediate gearing B
and C to show with the pointer. The typical least count that
can be obtained with suitable gearing in dial indicators is
Dimension to
0.01 mm to 0.001 mm. be measured
It is possible to use the dial indicator as a comparator
Fig. 16.13 Bore gauge measuring an
by mounting it on a stand at any suitable height. The use
inside dimension
of dial indicators in machine tool alignment is discussed in
Chapter 13.
Comparators
Besides the length measuring devices described above, comparator is another form of linear measuring
method, which is quick and more convenient for checking a large number of identical dimensions. The basic
concept used is that the comparator is set for any given dimension. During the measurement a comparator
is able to give the deviation of the dimension from the set dimension. This cannot be used as an absolute
measuring device but can only compare two dimensions.
Initially the comparator is set with the help of a known dimension; e.g. a set of slip gauges as shown in
Fig. 16.15(a). Then the indicator reading is adjusted to zero as shown. When the part to be measured is kept
under the pointer, then the comparator will display the deviation of this dimension either in the + or – side of
the set dimension as shown in fig. 16.15(b).
Compression spring,
controls measuring pressure
10
-
Stop Pointer
Measuring
surface 0
Pivot
10 +
Gauge Anvil surface
block Graduated scale
0 p
Part +
p
Magnification =
0
The reliability of the dimension measured using a comparator is high because of the inherent accuracy
built into the magnifying system, and that the pressure used in the measurement is constant. To magnify the
deviation from the set dimension a number of principles are used such as mechanical, optical, pneumatic and
electrical, the details of which can be found in books on metrology.
● Sine bar
● Clinometer
Bevel Protractor
The bevel protractor is part of the machinist’s combination square as shown in Fig. 16.16. The protractor
can be moved on the steel rule along the central groove and can be locked in any position required. The flat
base of the protractor helps in setting it firmly on the work piece and then by rotating the rule, it is possible
to measure the angle. It will typically have a discrimination of one degree.
Centre head
Bevel protractor
Combination
square head
Sine Bar
The most common one used is the sine bar. A sine bar is bar consisting of two precision ground rollers at the
two ends whose centre distance is fixed such as 125 mm or 250 mm as shown in Fig. 16.17.
m
0 0m
5.0
12 a = 30° 28¢
r
ba
ne
Si
B = 88.384 mm
A = 25.000 mm
Surface plate
Fig. 16.17 Principle of angular measurement with a sine bar
The sine bar surface can be aligned with the surface to be measured such that the distance between the
rollers forms the hypotenuse. The height differential of the two rollers in alignment with the work piece is
shown in Fig. 16.17. The angle can be calculated using the sine formula. The angle, a in the Fig. 16.17 is
given by
88.384 - 25
sin a = = 0.5071
125
or a = 30° 28¢
The way the sine bar is to be used depends upon the nature of the taper angle to be measured. For example,
in Fig. 16.17 the sine bar is aligned with the work piece kept on the surface plate and the centre heights are
measured with the help of a height gauge. Alternatively as shown in Fig. 16.18, the part is aligned on the sine
bar with one roller on the surface plate and the other roller on a set of gauge blocks till the work piece surface
is horizontal. This can be ensured with the help of a dial indicator as shown.
0
Dial indicator (no deviation wanted)
a
Part
bar
Sine mm
00
250. Gauge blocks
Surface plate
Fig. 16.18 Principle of angular measurement with a sine bar and dial indicator
Clinometer
Another angular measure instrument used is the clinometer, which is a clever adoption of the spirit level for
measuring the inclination of a surface relative to the horizontal plane by levelling the spirit level. The main
measuring unit is the spirit level that is mounted on a rotary member that is pivoted as shown Fig. 16.19(a).
One face of the housing forms the base of the instrument. A circular scale is provided in the housing which
is used to measure the angle of inclination of the rotary member with the spirit level relative to the horizontal
plane. The bubble of the spirit level is in its centre position, when the clinometer is placed on a horizontal
surface and the scale of the rotatable disc is at zero position. The base of the instrument is placed on the
surface whose angle is to be measured. Since the surface is inclined, the bubble deviates from the centre.
The bubble is brought to the centre by rotating the rotary member with the spirit level till the bubble is at the
centre as shown in Fig. 16.19(b). The angle of rotation is then noted on the circular scale against an index.
Spirit level
Rotary
member
Base
(a) (b)
Fig. 16.19 Clinometer
Variations in clinometers is essentially in the method of measurement of the angle and the measuring
accuracy. Measuring method could be using a vernier, a micro meter or a dial. This can be used to measure the
angle of a surface from the horizontal plane or the angular separation of two surfaces by measuring each one
of them with reference to the horizontal plane and then getting the result as the difference of the two readings.
Depth
Flaw
Roughness
height
Roughness Height
This is the parameter with which generally the surface finish is indicated. It is specified either as arithmetic
average value or the root mean square value.
Roughness Width
It is the distance parallel to the nominal part surface, within which the peaks and valleys are shown, which
constitute the predominant pattern of the roughness.
Arithmetical Average
An imaginary centre line is imposed at a point representing the average midpoint or centre of the distance
between the peaks and the valleys of the surface profile as shown in Fig. 16.24. These are measured for a
specified area, the figures are added together and the total is then divided by the number of measurements
taken to obtain the mean or arithmetical average (AA). It is also sometimes called as the centre line average
or CLA value. This in equation form is given by
Ra = 1 1
L
L
Ú 0 y (x ) dx @ N Â yi
y2
y1 y (x)
yN
L
Fig. 16.24 Surface roughness parameters
The other parameter that is sometimes used is the root mean square value of the deviation in place of the
arithmetic average, RRMS. This in expression form is
1
R RMS @ Â yi2
N
Waviness Waviness refers to those surface irregularities that have a greater spacing than that of roughness
width. It is determined by the height of the waviness and its width. The greater the width, the smoother is the
surface and thus is more desirable. Also the greater the width, the greater is the difference between the size
of the measurement units required to measure height (roughness) and those needed to measure the waviness
width.
Lay direction It is the direction of the predominant surface pattern produced on the work piece by the tool
marks.
Flaw These are those surface irregularities which are random and therefore will not be considered.
Generally the surface roughness is measured by a stylus type of instrument as shown in Fig. 16.25. The
stylus moves over the sample length of the surface and records the peaks and valleys of the surface as a set
of digitised points of the surface. These will then be fed into the computer, where various types of parameters
that are relevant for analysing the surface texture can be calculated.
Stylus
Surface
Computer
Digitised points
Gauge Gauge
0.000 0.000
50 –0.125 GO NOT 50 – 0.125
GO
(a) (b)
Gauge
(c)
The condition shown in Fig. 16.26(a) is that the part dimension is larger than the maximum limit allowed
and as a result the part will not go into the GO section. Similarly the condition shown in Fig. 16.26(c) is that
the part dimension is smaller than the lower limit of the part resulting in the part going through the NOT GO
section.
All the gauges will have similar arrangement, however the arrangement of the GO and NOT GO segments
will have to be decided based on the profile dimension to be gauged. A variety of limit gauges are used
industry and a few of them are mentioned below:
Snap gauge—For gauging external dimensions
Plug gauge—For gauging internal dimensions
Taper plug gauge—For gauging taper holes
Ring gauge—For gauging external diameters
Tolerance on
Wear allowance upper limit
5% of workpiece 5% of workpiece Gauge
tolerance tolerance
Total
tolerance
Tolerance on
Upper limit lower limit
5% of workpiece GO NOT
Lower limit tolerance GO
Another aspect to be considered in the design of the gauges is that the contact surfaces of the gauge are
likely to wear out. The gauges are made with hard surfaces, which resist abrasion. But with continued usage
over long periods, the GO section which experiences the relative movement with the part, should initially be
made bigger to allow for the wear. About 5% of the work tolerance is normally allowed for this as shown in
Fig. 16.27.
summary
Metrology is the science of measurements. Industrial production becomes a success only when it is pos-
sible to ascertain that the parts are produced within the dimensional limits specified during the design
stage, at low costs.
● Standards are important to maintain the accuracy of measurements that are uniformly followed by
all nations.
● Tolerance is the permissible deviation in a dimension that satisfies the operational requirements
for the parts. Limits and fits allow for satisfactory functioning of the parts while lowering the
manufacturing costs
● A number of different instruments of varying accuracy are used for linear measurement such as
vernier, micro meter and slip gauges.
● Comparators are used to check quickly a linear dimension for the amount by which it deviates from
Q u e s t io ns
16.1 What do you understand by the term ‘Interchangeable Assembly’?
16.2 Define the terms tolerance, limits and fit with reference to the dimensional measurement.
16.3 Define the different types of tolerance specification methods. Compare their specific applications
with examples.
16.4 Define a fit in connection with an assembly. What are the different types of fits possible?
16.5 Explain the concept of clearance, interference and transition fits. Give examples where these can be
applied.
16.6 Briefly explain the ISO system of limits and fits. Explain about the tolerance grades as standardised
by ISO.
16.7 Write a short note on the selective assembly.
16.8 What do you understand by the terms ‘hole basis’ and ‘shaft basis’ in terms of assembly fit
specifications? Which is preferred? Give reasons supporting your answer.
16.9 What is the standard for linear measurement?
16.10 Explain the vernier principle as used in linear measurements.
16.11 What are the differences in the vernier and micro meter as used for linear measurements?
16.12 Write a short note on gauge blocks.
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
16.1 For an interference fit the tolerance groups and then assembled
(a) The lower limit of the shaft should be with tighter tolerances
greater than the lower limit of the hole (d) A transition fit
(b) The lower limit of the shaft should be 16.4 The accuracy of linear measurement is more
greater than the higher limit of the hole with this instrument
(c) The higher limit of the shaft should be (a) Steel rule
greater than the higher limit of the hole (b) Vernier callipers
(d) The higher limit of the shaft should be (c) Micro meter
greater than the lower limit of the hole (d) Scale
16.2 For a clearance fit 16.5 V-anvil micro meter is used for measuring
(a) The lower limit of the shaft should be (a) Screw thread pitch
smaller than the lower limit of the hole (b) Screw thread minor diameter
(b) The lower limit of the shaft should be (c) The diameter of objects that have odd
smaller than the higher limit of the hole number of symmetrical or evenly spaced
(c) The higher limit of the shaft should be features, for example for the diameter of
smaller than the higher limit of the hole a 3-fluted end mill.
(d) The higher limit of the shaft should be (d) Chip thickness
smaller than the lower limit of the hole 16.6 The length standard that is most commonly
16.3 Selective assembly of parts utilizes used in the machine shops is
(a) An interference fit (a) Meter rod
(b) A clearance fit (b) Slip gauge
(c) All the parts produced are measured and (c) Precision scale
graded into a range of dimensions within (d) None of the above
Answers to MCQs
16.1 (b) 16.2 (d) 16.3 (c) 16.4 (c) 16.5 (c)
16.6 (b)
17.1 IntroductIon
Competition between manufacturing firms is increasingly dictated by quality, cost, variety and servicing.
Each one of these attributes of a successful product can only be produced by achieving the highest possible
efficiency in manufacturing.
The variety being demanded in view of the varying tastes of the consumer calls for very small batch
sizes. Small batch sizes will not be able to take advantage of the mass production techniques such as special
purpose machines or transfer lines. Hence the need for flexible automation where you get the benefits of
rigid automation but also be able to vary the products manufactured thus bringing in flexibility. Numerical
control fits the bill perfectly, and we will see that future manufacturing would increasingly be dependent on
‘Numerical Control’ or NC to be short.
Numerical Control (NC) or control by numbers is the concept which has revolutionised the manufacturing
scene, which is partially due to the rapid advancement in microelectronics that has taken place since the late
1960’s. The key factor responsible for the popularity of the numerical control is the flexibility it offers in
manufacturing.
Towards the end of the Second World War, there was increased activity in aerospace manufacturing in
U.S.A. Mr John Parsons of Parsons Corporation who is one of the sub-contractors to USAF (United States
Air Force), was toying with the idea of utilising the digital computers which were just then becoming popular
to reduce the drudgery of computation. Machining (milling) of complex curvature is a highly skilled job. He
proposed that the co-ordinate points of a complex three dimensional profile may be utilised for controlling
the milling machine table so that accurate jobs could be produced. The USAF accepted his proposal and a
contract was awarded to him to develop such a machine. The project was then awarded to the Servomechanism
Laboratory of Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1951, who had finally demonstrated a working
milling machine in 1952. This is a Cincinnati Hydrotel Vertical Spindle milling machine with a controller
built using valves (transistors were not available yet!).
Though the concept was demonstrated, the actual availability of such a machine for the aerospace industry
was around 1955, after a very large number of refinements to the basic controller demonstrated in 1952.
Later on, machine tool builders serving a variety of applications introduced several commercial NC units
into the market. Since then rapid strides have taken place in NC technology, parallel with the developments
in electronics and microelectronics.
This saves the floor space and also results in less lead-time in manufacture. This results in the overall
reduction in production costs.
9. Set-up times are reduced in a number of situations, since the set-up involves simple location of the
datum surface and position. Further the required number of setups can also be reduced. All this
translates into lower processing times. Many a times, a component could be fully machined in a single
machining centre or turning centre, each of which has wider machining capabilities. In conventional
manufacture if the part has to be processed through a number of machine tools which are located in
different departments, the time involved in completion and the resultant process inventory, would be
large. This would be greatly eliminated by the use of NC machine tools.
10. Machining times and costs are predictable to a greater accuracy, since all the elements involved in
manufacturing would have to be thoroughly analysed before a part program is prepared.
11. Operator fatigue does not come into picture in the manufacturing of a part. The NC machine tool can
be utilised continuously since these are more rigid than the conventional machine tools.
12. Tools can be utilised at optimum feeds and speeds that can be programmed.
13. The modification to part design can be very easily translated into manufacture by the simple changes
in part programs without expensive and time consuming changes in jigs, fixtures and tooling. This
adds to the flexibility of manufacture.
14. The capability (metal removal) of NC machines is generally high because of the very rigid construction
employed in machine tool design compared to the conventional machine tools.
Though the NC machines have a range of advantages, there are certain limitations one should take care of
while making a choice in favour of them.
1. The cost of NC machine tool is much high compared to an equivalent conventional machine tool. The
cost is often 5 to 10 times higher. Also the cost of tooling is high. This is a very high initial investment.
All this makes the machine hourly rate high. As a result, it is necessary to utilise the machine tool for
a large percentage of time.
2. Cost and skill of the people required to operate a NC machine is generally high in view of the
complex and sophisticated technology involved. The need is for part programmers, tool setters,
punch operators and maintenance staff (electronics and hydraulics) who have to be more educated
and trained compared to the conventional machine operators.
3. Special training is needed for the personnel manning the NC machine tools. NC manufacturing
requires training of personnel both for software as well as hardware. Part programmers are trained
to write instructions in desired languages for the machines on the shop floor. They also need to
be acquainted with the manufacturing process. Similarly, machine operators have to be prepared
for the new NC culture. These factors are important for the successful adoption and growth of NC
technology.
4. As NC is a complex and sophisticated technology, it also requires higher investments for maintenance
in terms of wages of highly skilled personnel and expensive spares. The need for maintenance engineers
trained in all the sub systems present such as mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic and electronics makes
the job more difficult. Though the latest machines are equipped with a large number of diagnostic
facilities, maintenance is still one of the major limitations.
5. The automatic operation of NC machines implies relatively higher running costs. Moreover, the
requirement of a conditioned environment for operating NC technology adds further to the running
costs.
Tape reader
Manual data input
Program
storage X
device
Command
+
Position – Deviation
Feedback
transducer Motor
or encoder
– +
Machine table
Fig. 17.2 The data processing in a CNC machine tool in closed loop control
The controllers have a number of modes in which to operate. There could be 4 possible modes in which
the controller can function as shown in Fig. 17.3 in relation to a machining centre. The first shows a typical
drilling machine operation, termed as point to point mode. In this, the control has the capability to operate all
the 3 axes, but not necessarily simultaneously. As a result, it would be possible to move the tool to any point
(in X and Y-axes) in the fastest possible speed and carry out the machining operation in one axis (Z-axis)
at that point. This would be useful for drilling and punching machines. The second type is an improvement
over this, in which in addition to the point to point mode, the machine tool has the capability to carry out a
continuous motion in each of the axis direction. This would help in obtaining the milling in a straight line
along any of the axes.
Point-to-point
Point-to-point straight line
Drilling and boring Z
Z
Y Y Frame milling
X X
2 axis contouring
with switchable plane Z 3 axis contouring
Z 2 axis contour continuous path
milling 3 axis contour
Y Y milling
X X
Fig. 17.3 Types of control systems possible in CNC operation
In the third type is shown a control system, which improves the previous type by adding the simultaneous
motion capability in any 2 axes. This is what is required in most of the cases. Any 3D profiles to be machined
can be completed using the concept of 2.5D mode, in view of the limitation of the machine.
The last one is the highest form of control that is generally found in most of the current day control systems.
This gives the capability of simultaneous 3 or more axes motion. This would be useful for machining most of
the complex 3D profiles encountered in industrial practice such as aerospace components, moulds and dies.
17.3.3 NC Tooling
The operator gathers, or is supplied with, the relevant tooling for the part to be machined. A distinctive
deviation of the NC tooling from the conventional one is that each cutting tool is set in a different adapter
E
X
(Fig. 17.5). The configuration suggested by ISO is now generally followed. A power-operated drawbar may
be employed to pull the tooling at the retention knob. This helps eliminate any clearance between the mating
surfaces of spindle and tooling shank. It is not uncommon to set apart an allocation of 20 to 30% of total
budget for tooling during the buying of new NC machine tools.
A pre-set tool has adjustable locating faces. It enables the dimensions between the tool cutting edges and
location faces to be pre-set to a close tolerance using a pre-setting device. The pre-set tool usually needs to
be removed from the machine for adjustments required during batch production. The tools may be stored
on a drum, which is operationally an integral part of the machine itself. In the latter case, the tools are
automatically replaced or changed in the spindle.
These inform the operator about the deviation of the tool tip the supplied tool has, with the one taken into
account by the part programmer. The programmer gets the information from the tool files that are updated
periodically. In spite of the “updating”, the position of the tool tip when supplied to the operator may be
different (from what is mentioned in the tool file) because of wear and tear, re-sharpening or setting of a new
cutting tool due to breakage.
Co-ordinate System
All the machine tools make use of the Cartesian co-ordinate system for the
sake of simplicity. The guiding co-ordinate system followed for designating
the axes is the familiar right hand co-ordinate system. The main axes to be
designated are the rectangular axes and the rotary axes. Typical right handed X
co-ordinate system is shown in Fig. 17.6. One could use his right hand (as Fig. 17.6 Right hand
shown in Fig. 17.7) to arrive at these alternate variable positions of the same co-ordinate
right hand co-ordinate system. systems
+Y
+Z
+Y
+X
+Z
+X
(a) Axis designation for horizontal Z (b) Axis designation for vertical Z
Fig. 17.7 Finding directions in a Right Hand Co-ordinate System and also the positive directions for rotary
motions
X-Axis The X-axis is the principal motion direction in the positioning plane of the cutting tool or the work
piece.
Location It is perpendicular to the Z-axis and should be horizontal and parallel to the work- holding sur-
face wherever possible.
Direction When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the positive (+) X is to the RIGHT. For
turning machines, it is radial and parallel to the cross slide. X is positive when the tool recedes from the axis
of rotation of the work piece. For other machine tools, the X-axis is parallel to and positive along the principal
direction of movement of the cutting or the guided point.
Y-Axis It is perpendicular to both X- and Z- axes and the direction is identified by the right hand Cartesian
co-ordinate system.
Rotary Motions
A, B and C define the primary rotary motions.
Location These motions are located about the axis parallel to X, Y and Z respectively. In addition to the
primary rotary motions, if there are secondary rotary motions, those should be designated as D or E regard-
less of whether they are parallel or not to A, B and C.
Direction Positive A, B and C are in the directions which advance right hand screws in the positive X, Y,
and Z directions respectively. In Fig. 17.7, the fingers of the right hand point towards the positive direction
of the rotary motions. All the above-mentioned motions, viz. X, Y, Z; U, V, W; P, Q, R; A, B, C and D, E are
with reference to a point, the movement of which is sought to be controlled. This point is generally the tip of
the cutting tool. Often the tool point may not move in some directions, e.g. the quill of the spindle of a vertical
milling machine moves in the Z direction but not in the X and Y directions. In such cases, the work surface is
generally moved in a direction opposite to the one intended for the tool, e.g. the table of the milling machine
holding the work piece may be moved in –X and –Y directions. Such movements of machine elements, say
–X or –Y, are denoted as +X’ or +Y’ respectively. Primed letters can thus be used for all the above-mentioned
motions to indicate the corresponding reversed directions for moving work surfaces.
As already discussed, most of the machine tool manufacturers adhere to the standards to a very great
extent. However, some deviations may be present in some cases because of historical reasons or specific
convenience in operations or programming of the machine tool. Some examples of the axes designation as
suggested above and applied to practical machine tools is described below. In Fig. 17.9 is shown a typical
horizontal axis boring mill in 3 and 4 axes configuration. In the 4-axes version, a complimentary motion
parallel to the spindle movement (Z-axis) is designated as W-axis.
A 5-axes machining centre with a horizontal spindle is shown in Fig. 17.10. In addition to the normal
3-axes (X, Y and Z), two rotary axes A and B are added. In one case, the spindle originally horizontal is
swivelling about the X-axis. A rotary table is added on the table to give a rotary motion about the Y-axis.
+Y +Y
+Z +W +Z
+X +X
Fig. 17.9 CNC Horizontal axis boring mills in 3 and 4 axes versions
B+
+Z
+W
+C
+X
+Y
available as well as the ability to perform a variety of functions. Also, most of the modern CNC milling
machines have expanded machining capabilities by the addition of accessory devices, making them more
versatile. That is why these are now called ‘machining centres’ rather than milling machines.
The CNC machining centres can be broadly categorised into two varieties:
● Vertical axis machining centre, and
● Tool selection
● Cutting process parameters planning
Process Planning
Process plan is a detailed plan of the steps involved in manufacturing (machining) a given part. The following
are the contents of a process plan:
● Machine tool used
● Fixture(s) required
● Sequence of operations
● For each of operation
● Process parameters
A programmer is supposed to carry out a careful study of the part drawing to prepare the process plan. The
choice of the machine tool used depends upon the operations required, accuracy requirements, machine tool
capability and availability, cutting tool availability and the shop practices. A careful choice of various options
at this stage would decide on the final cost of manufacture of the part.
Axes Selection
All the CNC machine tools rely on the axes system for describing the axes motion. To correctly describe the
motion, it is therefore necessary to establish the axes system to be followed with the particular part. The ISO
designation of axes was discussed earlier. In tune with that axes system, one has to choose the axes. However,
it is also necessary for one to choose the axes system as appropriate to the machine tool co-ordinate system
in question.
The axes system of all the CNC machine tools would generally have a fixed datum position as designated
by the machine tool manufacturer. It may be called the reference position, fixed datum or home position. This
absolute datum position of the CNC machine tool may not be very convenient for setting the job. Hence most
of the CNC machine tools come with ‘Floating Datum’. In this case the programmer can select the part datum
anywhere in the machining limits of the machine tool, based on the geometry of the part being machined.
The reference axes should be chosen so that co-ordinates for various features can be determined
Fig. 17.14(a). Here X and Y are the reference axes. For the sake of convenience, the orthographic views of
the component are shown.
The basis for choosing the axes system has more to do with the part geometry and the type of machine
tool being used. When the operator is developing the program, it becomes extremely important to choose the
right type of datum, since a careful selection eliminates a large amount of calculation process. Also the part
program becomes simple, being able to make use of the advanced software facilities such as mirror imaging,
etc.
The first principle to be used while arriving at the datum is to keep all the parts in the first quadrant of
the co-ordinate system. This would help in having all the co-ordinate values as positive. It helps the first
time programmer in eliminating as many errors as possible. Once enough experience is gained, it would
be possible for the programmer to carefully adjust the values. Similarly touching the two sides of the pre-
machined work piece can easily do the setting of the tool.
Sometimes the datum could be chosen as the geometric centre of the work piece if all the geometry
is symmetrical as shown in Fig. 17.14(b). In such a choice, the geometry calculation effort reduces to a
minimum. Also the mirror image facility available in the controller can be effectively exploited.
The Z-axis datum is kept generally to match with the top surface of the work piece. This helps in two
ways. First, all positive values of Z co-ordinate would keep the tool away from the work piece, so that the
collision of tool with the work is avoided. Secondly when the tool is to be set, the tool tip can be easily
matched with the work piece top surface.
12.5
Y
25
R1
9
R1
R4
5
30°
R1 45°
.5
2.5
12
9 R1
102 R1 9 25
125
25
2.5
R1
X
R6
250 140 2.
Z 68
32
X
R6 R8
38
25
(a)
R66
20
28
R1
f30
45°
45°
X
40 R7
f16
0
(b)
Tool Selection
The choice of cutting tools is a very important function. For a given operation many tools are feasible, but
some of them are more economical than others. Therefore for the economy of manufacture, it is essential
to choose the right tool for the job. As a rule, we will only select the regular cutting tools for use in CNC
machine tools. No special tooling is generally suggested, since the geometry can very well be generated by
the CNC control.
As an example when a contour is being milled, the choice can be an end mill or a slot drill (end cutting
end mill). End mill is stronger and can take deeper cuts than a corresponding slot drill. However, slot drill can
enter into a solid material, but an end mill cannot in view of the fact that the cutting edge in the bottom does
not extend to the centre of the tool. As a result, an end mill should always approach the work piece from the
side while the slot drill can approach from the side or from the top.
Also the size of an end mill or slot drill depends on the contour to be machined. You should choose the
largest size of end mill available for better surface finish and higher material removal rate. However, the tool
radius may be limited often by the radius of curvature being generated.
For example, sometimes a tapered end mill or slot drill would make the machining very simple in
generating the draft surfaces of dies and moulds. Otherwise generating a draft angle may take a large amount
of programming.
be clearly indicated in instructions to the operator. This is vital for eliminating the possibility of collisions
occurring during machining.
During trial runs, feed and speed override control should be used so that the operator works at such values
which enable him to exercise manual control comfortably and operate the emergency switch well in time. The
program is run block by block, i.e. after execution of each block the machine waits till the operator manually
presses the switch on the machine console for execution of the next block.
With the job and tool in position, dry runs are made, i.e. keeping a safe distance in between the tool and the
job; the motions can be visualised for correctness. If during these trials, any mistakes are noticed, the program
is examined and the necessary corrections made. After this, one component is made and checked. Based on
this, speeds and feeds are modified and further corrections carried out so that correct profiles are obtained.
Sometimes only a single complex and precise job may be made using numerical control. This could even be
of an expensive material. In such cases, the program is tried first on a cheap material, say wood, Perspex etc.
Only when the first trials are approved, the updated program is permitted to be used for further production.
Nowadays, graphical simulation packages are available on CNC systems, which make possible a graphical
output on the VDU screen. This output shows the work piece and the tool, the motion of the tool and the
progressive removal of material as the program proceeds. Visualisation of this animation of the machining
process helps to prove the part program before any actual machining is carried out. These verifications are
carried out at a fast speed and thus the proving of the part program is done without much loss of time.
It is also possible to carry out the verification on a microcomputer screen. Through these, it is possible
to see how the tool path is programmed. A more advanced version is the simulation program, which can
show how the material is being removed, so that the actual geometry generated can also be seen in these
systems. This enables a fast detection of mistakes and their correction without loss of production time of the
CNC machine tools. Many of these systems have the capability of showing the clamps and other elements,
which are likely to interfere with the tool movement. Also some systems have the capability of dynamically
simulating the actual sized tool through the work material to make the simulation more realistic.
Another simple method of verifying the program is plotting. However, it should be understood that this
would give only a two dimensional picture. The plotter is connected through an interface for obtaining the
plot. The plot can be examined and compared with the component drawing for any errors in the tool path.
Documentation for NC
It would now be amply clear that documentation is the most essential aspect of the CNC manufacturing
practice. Therefore, it is worthwhile to list these as a checklist.
1. Component drawing.
2. Process planning sheet: As discussed earlier, this should contain details of the sequence of the
operations, the machine tool used, the tools used with their numbers, speeds, feeds etc.
3. Tool cards: These should show each tool in assembled form with dimensions and identification
numbers for each element (tool, collet, chuck etc.).
4. Setting card: This would show all tools, as in position on the machine tool, with their identification
numbers, and the corresponding compensation values.
5. Programming sheets.
6. Punched paper tape, if this is the input form used.
The originals of these documents are kept in the programming room records cabinet while copies are sent
to the shop floor as per the production planning. Whenever any changes are to be made, all issued copies
are recalled and destroyed. The originals are updated (or made afresh) and copies are released accordingly.
The complete part program for a given component consists of a beginning code of % which signifies
the start of the tape (in case of paper tapes) or beginning of a program if direct computer communication is
involved such as in DNC mode. A part program consists of large number of blocks (similar to sentences in a
letter) each representing an operation to be carried out in the machining of a part.
Each block always starts with a block number used as identification and is programmed with a ‘N’ word
address. This must be programmed at the beginning of every block. As per ISO 2539, it has a minimum
of three digits, e.g. N009, N028. However, some control manufacturers, notably Fanuc dispense with this
requirement. In their case, only those blocks which are to be specifically addressed as per the requirement of
program flow would be given a block number. Other blocks can do away with this requirement. This saves
valuable RAM space in the controller where the part programs are stored.
Each block can have one or more of the word addresses as explained above in a sequence. A typical ISO
format for block is shown below:
N5 G2 X±53 Y±53 Z±53 U..V..W..I..J..K..F5 S4 T4 M2 *
This shows a typical sequence in which the word addresses should occur in the block. However, it is not
necessary that all these addresses should be present in each of the block nor is the sequence important. The
word addresses can occur in any sequence.
The numerical values immediately after word address indicate the maximum number of digits that are
allowed for that particular address character. For example, G, the preparatory function is followed by two-
digit information, say G00 to G99. The unsigned numbers indicate that the numerical value given will be
without any sign. Also a single digit indicates that the numerical value to be given is an integer.
When real values are to be given, two digits indicate them, the first one representing the number of digits
before the decimal place while the latter is for those after the decimal place. For example, X ± 53 indicates
that five digits before the decimal and three after it are needed to describe the word address X. The ± indicates
that this address can be given with a sign. The + sign need not be given, since it is automatically assumed.
As per the standards followed, decimal sign should not be given, its position being defined by the format
specifications. However, many controllers allow the decimal point as it is better for easy understanding of the
program. It is also easier to program directly the numbers with decimal point.
Since each function is indicated by its address character, the order of writing words in a block is not
important except that the letter N should come right in the beginning and the end of block should be placed
where the information for that block is completed. Fanuc uses the end of block character as ";". Others treat
the "Carriage Return" and "Line Feed" as End of Block (EOB). In this book we will use (*) as the end of
block for easy understanding, though this is not required to be punched in the actual part program.
In the variable block format the number of words and characters are variable, i.e. if any word is not
required in any block, then it need not be written and also if the value of any function remains the same in the
next operation, then it need not be repeated in the block. The following examples will clarify these details.
N110 G01 X-312.55 Y14.5 Z12.565 F200 S1500 T1103 M03 *
N115 Y187.0 Z0 *
In the block for operation number 110, the value of functions G, X, B, F, S, T and M will be the same as in
operation number 115; only the values for the functions Y and Z will change to 187.0 and zero respectively.
This feature of the word address format, and also since the order of words is not important, it makes the
writing of programs very convenient.
Since the programming format for various control systems are not identical and may differ from ISO
recommendations, it is important that the relevant programming manual should be consulted while preparing
the program.
In machines where tool change is carried out manually, the word “T” will cause the stopping of the
machine spindle and a light signal will appear indicating to the operator that he has to carry out the tool
change, the order of which he must already have been instructed about.
Tool offset, to be discussed later, can also be programmed by using the same T word, e.g. T1513 which
means tool No. 15 (i.e., tool located in the position 15 in the magazine) is to be loaded in the spindle and the
value in offset register 13 is to be taken into account when this tool carries out the operation.
A few of the usual preparatory functions which are generally present in all machining centres and are
uniformly followed by all controller manufacturers are given below:
Motion group
*G00 Rapid Positioning
G01 Linear Interpolation
G02 Circular interpolation Clockwise
G03 Circular interpolation Counter clockwise
Dwell
G04 Dwell
Active plane selection group
*G17 XY Plane selection
G18 XZ Plane selection
G19 YZ Plane selection
Cutter compensation group
*G40 Cutter compensation, Cancel
G41 Cutter radius Compensation left
G42 Cutter radius Compensation right
Units group
*G70 Inch units
G71 Metric units
Hole making canned cycle group
*G80 Canned Cycle Cancel
G81-G89 Canned Cycles definition and ON
Co-ordinate system group
*G90 Absolute co-ordinate system
G91 Incremental co-ordinate system
Preset
G92 Absolute pre-set, Change the datum position
The * sign indicates the generally accepted default or turn on code in operation. However, some control
manufacturers allow this to be modified to whatever suits them. The above is only a possible indication but
not in any way standardised by ISO.
In the following we will give a description of the way to use these G codes.
B
15
A
10
C
5
0 X
5 25 35
Whatever may be the route of the move, the programmed X and Y values of each position remain the
same. Suppose the route to be 0-A-B-C, then
N007 G90 G01 X5.0 Y10.0 F...
N008 X25.0 Y15.0
N009 X35.0 Y5.0
This system is generally advisable for programming, as there are few chances of errors. When the tool
is in a particular quadrant, such as the first, then all the co-ordinate values would be positive. In the third
quadrant all values will be negative. In the second and fourth quadrants both positive and negative signs will
be present. Thus it is suggested that the new programmers should always make use of the absolute system till
they become familiar with the programming system.
The incremental type, denoted in the program by the word G91, is also available on all NC equipment.
This is generally “Turn on mode” and can be cancelled by the word G90. The end of the program words
M02 or M30 also sets it. In the incremental system, the data is incremental to the previous block. Unlike as
with G90, the programmed data changes only if the route of the move is altered. Referring to the same figure
(Fig. 17.15), the program for route 0-A-B-C would be
N007 G91 X5.0 Y10.0 F...
N008 X20.0 Y5.0
N009 X10.0 Y-10.0
If the route is changed, then the program changes accordingly. Incremental programming is useful when
the features are dimensioned in a continuous chain, e.g., 5 holes, 31.250 mm apart along X axis would simply
be programmed for each feature as X31.25; while in absolute programming, one would have to calculate the
value for each position, i.e., X31.25, X62.5, X93.75,... It is also important when one follows the incremental
programming system, to take care of the direction in which the movement is taking place, irrespective of the
quadrant in which the tool is moving.
In a program, both the systems may be followed but it should be done carefully. In the incremental system
any error done in a single block will carry forward and no correction can be done. Also the errors in the
transmission system will result in error accumulation, while that does not happen in the case of absolute co-
ordinate system.
+Y
+Z
+Y G17 XY plane
G18 XZ plane
G17 G19 YZ plane G18
+Z
G19 G19
G18 G17
+X +X
(a) Plane for vertical milling machine (b) Plane for horizontal milling machine
Preset, G92
As described earlier, each of the machine tool has a separate machine reference point. However, this point
is not very convenient to use as a co-ordinate datum for the part. Most of the NC machine tools allow for
a ‘Floating Datum’ to be fixed anywhere in the machining envelope of the machine tool. As a result, the
programmer can choose a convenient position on the part as datum, which may be referred to as ‘Program
Zero Point’. The same will have to be communicated to the NC controller as datum. The choice of the datum
as explained earlier is to suit either the setting of the component or to simplify the co-ordinate calculations.
It is necessary in the beginning to make the system understand the co-ordinate datum position of the part,
which is different from the machine reference point. To do this, we make use of the G92 code. The part,
which was pre-machined, is clamped at a suitable position on the machine table. A known tool or a setting
mandrel of known diameter is kept in the machine spindle. This tool is then brought to a known position
near or on the work piece blank, called the set point. The same is then programmed in the part program using
the G92 code. For example, in Fig. 17.17, the work piece of dimensions 200 ¥ 170 ¥ 30 mm is located on
machine bed with the longer edge along X-axis. The tip of the setting tool, held in the spindle, is made to
touch the point B, i.e., the setting position. At that instant, the program block entered is
N015 G92 X-150.0 Y200.0 Z50.0
B
200
200 Part
170
A
Part datum
–150
Machine datum
O
X
Fig. 17.17 Setting the work piece on the machine table
Depending upon the point being touched, the co-ordinate can be specified, taking the diameter of the
probe touching the work piece. The tool tip is to be set at a distance of 50 from the top surface by means of
a suitable gage.
The system automatically understands that point A is 0, 0, 0. It is obvious that it would be difficult to locate
the point A otherwise. If the top surface is taken as Z = 0, and the setting is done at the point A, so N...G92
X0 Y0 Z0 would mean point A is –150, 200, –30. While using the function G92, no axis motion takes place.
Using this function, the program zero point and the work co-ordinate system are set.
G53 to G56 are the other codes used for setting the programmable datum positions. These would allow for
fixing a number of positions on the machine table whose co-ordinates can be entered into the controller as
a permanent memory. When required their positions can be simply called by giving the particular G code in
the program. This would also be useful for machining a batch of components all of which are located on the
machine table each at the positions indicated by G53, G54, etc.
Y
D
100
E
30
X
20
110
In this case the controller moves all the three axes at a rate such that the resultant velocity along the line
matches the programmed feed rate.
Circular Interpolation, G02/G03 When an arc is to be traversed in a plane, the function G02 or G03
is used if the direction of the motion is clockwise or anti-clockwise respectively, looking in the negative
direction of the axis perpendicular to the plane. Referring to Fig. 17.20, when the motion is from F to G in
XY plane, the program block would be, as per ISO,
N125 G02 X65.0 Y60.0 I35.0 J-10.0 F250
20 F
30
X
15
R3
5
50
65
Dwell, G04
This is to give a delay in the program. When the G04 code is encountered, the controller stops at that par-
ticular point for a specified time mentioned in the block. After that time the controller continues to execute
the next block in the program. The delay time is normally mentioned in seconds using the X word address.
In some controls, other than X may also be used. For example in Fanuc controls, P word address is used to
specify the dwell time in milliseconds. An example is shown below:
N045 G04 X3.0
This calls for a stoppage of the control for a period of 3 seconds.
M46–M49 Unassigned
M50 Coolant supply No. 3 on
M51 Coolant supply No. 4 on
M52–M54 Unassigned
M55 Linear cutter offset No. 1 shift
M56 Linear cutter offset No. 2 shift
M57–M59 Unassigned
M60 Piece part change
M61 Linear piece part shift, location 1
M62 Linear piece part shift, location 2
M63–M67 Unassigned
M68 Clamp piece part
M69 Unclamp piece part
M70 Unassigned
M71 Angular piece part shift, location 1
M72 Angular piece part shift, location 2
M73–M77 Unassigned
M78 Clamp non-activated machine bed-ways
M79 Unclamp non-activated machine bed-ways
M80–M99 Unassigned
Some of the common miscellaneous functions often found in many controllers are:
M00
This would terminate the auto operation of the machine after completing the instructions in the block in
which it has been programmed. This is called ‘Program stop’ and if it is required to continue with the rest of
the program, the ‘start’ button on the console is to be pressed. This is useful for changing the clamp position
or to carry out inspection of a particular dimension after a machining cut is taken. This being a pause func-
tion, it calls for the attention of the operator, delays the completion of the program and therefore should be
avoided as far as possible.
M01
This is ‘Optional stop’ and stops the machine, as in the case of M00, only if the “Optional stop” switch on
the controller console is ‘ON’. This is useful when inspection is to be carried out on some components and
not all in a given batch.
M02
This is ‘End of program’ and it causes the stopping of the machine and clearing of all the control registers.
Another code M30 also does the same function.
M03
The miscellaneous function for machine spindle control for clockwise rotation. This starts the spindle to
move in the clockwise direction at the speed set earlier using the S word address. When it is given in a block
it is the first code to be executed before all the other codes in a block are acted upon.
M04
The miscellaneous function for machine spindle control for counter clockwise rotation. This starts the spindle
to move in the counter clockwise direction at the speed set earlier using the S word address. When it is given
in a block it is the first code to be executed before all the other codes in a block are acted upon.
M05
M05 is the miscellaneous function for stopping the machine spindle. When it is given in a block it is the last
code to be executed after all the other codes in a block are acted upon.
M06
M06 is for tool change.
M07
M07 are for ‘Coolant 1 On’
M08
M08 are for ‘Coolant 2 On’
M09
M09 is for ‘Coolant Off’.
M13
M13 the miscellaneous function for machine spindle control for clockwise rotation and the starting of the
coolant simultaneously. This starts the spindle to move in the clockwise direction at the speed set earlier using
the S word address. When it is given in a block it is the first code to be executed before all the other codes in
a block are acted upon.
M30
M30 is similar to M02. It indicates ‘End of tape’ and ‘tape rewind’. If a paper tape is used, the tape is rewind
till the % sign is encountered. For machines working with RAM, the active program comes to the beginning.
Many a times M02 and M30 are synonymous in operation in modern day controllers.
the number after ‘P’ referring to the sub program being called. The sub programs are ended with the word
‘M99’ in Fanuc controls.
Example 17.1
The component to be machined is shown in Fig. 17.21. It is assumed that the pocket is through and hence only
the outside is to be machined as a finish cut of the pocket. The tool to be used is a 20 mm diameter slot drill.
If an end mill is to be used the program should be modified with a hole to be drilled at B first before the end
mill is used. The setting is done with point A as reference (0, 0, 0) and the reference axes are along X and Y
directions. A typical program, as per ISO (except the decimal point), for this would be:
Y
125
5
R3
C R1 D
0
100
75 R10
B E
50
25
A
25 X
65
Z
X
10
L2
L4
program example explains how tool length compen-
sation is automatically taken care of. L3
---------------------
N003 M06 T01 X
---------------------
---------------------
N006 M06 T02
--------------------- Fig. 17.22 Tool length compensation
---------------------
In these program blocks, M06 refers to tool change and T01, T02, ... refer to the tools to be loaded.
Whenever the tool is ground or replaced, the new values are entered to replace the earlier ones and thus the
program remains unchanged. This is an essential facility, without which the multiplicity of the programs for
each job/tool combination would be enormous and futile. It will be understood that the values entered compen-
sate for the difference in lengths and thus all tools “effectively” become independent of tool dimensions, if
the dimensions of all the tools are stored. When programming, the tool dimensions are not considered since
the compensation values are calculated by the control system itself during manufacturing.
What has been discussed so far are the illustrations to explain some of the general facilities available
in CNC programming. These are in no way exact procedures for any control system and therefore it is
imperative that the readers carefully browse through the programming manual of the system for which he has
to write the programs. The number of facilities and the procedures to follow differ from system to system, as
do their limitations.
All these details enable the programmer to know the operation motions, which he is to write in code form,
i.e. the program. This would then be punched on a paper tape and the tape is fed into the tape reader of the
machine controller. The program can also be entered directly on the machine control panel. The programs can
also be prepared on microprocessor based terminals or personal computers and then be stored or transmitted
directly to machine tools. The latter facility permits convenient editing. The programming section should
maintain an updated list of tools available and information regarding machining parameters.
0 10 30 12 70 90
10
20
Programmed path R28
72
40
R3 31
60
40
80 74
would need editing. However, if a compensation equal to the radius of the cutter is entered and stored in the
control system, then the program could be written for the component profile and thus no change in program
would be required.
The preparatory functions G40, G41 and G42 are used for radius compensation and form one group. These
are modal and the one programmed in any block remains active till cancelled by the other.
G40 Compensation ‘off’.
G41 Used when the cutter is on the left of the programmed path when looking in the direction of the tool
movement, i.e. the radius compensation is considered to the left of the programmed profile.
G42 used when the cutter is on the right of the programmed path when looking in the direction of the
tool movement i.e. radius compensation is to the right of the programmed profile (In some systems, cutter
diameter compensation is possible and in these cases, the value of the diameter is entered as the compensation
value). The tool radius entry is always positive. If the programmed path is determined for a particular size of
the cutter, the compensation value would be ‘+’ or ‘–’ depending on whether the cutter used for machining
is oversized or undersized. The following program will illustrate the use of these preparatory functions.
Fig. 17.24 shows the top view and the top of the component surface is taken as Z = 0.
N010 G92 X0 Y0 Z50.0 Absolute preset at ‘A’, 50 mm above work surface
N020 G90 Absolute programming
N030 M06 T1
N040 Z2.0 M03 S600 Rapid plane
N050 G41 G01 X100.0 Y-60.0 F100 cutter compensation ON; tool moves along the path
left of the programmed contour
N055 Z-5.0 Move to depth
N060 X300.0
N070 Y-260.0
N080 X100.0
N090 Y-60.0
N100 G40 X0 Y0 cutter radius compensation OFF
N110 G00 Z50.0 T0 M05 compensation value for tool T1 cancelled
N120 M06 T02 (assuming a different tool is used for internal profile)
N130 X200.0 Y-120.0 Z2.0 S600 M03
N140 G01 Z-5.0 F100
N150 G42 Y-100.0 cutter compensation ON; tool path right of pro-
grammed contour
N160 G02 I0 J-60.0
N170 G00 Z50.0 M05
N180 G40 X0 Y0 T0 M02
100
A
60 41
F
G
B C
K
f2 L
0 42
200
0
f12
E D
J
H
200
Fig. 17.24 Example showing the cutter radius compensation using the G codes G41 and G42
In the block N050, the programmed position is B, but the cutter centre comes to the position F such that
BF is perpendicular to the next move BC (Block N060), programmed in the next block. AF is sometimes
called ‘Ramp-on-move in view of its shape. Similarly, in the block N150, the programmed position is L but
the cutter centre attains the position M, such that LM is perpendicular to the direction of the next move, i.e.
tangent to the circle (Block N160). In the block N100, the compensation is deactivated by the word G40
which is entered after the programmed position B. The cutter stops at K, such that KB is perpendicular to the
direction of the previous move i.e. EB. KA is called ‘Ramp - off - move’.
In the blocks N110 and N180, T0 causes cancellation of the compensation values for the tool in action
at that time. Radius compensation is also used when similar profiles are to be cut with different depths of
cut e.g. rough cut and finish cut. When a rough cut is made, a compensation equal to the thickness of the
material to be left for finish is entered and during the finish cut this compensation is taken off. In view of
identical programmed paths in roughing and finishing, such programming is done by using sub-routines. For
the roughing cut, the sub-routine is called in the main program using the compensation and for the finish cut,
the same sub-routine is called using the same tool without compensation.
Compensation for tool length and radius can be specific to a tool and if so, when the word T03 occurs in
a block, it calls the tool number 3 into action with the compensation pre-registered for it. However, in many
CNC systems the compensation values (MDI entry) are stored separately, irrespective of the tools being used.
This helps in calling different compensation values even with the same tool when used on different occasions.
For example, T0104 word would mean that tool number 01 would be used with the compensation value,
entered in the register against identifier 04. Before commencing work on the machine, the operator must
examine the compensation values stored and verify them with the list of values supplied to him. Negligence
on this count could be very serious.
In some of the popular control systems, the pre-registered compensation values in the program block
are called by the words D and H, which refer to the tool radius and length compensations respectively. For
example,
N017 M06 T02
N018 G81 X170.0 Y100.0 Z65.0 R48.0 H07 F100 M03
would mean that the drilling operation will take place with tool Number 02 with a length compensation cor-
responding to the entry against the identifier 07. Similarly,
N074 M06 T06
N075 G01 X70.0 D03 F150 M03
would mean that milling will take place with tool number 06 with a radius compensation corresponding to
the entry in the register against the identifier 03.
For the component shown in Fig. 17.25, the NC program for drilling the three holes without using canned
cycles is shown below:
N010 G00 X25.0 Y35.0 Z2 *
N015 G01 Z-18.0 F125 *
N020 G00 Z2.0 *
N025 X25.0 Y35.0 *
N035 G01 X55.0 Y50.0 F125 *
N040 G00 Z2.0 *
N045 X25.0 Y35.0 *
N050 G01 X75.0 Y70.0 F125 *
N055 G00 Z2.0 *
N065 X0 Y0 Z50 *
For the same component the NC program using canned cycles is shown below:
N010 G81 X25.0 Y35.0 Z-18.0 R2.0 F125 *
N015 X55.0 Y50.0 *
N020 X75.0 Y70.0 *
N025 G80 X0 Y0 Z50 *
The motions embedded in various canned cycles as per ISO are shown in Table 17.1.
almost impossible. An example is the close tolerance contouring to some mathematically defined, or through
a set of points other than a circular arc. This will require too many co-ordinate calculations making manual
part programming too tedious to be practicable. Thus, simple repetitive and complex manual calculations
involved in part programming would be taken care of by the computer, leaving the part programmer to at-
tend to other functions to make a better part program. The reliability of the part program is enhanced as the
computer makes all the calculations and thus the part programmer is less likely to make any errors. Besides,
the computer would have some facilities for some error-detection to assist the part programmer in producing
a better part program. The input language to the computer is a universal language akin to English and identi-
cal for all types of machine tool controllers. The part programmer is not burdened with having to learn about
the idiosyncrasies and specific coding requirements of each of the machine tools, enabling him to handle the
diverse array of machines and controls with ease. The part programming time is considerably reduced by as
much as 75 percent, depending on the complexity of the job; in particular for components having repeated
geometry in various locations. The computer, in addition to generating the valid NC codes, would also be able
to provide additional useful information such as a plot of the cutter path, total machining time for a program
reducing the tape proving costs.
The APT (Automatically Programmed Tools) language system originated at the Servomechanism
laboratory of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, as did the first NC machine tool in 1952. This was
the pilot study sponsored by the US Air Marshal Command, which resulted in the prototype system being
released for the whirlwind computer in 1955. Though this version was an important step towards the computer
preparation of tapes, the user still had to calculate the end points of each straight line cut to be performed by
the machine tool. MIT, under the sponsorship of the Aerospace Industries Association, has released APT II
for IBM 7040 wherein the complete job of part program preparation from the part drawing was undertaken
by the computer. This version was continually developed until 1961, when the APT Long Range Program
(ALRP) was created by the AIA and the job of keeping APT up-to-date was given to the Illinois Institute of
Technology Research Institute, Chicago. In recognition of the role played by the computer in manufacture,
over and above the simple guiding of the cutter tool along the work piece, the original sponsors have changed
the ALRP in 1969 to Computer Aided Manufacture International or CAM-I. Now the work of CAM-I is done
by IITRI as well as a large number of contractors all over the globe.
The APT NC reference language consists of a specially structured set of vocabulary, symbols, rules and
conventions which are easily understood by the part programmer and would help him in faster preparation
of control tapes. The vocabulary, which forms the mainstay of the reference language, is a carefully selected
set of mnemonics chosen for their similarity in form and meaning with English. The computer translation of
these English-like statements to the valid NC codes for any particular machine tool controller is generally
carried out in two stages as shown in Fig. 17.26.
The first phase involves the conversion of input information into a generalised set of cutter location
(CL) data and the relevant machine motions. At this stage, the output generated is the universally applicable
cutter centre co-ordinates (called CLDATA, CLFILE, CLTAPE) which are independent of the machine
tool on which the part is to be finally made. This set of programs is called processor and only one such
processor is sufficient for any number of NC machine tools in the shop. The output of the processor contains
information regarding the feed rates, spindle speeds, directions, coolant status, tool selection and other pieces
of information which are machine tool/control unit-oriented, in addition to the cutter centre co-ordinates with
respect to the work piece.
The second set of programs, called post processor, converts the generalised cutter location data into the
specific control codes of the machine tool. As a result, the post processor is no more general like the processor
but one each would be needed for every machine tool/ control system combination. The post processor would
convert the cutter location data along with the machine tool-oriented information into the appropriate NC
codes employed or the particular machine tool/ control system combination in question.
Part program
input Translator
Processor
Arithmetic
element
Cutter
location data
Post
processor NC blocks
The two-pass preparation detailed above is most commonly used. The prime need for this is for making the
part programming system more flexible. By taking out all the machine tool control unit-oriented information
and making it a separate module, which would be far smaller compared to the main tape preparation system,
one is able to achieve the desired generality. Since the machine tool oriented information is embedded in the
post processor, which happens to be a much smaller segment in the overall tape preparation system, it is far
more economical to duplicate for the various other machine tools which one may be willing to operate.
The various functions that can be attributed to the postprocessor are:
1. Converting the CLDATA to the machine tool co-ordinate system.
2. Converting the CLDATA to the control unit understandable NC blocks taking care of the following
machine tool functions:
● Maximum table or spindle traverses,
● Acceleration and decelerations of slides taking care of the overshoot of corners, and
● Other machine tool control unit system requirements such as tape reader time, servo setting time,
etc.
3. Provide output
● Required control tape.
● Diagnostic listing on line printer, and
by grouping classes of machine tools such as lathes, 2-axis machining centres, drills, punching machines, etc.
which have a large amount of commonality between them. Thus, it is desirable to write an imaginary post-
processor for a class of machine tools, which has all features possible to these machines, which is termed as
the ‘Universal Post-processor’.
Numerals
0123456789
Punctuation marks
/ A slash divides a statement into two sections. To the left of the slash are the MAJOR words, and to the
right are the words, symbols and/or scalars that modify the word on the left of the slash so as to give
it a complete and precise meaning or definition, e.g. GO/PAST, LN, TO, CS.
, A comma is used as a separator between the elements in a statement generally to the right of the slash.
= An equals is used for assigning an entity to a symbolic name, e.g. CI = CIRCLE/25, 50, 30.
Words
The words to be used in the statements are built up from one to six letters or numerals with the first one being
a letter. No special character is allowed in the words.
Key Words
There are certain reserved names called key words in the language, which have a fixed meaning. These words
cannot be used for any other purpose. A key word may be replaced by another name using a SYN statement.
All key words consist of between two and six letters, without any numerals. The key words are divided into
two classes, the MAJOR key words, which define the type of the statement, and the MINOR key words,
which give the required parameters and modifiers.
Symbols
Symbols are the words used as substitutes for geometrical definitions and numerical values, where the first
character must be a letter. A symbol must be defined before it is referenced in a subsequent part program
statement.
Labels
Label names are used to reference a statement so that control can be transferred to that statement changing the
usual linear execution sequence. Labels are identical to the words with the difference that all the characters
in a label can be numerals. A label must be terminated by a right parenthesis.
Numbers
Numbers have their usual meaning as in algebra and are often referred to as scalars. No distinction is made
between integer and real numbers.
The structure of statements used in APT part program is shown in Fig. 17.27.
Punctuation marks
Statement label
● Motion
● Post processor
● Compilation control
Geometry Commands
There are many ways in which the part geometry in APT could be specified. The part geometry is normally
broken into a number of surface elements that could be defined from the data given in a part print. These are
POINT, LINE, CIRCLE, PLANE, VECTOR, PATERN, SPHERE, TABCYL, etc. For each of the type of
surface that can be defined, a number of alternative ways are possible for definition to simplify the definition
procedure. A few examples are shown below:
Point The point has three co-ordinates along X, Y and Z-axes (Fig. 17.28). The Z co-ordinate when not
specified is taken as either zero or the prevailing Z surface definition.
Y Y
LN1
P1
P2
70
LN2
X X
75
(a) (b)
Y Y
CR1 LN3 P4B
CR3
P3A
X X
(c) (d)
Fig. 17.28 Point Definitions
P1 = POINT/75.0, 70.0
P2 = POINT/ INTOF, LN1, LN2
P3B = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, LN3, CR1
P3A = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, LN3, CR1
P4A = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, CR2, CR3
P4B = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, CR2, CR3
Line Lines are considered to be of infinite length and do not have a direction. Lines must not be perpendicular
to the XY plane (Fig. 17.29). Lines are considered planes perpendicular to the XY plane.
Y Y LAB
L1
PAB
91
60 L2
X X
45
94
(a) (b)
Y
Y LABC L4A
CIR1 L4C
PABC
L4D
L3 CIR2
L4B
X X
(c) (d)
Y Y
C1 C2
PT1
R37
62
LN1
X X
61
(a) (b)
Y Y
LN2
PT2
C4A LN3
C3 C4B R 15
C4C C4D
PT3
PT4
X X
(c) (d)
Fig. 17.30 Circle Definitions
The following few examples of APT geometries of components (views shown in XY plane only) have
been defined:
PARTNO/ EXAMPLE 1 FIG. 17.31 Y 30 40
L3 C1
P2 = POINT/ 0, 0 L2 135° R20
L1 = LINE/ 20, 20, 20, (20 + 80)
20
L2 = LINE/ (POINT/ 20, (20 + 80)), ATANGL, 45
P1 = POINT/ (20 + 30 + 40 + 20), 20
C2 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 20 L4
L4 = LINE/ P1, PERPTO, (LINE/ XAXIS) 80 L1
C1 = CIRCLE/ (20 + 30 + 40), (20 + 80 + 30 – 20), 20
L3 = LINE/(POINT/(20 + 30),(20 + 80 + 30)), PARLEL, C2
(LINE/XAXIS) L5 R20
P1
PARTNO/ EXAMPLE 2 FIG. 17.32 P2 20
L4 = LINE/ XAXIS X
L5 = LINE/ YAXIS
Fig. 17.31 Example 1 for APT
L3 = LINE/ PARLEL, L5, XLARGE, (20 – 5)
geometry definition
LM = LINE/ PARLEL, L5, XLARGE, (140/2)
C1 = CIRCLE/ (20 + 20), 22.5, 5
C2 = CIRCLE/ 20, (15 + 15), 5
C3 = CIRCLE/ 20, 15, 5
L1 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C1, LEFT, TANTO, C3
L2 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C1, RIGHT, TANTO, C2
L3 = LINE/ PARLEL, L5, XLARGE, (20 – 5)
P1 = POINT/ CIRCLE, C1
P2 = POINT/ (20 + 20), (22.5 + 55)
P3 = POINT/ (20 + 100 – 20), (22.5 + 55)
P4 = POINT/ (20 + 100 – 20), 22.5
PAT= PATERN/ RANDOM, P1, P2, P3, P4
Motion Commands Y
This section of commands is more complex com- 140
pared to the rest of the part program. The main func- 100
tion of these commands is to describe the actual L5
machining sequence making use of the geometry ele- P2 P3
ments defined earlier. The processor assumes that the LM
tool moves around the work piece for the purpose of 55
100
machining. If this were not true for any machine tool
C2 R5
control unit, the post-processor would take care of the C1
15 L3 P1 P4
necessary conversions.
The motion commands can be broadly divided 15 C3 22.5
L1
into three groups: 20 X
L4
20
● Set-up commands,
● Point-to-point motion commands, and Fig. 17.32 Example 2 for APT geometry definition
● Continuous path motion commands.
Set-up commands These commands are used to identify the initial conditions for the specified machin-
ing. They are:
● FROM/ point
Point-to-point motion commands These are used to specify the positioning commands used for point
to point applications such as drilling operation. They are:
● GODLTA/ dx, dy, dz
● GOTO/ x, y, z
● GOTO/ point
● GOTO/ patern
Continuous path motion commands These are used to specify the continuous path motion involving
milling and turning operations to generate a variety of surfaces. The desired path where the cutting tool (cut-
ter) is in continuous contact with the work piece surface is described by means of three intersecting surfaces.
These surfaces are designated as drive surface (ds), part surface (ps) and check surface (cs) which are speci-
fied in that order in the motion statement. For any motion to be described, all the three surfaces are to be
designated either explicitly or otherwise. The cutting tool is expected to move along the intersection of the
part and drive surface till it is stopped by means of the check surface.
Part surface is in continual contact with the tool tip and helps in control of the depth of cut. Drive surface is
the other surface with which the cutting tool is in continual contact during a given motion. The tool periphery
or tool axis follows the drive surface. Check surface is the one which limits the given motion statement.
PSIS/ ps Part surface is
AUTOPS Automatic part surface (current Z level)
NOPS No part surface
GO/ TO, ds, TO, ps, TO, cs Start-up command for continuous path
The modifier TO can be replaced by either ON, PAST or TANTO depending upon the cutter relationship
with the respective surface.
GOLFT/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go to left
GORGT/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go to right
GOFWD/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go forward
GOBACK/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go back
GOUP/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go up
GODOWN/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go down
In the following example, complete motion statements are presented for Fig. 17.31:
PARTNO/ EXAMPLE 1 FIG. 17.31
FROM/ 0, 0, 50
CUTTER/ 20
TOLER/ 0.01
GO/L1, (PL1 = PLANE/ 0, 0, 1, 3), L5
AUTOPS
GODLTA/ -8
TLLFT, GOLFT/ L1, PAST, L2
GORGT/ L2, PAST, L3
GORGT/ L3, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/ C1, TANTO, L4
GOFWD/ L4, PAST, 1, INTOF, C2
GORGT/ C2, PAST, L5
GORGT/ L5, PAST, L1
GODLTA/ 8
GOTO/ 0, 0, 50
Repetitive Programming
Just as DO loop, subroutines and macros are used in manual part programming, similarly facilities are avail-
able for repetitive programming in computer aided programming. These are described here.
Looping Normally, a part program is executed sequentially starting from a PARTNO statement to the FINI
statement. But it would be possible to change this sequential execution by means of the transfer statements
available in APT.
JUMPTO unconditional transfer
IF conditional transfer
The usage is
JUMPTO/ lbl1
A better option for looping is the arithmetic IF statement which allows a conditional transfer to a segment
of the program depending on the value of an arithmetical expression. The general usage is
IF (< expression>) lb11, lb12, lb13
When the numerical value of the < expression > is negative, zero or positive, then control is transferred
to the statement referenced by lb11, lb12, or lb13 respectively. It is always necessary to label the statement
which immediately follows the IF statement in a part program. The <expression > could be a variable or an
arithmetic expression.
X= 0
LB0) YVAL = 20
LB1) GOTO/X, YVAL, 0
GODLTA/-10
GODLTA/10
YVAL = YVAL+30
IF (500 -YVAL) LB2, LB1, LB1
LB2) X=X + 50
IF (500 -X) LB3, LB, LB0
LB3) -----------------
Macro The sequence of similar or identical statements which need to be referred more often in a part pro-
gram are best referred by a MACRO statement such that the part program bulk is reduced. This statement is
very similar to a FORTRAN SUBROUTINE statement. The syntax is
<name >= MACRO/<parameters>
-----------
-----------
TERMAC
All the statements that are enclosed between a MACRO statement and a TERMAC statement are to be
executed whenever this macro is called by
CALL/name, <parameters>
Tracut The result of TRACUT usage in motion statements is to TRAnspose the CUTter locations only with-
out actually altering the original geometrical definitions. This is useful particularly for repetitive geometries.
The usage is
TRACUT/matrix
--------------
--------------
TRACUT/NOMORE
The complete part program is presented below with the necessary remarks to facilitate understanding.
PARTNO MILLING EXERCISE ON MOOG HYDRAPOINT
REMARK PROGRAMMER P.N.RAO
MACHIN/63, 3, 2, 1, 0 OPTION, 0
MACHIN/40, OPTION, 3, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3 $$ PLOTTER
PPLOT/ALL,LOWLFT,-60,0,0,XYPLAN, UPRGT, 120, 160, 0, SCALE, 0.04
PRINT/ON $$ TO GET CANONICAL INFORMATION
CLPRNT/ON $$ TO GET CENTRE LINE DATA
TOLER/0.01
REMARK GEOMETRY STATEMENTS
L4 = LINE/ XAXIS
L5 = LINE/ YAXIS
L3 = LINE/ PARLEL, L5, XLARGE, (20 - 5)
LM = LINE/ PARLEL, L5, XLARGE, (140/2)
C1 = CIRCLE/ (20 + 20), 22.5, 5
C2 = CIRCLE/ 20, (15 + 15), 5
C3 = CIRCLE/ 20, 15, 5
L1 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C1, LEFT, TANTO, C3
L2 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C1, RIGHT, TANTO, C2
L3 = LINE/ PARLEL, L5, XLARGE, (20 - 5)
P1 = POINT/ CIRCLE, C1
P2 = POINT/ (20 + 20), (22.5 + 55)
P3 = POINT/ (20 + 100 – 20), (22.5 + 55)
P4 = POINT/ (20 + 100 – 20), 22.5
PAT= PATERN/ RANDOM, P1, P2, P3, P4
M1=MATRIX/ TRANSL, 0, 55, 0 $$ FOR POCKET 2
M2=MATRIX/ MIRROR, LM $$ FOR POCKET 4
M3=MATRIX/XYROT,180,TRANSL,(20+120),15+15+15 + 55)$$FOR POCKET 3
PLN = PLANE/ 0, 0, 1, 2 $$ CLEARANCE PLANE
TPP = POINT/ –50, 150 $$ START POINT
REMARK MOTION STATEMENTS START HERE
CLRSRF/ (76 + 19.5) $$ TOOL ABOVE WORK
FROM/ TPP
REMARK CENTRE DRILLING
TOOLNO/ 1, LENGTH, 19.5
SPINDL/ RPM, 2000, CLW
COOLNT/ MIST
CYCLE/ DRILL, 8, MMPM, 160, 3
GOTO/PAT
COOLNT/OFF
CYCLE/OFF
GOTO/TPP
TOOLNO/ 3, LENGTH, 85
SPINDL/ RPM, 1500, CLW
COOLNT/ ON
CYCLE/ DRILL, 10.5, MMPM, 200, 3
GOTO/ PAT
COOLNT/ OFF
CYCLE/ OFF
GOTO/ TPP
REMARK MILLING OF POCKETS
TOOLNO/ 4, LENGTH, 20.5 $$ MILL TOOL
SPINDL/ RPM, 1000, CLW
COOLNT/ ON
MAC1 = MACRO/ $$ MACRO FOR GOING ROUND
FEDRAT/ MMPM, 60 $$ THE POCKET ONCE
TLRGT, GORGT/ L1, TO, L3
GORGT/ L3, TO, L2
GORGT/ L2, TO, L1
TERMAC
MAC2 = MACRO/ $$ MACRO FOR COMPLETE MACHINING
RAPID $$ OF A POCKET
CUTTER/ 11 $$ LEAVE 0.5 FOR FINISHING
GO/ L1, PLN, PAST, L2
CUT
CYCLE/ MILL, 3, MMPM, 60 $$ MILL TO 3 DEPTH
CALL/ MAC1
CYCLE/ MILL, 8 $$ MILL FULL DEPTH
CALL/ MAC1
CUTTER/ 10 $$ FINISH THE POCKET
GO/ L1, PLN, L2
CALL/ MAC1
CYCLE/ OFF
DNTCUT
RAPID
GOTO/ TPP $$ THEORETICAL MOTION ONLY
TERMAC
CALL/ MAC2 $$ MACHINE POCKET 1
TRACUT/ M1
CALL/ MAC2 $$ MACHINE POCKET 2
TRACUT/ NOMORE
TRACUT/ M3
CALL/ MAC2 $$ MACHINE POCKET 3
TRACUT/ NOMORE
TRACUT/ M2
CALL/ MAC2 $$ MACHINE POCKET 4
TRACUT/ NOMORE
CUT $$ LAST MOTION STATEMENT
REWIND
FINI
After entering the program, a printout of the APT processor can be obtained showing the canonical
information of all the geometry defined and the cutter location data. A plot of the CLDATA is also obtained
to prove the validity of the program.
summary
With changes in the machining requirements, the conventional automation procedures are no longer use-
ful. It is necessary to provide soft automation to cater to the varying needs of the machining industry.
● Numerical control is a process of controlling the machining operations by the use of numbers and
words following a strict syntax.
● Numerical control was developed to cater to the complex machining needs of the aerospace industry,
perpendicular to it.
● Part programming starts with the selection of the datum, preparing the coordinates through which
the tool centre should be moving (CLDATA) to generate the required geometry and then translating
the CLDATA to the word address format.
● Preparatory functions or G codes specify the geometric nature of motions of the tool while the
programming.
● Computer aided part programming is used for complex geometries that require a large amount of
calculations to get the CLDATA points. APT is the first computer aided programming language, which
is similar to FORTRAN and has geometry, motion and post processor commands in the program.
Q u e s t io ns
17.1 Briefly explain the principle of Computer Numerical Control for machine tools. Also mention its
applications.
17.2 Describe four main features of CNC machines which distinguish them from conventional machine
tools.
17.3 Explain the advantages and limitations of numerical control of machine tools.
17.4 Explain with the help of illustrations the principles of ISO designation of CNC machines.
17.5 Show the axes of a CNC horizontal Boring Machine.
17.6 Explain the concept of ‘Floating Datum’ and ‘Set Point’ with reference to CNC Part programming.
What is their relationship? Explain how they are used in programming in ISO Format.
17.7 Explain with neat sketch the operation of the canned cycle G81 as per ISO.
17.8 What are the various functions embedded in the G82 canned cycle? Explain their use with examples
in ISO Format.
17.9 What do you understand by the word “canned cycle” in manual part programming? Explain with neat
sketches the differences between the operation of the canned cycles G81 and G83.
17.10 How is cutter compensation given in the case of a machining centre? Explain with the help of an
example how it is operational. Specify any of the limitations in using this facility.
17.11 Explain the concept and need for a post processor as used in computer assisted part programming
systems such as APT. Describe the functions of a post processor.
17.12 What are the basic assumptions made while programming in APT language?
Pro b le ms
17.1 For the following component (Fig. 17.33) make a part program on a machining centre equipped
with ISO standard controller. The work material is AISI 1040 steel. Clearly show the set point and
axes on the sketch of the part. Prepare also the planning sheet as used in the laboratory. Show all the
calculations that are necessary.
15
15
8
20
Fig. 17.33
17.2 Examine the following CNC part program for a machining centre equipped with a controller following
ISO standard. Identify any errors found in the program and also explain the errors.
%
N7001 *
N1 G71 *
N2 G90 *
N3 T1 M6 *
N4 G0 X75.0 Y100.0 *
N5 G1 Z-3 *
N6 X175.0 F100 *
N7 Y25.0 *
N8 X75.0 *
N9 Y100.0 *
N10 M30*
For the above program prepare the geometry of the part generated, if the diameter of the slot drill used
is 10.0 mm.
For the program shown in question 2 above, prepare the geometry of the part generated, if the diameter
of the slot drill used is 5 mm.
17.3 For the following component (Fig. 17.34) make a part program on a vertical axis machining centre.
Clearly show the set point and axes on the sketch of the part. Prepare also the planning sheet as used
in the laboratory.
100.00
10.00 80.00
10.00
50.00 80.00
R15 Four holes drill through
dia 4.0 c'bore dia 9.0 ¥
5.0 deep
15.00 10.00
25.00 10.00 5.00
+ 0.06
20.00 0.00 10.00
Fig. 17.34
17.4 Examine the following CNC part programs. Give the errors in the programs and also explain the
errors.
(a) %
O7001 *
N2 G0 X3.0 Y4.0 *
N3 G1 X7.0 F100 *
N4 Y1.0 *
N5 X3.0 *
N6 Y4.0 *
N10 M02 *
(b) %
O9401*
N1 G17 T1 M6 *
N2 G92 X90.0 Y70.0 *
N3 G81 Y2.0 Z-10.0 F200 S500 M3*
N5 G01 X4.0 Y12.0 F150 *
N10 M02 *
17.5 Explain the mistakes found in the following statements.
(a) N05 G01 X12.3 Y23.0 F120 *
(b) N25 G04 X2.0 O1234 *
(c) N45 G00 T1001 S400 *
30 4 holes 5Ø
80 120
120
10
C 25 steel
Fig. 17.35
17.7 For the following component (Fig. 17.36) write the geometry statements using the APT language. As
far as possible make use of appropriate and simple APT geometry statements.
51Rad
40 Rad A
150.00
75.00
2 Holes
9.50 dia c'sink 1 ¥ 45 deg.
ream 10.00 dia
50.00 A
4.00
2.50
10.00
60.00
Fig. 17.36
M u l t ip le Ch oice Q ue stio ns
17.1 The type of applications where NC machines 17.6 While specifying the axes of CNC machine
can be used profitably tool (as per the ISO standards), the spindle
(a) For jobs requiring many set-ups and/or axis is considered as
the setups very expensive (a) X-axis (b) Y-axis
(b) For jobs requiring very high accuracy (c) Z-axis (d) A-axis
and repeatability. 17.7 “The need for Jigs and fixtures is completely
(c) For the parts having complex contours, eliminated when using numerical control.”
that cannot be manufactured by conven- This statement is
tional machine tools. (a) True
(d) All of the above (b) False
17.2 Advantage of numerical control machining is (c) True when dealing with really complex
(a) Faster manufacturing parts
(b) Parts requiring frequent design changes (d) True when dealing with hard materials
can be done 17.8 Preparatory functions in a CNC program (in
(c) One-off production can be produced ac- word address format) are identified by the
curately letter
(d) All of the above (a) A (b) G
17.3 Disadvantage of numerical control machining (c) P (d) F
is 17.9 Using word address format, the centre of an
(a) Skill of the required is high arc in XY plane using circular interpolation is
(b) Higher investment in equipment costs programmed using the letters
(c) Special training required for the operator (a) I and J (b) I and K
and maintenance personnel (c) J and K (d) C and R
(d) All of the above 17.10 Using word address format, the centre of an
17.4 For which application a point-to-point arc in XZ plane using circular interpolation is
numerical control system can be used programmed using the letters
(a) A lathe machine (a) I and J (b) I and K
(b) A milling machine (c) J and K (d) C and R
(c) A punching press 17.11 Using word address format, the centre of an
(d) None of the above arc in YZ plane using circular interpolation is
17.5 Numerical control manufacturing can be programmed using the letters
useful for (a) I and J (b) I and K
(a) Only for mass production (c) J and K (d) C and R
(b) Only for small batch production
(c) Only for single piece production
(d) None of the above
Answers to MCQs
17.1 (d) 17.2 (d) 17.3 (d) 17.4 (c) 17.5 (d)
17.6 (c) 17.7 (b) 17.8 (b) 17.9 (a) 17.10 (b)
17.11 (c)
(c) 11°22¢ and 10.26 mm 6.2 A 600 mm ¥ 300 mm flat surface of a plate is
(d) 10°32¢ and 14.46 mm to be finish machined on a shaper. The plate
(GATE-2015-ME-SET-3, 2-Marks) has been fixed with the 600 mm side along
4.2 Match the Machine Tools (Group A) with the the tool travel direction. If the tool over-travel
probable Operations (Group B): at each end of the plate is 20 mm, average
cutting speed is 8 m/min, feed rate is 0.3 mm/
Group A Group B
stroke and the ratio of return time to cutting
(P) Centre lathe (1) Slotting time of the tool is 1:2, the time required for
(Q) Milling (2) Counter-boring machining will be
(R) Grinding (3) Knurling (a) 8 minutes (b) 12 minutes
(S) Drilling (4) Dressing (c) 16 minutes (d) 20 minutes
(GATE-2005-ME-2-Marks)
(a) P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3
(b) P-2, Q-1, R-4, S-3
(c) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2
(d) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1 Chapter 7
(GATE-2014-ME-SET-2, 1-Mark)
7.1 A milling cutter having 8 teeth is rotating at
4.3 A steel bar 200 mm in diameter is turned at
150 rpm. If the feed per tooth is 0.1, the table
a feed of 0.25 mm/rev with a depth of cut of
speed in mm per minute is
4 mm. The rotational speed of the workpiece is
(a) 120 (b) 187
160 rpm. The material removal rate in mm3/s is
(c) 125 (d) 70
(a) 160 (b) 167.6
(c) 1600 (d) 1675.5 (GATE-1993-ME-2-Marks)
(GATE-2013-ME-1-Mark) 7.2 In horizontal milling process
(up/down) milling provides better surface
4.4 Cutting power consumption in turning can be
finish and (up/down)
significantly reduced by
milling provides longer tool life.
(a) Increasing rake angle of the tool
(b) Increasing the cutting angles of the tool (GATE-1992-ME-2-Marks)
(c) Widening the nose radius of the tool
(d) Increasing the clearance angle
(GATE-1995-ME-1-Mark) Chapter 8
8.1 In a single pass drilling operation, a through
hole of 15 mm diameter is to be drilled in a
Chapter 6 steel plate of 50 mm thickness. Drill spindle
speed is 500 rpm, feed is 0.2 mm/rev and
6.1 A cast iron block of 200 mm length is being
drill point angle is 118º. Assuming 2 mm
shaped in a shaping machine with a depth clearance at approach and exit, the total drill
of cut of 4 mm, feed of 0.25 mm/stroke and time in seconds is
the tool principal cutting edge angle of 30°. (a) 35.1 (b) 32.4
Number of cutting strokes per minute is 60. (c) 31.2 (d) 30.1
Using specific energy for cutting as 1.49 (GATE-2012-ME-2-Marks)
J/mm3, the average power consumption (in 8.2 Trepanning is performed for
watt) is . (a) Finishing a drilled hole
(GATE-2014-ME-SET-4, 2-Marks) (b) Producing a large hole without drilling
(c) Truing a hole for alignment (c) Large negative rake angle, high shear
(d) Enlarging a drilled hole angle and low cutting speed
(GATE-2002-ME-1-Mark) (d) Zero rake angle, high shear angle and
8.3 The time taken to drill a hole though a 25 high cutting speed
mm thick plate with the drill rotating at 300 (GATE-2006-ME-2-Marks)
rpm and moving at a feed rate of 0.25 mm/ 9.3 The hardness of a grinding wheel is deter-
revolution is mined by the
(a) 10 sec (b) 20 sec (a) Hardness of abrasive grains
(c) 60 sec (d) 100 sec (b) Ability of the bond to retain abrasives
(GATE-2002-ME-2-Marks) (c) Hardness of the bond
(d) Ability of the grinding wheel to pen-
8.4 The rake angle in a drill
etrate the work piece
(a) Increases from centre to periphery
(GATE-2002-ME-1-Mark)
(b) Decreases from centre to periphery
(c) Remains constant 9.4 Abrasive material used in grinding wheel
(d) is irrelevant to the drilling operation selected for grinding ferrous alloys is:
(GATE-1996-ME-1-Mark) (a) silicon carbide
(b) diamond
8.5 A hole of 20 mm diameter is to be drilled in a (c) aluminium oxide
steel block of 40 mm thickness. The drilling (d) boron carbide
is performed at rotational speed of 400 rpm (GATE-2000-ME-1-Mark)
and feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev. The required
approach and over run of the drill together is 9.5 Ideal surface roughness, as measured by
equal to the radius of drill. The drilling time the maximum height of unevenness, is best
(in minute) is achieved when the material is removed by
(a) 1.00 (b) 1.25 (a) an end mill
(c) 1.50 (d) 1.75 (b) a grinding wheel
(GATE-2014-ME-SET-2, 2-Marks) (c) a tool with zero nose radius
(d) a ball mill
(GATE-1998-ME-1-Mark)
9.6 In machining using abrasive material,
Chapter 9 increasing abrasive grain size
9.1 Diamond wheels should not be used for (a) increases the material removal rate
grinding steel components. State True or (b) decreases the material removal rate
False. (c) first decreases and then increases the
material removal rate
(GATE-1996-ME-2-Marks)
(d) first increases and then decreases the
9.2 If each abrasive grain is viewed as a cutting material removal rate
tool, then which of the following represents (GATE-1998-ME-1-Mark)
the cutting parameters in common grinding
9.7 Among the conventional machining process-
operations?
es, maximum specific energy is consumed in
(a) Large negative rake angle, low shear an-
(a) Turning (b) Drilling
gle and high cutting speed
(c) Planning (d) Grinding
(b) Large positive rake angle, low shear an-
(GATE-1995-ME-1-Mark)
gle and high cutting speed
11.9 In abrasive jet machining, as the distance (a) Melting and Evaporation
between the nozzle tip and the work surface (b) Melting and Corrosion
increases, the material removal rate (c) Erosion and Cavitation
(a) Increases continuously (d) Cavitation and Evaporation
(b) Decreases continuously (GATE-2004-ME-1-Mark)
(c) Decreases, becomes stable and then in- 11.14 As tool and work are not in contact in EDM
creases process
(d) Increases, becomes stable and then de- (a) No relative motion occurs between them
creases (b) No water of tool occurs
(GATE-2012-ME-1-Mark) (c) No power is consumed during metal cut-
11.10 A researcher conducts electrochemical ting
machining (ECM) on a binary alloy (density (d) No force between tool and work occurs
6000 kg/m3) of iron (atomic weight 56, (GATE-2003-ME-1-Mark)
valency 2) and metal P (atomic weight 24, 11.15 In ECM, the material removal is due to
valency 4). Faraday’s constant = 96500 (a) Corrosion (b) Erosion
coulomb/mole. Volumetric material removal (c) Fusion (d) Ion displacement
rate of the alloy is 50 mm3/s at a current of (GATE-2001-ME-1-Mark)
2000 A. The percentage of the metal P in the
alloy is closest to 11.16 In Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM), the
(a) 40 (b) 25 tool is made of:
(c) 15 (d) 79 (a) Copper
(GATE-2008-ME-2-Marks) (b) High Speed Steel
(c) Cast Iron
11.11 In electrodes charge machining (EDM), (d) Plain Carbon Steel
if the thermal conductivity of tool is high and
(GATE-1999-ME-1-Mark)
the specific heat of work piece is low, then
the tool wear rate and material removal rate 11.17 Selection electrolyte for ECM is as follows:
are expected to be respectively (a) non-passivating electrolyte for stock
(a) High and high (b) High and low removal and passivating electrolyte for
(c) Low and low (d) Low and high finish control
(GATE-2007-ME-2-Marks) (b) passivating electrolyte for stock removal
and non-passivating electrolyte for fin-
11.12 Arrange the processes in the increasing order
ish control
of their maximum material removal rate.
(c) selection of electrolyte is dependent on
Electrochemical Machining (ECM) current density
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) (d) electrolyte selection is based on tool-
Electron Beam Machining (EBM) work electrodes
Laser Beam Machining (LBM) and (GATE-1997-ME-1-Mark)
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) 11.18 Inter electrode gap in ECG is controlled by
(a) USM, LBM, EBM, EDM, ECM (a) controlling the pressure of electrolyte
(b) EBM, LBM, USM, ECM, EDM flow
(c) LBM, EBM, USM, ECM, EDM (b) controlling the applied static load
(d) LBM, EBM, USM, EDM, ECM (c) controlling the size of diamond particle
(GATE-2006-ME-2-Marks) in the wheel
11.13 The mechanism of material removal in EDM (d) controlling the texture of the work piece
process is (GATE-1997-ME-1-Mark)
11.19 Ultrasonic machining is about the best (b) Close running fit
process for making holes in glass which are (c) Transition fit
comparable in size with the thickness of the (d) Interference fit
sheet. (GATE-1994-ME-2-Marks) (GATE-2011-ME-1-Mark)
11.20 In ultrasonic machining process, the material 16.2 What are the upper and lower limits of the
removal rate will be higher for materials with shaft represented by 60 f8?
(a) Higher toughness Use the following data:
(b) Higher ductility
Diameter 60 lies in the diameter step of
(c) Lower toughness
50–80 mm
(d) Higher fracture strain
(GATE-1993-ME-1-Mark) Fundamental tolerance unit, i, in mm =
0.45D1/3 + 0.001 D, where D is the represen-
11.21 In Ultrasonic Machining (USM) the material tative size in mm;
removal rate would _____ with increasing
mean grain diameter of the abrasive material Tolerance value for IT8 = 25i. Fundamental
(a) Increase deviation for ‘f’ shaft = -5.5D0.41
(b) Decrease (a) Lower limit = 59.924 mm, Upper Limit
(c) Increase and then decrease = 59.970 mm
(d) Decrease and then increase (b) Lower limit = 59.954 mm, Upper Limit
(GATE-1992-ME-1-Mark) = 60.000 mm
(c) Lower limit = 59.970 mm, Upper Limit
= 60.016 mm
(d) Lower limit = 60.000 mm, Upper Limit
Chapter 15 = 60.046 mm
(GATE-2009-ME-2-Marks)
15.1 3-2-1 method of location in a jig or fixture 0.050
would collectively restrict the work piece in 16.3 A hole is specified as 40 0.000 mm. The mating
n degrees of freedom, where the value of n is shaft has a clearance fit with minimum
(a) 6 (b) 8 clearance of 0.01 mm. The tolerance on the
(c) 9 (d) 12 shaft is 0.04 mm. The maximum clearance in
(GATE-2001-ME-2-Marks) mm between the hole and the shaft is
(a) 0.04 (b) 0.05
15.2 When a cylinder is located in a Vee-block,
(c) 0.10 (d) 0.11
the number of degrees of freedom which area
(GATE-2007-ME-2-Marks)
arrested is
(a) 2 (b) 4 16.4 In order to have interference fit, it is essential
(c) 7 (d) 8 that the lower limit of the shaft should be
(GATE-2003-ME-1-Mark) (a) Greater than the upper limit of the hole
(b) Lesser than the upper limit of the hole
(c) Greater than the lower limit of the hole
(d) Lesser than the lower limit of the hole
Chapter 16 (GATE-2005-ME-1-Mark)
+0.015
16.5 In an interchangeable assembly, shafts of
16.1 A hole is dimension f 9+0 mm. The corre-
+0.040
+0.010
+0.001 size 25.000-0.0100 mm mate with holes of size
sponding shaft is of dimension f 9 mm. +0.020
The resulting assembly has 25.000-0.000 mm. The maximum possible
(a) Loose running fit clearance in the assembly will be
P
12
5
Q W R 3 4
(a) (3, 12) (b) (5, 7)
P (c) (7, 12) (d) (4, 7)
(GATE-2015-ME-SET-3, 1-Mark)
Q = 12.00 ± 0.02 mm
17.3 In a CNC milling operation, the tool has to
R = 13.00+-00..04
02 mm machine the circular arc from point (20, 20)
With 100% confidence, the resultant dimen- to (10, 10) at sequence number 5 of the CNC
sion W will have the specification part program. If the center of the arc is at (20,
(a) 9.99 ± 0.03 mm 10) and the machine has incremental mode of
(b) 9.99 ± 0.13 mm defining position coordinates, the correct tool
(c) 10.00 ± 0.03 mm path command is
(d) 10.00 ± 0.13 mm (a) N 05 G90 G01 X–10 Y–10 R10
(GATE-2003-ME-2-Marks) (b) N 05 G91 G03 X–10 Y–10 R10
(c) N 05 G90 G03 X–20 Y–20 R10
16.18 A shaft (diameter 20+-00..05
15 ) and a hole (d) N 05 G91 G02 X–20 Y–20 R10
(diameter 20++00..20
10 mm) when assembled
(GATE-2015-ME-SET-3, 2-Marks)(ẁ)
would yield 17.4 For machining a rectangular island repre-
(a) Transition fit (b) Interference fit sented by coordinates P(0, 0), Q(100, 0),
(c) Clearance fit (d) None of these R(100, 50) and (0, 50) on a casting using CNC
(GATE-1993-ME-2-Marks) milling machine, an end mill with a diameter
SolutionS
Chapter 2 In orthogonal cutting = feed = thickness of
uncut chip. (t1)
2.1 (0.5) α
F t2 0.8
Tan(β − α) = t FC K= = =2
Fc Ft t1 0.4
β–α
cos α cos 22
250 α tan θ = = = 0.57
Tan(β − 0) = β K − sin α 2 − sin 22
500
θ = tan−1 (0.57) ≈ 29.7
Tanβ = 1 / 2 = 0.5
2.5 (16)
2.2 (b)
n = 0.25
VT 0.14 f 0.7 d 0.4 = constant
V
V1 = 45 m / min ; f1 = 0.35 mm d1 = 2 mm V2 = 1
2
T1 = 30 min; V2 = 1.25 V1 ; V1T1n = V2T2n
f2 = 1.25 f1 , d1 = 1.25d1 ; V1 n
V1T1n = T2
T2 = ? 2
0.25
T2
⇒ 45×T10.14 f10.7 d10.4 = 1.25× 45×T2 0.14 =2
T1
×1.250.7 f10.7 ×1.250.4 d10.4 T2 = T1 × 2 4
0.14 0.7 0.4 0.14
⇒T 1 = 1.25 ×1.25 ×1.25 × T2 fi T2 = 16 × T1
0.14
(30) Tool life changes by 16 times
⇒ T2 = 2.1
= 1.055 = 1.06
1.25 / 0.14 2.6 (0.25)
2.3 (7.539) VT n = C
L = 900 mm
T
d = 200 mm V1T1n = 2V1 × 1
16
f = 0.25 mm
v = 300 m/min on solving we get ‘n’ = 0.25
t=? 2.7 (18.88°)
π DN α= 5° , N = 400,V f = 0.4 m /min
V= m /min
1000
d = 5 mm, tc = 3 mm
300 m / min = π × 0.2 × N
300 0.4
N= = 478 RPM V f = fN ⇒ f = = 1 mm / rev
π × 0.2 400
L 900 f 1
t= = ≈ 7.539 min r= =
fN 0.25 × 478 tc 3
2.4 (b) 1
cos 5°
Given a = 22° r cos α
tan φ = = 3
Thickness of chip = 0.8 mm = (t2) 1 −r sin α 1 − 1 sin 5°
Feed = 0.4 mm/rev = f 3
Speed = 48 m/min tan φ ≈ 0.34 ⇒ φ =18.88°
490
0.7 =
Fc
α
∴ Fc = 700 N
Power consumption, P = Fc ×Vc F
180 1
= 700 × × ( kW )
60 1000
P = 2.1 kW 1500 N
∴ D = 50 × 80 = 63.25 mm
Fundamental tolerance unit, i will be
MRR 1
i = 0.45 D 3 + 0.001 D = 1.83 microns
Tolerance value for IT8 = 25 i = 45.79
microns
For ‘f’ shaft, fundamental deviation is =
Nozzle tip distance 0.41
−5.5( D ) = −30.11 microns
As the distance between the nozzle tip and Shaft limits are
the Work surface increase, area of contact Upper limit = 60 − 0.03011 = 59.969 mm
at which jet strikes increases so, material
Lower limit = 60 − (0.03011 + 0.04579)
removal rate increases but further increment
in distance causes reduction in velocity = 59.924 mm
striking to the surface. 16.3 (c)
11.10 (c) Minimum clearance = Minimum hole size –
11.11 (d) Maximum shaft size
11.12 (c) \ Maximum shaft size = 40.00 – 0.01 =
11.13 (a) 39.99 mm
11.14 (d) Tolerance on shaft = 0.04 mm
11.15 (d) Minimum shaft size = 39.99 – 0.04 = 39.95
11.16 (a) mm
11.17 (a) Maximum clearance = Maximum hole size –
11.18 (c) minimum shaft size
11.19 True = 40.05 – 39.95 = 0.10
11.20 (c) 16.4 (a)
The basic principle of USM is brittle fracture. 16.5 (d)
Hence, the work materials which are brittle 16.6 (a)
i.e., having lower toughness are suitable for 16.7 (b)
this process.
Minimum clearance
11.21 (a)
⇒ Minimum hole − Maximum shaft
= 25 + 0.020 − (25 + 0.005)
Chapter 15
= 0.015 mm
15.1 (c)
16.8 (c)
15.2 (c)
Go size = maximum material limit of compo-
nent = Lower limit of hole
Chapter 16
16.9 (d)
16.1 (c) H7 is for hole where 7 indicates its tolerance
16.2 (a) grade
Diameter 60 lies in the diameter step of g8 is for shaft where 8 indicates its tolerance
50–80 mm. grade
16.10 (d)
25 ± 0.015
GO-Gauge
U.L = 24.988
L.L = 24.985
24.985−+00..000
003
Q R
W
G.T. 25.015
No Go guage P
+ 0.04
− 0.02
G.T. R = 13.00 = 13.01± 0.03
24.985
W.F. Go guage P − (Q + R ) = 35 −(12 +13.01)= 9.99
16.11 (c) Tol = 0.08 + 0.02 + 0.03 = 0.13
For 60° thread angle, best wire size = 0.57135 w = 9.99 ± 0.13
¥ P = 1.154
16.18 (c)
16.12 (d) +0.2 Hole
Tolerance on one side = 0.01 + 0.032 Allowance
= 0.042 mm +0.05
+0.1 20 mm,
fi Tolerance on both sides = 0.042 (2)
−0.05 Basic size
= 0.084 mm Shaft
Size of Go gauge = 25 + 0.084
Allowance = Amin − Bmax = 20.10 − 20.05
= 25.084 mm
= 0.05 mm
16.13 (c)
∗Allowance is positive, Hence a clearance fit.
Maximum interference = maximum size of
shaft – minimum size of hole
= 25.040 − 25.020 = 20 µm Chapter 17
16.14 (a) 17.1 (b)
16.15 (b) 17.2 (d)
In incremental system. Co-ordinates of point
Hole = 20++00..05
01
Q are (4, 7).
Hole tolerance = 20.05 − 20.01 = 0.04 mm 17.3 (b)
Gauge tolerance = 0.04 × 0.1 = 0.004 mm For incremental coordinates (G91) and
Size of Go-gauge = 20.01 + 0.004 =20.014 coordinates of final point are (–10, –10). The
tool moves CCW (counter clockwise), So
No-Go gauge = 20.05 − 0.004 = 20.46 G03.
16.16 (b) 17.4 (a)
16.17 (b) End mill centre = (0,0)
0;0
L 100 2
time = =
(0, 50) = S feed 50
R = (100, 50)
⇒ 2 × 2 × 60 = 170 seconds
50
17.6 (c)
x N002 Æ Circular interpolation of clockwise
100
P = (0, 0) Q = (100, 0) direction.
G91 Æ Incremental dimensions.
Call point ‘Q’ = (100 + 8, –8 + 0) = (108, –8) 17.7 (c)
Æx direction 17.8 (a)
Call point ‘R’ = (108 + 0, 50 + 8) = (108, 58) 17.9 (a)
Æy direction 17.10 (d)
Call point ‘S’ = (108 – 100 –2 ¥ 8, 58 – 0) = 17.11 (a)
(–8, 58) 17.12 True
Æ -x direction
Call point ‘P’ = (– 8 – 0, 50 – 50 – 8) = (–8, –8)
Æ -y direction
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Clamping 15.1, 15.4, 15.5, 15.14 Compound cutting 4.26 Crater wear 2.39
Clamping devices 15.14 Compound indexing 7.20 Creep feed grinding 9.2, 9.21
Clamping elements 15.3 Compound slide 4.3, 4.20, 4.27 Crest 16.17
Clamping force 7.14, 15.5, 15.15, Compressive stress 2.5 Critical surfaces 15.4
15.18 Computer aided part programming Cross feed 4.3, 9.13
Clamping forces 15.5 17.37 Cross hatch lay pattern 9.23
Clamping surfaces 15.5 Computer numerical control 11.23 Cross rail 6.2, 6.11, 8.20
Clamping time 15.1 Concentric locators 15.9 Cross sensitivity 2.24
Clamps 3.22, 7.14, 15.31 Concrete 3.10 Cross slide 4.3, 5.13, 6.17
Clapper box 6.1, 6.2 Conductivity 11.10 Crystal defects 12.8
CLDATA 17.38 Cones 3.4 Cubic boron nitride 2.34, 9.2
Clearance 16.5 Conical surfaces 15.8 Current 11.21, 11.28, 11.30
Clearance angle 2.2 Conical wheel 3.15 Cutter compensation 17.22
Clearance crevice 2.48 Continuous chip 2.3 Cutter radius compensation 17.22,
Clearance fit 16.5 Continuous chip with BUE 2.3 17.33
CLFILE 17.39 Continuous path motion 17.44 Cutting 5.7
Climb milling 7.13 Continuous surface broaching 10.10 Cutting edge 2.31, 4.27
Clinometer 16.14, 16.16 Contour band saw machines 10.5 Cutting fluid 5.7, 8.2, 8.14, 8.25,
Closed jigs 15.2 Contours 3.4 15.34
CMMs 17.13 Controller 17.5, 17.16 Cutting fluids 2.48
CNC 11.4, 12.5 Control unit 17.6 Cutting force 2.43
CNC controller 7.34 Cook 2.38, 2.42 Cutting forces 2.23, 2.52, 3.9, 14.3
CNC controllers 17.3 Coolant 8.14, 15.35 Cutting lip 8.4
CNC lathes 17.12 Coolants 2.48 Cutting off 4.19
CNC machine tools 3.21 Coolant supply 17.29 Cutting off machines 5.13
CNC machining centre 17.5 Cooling action 2.48 Cutting off wheels 9.4
CNC Machining Centres 17.3, 17.10 Co-ordinate function 17.20 Cutting plane 2.21
CNC programmer 17.13 Coordinate measuring centres 17.13 Cutting power 3.4
CNC programming 17.33 Co-ordinate measuring machines Cutting process parameters planning
CNC Turning Centres 17.12 (CMM) 17.2 17.13
CO2 11.39 Co-ordinate system 17.8 Cutting speed 2.2, 3.4, 4.32
CO2 laser 11.39 Co-ordinate system group 17.23 Cutting stroke 6.2
Coarse pitch cutter 7.11 Copper 11.13 Cutting strokes 6.1
Coated carbides 2.31 Copper-graphite 11.14 Cutting tool 2.2, 3.3, 3.9, 4.3, 6.2,
Cobalt 2.28 Copper-tungsten 11.15 6.11, 14.2, 17.7
Coefficient of friction 2.9 Copying lathe 4.2 Cutting tool geometry 2.2, 2.18, 4.10
Collet 4.9 Copy turning 4.29 Cutting tool holder 2.31
Collet chucks 5.2 Copy turning attachment 4.29 Cutting tool materials 2.25
Collets 5.2 Cored holes 5.7 Cutting tools 2.18, 3.1, 14.4, 17.5
Collet tube 5.2 Core drills 8.6 Cutting zone 2.25
Collisions 17.17 Coulomb’s laws 2.17 CVD diamond 12.5
Column 6.2, 6.11, 6.17, 7.3, 8.19 Counter boring 4.19, 8.2, 8.26 C-washer 15.22
Column base 8.19 Counter sinking 8.2, 8.27 Cycle 5.7, 6.6, 17.36
Comparator 16.12 Crank 7.17 Cycle time 3.2
Comparators 16.13 Crank mechanism 6.5 Cylinder 3.3, 15.8
Compensation 17.36 Crater 11.4, 11.20 Cylindrical component 15.7
Compilation control 17.41 Crater depth 2.40, 11.20 Cylindrical grinding 9.10
Component size 2.43 Cratering 2.28 Cylindrical land 8.4
Toggle clamps 15.15, 15.18 Tooth spacing 10.2 Undercut 11.36, 14.6
Tolerance 14.2, 16.2, 16.21 Tooth thickness 10.13 Uniformity 12.10
Tolerances 14.3 Total depth 10.13 Unilateral 16.2
Tool 3.4, 11.5, 11.9, 17.9 Touch trigger probe 17.13 Units group 17.25
Tool angles 2.19 Toughness 2.25 Universal chuck 7.17
Tool cards 17.17 Toxic vapours 11.8 Universal chuck 7.14
Tool change 17.29 Tracut 17.47 Universal machine 7.4
Tool change time 2.54 Transducer 11.32, 11.34 Universal post-processor 17.40
Tool-changing time 17.3 Transducers 17.5 Universal shaper 6.6
Tool cone 11.34 Traverse feed 9.12 Up milling (conventional milling)
Tool cost 2.53 Traverse speed 9.19 7.12
Tool function 17.20 Tree lathe 4.1 USAF 17.2
Tool head 6.2, 6.11, 6.12 Trepanning 8.15 USM 11.2, 11.32
Tool holder 8.23, 11.33 Trial run 17.16 UV light 12.7
Tool holders 5.4 Truing 9.9
Tool holder shank 2.31 T-slot milling cutters 7.8
Tool holding device 3.9 T-slots 4.7, 7.3, 7.14, 8.20
V
Tooling 17.7 Tungsten 2.26, 11.15, 11.46 Valency 11.28
Tooling shank 17.8 Tungsten carbide 2.28, 11.14, 11.26, Valves 17.2
Tool layout 5.6 12.2 Valve seat gauge 16.22
Tool layouts 5.6, 5.17 Turbine blades 11.39 Vanadium 2.26
Tool length compensation 17.33 Turbulence 11.27 V-anvil micro meter 16.10
Tool life 2.32, 2.39, 2.42, 17.20 Turcite-B 3.20 Variable block format 17.19
Tool life equation 2.44 Turning 1.2, 4.17, 14.4, 15.34 V-belts 3.14
Tool magazines 17.12, 17.20 Turning centre 17.4 VDU 17.16
Tool materials 11.30 Turning tool 4.20 VDU screen 17.17
Tool motion mechanism 3.9 Turning tool geometry 4.10 Vernier 16.8
Tool offset 17.21 Vernier calliper 16.9
Turn on codes 17.22
Tool path 17.17 Vernier scale 16.9
Turret 8.23
Tool post 3.9, 4.3, 6.1 Vertical axis machining centre 17.12
Turret and capstan lathes 5.1
Tool room 6.7 Vertical axis milling machine 7.3
Turret lathe 5.2, 5.8
Tool room lathe 4.1, 4.2 Vertical axis shaper 6.17
Turret lathes 5.2, 5.6
Tool room milling machines 17.10 Vertical boring machine 8.22
Turrets 17.20
Tool selection 17.13, 17.15 Vertical boring mill 8.22
Turret tool post 4.16
Tool setting 4.15 Vertical shaper 6.7, 6.17, 10.15
Twist drill 8.2, 14.7
Tool signature 2.19, 2.22 Vertical spindle and reciprocating
Twist drill geometry 8.2
Tool slides 5.13, 5.16 table 9.13
Tool steels 2.27 Vertical spindle and rotating table
Tool stroke 5.16 9.13
Tool tip 2.40, 17.14
U Vertical turret lathe 8.23
Tool travel 5.20 Ultrasonic 11.32 Vibration 4.32, 11.32
Tool turret 17.12 Ultrasonic machining 11.1, 11.32 Vibration energy 11.34
Tool wear 2.39, 7.29, 11.19, 11.31 Ultraviolet light 12.7 Vice 7.14, 15.14
Tool-work interfaces 2.40 Unclamp 17.29 Vices 3.22, 15.1
Tool work thermocouple 2.36 Unconventional machining machines Viscosity 11.8, 11.26
Tooth form 10.2 1.3 Vise fixtures 15.30
Tooth set 10.3 Unconventional processes 11.1 Vitrified 9.4
Tooth space 10.14 Uncut chip 2.11 Vitrified bond 9.4