MAHALAXMI

Dr Uday Dokras
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Dr UDAY DOKRAS Ph D - SWEDEN

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To that goddess who dwells within all beings in the form
of intellect, I bow again and again and again

– Chandi Path (Devi Mahatmya), Ch. 5, v. 20

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SARASWATI GODDESS

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 The Complete Compedium of
MAHALAXMI KATHA
Dr UDAY DOKRAS Ph D (Stockholm) SWEDEN
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN

CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration

Srishti Dokras,Architect,Seattle. USA

Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

(First 2 Covers- Pages 1 and 2, Mahalaxmi’s Birth as depicted in Thailand)
Last 3 pages Mahalaxmi from Buddhist Countries.Tibet,China & Thailand

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8 th LaxmiKovil Temple Chennai India
First Edition 2020
Copyright 2020 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-film, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder..ISBN No. applied for. Cost US $150. I N R 1500/-
Euro 120

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 CONTENTS
CONTENTS 12
Introduction 15
FOREWORD-Kerry Penny Artist, UK 19
PART I-The concet of GOD and GODDESS IN HINDUISM 24
CHAPTER I-The concet of GOD and GODDESS IN HINDUISM 25
CHAPTER II-Worship of the Goddess in Hinduism- Sarah Caldwell 27
CHAPTER III-HINDUISM 34
Sanatana Dharma 40
Hindu Modernism 42
CHAPTER IV Hindu deities 63
Chapter V- HINDU GODDESSES 79
CHAPTER VI Concept of Godesses in Hinduism 88
CHAPTER VII Laxmi 105
Shri Sacred name 106
Widespread appeal,Ancient Goddess 108
Saraswati 114
Durga 115
Nomenclature of Laxmi 117
Ancient Literature: 119
Stotram,Puranas 120
Secondary Manifastation 120
Asta Laxmi 122
CHAPTER VIII- Ashta Lakshmi ("Eight Lakshmis") or Ashtalakshmi 125
Diwali 139,
Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony
CHAPTER IX-Vaishnaism 153
The highest gods of Hinduism 155
The main goddesses of Hinduism-Lakshmi,Saraswati 156
Incarnation of Vishnu 162
Aspects of Devi or Shakti 169
Vishnu & Vaisnaism 175
Vaishnavism 200
Bhagwata Gita 209
Murti 214
A murti of mother goddess Matrika, from Rajasthan 6th century CE 219
Idols in the Hindu Way of Life – Why Are They Worshipped? 226
The Idol—A Prop For The Spiritual Neophyte 234
IDOL WORSHIP DEVELOPS DEVOTION 237
CONCLUSION 242
CHAPTER X NAVEL FROM WHERE LAKSHMI WAS BORN
NAKSHATRAS 273
CHAPTER XI-GAURI or MAHALAXMI PUJA 280
CHAPTER CHILDREN 313
CHAPTER XII KUBER PUJA AT DIWALI 321
CHAPTER XIII DIWALI 344
CHAPTER IV TARA- OTHER REINCARNATIONS OF LAXMI 360

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 INTRODUCTION

Pleiades, young conspicuous open star cluster mentioned in Vedic astrology, ruled by the
SUN is approximately 370 light years away in constellation Taurus, containing
several thousand stars. It is revered as "Giver of transcendental Knowledge" 1

uttiSThata jAgrata prApya varAn nibodhata

kSurasya dhArA nizitA duratyayA
durgaM pathas tat kavayo vadanti (Kathopanishad 1.3.14)

"ARISE! AWAKE! ATTAIN the Highest Wisdom

from approaching the God Realized Saints.”

I feel that all the Knowledge is out there already, and all we need to do is put the pieces
together and synthesize all the seemingly unrelated aspects. The knowledge of (Maha)Laxmi-
that is available in this richly crafted book will astound the reader. Meticulously crafted trail
leads from Hinduism to the creation of the Universe and Veneration of this Great GODDESS.

तं दु ददर्शं गूढमनुप्रविष्टं He (the Atman), difficult to be seen, full of mystery,

गुहावहतं गह्वरे ष्ठं पुराणम् । the Ancient, primaeval one, concealed deep within,
He who, by yoga means of meditation on his self,
अध्यात्मयोगाविगमेन दे िं
comprehends Atman within him as God,
मत्वा िीरो हर्दर्शोकौ He leaves joy and sorrow far behind. —Katha
जहावत ॥ १२ ॥ Upanishad,1.2.12

AMAZING WORK. Must Read. And one more quote before I sign off:

Atman, when taught by an inferior person, is not easily comprehended, because It is diversely
regarded by disputants. But when It is taught by him who has become one with Atman, there can
remain no more doubt about It. Atman is subtler than the subtlest and not to be known through
argument. (1.2.8)
This Knowledge cannot be attained by reasoning. Atman becomes easy of comprehension,
O dearest, when taught by another. ... (1.2.9): Need I say more?

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This Book on Mahalaxmi is a YOGA by itself

Kerry Penny Contemporary Artist UK

REFERENCE

1.The seven Krttika कृत्तिका

In the Hindu mythology, it is said that the stars of the Big Dipper were the seven sages
called Rishis. They were happily married to seven sisters named Krttika. They originally lived all
together in the northern sky. But one day, the god of fire, Agni, fell in love with the seven
Krttika. Trying to forget his love, Agni wandered in the forest where he met Svaha, the star Zeta
Tauri.
Svaha was at once infatuated with Agni. To conquer Agni's love, Svaha disguised herself as six
of the seven Krttika. Agni who believed he had conquered the attractive wives of the seven
Rishis.
Svaha had a child. Rumors began to spread that six of the Rishis' wives were his mother. The
seven Rishis divorced their wives. Arundhati was the only one that remained with her husband as
the star Alcor. The other six Krttika went away to become the Pleiades.
1. http://yogananda.com.au/upa/Katha_Upanishad.html

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 ये दे वासो त्तदव्ये कादश स्थ पृत्तथव्यामध्येकादश स्थ ।
अप्सुत्तितो मत्तिनैकादश स्थ ते दे वासो यज्ञत्तममं जुषध्वम् ॥११॥

O ye eleven gods whose home is heaven, O ye eleven who make earth your dwelling,
Ye who with might, eleven, live in waters, accept this sacrifice, O gods, with pleasure.

The Rigveda states in hymn 1.139.11,

Śrī Senā ni
In the Gīta, Lord Krishna says to Arjuna that among the heroes Skanda
shines as the generalissimo among warriors (senāni, i.e. Murukan).
Those who want to be heroic warriors worship this form of Murukan.
Chanakya in his Artha Śastra mentions the figure of Senāni on the ramparts of the Maurya kings.
Murukan was directed to be the Commander-in Chief by Śiva when the devas approached him
with a request to conquer and eradicate Surapadma. So he is called Senādhipati'
('Generalissimo').
This image has six faces with twelve hands as per Kumāra Tantra.
Of the six right hands, one is in the abhaya mudrā, while the others
hold the thunderbolt, lotus flower, noose, club and mace.

This image in the temple of Peryianāyaki Amman in Devikāpuram, Tiruvannamali District.

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 FOREWORD
Kerry Penny Artist, UK

In Hinduism, the feminine power holds great significance. In fact, there's a distinct division that
only worships the female form of the Supreme force that governs the entire universe. And it is
called Shaktism or Sakht parampara.
Goddess Saraswati, Goddess Lakshmi and Goddess Durga are the consorts of Lord Brahma (the
creator), Lord Vishnu (the protector) and Lord Shiva (the destroyer) respectively.

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What do Goddesses Lakshmi, Saraswati and Durga symbolise?

Goddess Saraswati
Goddess Saraswati is the consort of Lord Brahma, the creator. Dressed in white (that symbolises
serenity), the Mother Goddess is hailed as the Goddess of learning, fine arts and music. The
pictorial depiction of the Goddess shows her with four hands. She holds the Vedas in one of her
left hands and a japmala (rosary) or a peacock feather in one of the right hands. Seated on a full-
bloomed white lotus, Goddess Saraswati is seen playing the musical instrument Veena.
The Vedas represent knowledge, while the peacock feather symbolises a pen and the japmala
denotes the power to stay focused in life. These emphasise on the importance of learning while
the Veena signifies music and arts.
Goddess Saraswati is worshipped to attain knowledge and wisdom. In a nutshell, by praying or
imbibing the qualities of Devi Saraswati, one can remove ignorance and darkness from his or her
life. Moreover, her vehicle, a Swan, possesses the power to distinguish between the good and the
evil.
Goddess Lakshmi
Devi Lakshmi is the consort of Lord Vishnu, the protector. Dressed in red (that represents the
Rajasic tattva), the Devi Lakshmi is hailed as the Goddess of wealth and prosperity. The pictorial
depiction of the Goddess shows her with four hands. She holds a lotus in the upper right and uper
left hands. Her lower left-hand holds a Kalash filled with gold coins inclined frontward. And one

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 of her right hands gestures the Abhaya Mudra, that symbolises fearlessness and divine
protection. Seated on a full-bloomed pink lotus, Goddess Lakshmi symbolises prosperity and
wealth.
Goddess Lakshmi is invoked for a happy and prosperous life.
An owl is found seated close to the feet of the Goddess. The bird is believed to be her vehicle,
and it represents the need to remain grounded and vigilant. The owl is a bird that remains awake
all night and can see only in darkness. Hence, it teaches us not to get blinded by wealth and
refrain from misusing it.
Goddess Durga
Goddess Durga is the consort of Lord Shiva, the destroyer. Dressed in red, the Mother Goddess
represents power. She took birth to kill a demon named Mahishasura, and hence, she is hailed as
Mahishasura Mardini. The pictorial depiction of the Goddess shows her with ten hands holding
different weapons that symbolise the following:
 A chakra or discus represents uprightness
 The conch represents harmony
 The bow and arrow represent energy
 Vajra or thunderbolt symbolises stability
 Lotus represents detachment
 Sword symbolises enlightenment
 Trishul depicts the Sattvic, Rajasic and Tamasic gunas
 Gada or mace represents loyalty
 A pot of fire represents wisdom
 Abhaya Mudra symbolises protection
Goddess Durga's vehicle or vahana is a lion that symbolises courage. This form of the Mother
Goddess shows the power and strength of the feminine.

Lakshmi vs Saraswati: An unequal contest

Does the decline in the worship of Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge, over Laxmi, the Goddess of
wealth, reflect a materialistic society’s quest for money and power? In the build-up to the soon-to-
begin Navratri festival celebrating Devi, Yogesh Pawar ponders questions of transfer projections
and patriarchal constructs as he speaks to believers and analysts.

Ya kundendu tushara haara dhawala, Ya shubhra vastravarta

Ya veena varadanda mandita karaa, Ya shweta padmasana |

Women either get treated like Goddesses and are kept on a pedestal or are seen as mere objects
of lust. Till they aren’t seen as equals, our Goddesses will also not be unshackled from this
masculine paradigm,” and hopes, “Perhaps it will indeed happen in the future and Saraswati will
get her rightful place again.”We can only join in that prayer.The one who is pure white like the
Jasmine, has the coolness of the moon, the brightness of snow and shines like a garland of pearls,
the one covered in pure white raiments/ Whose hands are adorned with the veena (a stringed
musical instrument) and the boon-giving staff, as she sits astride a pure white lotus/ Always
adored by Gods like Brahma, Achyuta (Vishnu), Shankar and many others / O Goddess
Saraswati, protect, awaken and deliver me from my ignorance) “The Goddess of learning -

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Saraswati is one of the most ancient in the Hindu pantheon, yet in today's times when it comes to
worship, apart from the obligatory puja every year she's largely forgotten. That is why when we
do the Mangalacharan invocation in the beginning I deliberately choose this prayer,” he remarks,
on the sidelines, later.
Why do most works invoke Lakshmi and not Saraswati? He laughs. “Its not like that. But in an
era when everybody is in a mad rush chasing money, many feel the blessings of the Goddess of
Wealth are all that matters,” and continues with a tinge of sadness, “People perhaps its felt that
once you have money, all else will follow, a mark of the Kaliyuga we live in.” He points out how
there are many beautiful compositions in the scriptures in praise of Saraswati. “But if not as the
wealth-showering Devi even audiences want to see Her as a slayer of demons armed to the teeth,
like Amba, Durga, Chandi or Kali.” According to the septuagenarian dance guru, this is merely a
transfer-projection of the way society sees women.
“If she brings dowry or other material gifts, she gets respect. But if she wants her due otherwise,
she has to fight for space. Look around you. A subdued, mellow woman is often seen as little
more than a push-over and disregarded by everyone around. Perhaps why, a contemplative
Saraswati in her white raiments, lost in the music of her veena doesn’t have the same resonance
as other fiery Goddesses, the Mother Manifest, strong, powerful, at once, fierce and fearsome.”
He admits though, that dance too, shows this preference for the fiery, in choice of themes.
“When you are on stage, powerful demon-slaying can be more appealing than tranquility and
peace. The former can be interpreted through more dynamic mudras, abhinaya and pure dance
and lends itself to more dramatic presentations. Unfortunately this hunger for the loud and the
desire of artistes to feed that hunger have become a vicious cycle of sorts.”

“Namastestu Mahaamaye Shripeetha Surapoojite/ Shankha Chakra gadaahaste Sri

Mahalakshmi Namostute.

(I bow down at Thy Lotus Feet/ Thou art the destroyer of delusion and the source of all
prosperity/ who is worshipped by all the Gods/ who holds in her hands the conch shell, the discus
and the club/ Oh, Mahalakshmi, I bow down to Thy Lotus Feet),
Ganesh and Laxmi are worshipped in almost every Hindu household and workplaces to bring
success and prosperity. Ganesh is considered the God of wisdom and Laxmi the Goddess of
wealth. Ganesh pooja along with Laxmi pooja is done to get wisdom along with wealth. Because
without wisdom, wealth can't stay longer with you.

Today we have moved so far away from Saraswati. This, when scriptures suggest, she’s Lakshmi
and Durga’s elder sister. Symbolically this means both wealth and empowerment, can be yours,
once you acquire knowledge. Unfortunately in a commercial world we’ve turned this whole idea
upside down. Saraswati's story may also have something to do with why she’s almost a brush-
over. “According to the Matsya Purana once Lord Brahma created Satarupa (another name of
Saraswati) from his own body he became enamoured with her. To avoid his amorous gaze, she
kept shifting from once place to another. Yet Brahma pursued her. He created five heads to see
her all time. Finally she gave in and agreed to become his consort. The questions this will raise
about incest may be a reason why Saraswati is kept on the margins. Earlier, across the
subcontinent, knowledge, wisdom and scholarly pursuit were treated with utmost regard. It was
not seen as a means to an end but something that people pursued with devotion... just for the love
of it.

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Saraswati worship endured the rise and spread of both Buddhism and Jainism all through the
third century BC. As Buddhism moved from its earlier Theravada school to Mahayana, many
elements from Hinduism were adopted and integrated. Significant among them, Gods and
Goddesses in the Hindu pantheon, who had been around for millennia. In fact if you see some of
the early Buddhist mandalas, along with various divinities of Mahayana Buddhism one
unfailingly comes upon Goddess Saraswati in the south-west of the innermost circle, between
Brahma and Vishnu. As the Mahayana Buddhist texts went over the Himalayas to Nepal, Tibet,
Java, China and eventually Japan, its amazing to see how the Goddess began finding mention in
Buddhist imagery there too. For example in Tibet, she’s called Vajra-Saraswati and wields a
thunderbolt (vajra) while in Japan, she becomes the Goddess Dai-Ben-Zai-Ten or The Great
Divinity of Reasoning Faculty.

From the banks of the Ganges, to that of the Tungabhadra in the south, this concern over decline
in Saraswati worship and hence pursuit of knowledge for its sake is echoed by priests at the
Sringeri matth. It is here that Adi Shankaracharya who revived Hinduism around 800 AD
installed the Goddess Saraswati (or Sharada) at the first matth he established in what is now,
Chikkamagalur district of Karnataka. “He was one of our most learned and in direct communion
with the divine. Why do you think he installed Saraswati and not any other Goddess?” asks
temple priest Ananda Swamy, who admits, people have forgotten that and only look for and
follow scriptures that talk far more about other Goddesses. “By the medieval era, Saraswati
stopped mattering after the first stage of life brahmacharya (as a student). Later on from
grihastha (family), vanprastha (retired) and even sanyas (renunciation), all that people think of is
Lakshmi,” he scoffs.

Back in Mumbai, cultural historian Mukul Joshi points out how even Lakshmi does not escape
masculinist patriarchal constructs. “It sounds very nice to hear when men talk of their wives
saying, ‘Yeh toh mere ghar ki Lakshmi hai (She is the Lakshmi of my household).’ But from
early Raja Ravi Verma paintings, just see how Lakshmi's feet are kept well-hidden. Even now
people believe that if Her feet are free she’ll move taking all the prosperity along. In fact around
Western Maharashtra when people talk of someone being filthy rich the colloquialism they resort
to says, ‘tyaana kaay kami, Lakshmi pay tutun gharat padliye tyaanchya. (They scarcely have
any needs, Lakshmi’s broken her leg and fallen in their house.)’ This gives you an idea of how
men transfer-project their idea to control women onto the Goddess as well.”

In fact Joshi insists that the spousification of Goddesses was “a clever latter-day masculinist
ploy” to link greatness of Goddesses to their spouses. “In the process many of our ancient stand-
alone Goddesses of fertility and strength were pushed aside. This made way for the
mainstreaming of spouses of the triumvirate of the Hindu pantheon – Brahma, Vishnu and
Mahesh.” He also points out, “In keeping with the matrilineal tradition which was norm of the
land, many tribal and dalit still worship such Goddesses as single entities without a mandatory
spouse being appended,” but quickly adds, “The twin juggernauts of Brahminisation and
masculinisation however, are quickly destroying these traditions, which should in fact, be
celebrated.” He admits though that practices like animal sacrifice and other occult practices
associated with the worship of the some of these standalone deities has also helped push many
away from them.

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 PART I
The concet of GOD and GODDESS IN
HINDUISM

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 CHAPTER I
The concet of GOD and GODDESS IN HINDUISM

Hindus acknowledge that, at the most fundamental level, God is the One without a second — the absolute, formless,
and only Reality known as Brahman, the Supreme, Universal Soul. Brahman is the universe and everything in it.
Brahman has no form and no limits; it is Reality and Truth.
Thus Hinduism is a pantheistic religion: It equates God with the universe. Yet Hindu religion is
also polytheistic: populated with myriad gods and goddesses who personify aspects of the one true God, allowing
individuals an infinite number of ways to worship based on family tradition, community and regional practices, and
other considerations.
Here are just some of the many Hindu gods and goddesses:
 Brahma, the Creator
Brahma is the first member of the Hindu Trinity and is “the Creator” because he periodically creates
everything in the universe. (The word periodically here refers to the Hindu belief that time is cyclical;
everything in the universe — except for Brahman and certain Hindu scriptures — is created, maintained for
a certain amount of time, and then destroyed in order to be renewed in ideal form again.)
 Vishnu, the Preserver
Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu Trinity. He maintains the order and harmony of the universe,
which is periodically created by Brahma and periodically destroyed by Shiva to prepare for the next
creation.
Vishnu is worshipped in many forms and in several avatars (incarnations). Vishnu is an important,
somewhat mysterious god. Less visible than nature gods that preside over elements (such as fire and rain),
Vishnu is the pervader — the divine essence that pervades the universe. He is usually worshipped in the
form of an avatar (see below).
 Shiva, the Destroyer
Shiva is the third member of the Hindu Trinity, tasked with destroying the universe in order to prepare for
its renewal at the end of each cycle of time. Shiva’s destructive power is regenerative: It’s the necessary
step that makes renewal possible.
Hindus customarily invoke Shiva before the beginning of any religious or spiritual endeavor; they believe
that any bad vibrations in the immediate vicinity of worship are eliminated by the mere utterance of his
praise or name.
 Ganapati, the Remover of Obstacles
Ganapati, also known as Ganesha, is Shiva’s first son. Lord Ganapati, who has an elephant head, occupies a
very special place in the hearts of Hindus because they consider him the Remover of Obstacles. Most
Hindu households have a picture or statue of this godhead, and it’s not uncommon to see small replicas of
Ganapati hanging from rearview mirrors of cars and trucks!
 Avatars of Vishnu
The literal meaning of the word avatar is “descent,” and it’s usually understood to mean divine descent.
Avatars are savior forms of a god that descend to earth to intervene whenever help is needed to
restore dharma (moral order) and peace. Two of Vishnu’s ten avatars are Rama and Krishna.
o Rama
Rama is one of the most beloved Hindu gods and is the hero of the Hindu epic called
the Ramayana. He is portrayed as an ideal son, brother, husband, and king and as a strict adherent
to dharma. Millions of Hindus derive satisfaction from reading and recalling Rama’s trials and
tribulations as a young prince who was exiled from his kingdom for 14 years.
o Krishna

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 If one Hindu god’s name is known and recognized throughout the world, it is Krishna. Hindus
identify Krishna as the teacher of the sacred scripture called the Bhagavad Gita and as the friend
and mentor of prince Arjuna in the epic the Mahabharata.
For his devotees, Krishna is a delight, full of playful pranks. But most of all, Lord Krishna’s
promise to humanity that he will manifest himself and descend to earth whenever dharma declines
has sustained Hindu belief in the Supreme Being over thousands of years.
 Saraswati, the Goddess of Learning
Saraswati is the consort of Brahma the Creator and is worshipped as the goddess of learning, wisdom,
speech, and music. Hindus offer prayer to Saraswati before beginning any intellectual pursuit, and Hindu
students are encouraged to offer prayers to her during the school/college term and especially before and
during examinations.
 Lakshmi
Lakshmi is the goddess of good fortune, wealth, and well-being. As the consort of Vishnu, she plays a role
in every incarnation. (She is Sita, wife of Rama; Rukmini, wife of Krishna; and Dharani, wife of Parashu
Rama, another avatar of Vishnu.)
 Durga Devi
Durga Devi is a powerful, even frightening goddess who fights fiercely in order to restore dharma (moral
order). Yet, while Durga is terrifying to her adversaries, she is full of compassion and love for her devotees.
 Indra, the King of Heaven and lord of the gods
Indra wields a thunderbolt and is a protector and provider of rain.
 Surya, the sun
Surya (or Soorya) is a golden warrior arriving on a chariot pulled by seven white horses.
 Agni, the fire god
Agni holds a special place in Hindu fire ritual to this day as the sacrificer (the priest who performs the
ceremony); the sacrifice (the ritual fire and the offerings made into it); and the witness to all rites.
 Hanuman, the monkey king and devoted servant
Hanuman is featured in the great Hindu epic the Ramayana. He earned his path to deification by
performing feats of strength, devotion, and courage while helping Rama (an avatar of Vishnu) in countless
exciting incidents.
Dr. Amrutur V. Srinivasan, born in India, is primary founder and first president of the Connecticut Valley
Hindu Temple Society. He has functioned as a Hindu priest performing a wide variety of pujas (worships),
weddings, and other ceremonies since 1971. https://www.dummies.com/religion/hinduism/hindu-gods-and-
goddesses/

व्याध तारे SIRIUS

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 CHAPTER II
Worship of the Goddess in Hinduism

by Sarah Caldwell© By Sarah Caldwell, Harvard Divinity School

Sponsored by 25th Anniversary Conference of the Sri Venkateswara Temple in Pittsburgh, 2000

Yaa devi sarvabhuteshu buddhi rupena samsthitaa

Namastasyai namastasyai namastasyai namo namaha

To that goddess who dwells within all beings in the form

of intellect, I bow again and again and again

– Chandi Path (Devi Mahatmya), Ch. 5, v. 20

On a recent visit to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, I wandered through the Indian art
gallery. Ensconced against the southern wall of the gallery stands a glorious life-size granite
image of the goddess Durga, voluptuous, lithe and graceful, her foot poised delicately on the
severed head of the buffalo demon Mahishasura. Visitors meander past casting bemused glances
at her soft yet powerful body and her knowing smile. Of all the images of Hindu deities, it is
perhaps this conflation of supreme power and tender loveliness that most arrests the visitor's eye
and challenges our concepts about the divine. It was a similar image of Durga that first caught
the eye of Professor Tom Coburn, a distinguished scholar of Sanskrit who has translated the
great scriptural account of Devi's triumphs, the Devi Mahatmya, in his book Encountering the
Goddess. In an article written for the Indian journal Manushi, Professor Coburn has described his
initial enchantment with Durga, a love affair that led to a lifetime of distinguished scholarship
and study.

South Asian religions have given birth to some of the loveliest and most sublime images of
feminine divinity the world has ever seen, as well as some of the most mysterious and powerful.
These range from graceful miniature paintings of Sita pining for her beloved husband Rama, or
Radha awaiting a tryst with Krishna in a forest grove to imposing images of Durga and Kali
gracing south India's stone temples. In villages throughout the subcontinent, Devi takes the form
of a simple rock, a mound of mud, a wooden carving, a bronze statue, a painting, a poster, a
sword, a tree, as she receives the loving attentions of worshippers, blesses homes and agricultural
fields, and watches over the fate of her children. Of the world's living religious traditions, it is
only in Hinduism that such extensive worship of divinity in the female form may be found.

The Hindu goddess in all her myriad of forms has also been celebrated in poetic verses of praise
for many centuries. The ancient Tamil classic, Cilappadikaram, eulogizes its benighted heroine,

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Kannaki, who in her rage at a king's injustice, tore off her left breast and burned the city of
Madurai to the ground before rising to the sky as a goddess. The exquisite Gita Govinda of
Jayadeva details in verses heavy with longing and love the ecstatic union of Krishna with the
beautiful Radha. In pleading, begging, railing, desperate lines, the Bengali Ramprasad Sen
explores the depth of love and despair that is the love of the dark Mother Kali. The Saundarya
Lahari (often attributed to Adi Shankara) details the magnificent, radiant form of the Devi as
queen of the universe, and reveals the esoteric meaning of her form as the Sri Yantra, the
geometric pattern of energies that describes the inner workings of the universe.

Yet the Hindu apperception of the feminine divine goes far beyond even this almost infinite
wealth of images and poetry. Hindu philosophy also includes sublime and intellectually
sophisticated theologies of the Goddess. Shakta theology in particular, unlike any other living
religious tradition, attributes supreme divinity, power over creation, all speech, nature, mind, and
liberation, the universe itself, to Devi, the Goddess, who exceeds even the great gods Shiva,
Vishnu, Indra, and Brahma, upon whose bent backs she sits in glory. In astounding philosophical
terms, Shakta theology propounds a doctrine that unites devotion to the goddess's supremely
attractive feminine form with subtle apperception of the inner workings of the universe.
Furthermore, tantric religious traditions provide specific means for ritual worship of and yogic
meditation upon the goddess, directing the worshipper to a state of complete identification and
union with her. These precious traditions of Hinduism, kept secret and revealed only to a few
initiates for millennia, are beginning to be known better today and to be shared with a wider
circle of devotees. Within this great tradition lie the potential seeds of a revolution in the way
human beings conceive of our world, ourselves, and one another. It is well worth studying and
understanding the great tradition of goddess worship in Hinduism, for the benefit of oneself and
humanity at large.

The fundamental meaning behind all of these images is the recognition in Hinduism of divine
energy as a feminine force, Shakti, which literally means "power." This power takes a wide
variety of forms, including nature, creation, life force, movement, mind, and strength, as well as
the power to dominate or destroy. Early Samkhya philosophy viewed reality as fundamentally
dual, consisting of Purusha, the conscious Self (seen as Male), in interaction with Prakriti, nature
and the phenomenal world, including the mind (understood as a Female principle). The processes
of yoga referred to in the Upanishads and formally codified in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in the
2nd C BCE are designed to extricate the pure, eternal, unblemished Self from its intricate
identification with the phenomenal world, both external and internal, in the form of thoughts and
perceptions. Techniques of self-control and meditation were developed to allow for the
recognition of the Self's separateness from Prakriti, and to cultivate direct self-awareness free of
the mind and senses.

The philosophy of Vedanta : The philosophy of Vedanta rejected the dualistic claims of the
Samhkya system, reinterpreting the feminine principle of Prakriti as Maya, the illusory power of
the divine Brahman (transcendental Self). The feminine Maya had no intrinsic reality, but was
merely a projection of Brahman, appearing as a great seductress ensnaring the mind and senses
and drawing them away from awareness of their fundamental nature as Self or Purusha. Ascetic
disciplines of fasting, celibacy, and meditation detached the mind from its natural outward-
moving tendency and turned it forcibly inward; intellectual disciplines such

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as viveka (discrimination) and vairagya (detachment) sought to penentrate and dissolve the
unreality of Maya. Buddhist and Jain philosophy, which developed in the same period as the late
Upanishads (around the 6th C. BCE), also relied upon this theory and hence emphasized
asceticism, detachment, and the rejection of the pleasures of the ensnaring phenomenal world.
Women, who were relegated socially to the role of wives and mothers, were naturally seen as
antithetical to the aim of moksha or liberation from the snares of samsara, cyclical, desire-
motivated existence. Thus during this influential early age of Indian religious thought, the
feminine principle of divinity as well as human women were identified as obstacles to the real
aim of human life, moksha, or permanent spiritual liberation from the cycles of rebirth.

Of course, while forest-dwelling ascetics and yogis attempted to break their attachments to the
world, a different, life-affirming strain of Hindu practice and belief flourished unbroken from the
Vedic period to the present. The fundamental symbolism of the ancient Vedic fire rituals was the
creative power of the sacrifice, resulting from the coming together of the female and male life
forces (symbolized by the spark created from the friction of the fire-sticks rubbing together).
Human reproduction and well-being, not moksha, were the fruits sought by supplicating the
divine powers in the Vedic fire ritual. Although goddesses played a relatively minor role in the
Vedic ritual corpus, by the Classical period (1st-11th C. CE) of Hinduism, their presence was
central. As temples and devotional Hinduism underwent a dramatic period of growth in response
to the challenge of Buddhism and Jainism, goddesses rose in importance. Powerful and
appealing female divinities embodying every possible aspect of existence began to be envisioned
in temple sculpture and eulogized in hymns of praise.

Rituals of worship to the goddess today take place in almost infinite variety, but their aim is
always to propitiate and increase Shakti, divine energy, manifest as life force. This life force may
take the form of health and healing from disease, the auspicious growth of plants and abundance
of food, marital happiness and sexual enjoyment, reproductive health and the birth of children,
wealth and success in work activities, intellectual and artistic skill and acumen, or victory over
one's enemies. The force that perpetuates life is the holiest thing in the practice of Hinduism,
supremely auspicious, and it is this auspiciousness that Devi represents. In her life-perpetuating
form, the goddess is beautiful, benevolent, fertile, motherly, attractive, full of knowledge,
compassion, and desire. She embraces and enlivens all aspects of reality. Pictured as an idealized
queen and wife, endowed with supernatural beauty and virtue, adorned with magnificent
ornaments and always bestowing grace and bounty, the Devi in this form is Saumya, benevolent.
She is the object of desire, and is usually shown as the wife or consort of an appropriate male
divinity, whose power or Shakti she is (e.g., Lakshmi-Vishnu, Parvati-Siva, Radha-Krishna, Sita-
Rama, etc.). In temples, rituals of puja (worship) were performed daily to goddesses, sometimes
as wives or consorts of powerful male deities, but sometimes alone, as in the case of Durga,
Saraswati, Mahalakshmi, and many others. The iconography of these female divinities drew
heavily from the very ancient sculptural tradition of yakshis, female fertility spirits, whose
smiling, ample, voluptuous frames adorned the gateways of early Buddhist and Jain temples
from the 5th c. BC. The ideal of feminine divinity was from the beginning identified with life
force, erotic beauty, sexual fertility, motherliness, and power. Even the goddess of war, Durga,
was envisioned as a supremely attractive and desirable young woman at the height of her
potential reproductive powers (though remaining a virgin, and hence channeling those potential
powers toward other aims for the benefit of the world). Only the goddesses of disease and

28
destruction, such as Sitala, Manasa, Mariyamman, and Kali, were sometimes shown as haggard,
emaciated, and ugly; yet even these goddesses were revered and propitiated, as part of the
inevitable cycle of life and death. The Hindu goddess in all her forms was always linked to this
complete acceptance of the ever-changing, transformative cycle of life.

Celebrations: Throughout the Hindu world, elaborate, extensive temple rituals and festivals
celebrate the goddess's wedding to her divine spouse (examples include Meenakshi Kalyanam,
Rama-Sita Kalyanam, Parvati-Siva Swayamvaram, etc.). The extraordinary dedication of time,
resources, and priestly knowledge to the periodic reenactment of these divine weddings
underscores the profound spiritual significance of the marital bond. In fact marriage is
considered the most important samskara, or rite of passage, in the human lifespan. In the
marriage ritual the bride is identified with the goddess Lakshmi, adorned and worshipped as the
bringer of supreme auspiciousness into her new family. As she undertakes her new
responsibilities as wife and mother, a woman joins the daily round of domestic worship
conducted by women of the family, centering around the kitchen shrine. Upon rising in the
morning she will bathe and draw a kolam or rangoli on the doorstep, to welcome the goddess
Lakshmi into the home. In all her activities the wife and mother embodies the divine feminine
force of life, auspiciousness, and joy. It is she who is believed to keep the husband and children
alive and happy through her careful attention to their welfare and satisfaction, through cooking,
fasting, prayer, teaching, and self-care and beautification. The auspiciousness of goddess
Lakshmi, so necessary to life in the world, is also celebrated lavishly at Diwali, the festivals of
light and life in dark times.

Iconography: Sometimes it is the mother aspect of the goddess that is emphasized in Hindu
worship; here she is represented iconographically on her own, not as part of a spousal pair. The
forms of the independent mother goddess are almost infinite, and are especially important on the
local, village level in India. Most villages have a local mother goddess who is believed to have
arisen in that particular geographic location and who is intimately tied to the welfare of the
village. She functions as the protector, provider, and punisher of the village, and must be
constantly propitiated, worshipped, and consulted in order to assure order and avert disease and
disaster. Kali, Sitala, Mariyamman, and Durga embody the wrath of the fierce aspect of the
goddess in forms known throughout India. Although this form of goddess worship is prominent
in village shrines, it is also very important at the temple level, particularly in Bengal and Kerala,
where temples to Kali or Bhagavati predominate. Often the temple festivals in these regions are
tied to the agricultural cycle, and the goddess is believed to undergo a periodic reproductive
cycle akin to that of human women. Ritual worship takes place during the hottest season, when
the goddess is understood to be undergoing her menstrual cycle, and in need of sacrificial
offerings and excitement before a period of rest and renewal.

Earth: Hindus show deep reverence to the earth as the Mother Goddess. From the most ancient
times, rivers, mountains, hills, the sky, and in fact all of the earth, have been respected as the
body of the goddess itself. The river Ganga, the most important of the Hindu river goddesses, is
an embodied liquid divinity, whose grace flowing over the bather's body can be felt to empower,
cleanse, purify, heal, and enlighten. The Shakti Pithas, locations where parts of the goddess's
body mythically fell to earth and installed themselves, are seats of power where pilgrims can
directly experience the goddess. Hills, mountains, stones, and anthills all manifest miraculous

29
powers throughout the Indian subcontinent, and are ancient places of pilgrimage and renewal.
Before building a house, undertaking cultivation of plants, starting a ritual, or beginning a dance,
Hindus pray to Bhumi Devi, the earth goddess, for her blessings and forgiveness.

Navratri: Perhaps the most important festival to the goddess is Navaratri, the nine nights of
worship dedicated to the goddess Durga. This festival takes place in some form throughout the
Indian subcontinent in the bright moon fortnight of the Hindu months of Chaitra (March-April)
and Ashwin (September-October). The sacred text recounting the destruction of a series of
demons by the goddess Durga or Candi, the Chandipath, is recited each evening for nine nights.
On the eighth day a homa or fire sacrifice is offered to Durga Devi in celebration of her triumph
over evil. The nine nights of worship are divided into groups of three, recognizing the triple form
of the goddess as Durga/Lakshmi/Saraswati. Durga or Camunda is the goddess of power,
destruction of negativities, and fierce strength in the face of adversity and evil. The story of her
destruction of demons symbolizes the need fiercely to confront one's own limitations and
negative qualities and eliminate them. Lakshmi, goddess of prosperity and abundance, represents
the ability to enjoy, share, and love, made possible by self-purification and the recognition of the
divine manifest in all. After cultivating moral purification and an attitude of optimism and
generosity, Saraswati, goddess of higher knowledge, finally is propitiated as the one who makes
it possible to realize divine wisdom and light. The festival of Navaratri, like many forms of
Hindu worship, incorporates many levels of meaning. It can be a harvest festival, a time for
family and friends to gather and share, a time of rest and renewal, a time of fasting and penance.
Spiritually, Navaratri can be a recognition of the necessity to destroy old habits to make way for
new experiences and knowledge, a celebration of growth and rebirth, and a profound experience
of the goddess as one's inner power of consciousness.

Recognition of an intimate link between the goddess and the force of intellect, mind, and
speech : This is a unique aspect of Hinduism not found in other world religions is the recognition
of an intimate link between the goddess and the force of intellect, mind, and speech. This is
reflected in contemporary Hinduism in the person of the goddess Saraswati. Portrayed in spotless
white garments and seated upon a swan, Saraswati holds in her hands a palm-leaf manuscript and
a veena (the Indian lute), symbolizing her power over speech, literature, learning, and the arts.
School children venerate Saraswati to excel in their studies, and often place their schoolbooks
and pens upon her alter toward this end. The identification of the goddess with speech and
intellect has ancient roots in Hinduism. Vedic hymns recognize Vac as the power of speech, the
power that inspired the production of mantras. The identification of the goddess with language is
later elaborated in Shaiva philosophy, where the fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet are
collectively referred to as Matrika Shakti, the power of the "little mothers" (the letters
themselves). By calling the letters "mothers," the sages drew our attention to the creative,
generative powers of language. In this concept the goddess manifests to create the universe
through pulsation (Spanda), which animates the mind as subtle thoughts, and emerges on the
physical plane as speech. All of material creation is also embodied in the subtle vibrations of this
divine speech, and mantras, which encapsulate these energies, when properly pronounced, can
actually recreate material reality.

Shaiva philosophy envisions the Godhead as consisting of the inseparable pair Shiva and Shakti,
Being and Consciousness. Neither exists without the other. These two are imagined as a divine

30
husband and wife engaged in endless erotic play. This image signifies the deeper meaning of the
Self (prakasha-illumination) enjoying the manifold phenomena continually unfolded by Shakti
(vimarsha-reflective consciousness). In fact the mind with its constant inner movement is
nothing but a dancer entertaining the witnessing conscious self, ever still and unaffected yet
deeply enjoying the play of consciousness. In this metaphor the process of conscious existence is
itself a great love affair, a union of Shiva and Shakti, Being (Sat) and Consciousness (Chit),
leading to inner bliss (Ananda). A shift in awareness allows us to recognize all of reality as
nothing but this blissful play, the dance of Shiva and Shakti.

Shaiva philosophy explains that the potential for this awareness lies within every person, in a
dormant form known as Kundalini Shakti. This divine power is envisioned as a sleeping snake
coiled three times in the base of the spine, at an energy center known as the muladhara chakra.
In order to realize the play of divine Being and Consciousness taking place within us, it is
necessary to awaken this sleeping goddess that resides within the body, and to purify oneself
through spiritual disciplines, devotion, and study. The practices of Kundalini Yoga awaken and
cultivate this subtle form of the goddess, which is in fact divine consciousness, leading it toward
the energy center located in the crown of the head, the sahasrara chakra, said to be the abode of
Lord Shiva. When the goddess as Kundalini Shakti unites with Lord Shiva, divine bliss and
permanent liberation from suffering and ignorance ensue. The practices of Kundalini Yoga are
thus another form of worship of the goddess within one's own body, as one's own consciousness
and true inner self.

A form of Hindu worship that unites all aspects of the goddess and aims to attain not only well-
being in the world, but also supreme spiritual knowledge and ultimate liberation, is the tantric
practice of Sri Vidya, the Supreme Wisdom. In Sri Vidya practice, Devi is worshipped as
Tripurasundari, the Beauty of the Three Worlds. Tripurasundari is envisioned as Rajarajeshwari,
Queen of the Universe, Goddess who holds the key to all knowledge and powers. She is the
supreme creator; all worlds and powers dwell within her body in the form of minor Devis, who
are each enumerated and propitiated through the worship. The essence of Sri Vidya practice is
encoded in the texts Lalita Sahasranama and Saundarya Lahari, which are recited daily in many
parts of India, but can be properly understood only through initiation by a guru of the tradition.
Through the use of mantras (sacred syllables embodying the energies of the
goddess), mudras (ritual hand gestures that awaken subtle energies and seal the relationship of
the seeker to the chosen deity), guided meditation, and external puja (offerings of various kinds)
to the Sri Yantra, a complex geometric representation of the goddess as the entire universe, an
initiate installs the goddess into his or her own body and then proceeds to move backwards
through the process of creation to dissolve his or her consciousness back into its source.

One feature of the worship of Hindu goddesses that is seen throughout India is the tendency to
venerate groups of goddesses, who are yet understood to be emanations of a single Devi. This
tendency reflects the realization that nature has the tendency to multiply and proliferate. From a
single fertile cell, two, four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two, sixty-four cells arise through division of
the the original one, leading to an almost infinite array of cells which then arrange themselves
into different functions and form a human body. Throughout the natural world this tendency to
proliferate and multiply signifies life. After a period of growth, decay sets in and the cells begin
to decay and degenerate, eventually leading to death and reabsorption into their source, the

31
material elements from which life arose. This basic pattern of proliferation and decay extends to
all of creation, including the mineral world and the universe of stars, planets, and galaxies. It is
this profound understanding of the patterns underlying the phenomenal universe that is reflected
in the tendency to portray goddesses in enumerated groups. The oldest of these is the Seven
Mothers (Saptamatrika), who scholars have suggested represent the Pleiades, an important
constellation of the tropical night sky; others suggest that they also may represent the
seven chakras or energy centers identified in the subtle physiology of Kundalini Yoga. Hindu
iconography also celebrates Eight Lakshmis (Ashtalakshmi), Nine Durgas (Navadurga), Ten
Great Wisdom Goddesses (Dasa Maha Vidya), Sixteen Phases of the Lunar Cycle or digits of the
moon (the Nitya Kala Devis), and 64 Yoginis (esoteric female teachers). Each of these groupings
has profound meaning in tantric practice. In the tenth century circular temples to the 64 yoginis
were constructed in East Central India, in the center of which worshippers would conduct secret
rites to identify themselves with the creator pair Shiva/Shakti. In that golden age of tantric
knowledge, human females played the role of teachers and adepts as well as wives, servants, and
partners to male yogis. Temples such as the Kailasnath temple in Kanchipuram, Tamilnadu,
which preserve images of these human yoginis in postures of instruction and veneration, let us
know that during this period, the goddess, in her aspect as teacher, sexual partner, and creator of
life, was overtly worshipped in the person of human women.

The vast landscape of goddess worship in Hinduism is impossible to grasp in a single lifetime,
much less in a brief essay. However the richness of this tradition, and its potential to contribute
to the religious understandings of people the world over, is immense. Many people throughout
the world are seeking to improve the relations of humans to their physical world, and to one
another. In the profound sacred geography of Hinduism, which reveres the earth as a goddess,
are plentiful resources for regenerating the ecological awareness of human beings. Whether
through participation in pilgrimages to sacred rivers and mountains; through the celebration of
the beauty, wisdom, and power of the manifold goddesses in the exquisite rituals of puja;
through initiation into the profound mysteries of Kundalini Yoga and Shakta tantra; or simply
through the recognition of divinity in the human body of every man and woman, Hindu tradition
offers the world an almost infinite array of ways to sacralize every aspect of mundane existence.
From cooking to business to pleasure to knowledge, Devi is the source from which all success
and joy arise. For those seeking ultimate knowledge, the Sri Vidya practice is arguably the most
elaborate and esoteric form of worship of the goddess, and also one of the most theologically
complex. It would take many lifetimes to fully grasp the depth of the symbolism and beauty of
the ritual practice encoded in its tradition. This form of understanding of goddess has great
potential to expand our concept of the divine in many religions. Women, especially those raised
within Hinduism, should be encouraged to read and study deeply the meanings of these great
traditions, and to realize the presence of the goddess within their own minds and bodies. Men can
learn to respect and revere the feminine as well as masculine qualities, and to see Devi in all
women. Such an attitude, that embraces all of creation and all beings as pulsations of divine love,
will heal and uplift our world. by Sarah Caldwell © By Sarah Caldwell, Harvard Divinity
School.Sponsored by 25th Anniversary Conference of the Sri Venkateswara Temple in
Pittsburgh, 2000-
https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/i_es/i_es_caldw_goddess_frameset.htm

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 CHAPTER III
HINDUISM

In Hinduism, God is also known as Brahman. Hindus understand Brahman as the Ultimate
Reality, which they must come to know through the deities and how those deities affect the
world. Nirguna Brahman and Saguna Brahman

History of Hinduism

The Hindu Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was built by Narasimhavarman II.

Hinduism 's varied historyoverlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian
subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric
religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. It has thus been called the
"oldest religion" in the world. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthe
The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-
Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions,
ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period,
33
which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations,
starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE. The subsequent period, between 800 BCE
and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions", and a
formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from
c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320-650 CE), which
coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved,
namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. Monotheistic sects
like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti
movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period or early
Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential
consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.
Hinduism under both Hindu and Islamic rulers from c. 1200 to 1750 CE, saw the increasing
prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. The colonial period saw
the emergence of various Hindu reform movements partly inspired by western movements, such
as Unitarianism and Theosophy. The Partition of India in 1947 was along religious lines, with
the Republic of India emerging with a Hindu majority. During the 20th century, due to the Indian
diaspora, Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in
absolute numbers in the United States and the United Kingdom.
Many Hindus believe that their ultimate goal in life is to achieve spiritual union with the supreme
spirit - Brahman. Different groups or denominations within Hinduism focus on different features
of Brahman. Brahman is described in two main ways by Hindus – as Nirguna Brahman
or Saguna Brahman.

Nirguna Brahman

The term Nirguna Brahman refers to the concept that Brahman is beyond time and space. It is the
idea that Brahman has no particular form and is present within all living beings and everywhere.

The Taittiriya Upanishad tells Hindus that:

One who knows Brahman, reaches the highest. Satya (reality, truth) is Brahman, Jnana
(knowledge) is Brahman, Ananta (infinite) is BrahmanTaittiriya Upanishad 2.1.1

Nirguna Brahman allows Hindus to focus on Brahman’s eternal qualities rather than getting
distracted by different names and forms.

Saguna Brahman

Another way that Brahman is perceived is as Saguna Brahman. This means that Brahman has a
form, identity and purpose, which may vary over time. Hindus who believe in Saguna Brahman
see deities as a way for people to understand Brahman’s vast nature. These deities help Hindu
worshippers to focus on images or statues, also known as murtis. This type of devotion is known
as bhakti and is one of the ways identified by Lord Krishna in the Hindu text Bhagavad Gita to
achieve union with Brahman.

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But you cannot see me [Brahman] with your present eyes, therefore I will give you divine eyes.
Behold My mystic opulence!Bhagavad Gita 11.8

Vaikuntha

When Hindus worship Brahman as a divine person (or Ishvara), they recognise that this form of
Brahman has a spiritual home. Hindus believe that many spiritual realms exist beyond our own
universe and that divine beings reside in them. Vaikuntha is the highest of these worlds. It is the
home of Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

Hindus who maintain strict devotion to Vishnu throughout their lives earn a blessing where, at
the moment of their death, their soul can visit Vaikuntha for some time. The soul then continues
on its journey through the cycle of death and rebirth, also known as samsara. The Rig
Veda states that even the demigods hope to enter this spiritual place.

Three aspects of the Divine

For Hindus, God has three main features. Firstly, God is Antaryami, or Brahman (the Ultimate
Reality or truth).

Secondly, God is the Lord within a person’s heart, or all-pervadingAntaryami. Many

Hindus meditate on Antaryami in order to be aware of Brahman. Meditating on Antaryami helps
to bring balance and realisation of God.

Thirdly, Hindus view God as Bhagavan or Ishvara, a supreme being who lives beyond the
world. Many Hindus believe that they can develop a personal and direct relationship with
Bhagavan. They also believe that Bhagavan possesses qualities that include knowledge and
strength.

The Vishnu Purana states:

Bhagavan is He who possesses without limit the six types of opulence - strength, fame, wealth,
knowledge, beauty and renunciation.Vishnu Purana

Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or way of life. It is the world's third-largest religion,
with over 1.25 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global population, known as Hindus. The
word Hindu is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the
world, many practitioners refer to their religion as Sanātana Dharma (Sanskrit: सनातन
िमद: "the Eternal Way"), which refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, as
revealed in the Hindu texts. Another, though less fitting, self-designation is Vaidika dharma, the
'dharma related to the Vedas.'
Hinduism includes a range of philosophies, and is linked by shared concepts, recognisable
rituals, cosmology, pilgrimage to sacred sites and shared textual resources that discuss theology,
philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other
topics. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living
beings (Ahiṃsā), patience, forbearance, self-restraint, virtue, and compassion, among

35
others. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims
of human life; namely, Dharma (ethics/duties), Artha (prosperity/work), Kama (desires/passions)
and Moksha (liberation/freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth/salvation), as well
as karma (action, intent and consequences) and Saṃsāra (cycle of death and rebirth).
Hindu practices include rituals such as pujā (worship) and recitations, japa, meditation (dhyāna),
family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Along with the
practice of various Yogas, some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions and
engage in lifelong Sannyasa (monasticism) in order to achieve Moksha.
Hindu texts are classified into Śruti ("heard") and Smṛti ("remembered"), the major scriptures of
which are the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Purānas, the Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyana, and
the Āgamas. There are six āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, who recognise the authority of the
Vedas, namely Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta.
While the Puranic chronology presents a geneaology of thousands of years, starting with the
Vedic rishis, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusionor synthesisof Brahmanical orthopraxy with
various Indian cultures, having diverse roots and no specific founder. This Hindu
synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500–200 BCE and c. 300 CE, in the period
of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the
first Purānas were composed. It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism
in India.
Currently, the four largest denominations of Hinduism are
the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. Sources of authority and eternal truths in
the Hindu texts play an important role, but there is also a strong Hindu tradition of questioning
authority in order to deepen the understanding of these truths and to further develop the
traditionHinduism is the most widely professed faith in India, Nepal and Mauritius. Significant
numbers of Hindu communities are found in Southeast Asia including
in Bali, Indonesia, the Caribbean, North America, Europe, Oceania, Africa, and other regions.

36
A Balinese Hindu family after puja at Bratan temple in Bali, Indonesia.
The word Hindū is derived from Indo-Aryan Sanskrit root Sindhu. The Proto-Iranian sound
change *s > h occurred between 850 and 600 BCE, according to Asko Parpola.
The use of the English term "Hinduism" to describe a collection of practices and beliefs is a
fairly recent construction: it was first used by Raja Ram Mohun Roy in 1816–17. The term
"Hinduism" was coined in around 1830 by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and
who wanted to distinguish themselves from other religious groups. Before the British began to
categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves
exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis
of locality, language, varna, jāti, occupation and sect.
The word "Hindu" is much older, and it is believed that it was used as the name for the Indus
River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. According to Gavin Flood, "The actual
term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river
Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)", more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I (550–
486 BCE). The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a
religion. Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in
the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang, and 14th-century
Persian text Futuhu's-salatin by 'Abd al-Malik Isami.
Thapar states that the word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta – equivalent to
Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanian inscription
from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. The Arabic
term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was itself
taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th
century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of
Hindus".
The term Hindu was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the
later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th- to 18th-
century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya
Bhagavata. These texts used it to distinguish Hindus from Muslims who are
called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th-century Chaitanya
Charitamrita text and the 17th-century Bhakta Mala text using the phrase "Hindu dharma".[54] It
was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to
refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus.
The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the
18th century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.
Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical
order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding
holy book; Hindus can choose to
be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnos
tic, atheistic or humanist. According to Doniger, "ideas about all the major issues of faith and
lifestyle - vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste - are subjects of debate,
not dogma."

37
Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a
comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize
it".Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious
beliefs, and "a way of life". From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is
appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term dharma is preferred, which is broader
than the Western term religion.
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been
shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those
influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have
also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.
Typology

AUM, a stylised letter of Devanagari script, used as a religious symbol in Hinduism

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the
historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently
the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents
are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated
as same). Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the
deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God,
while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are
lower manifestations of this supreme. Other notable characteristics include a belief in the
existence of ātman (soul, self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in
dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living).
McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to
understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus. The major kinds, according to
McDaniel are Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest,
non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas traceable to 2nd
millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads,
including Advaita Vedanta, emphasizing knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following
the text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasizing introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or
"daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu

38
religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and Bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where
intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.
Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity. The three
Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and
"founded religions".The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga", jnana-
marga, bhakti-marga, and "heroism", which is rooted in militaristic traditions. These militaristic
traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, Rama, believing him to be
an incarnation of Vishnu) and parts of political Hinduism. "Heroism" is also called virya-
marga.[ According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the
Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practicing or non-
practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions"
such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are salvation-focussed and often de-emphasize Brahman
priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism. He includes
among "founded religions" Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism that are now distinct
religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society, as well as
various "Guru-isms" and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh
Yogi and ISKCON.
Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when
proselytizing missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from
their interests. Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and
creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or
spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the
imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project.[75] From
tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports
set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major
assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of Indology. Hinduism,
according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it
appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of
Advaita Vedanta.
Hindu views
Sanātana Dharma
To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life. Many practitioners refer to the
"orthodox" form of Hinduism as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal
way".Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. The Puranic chronology, the
timeline of events in ancient Indian history as narrated in the Mahabaratha, the Ramayana, and
the Puranas, envisions a chronology of events related to Hinduism starting well before 3000
BCE. The Sanskrit word dharma has a much broader meaning than religion and is not its
equivalent. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (artha), fulfillment of desires
(kama), and attaining liberation (moksha), are part of dharma, which encapsulates the "right way
of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfillment.
According to the editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Sanātana Dharma historically referred
to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from
injuring living beings (ahimsa), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint,
generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and

39
they contrasted with svadharma, one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (varna)
and stage in life (puruṣārtha). In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders,
reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the
"eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible
and ultimately nonsectarian".
According to other scholars such as Kim Knott and Brian Hatcher, Sanātana Dharma refers to
"timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is
viewed as those eternal truths and tradition with origins beyond human history, truths divinely
revealed (Shruti) in the Vedas – the most ancient of the world's scriptures. To many Hindus, the
Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single
founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher. Hinduism, to them, is a tradition that
can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era.
Vaidika dharma
Some have referred to Hinduism as the Vaidika dharma. The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means
'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'. Traditional scholars
employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of
authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from
Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is
the earliest self-designation of Hinduism. According to Arvind Sharma, the historical evidence
suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term vaidika dharma or a variant
thereof" by the 4th-century CE.[11] According to Brian K. Smith, It is 'debatable at the very least'
as to whether the term Vaidika Dharma cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural
and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'."
According to Alexis Sanderson, the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika,
Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-
millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity
corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms
of antinomian Shakta-Shaiva" from its fold. Some in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy
considered the Agamas such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the
Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika
dharma. The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the
Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were
superior than those of the Vaidikas. However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition
viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the
Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, [...] and
that as such they [Vedas] are man's sole means of valid knowledge [...]".
The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear
what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner. The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic
way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious" or that Hindus
have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term.[82] To many, it
is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever
seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim
might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their [Hindus] whole life's
orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it".

40
Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this
acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself]
a Hindu," and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the
contents of the text." Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly
acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.
Hindu modernism

Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and the
United States, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.
Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian
civilisation, meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic
elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasizing the universal aspects, and introducing
modern approaches of social problems. This approach had a great appeal, not only in India, but
also in the west. Major representatives of "Hindu modernism" are Raja Rammohan
Roy, Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi. [Raja Rammohan Roy is
known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance. He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda
(1863–1902), who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of
a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism".[92] Central
to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve
union with this "innate divinity",[89] and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will
further love and social harmony.[89] According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to
Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.[89] According to Flood,
Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-
class Hindus today".Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with
Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious
experience".
This "Global Hinduism" has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries and,
according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and

41
Buddhism",both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to
non-western cultures and religions. It emphasizes universal spiritual values such as social justice,
peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity".It has developed partly due to "re-
enculturation",or the Pizza effect, which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the
West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in
India. This globalization of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an
important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important
cultural force in India, their place of origin".
Legal definitions
The definition of Hinduism in Indian Law is: "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence;
recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth
that the number of gods to be worshipped is large".
Scholarly views
The term Hinduism was coined in Western ethnography in the 18th century, and refers to the
fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no
founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between c. 500–200 BCE and c.
300 CE, in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism,
when the Epics and the first Puranas were composed. It flourished in the medieval period, with
the decline of Buddhism in India.[35] Hinduism's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad
range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western
conceptions.
Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than
as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism
and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Gabriella
Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of
Hinduism.
Unity & Diversity
Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions
rather than a single religion. Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different
theologies, practices, and sacred texts. Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief
encoded in a declaration of faith or a but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of
religious phenomena of India. According to the Supreme Court of India,
Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does
not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow
any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features
of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".
Part of the problem with a single definition of the term Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism does
not have a founder. It is a synthesis of various traditions, the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the
renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".
Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu
philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or have been atheists.

42
Sense of unity
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity. Most Hindu traditions revere a body of
religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions.These texts are a reminder
of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, with Louis Renou stating that
"even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising
of the hat".
Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained
religious constellations",there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians
and literary representatives" of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of
identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and
horizon".
Classical Hinduism
Brahmins played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis,
disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-
regional Brahmanic culture. In the post-Gupta period Vedanta developed in southern India,
where orthodox Brahmanic culture and the Hindu culture were preserved,] building on ancient
Vedic traditions while "accommoda[ting] the multiple demands of Hinduism."
Medieval developments
The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further
developed from the 12th century CE.[121] Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family
resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking
shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the
earlier Vedic religion.[122] Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took
place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim
Other".[123] According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other" is necessary to recognise the
"loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.
According to the Indologist Alexis Sanderson, before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit
sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but
they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against
Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the
corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a
belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged. This complex tradition
accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except
certain antinomian tantric movements. Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned
whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas,
or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that
though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual
premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson,
"came to be called Hinduism"
As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization,
two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a
historicization which preceded later nationalism ... [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders,
such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in

43
which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical
texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive
passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.
Orientalism and Neo-Vedanta

This inclusivism was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform
movements and Neo-Vedanta, and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.
The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"was also popularised
by 19th-century proselytizing missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by
the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of
Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was
Hinduism. These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington
state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere
mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils, while other scholars state that the colonial
constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti and such texts
were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the
schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's
mystical nature".Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion
began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention. He states
that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify
themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.
Modern India
The Hindutva movement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the
differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times.

Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu, representing
the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma
(ethics/duties), Samsāra (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action,
intent, and consequences), Moksha (liberation from samsara or liberation in this life), and the
various Yogas (paths or practices).
Purusharthas (objectives of human life)
Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as
Puruṣārthas: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

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Dharma (righteousness, ethics)
Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.Nothing is higher than
Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the
Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if
he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.xiv

In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly
affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word Sanātana means eternal, perennial, or forever;
thus, Sanātana Dharma signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.
Artha (livelihood, wealth)
Artha is objective and virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations, and economic
prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The Artha concept
includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to
be in, wealth, career and financial security. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an
important aim of human life in Hinduism.
Kāma (sensual pleasure)

Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the
aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations. In Hinduism,
Kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing
Dharma, Artha and Moksha.

Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) is the ultimate, most important
goal in Hinduism. In one sense, Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow,
suffering and saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle, in after life,
particularly in theistic schools of Hinduism is called moksha. Due to belief in the
indestructibility of the soul, death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.
The meaning of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example,
Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha a person knows their "soul, self" and
identifies it as one with Brahman and everyone in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic)
schools, in moksha state, identify individual "soul, self" as distinct from Brahman but
infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven). To
theistic schools of Hinduism, moksha is liberation from samsara, while for other schools such as
the monistic school, moksha is possible in current life and is a psychological concept. According
to Deutsch, moksha is transcendental consciousness to the latter, the perfect state of being, of
self-realization, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self". Moksha in these
schools of Hinduism, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting free of hitherto fettered
faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a
person in the full sense; the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity,
compassion and understanding which had been blocked and shut out. Moksha is more than
liberation from life-rebirth cycle of suffering (samsara); Vedantic school separates this into two:
jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and videhamukti (liberation after death).

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Karma and samsara
Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral
law of cause and effect".[175][176] The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical
or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3)
rebirth.[177] Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual
with reference to his or her actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a
person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives. This cycle of birth,
life, death and rebirth is called samsara. Liberation from samsara through moksha is believed to
ensure lasting happiness and peace. Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of
current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.
Concept of God
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs; its concept of God is
complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is
sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the
existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?

— Nasadiya Sukta, concerns the origin of the universe, Rig Veda, 10:129–6
The Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda is one of the earliest textswhich
"demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept
of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being.
The Rig Veda praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner.The
hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and Reality. The "One Truth" of Vedic literature, in modern
era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden
Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.
Gods and Goddesses in Hinduism

46
Shiva/DurgaLakshmiVishnu

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. This soul – the spirit or true "self" of every
person, is called the ātman. The soul is believed to be eternal. According to the
monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this
Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. The goal of life, according to the Advaita
school, is to realise that one's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in
everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.
Dualistic schools (Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from
individual souls.[198] They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva,
or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is
called Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Deva or Devi, and these terms have different
meanings in different schools of Hinduism.
Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualized as the divine
essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances. There
is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to
rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and
parents. It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence. This seeing
divinity in everything, state Buttimer and Wallin, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism
quite distinct from Animism.The animistic premise sees multiplicity, power differences and
competition between man and man, man and animal, as well as man and nature. The Vedic view
does not see this competition, rather sees a unifying divinity that connects everyone and
everything.
The Hindu scriptures name celestial entities called Devas (or Devī in feminine form), which may
be translated into English as gods or heavenly beings. The word avatar does not appear in the
Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in
the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE. Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often
associated with the avatars of Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other
deities.[214] Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the
ten Dashavatara of the Garuda Purana and the twenty-two avatars in the Bhagavata Purana,
though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable. The avatars of Vishnu are
important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition, avatars of the Devi
are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical
Brahmanand Shakti (energy). While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also
mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.
Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in
different schools of Hinduism. The early Nyaya school of Hinduism, for example, was non-
theist/atheist, but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its
theory of logic. Other schools disagreed with Nyaya
scholars. Samkhya.Mimamsaand Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing
that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption". Its Vaisheshika school started as
another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later
introduced the concept of a non-creator God. The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept
of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god. Advaita Vedanta taught a
monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective

47
that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious".Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God
that is distinct from each human being.
According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in
world religion from ancient times to the present. The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most
esoteric Saiva traditions.
Authority
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism. Religious traditions and truths
are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus,
saints or avatars. But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal
debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the
understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated
through [...] an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to
the shared logic of natural reason." Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning
persons of authority. The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks kena, 'by what' power something is
the case. The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticizes
the teacher's inferior answers. In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma. Doubt
plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda presents criticism via the
character of Radha.
Hindu denominations

48
A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top
left), Parvati (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects
dedicated to them.

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong
to any particular denomination or tradition. Four major denominations are, however, used in
scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. These denominations differ
primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook.[238] The
denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world,
because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practicing more than one, and he
suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".
Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars,
particularly Krishna and Rama. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic,
oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving,
joyous, playful" Krishna and other Vishnu avatars. These practices sometimes include
community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to
have meditative and spiritual powers. Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in
Vaishnavism. The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas
provide its theistic foundations. Philosophically, their beliefs are rooted in the dualism sub-
schools of Vedantic Hinduism.

Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic
individualism, and it has several sub-schools. Their practices include Bhakti-style devotionalism,
yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja
Yoga. Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasize yoga, striving to be one with
Shiva within. Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female,
as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism,
wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva. Community celebrations include festivals, and
participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela. Shaivism has been more
commonly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.
Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother, and it is particularly
common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal. Devi is depicted
as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses
like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the
male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices. Community celebrations
include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water
bodies.
Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu,
Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda. The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical
Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from
the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions. The Smarta tradition is aligned with
Advaita Vedanta, and regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who considered worship
of God-with-attributes (Saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God-without-
attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge). The term Smartism is derived from Smriti
texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts. This Hindu sect

49
practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an
understanding of Self's oneness with God.
There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within
Hinduism. Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of
Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the
largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million
or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and
Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%. In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is
the largest tradition of Hinduism.

Shruti, Smriti, List of Hindu scriptures, and Sources of dharma

The Rigveda is the first among four Vedasand is one of the oldest religious texts. This
Rigveda manuscript is in Devanagari.
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: Shruti and
Smriti. Shruti is apauruṣeyā, "not made of a man" but revealed to the rishis (seers), and regarded
as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary
authority.[262] They are the two highest sources of dharma, the other two being Śiṣṭa
Āchāra/Sadāchara (conduct of noble people) and finally Ātma tuṣṭi ("what is pleasing to
oneself")[note 24]
Hindu scriptures were composed, memorized and transmitted verbally, across generations, for
many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings
and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and
metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.
Shruti (lit. that which is heard) primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of
the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages
(rishis).[266] There are four Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda
has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions),

50
the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices),
the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text
discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The first two parts of the Vedas
were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form
the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).
The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly
influenced diverse traditions. Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), they alone are widely influential
among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have
continued to influence its thoughts and traditions. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the
Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance. There are
108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by
scholars as Principal Upanishads. The most notable of the Smritis ("remembered") are the Hindu
epics and the Puranas. The epics consist of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavad
Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of
Hinduism. is sometimes called Gitopanishad, then placed in the Shruti ("heard") category, being
Upanishadic in contentThe Puranas, which started to be composed from c. 300 CE
onward,[280] contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes
of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The Yoga Sutras is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga
tradition, which gained a renewed popularity in the 20th century. Since the 19th-century Indian
modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its
Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the
Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to
the sages. In Tantric tradition, the Agamas refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of
Shiva to Shakti,while Nigamas refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva. In
Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.

Rituals

A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. A
typical Hindu wedding is solemnized before Vedic fire ritual (shown).

51
Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages,
and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an
individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after
bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs
before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional
hymns), yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.
Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special
occasions, such as a Hindu wedding. Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death,
include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.
The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred," and "do not constitute linguistic
utterances."[292] Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they
become magical sounds, "means to an end." In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have
their own meaning, mantras are considered as "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the
forms to which they refer. By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and
nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved,
the recitation of the mantras will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning
is understood by human beings."
Life-cycle rites of passage
Major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara (saṃskāra, rites of passage) in
Hinduism. The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and
regionally. Gautama Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48
sanskaras, while Gryhasutra and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16
sanskaras. The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a
baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics
such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude. The major traditional rites of
passage in Hinduism include. Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins
moving and kicking in womb), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby
shower), Jatakarman (rite celebrating the new born baby), Namakarana (naming the
child), Nishkramana (baby's first outing from home into the world), Annaprashana (baby's first
feeding of solid food), Chudakarana (baby's first haircut, tonsure), Karnavedha (ear
piercing), Vidyarambha (baby's start with knowledge), Upanayana (entry into a school rite),
Keshanta and Ritusuddhi (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation
ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), Vratas (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an
adult, burial for a child). In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to
which of these sanskaras are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such
as Śrāddha (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced.

52
Bhakti (worship)

A home shrine with offerings at a regional Vishu festival (left); a priest in a temple (right).
Bhakti refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god
by a devotee Bhakti marga is considered in Hinduism as one of many possible paths of
spirituality and alternative means to moksha. The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu,
are Jnana marga (path of knowledge), Karma marga (path of works), Rāja marga (path of
contemplation and meditation).
Bhakti is practiced in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to
individual private prayers in one's home shrineor in a temple before a murti or sacred image of a
deity. Hindu temples and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary
theistic Hinduism. While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a
domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or
gurus.
Festivals

The festival of lights, Diwali, is celebrated by Hindus all over the world. It is referred as Dipavali in the South
India. Holi celebrated at the Sri Sri Radha Krishna Temple in Utah, United States
.
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual
and social life to dharma. Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are
set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon (Holi) or the new
moon (Diwali), often with seasonal changes.Some festivals are found only regionally and they
celebrate local traditions, while a few such as Holi and Diwali are pan-Hindu.The festivals
typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of
human relationships such as the Sister-Brother bond over the Raksha Bandhan (or Bhai Dooj)
festival. The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu

53
denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts,
family get togethers, Puja rituals and feasts.
Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:

 Makar Sankranti
 Pongal
 Thaipusam
 Vasant Panchami
 Maha Shivaratri
 Shigmo
 Holi
 Gudi Padwa
 Ugadi
 Bihu
 Vishu
 Ram Navami
 Guru Purnima
 Raksha Bandhan
 Krishna Janmastami
 Gowri Habba
 Ganesh Chaturthi
 Onam
 Navaratri
 Dussera
 Durga Puja or Durga Ashtami
 Diwali or Tihar or Deepawali
 Chhath
 Bonalu
 Rath Yatra
 Dashain
Pilgrimage
Many adherents undertake pilgrimages, which have historically been an important part of
Hinduism and remain so today. Pilgrimage sites are
called Tirtha, Kshetra, Gopitha or Mahalaya. The process or journey associated with Tirtha is
called Tirtha-yatra. According to the Hindu text Skanda Purana, Tirtha are of three kinds:
Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a sadhu, a rishi, a guru; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place
immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place
of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, soul. Tīrtha-yatra is, states Knut A.
Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as
mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of
mind.
Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas. Most
Puranas include large sections on Tirtha Mahatmya along with tourist guides, which describe
54
sacred sites and places to visit. In these texts, Varanasi (Benares,
Kashi), Rameshwaram, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Puri, Haridwar, Sri
Rangam, Vrindavan, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Mayapur, Nathdwara, twelve Jyotirlinga and Shakti
Peetha have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major
rivers meet (sangam) or join the sea. Kumbhamela is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the
solar festival Makar Sankranti. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four
sites: Prayag Raj at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, Haridwar near source of
the Ganges, Ujjain on the Shipra river and Nasik on the bank of the Godavari river. This is one
of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the
event. At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river, a tradition attributed
to Adi Shankara.
Some pilgrimages are part of a Vrata (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of
reasons. It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a rite of
passage such as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness. It may, states Eck, also be
the result of prayers answered. An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect
wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death. This may include dispersing their
cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honor the wishes of the dead. The
journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.
Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by traveling to
famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the GangesTirtha has been one of the recommended
means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional
sins, in the Hindu tradition. The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu
texts. The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from traveling on foot, or part
of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is
otherwise impossible.
Varnas

Priests performing Kalyanam (marriage) of the holy deities at Bhadrachalam Temple,

in Telangana. It is one of the temples in India, where Kalyanam is done everyday throughout the
year.
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called varnas. They are the Brahmins:
Vedic teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors and kings; the Vaishyas: farmers and
merchants; and the Shudras: servants and labourers. The Bhagavad Gītā links the varna to an
individual's duty (svadharma), inborn nature (svabhāva), and natural tendencies
(guṇa).[364] The Manusmṛiti categorises the different castes. Some mobility and flexibility within
the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed

55
out by several sociologists, although some other scholars disagree. Scholars debate whether the
so-called caste system is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.[368][web
20][note 27]
And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed
by the British colonial regime. A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varnatita or
"beyond all varnas" in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the
family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman
beyond all varnas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and
limitations of caste.
Yoga

A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages
have taught for reaching that goal. Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and
consciousness for health, tranquility, and spiritual insight. Texts dedicated to Yoga include
the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Bhagavad Gita and, as their philosophical and
historical basis, the Upanishads. Yoga is means, and the four major marga (paths) of Hinduism
are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of right action), Rāja
Yoga (the path of meditation), and Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom) An individual may prefer
one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of
one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice of yoga as exercise has a contested
relationship with Hinduism.

56
Symbolism

Basic Hindu symbols: Shatkona, Padma, and Swastika.The Hindu deity Ganesha is sometimes
linked to the symbol Om
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art,
architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or
cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Brahman and Atman) has grown to
represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the Swastika sign represent
auspiciousness, and Tilaka (literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location of
spiritual third eye, marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a ritual or rite
of passage. Elaborate Tilaka with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination.
Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, idols are all part of
symbolic iconography in Hinduism.
Ahimsa, vegetarianism and other food customs
Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (nonviolence) and respect for all life because divinity is
believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals. The
term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads,] the epic Mahabharata and ahiṃsā is the first of the
five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. Cow caretaker and a maternal
figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. There are many
Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some
adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood. Food affects body, mind and spirit in
Hindu beliefs. Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad] and
Svātmārāma recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous self
restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through
17.10.
Some Hindus such as those belonging to the Shaktism tradition, and Hindus in regions such as
Bali and Nepalpractise animal sacrifice.The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food. In contrast,
the Vaishnava Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice. The principle of non-
violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is
uncommon and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.

57
Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu Monastery in the North
American continent

Temple
A Hindu temple is a house of god(s). It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings
and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. A
temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome
representing Mount Meru – reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe,
the carvings and iconography symbolically
presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksha and karma. The layout, the motifs, the plan and the
building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values
innate within various schools of Hinduism. Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many
Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, rite of passage rituals, and
community celebrations.
Illustration of Hindu temples in Asia

Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and
are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs. Two major styles of Hindu temples include
the Gopuram style found in south India, and Nagara style found in north India. Other styles
include cave, forest and mountain temples. Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu
temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes. Many
temples feature one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the
center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (darsana, a sight) in a Hindu
temple In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the
devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa (Brahman), the universal
essence.

58
Ashrama
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another
meaning includes monastery). The four ashramas
are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retired)
and Sannyasa (renunciation). Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life.
Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household,
raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social
life.[417] Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered as the most
important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous
life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the
offsprings that continued mankind. Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands
over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually
withdrew from the world. The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and
detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic
state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life. The Ashramas system has been
one facet of the Dharma concept in Hinduism Combined with four proper goals of human life
(Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life
and spiritual liberation. While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter
Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya
stage. Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live
with their families.
Monasticism
Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or
another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life,
detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation. A Hindu monk is
called a Sanyāsī, Sādhu, or Swāmi. A female renunciate is called a Sanyāsini. Renunciates
receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple ahimsa-driven lifestyle and
dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life in
Hinduism. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place,
depending on donated food and charity for their needs.

Hinduism – Percentage by country

59
Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 79.8% of the country's
population of 1.21 billion (2011 census) (960 million adherents). Other significant
populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island
of Bali (3.9 million). The majority of the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism, with
the largest proportion in Ninh Thuận Province.
Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:

1. Nepal 81.3%
2. India 79.8%
3. Mauritius 48.5%
4. Guyana 28.4%
5. Fiji 27.9%
6. Bhutan 22.6%
7. Suriname 22.3%
8. Trinidad and Tobago 18.2%]
9. Qatar 13.8%
10. Sri Lanka 12.6%
11. Bahrain 9.8%
12. Bangladesh 8.5%
13. Réunion 6.7%
14. United Arab Emirates 6.6%
15. Malaysia 6.3%
16. Kuwait 6%
17. Oman 5.5%
18. Singapore 5%
19. New Zealand 2.62%
20. Seychelles 2.4%
Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.

Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, 2012 data)

% of the % of the
Follower World
Tradition Followers Hindu world
dynamics dynamics
population population

Vaishnavism 640,806,845 67.6 9.3 Growing Declining

Shaivism 252,200,000 26.6 3.7 Growing Growing

60
Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, 2012 data)

% of the % of the
Follower World
Tradition Followers Hindu world
dynamics dynamics
population population

Shaktism 30,000,000 3.2 0.4 Stable Declining

Neo-
20,300,000 2.1 0.3 Growing Growing
Hinduism

Reform
5,200,000 0.5 0.1 Growing Growing
Hinduism

Cumulative 948,575,000 100 13.8 Growing Growing

61
 CHAPTER IV
Hindu deities

Deities in Hinduism are referred to as Deva (masculine) and Devi (feminine). The root of these
terms mean "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence".According to Douglas Harper, the
etymological roots of Deva mean "a shining one," from *div- "to shine," and it is a cognate with
Greek dios "divine" and Zeus, and Latin deus (Old Latin deivos).
In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Asuras. By the late Vedic period
(~500 BC), benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras. In post-Vedic texts,
such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras
the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted
with their equally powerful, but malevolent half-brothers referred to as the Asuras.
Hindu deities are part of Indian mythology, both Devas and Devis feature in one of many
cosmological theories in Hinduism.
Characteristics of Vedic era deities
In Vedic literature, Devas and Devis represent the forces of nature and some represent moral
values (such as the Adityas, Varuna, and Mitra), each symbolizing the epitome of a specialized
knowledge, creative energy, exalted and magical powers (Siddhis).

Vedic era deities evolved over time. Rudra (left) is represented in Vedic literature, is shown as
Shiva-Rudra 2nd-century sculpture (middle), and as Shiva (meaning kind) in 13th-century art
work (right). The iconography evolved, retaining some symbolic elements such as trident, axe or
antelope.
The most referred to Devas in the Rig Veda are Indra, Agni (fire) and Soma, with "fire deity"
called the friend of all humanity, it and Soma being the two celebrated in a yajna fire ritual that

62
marks major Hindu ceremonies. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra (later given the exclusive epithet
of Shiva), and Prajapati (later Brahma) are gods and hence Devas.
The Vedas describes a number of significant Devis such
as Ushas (dawn), Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral order), Saraswati (river,
knowledge), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction), Ratri (night), Aranyani (forest), and bounty
goddesses such as Dinsana, Raka, Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati, Mahi among others are mentioned
in the Rigveda. Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, but
verses dedicated to her do not suggest that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic
era. All gods and goddesses are distinguished in the Vedic times, but in the post-Vedic texts
(~500 BC to 200 AD), and particularly in the early medieval era literature, they are ultimately
seen as aspects or manifestations of one Brahman, the Supreme power.
Ananda Coomaraswamy states that Devas and Asuras in the Vedic lore are similar to Angels-
Theoi-Gods and Titans of Greek mythology, both are powerful but have different orientations
and inclinations, the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the
powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology. According to Coomaraswamy's interpretation of Devas
and Asuras, both these natures exist in each human being, the tyrant and the angel is within each
being, the best and the worst within each person struggles before choices and one's own nature,
and the Hindu formulation of Devas and Asuras is an eternal dance between these within each
person.
The Devas and Asuras, Angels and Titans, powers of Light and powers of Darkness in Rigveda,
although distinct and opposite in operation, are in essence consubstantial, their distinction being a
matter not of essence but of orientation, revolution or transformation. In this case, the Titan is
potentially an Angel, the Angel still by nature a Titan; the Darkness in actu is Light, the Light
in potentia Darkness; whence the designations Asura and Deva may be applied to one and the same
Person according to the mode of operation, as in Rigveda 1.163.3, "Trita art thou (Agni) by interior
operation".

— Ananda Coomaraswamy, Journal of the American Oriental Society

Characteristics of medieval era deities

In the Puranas and the Itihasas with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good,
and the Asuras the bad. According to the Bhagavad Gita (16.6–16.7), all beings in the universe
have both the divine qualities (daivi sampad) and the demonic qualities (asuri sampad) within
each. The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and
pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-
charactered with a few or many faults. According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires,
aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only
when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, violence,
cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations
metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).

63
Ishvara on RIGHT

Indra is a Vedic era deity, found in south and southeast Asia. Above Indra is part of the seal of
a Thailand state.
The Epics and medieval era texts, particularly the Puranas, developed extensive and richly
varying mythologies associated with Hindu deities, including their genealogies. Several of the
Purana texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Other texts
and commentators such as Adi Shankara explain that Hindu deities live or rule over the cosmic
body as well in the temple of human body. They remark that the Sun deity is the eyes,
the Vāyu the nose, the Prajapati the sexual organs, the Lokapalas the ears, Chandra the mind,
Mitra the inward breath, Varuna the outward breath, Indra the arms, Bṛhaspati the speech,
Vishnu, whose stride is great, is the feet, and Māyā is the smile.
Symbolism
Edelmann states that gods and anti-gods of Hinduism are symbolism for spiritual concepts. For
example, god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights
into the knowledge of the self. Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can
use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas,
and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura
dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our
selves".Hindu deities in Vedic era, states Mahoney, are those artists with "powerfully inward
transformative, effective and creative mental powers".
In Hindu mythology, everyone starts as an Asura, born of the same father. "Asuras who remain
Asura" share the character of powerful beings craving for more power, more wealth, ego, anger,
unprincipled nature, force and violence. The "Asuras who become Devas" in contrast are driven
by an inner voice, seek understanding and meaning, prefer moderation, principled behavior,
aligned with Ṛta and Dharma, knowledge and harmony.

64
The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory
forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual
concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being. In the Bhāgavata Purana,
saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as Mahabali and Prahlada, conveying the
symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances
define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.
Ishvara

Ishvara is, along with Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma, one of the 17 deities commonly found in
Indonesian Surya Majapahit Hindu arts and records. However, Ishvara represents different concept in
various Hindu philosophies.

Another Hindu term that is sometimes translated as deity is Ishvara, or alternatively various
deities are described, state Sorajjakool et al., as "the personifications of various aspects of one
and the same Ishvara". The term Ishvara has a wide range of meanings that depend on the era
and the school of Hinduism. In ancient texts of Indian philosophy, Ishvara means supreme
soul, Brahman (Highest Reality), ruler, king or husband depending on the context. In medieval
era texts, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal god, or special Self depending on the
school of Hinduism.
Among the six systems of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya and Mimamsa do not consider the
concept of Ishvara, i.e., a supreme being,
relevant. Yoga, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Nyaya schools of Hinduism discuss Ishvara, but
assign different meanings.
Early Nyaya school scholars considered the hypothesis of a deity as a creator God with the
power to grant blessings, boons and fruits; but these early Nyaya scholars then rejected this

65
hypothesis, and were non-theistic or atheists. Later scholars of Nyaya school reconsidered this
question and offered counter arguments for what is Ishvara and various arguments to prove the
existence of omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent deity (God).
Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in 1st millennium BC, neither required
nor relied on creator deity. Later Vaisheshika school adopted the concept of Ishvara, states Klaus
Klostermaier, but as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and
atoms, but He "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".
Ancient Mimamsa scholars of Hinduism questioned what is Ishvara (deity, God)? They
considered a deity concept unnecessary for a consistent philosophy and moksha (soteriology).
In Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Isvara is neither a creator-God, nor a savior-God. This
is called one of the several major atheistic schools of Hinduism by some scholars. Others, such
as Jacobsen, state that Samkhya is more accurately described as non-theistic. Deity is considered
an irrelevant concept, neither defined nor denied, in Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.
In Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" (Ishta Deva or Ishta Devata)[94] or
"spiritual inspiration", but not a creator God. Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses
in the Yogasutras can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept
of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the
yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".
The Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism asserted that there is no dualistic existence of deity (or
deities). There is no otherness nor distinction between Jiva and Ishvara. God (Ishvara, Brahman)
is identical with the Atman (soul) within each human being in Advaita Vedanta school,[100] and
there is a monistic Universal Absolute Oneness that connects everyone and everything, states this
school of Hinduism. This school, states Anantanand Rambachan, has "perhaps exerted the most
widespread influence".
The Dvaita sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded in medieval era, Ishvara is defined as a
creator God that is distinct from Jiva (individual souls in living beings). In this school, God
creates individual souls, but the individual soul never was and never will become one with God;
the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.

Number of deities

Yantra as aniconic deities

Yantra (यन्त्र) (Sanskrit) (literally "machine, contraption”) is a mystical diagram, mainly from
the Tantric traditions of the Indian religions. They are used for the worship of deities in
temples or at home; as an aid in meditation; used for the benefits given by their supposed
occult powers based on Hindu astrology and tantric texts. They are also used for
adornment of temple floors, due mainly to their aesthetic and symmetric qualities. Specific
yantras are traditionally associated with specific deities.
Representations of the yantra in India have been considered to date back to 11,000-
10,000 years BCE. The Baghor stone, found in an upper-paleolithic context in the Son
River valley, is considered the earliest example by G.R. Sharma, who was involved in the
excavation of the stone (it was dated to 25,000 - 20,000 BCE). The triangular stone, which
includes triangular engravings on one side, was found daubed in ochre, in what was
considered a site related to worship. Worship of goddesses in that region was found to be

66
 practiced in a similar manner to the present day. Kenoyer, who was also involved in the
excavation, considered it to be associated with Shakti
In Rigvedic Sanskrit, it meant an instrument for restraining or fastening, a prop, support or
barrier, etymologically from the root yam "to sustain, support" and the -tra suffix
expressing instruments. The literal meaning is still evident in the medical terminology
of Sushruta, where the term refers to blunt surgical instruments such as tweezers or a
vice. The meaning of "mystical or occult diagram" arises in the medieval period
(Kathasaritsagara, Pancharatra).
Madhu Khanna in linking mantra, yantra, deva, and thought forms states:
Mantras, the Sanskrit syllables inscribed on yantras, are essentially "thought forms"
representing divinities or cosmic powers, which exert their influence by means of sound-
vibrations.

Sri Yantra symbolizing the goddess Tripura Sundari

Yantras or mandalas (shown) are 3-D images. In Tantra, a minority tradition in

Hinduism, they are considered identical with deity. Similar tantric yantras are found
in Jainism and Buddhism as well.

Yāska, the earliest known language scholar of India (~ 500 BC), notes Wilkins, mentions that
there are three deities (Devas) according to the Vedas, "Agni (fire), whose place is on the
earth; Vayu (wind), whose place is the air; and Surya (sun), whose place is in the sky". This
principle of three worlds (or zones), and its multiples is found thereafter in many ancient texts.
The Samhitas, which are the oldest layer of text in Vedas enumerate 33 devas, either 11 each for
the three worlds, or as 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus and 2 Ashvins in the Brahmanas layer of
Vedic texts.
The Rigveda states in hymn 1.139.11,
ये दे वासो वदव्येकादर्श स्थ पृवथव्यामध्येकादर्श स्थ ।
अप्सुवक्षतो मवहनैकादर्श स्थ ते दे िासो यज्ञवममं जुर्ध्वम् ॥११॥

67
O ye eleven gods whose home is heaven, O ye eleven who make earth your dwelling,
Ye who with might, eleven, live in waters, accept this sacrifice, O gods, with pleasure.

Gods who are eleven in heaven; who are eleven on earth;

and who are eleven dwelling with glory in mid-air; may ye be pleased with this our sacrifice.
– Translated by HH Wilson

— Rigveda 1.139.11

One or one-ness
Thirty-three crore divinities are mentioned in other ancient texts, such as
the Yajurveda, however, there is fixed "number of deities" in Hinduism there are only 33 crore
gods a standard representation of "deity".Most, by far, are goddesses, state Foulston and Abbott,
suggesting "how important and popular goddesses are" in Hindu culture. No one has a list of the
33 crore category goddesses and gods, but scholars state all deities are typically viewed in
Hinduism as "emanations or manifestation of genderless principle called Brahman, representing
the many facets of Ultimate Reality".
Iconography: This concept of God in Hinduism "God, the universe, human beings and all else is
essentially one thing" and everything is connected oneness, the same god is in every human
being as Atman, the eternal Self. Parallels between Allah in Islam or Ein Sof in Kabbalah and
Brahman has been drawn by my scholars in past and more so in recent.

Proper Murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts (Bengali). They describe
proportions, posture, expressions among other details, often referencing to nature.

68
A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a Murti
Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity,
Salutations to you!
I worship you per rules, kindly accept it.
May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere,
May they forgive us now, we bow to them.
—Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11
Hinduism has an ancient and extensive iconography tradition, particularly in the form
of Murti (Sanskrit: मूवतद , IAST: Mūrti), or Vigraha or Pratima. A Murti is itself not the god
in Hinduism, but it is an image of god and represents emotional and religious value. A literal
translation of Murti as idol is incorrect, states Jeaneane Fowler, when idol is understood as
superstitious end in itself. Just like the photograph of a person is not the real person, a Murti is
an image in Hinduism but not the real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of
emotional and real value to the viewer. When a person worships a Murti, it is assumed to be a
manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are
meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is not confined in it.
A Murti of a Hindu deity is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or
through pottery. Medieval era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures
include the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas particularly the Shilpa Shastras. The expressions in
a Murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction,
fear and violence (Durga(Parvati, Kali), as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge
and harmony (Parvati, Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images are most common in Hindu
temples. Other Murti forms found in Hinduism include the Linga.
A Murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In
religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a
beloved guest and serve as a participant of Puja rituals in Hinduism. A murti is installed by
priests, in Hindu temples, through the Prana Pratishtha ceremony, whereby state Harold Coward
and David Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the
divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend. In other occasions, it serves as the center of
attention in annual festive processions and these are called Utsava Murti.
Temple and worship

Along with Murti, Hindus use nature and aniconic symbols for deities. Linga-Yoni (left)
symbolizes Shiva-Parvati, Tulsi plant in a square base (center) is symbolism for Vishnu, and
sunrise (or rivers) are revered as aspects of the spiritual everywhere.
In Hinduism, deities and their icons may be hosted in a Hindu temple, within a home or as an
amulet. The worship performed by Hindus is known by a number of regional names, such

69
as Puja. This practice in front of a murti may be elaborate in large temples, or be a simple song
or mantra muttered in home, or offering made to sunrise or river or symbolic anicon of a
deity.[135][136][137] Archaeological evidence of deity worship in Hindu temples trace Puja rituals
to Gupta Empire era (~4th century AD).[138][139] In Hindu temples, various pujas may be
performed daily at various times of the day; in other temples, it may be occasional.[140][141]
The Puja practice is structured as an act of welcoming, hosting, honoring the deity of one's
choice as one's honored guest,[142] and remembering the spiritual and emotional significance the
deity represents the devotee.[124][134] Jan Gonda, as well as Diana L. Eck, states that a
typical Puja involves one or more of 16 steps (Shodasha Upachara) traceable to ancient times:
the deity is invited as a guest, the devotee hosts and takes care of the deity as an honored guest,
praise (hymns) with Dhupa or Aarti along with food (Naivedhya) is offered to the deity, after an
expression of love and respect the host takes leave, and with affection expresses good bye to the
deity.[143][144] The worship practice may also involve reflecting on spiritual questions, with image
serving as support for such meditation.[145]
Deity worship (Bhakti), visiting temples and Puja rites are not mandatory and is optional in
Hinduism; it is the choice of a Hindu, it may be a routine daily affair for some Hindus, periodic
ritual or infrequent for some.[146][147] Worship practices in Hinduism are as diverse as its
traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic,
agnostic, atheistic, or humanist.[41]

Examples[edit]
Main articles: List of Hindu deities and Rigvedic deities

Major deities have inspired a vast genre of literature such as the Puranas and Agama texts as well
their own Hindu traditions, but with shared mythology, ritual grammar, theosophy, axiology and
polycentrism.[16][17] Vishnu and his avatars are at the foundation of Vaishnavism, Shiva
for Shaivism, Devi for Shaktism, and some Hindu traditions such as Smarta traditions who
revere multiple major deities (five) as henotheistic manifestations of Brahman (absolute
metaphysical Reality).[116][148][149]
While there are diverse deities in Hinduism, states Lawrence, "Exclusivism – which maintains
that only one's own deity is real" is rare in Hinduism.[116] Julius Lipner, and other scholars, state
that pluralism and "polycentrism" – where other deities are recognized and revered by members
of different "denominations", has been the Hindu ethos and way of life.[16][150]
Trimurti and Tridevi[edit]
Main articles: Trimurti and Tridevi

70
A 10th century triad – Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma – from Bihar.
The concept of Triad (or Trimurti, Trinity) makes a relatively late appearance in Hindu literature,
or in the second half of 1st millennium BC.[151] The idea of triad, playing three roles in the
cosmic affairs, is typically associated with Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva (also called Mahesh);
however, this is not the only triad in Hindu literature.[152] Other triads include Tridevi, of three
goddesses – Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati in the text Devi Mahatmya, in the Shakta tradition,
who further assert that Devi is the Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and it is her energy that
empowers Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.[151] The other triads, formulated as deities in ancient
Indian literature, include Sun (creator), Air (sustainer) and Fire (destroyer); Prana (creator), Food
(sustainer) and Time (destroyer).[151] These triads, states Jan Gonda, are in some mythologies
grouped together without forming a Trinity, and in other times represented as equal, a unity and
manifestations of one Brahman.[151] In the Puranas, for example, this idea of threefold
"hypostatization" is expressed as follows,
They [Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva] exist through each other, and uphold each other; they are parts of
one another; they subsist through one another; they are not for a moment separated; they never
abandon one another.
— Vayu Purana, 5.17, Translated by Jan Gonda[151]
The triad appears in Maitrayaniya Upanishad, for the first time in recognized roles known ever
since, where they are deployed to present the concept of three Guṇa – the innate nature,
tendencies and inner forces found within every being and everything, whose balance transform
and keeps changing the individual and the world.[152][153] It is in the medieval Puranic
texts, Trimurti concepts appears in various context, from rituals to spiritual concepts.[151] The
Bhagavad Gita, in verses 9.18, 10.21-23 and 11.15, asserts that the triad or trinity is
manifestation of one Brahman, which Krishna affirms himself to be.[154] However, suggests
Bailey, the mythology of triad is "not the influence nor the most important one" in Hindu
traditions, rather the ideologies and spiritual concepts develop on their own foundations.[152] The
triad, with Brahma creating, Vishnu preserving and Shiva destroying, balances the functioning of
the whole universe.

71
Avatars of Hindu deities[edit]

The ten avatars of Vishnu, (Clockwise, from top left) Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Vamana, Krishna,
Kalki, Buddha, Parshurama, Rama and Narasimha, (in centre) Radha and Krishna. Painting
currently in Victoria and Albert Museum.
Main articles: Avatar and Dashavatara
Hindu mythology has nurtured the concept of Avatar, which represents the descent of a deity on
earth.[155][156] This concept is commonly translated as "incarnation",[155] and is an "appearance" or
"manifestation".[157][158]
The concept of Avatar is most developed in Vaishnavism tradition, and associated with Vishnu,
particularly with Rama and Krishna.[159][160] Vishnu takes numerous avatars in Hindu mythology.
He becomes female, during the Samudra manthan, in the form of Mohini, to resolve a conflict
between the Devas and Asuras. His male avatars
include Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha,
and Kalki.[160] Various texts, particularly the Bhagavad Gita, discuss the idea of Avatar of
Vishnu appearing to restore the cosmic balance whenever the power of evil becomes excessive
and causes persistent oppression in the world.[156]
In Shaktism traditions, the concept appears in its legends as the various manifestations of Devi,
the Divine Mother principal in Hinduism.[161] The avatars of Devi or Parvati
include Durga and Kali, who are particularly revered in eastern states of India, as well as Tantra
traditions.[162][163][164] Twenty one avatars of Shiva are also described in Shaivism texts, but
unlike Vaishnava traditions, Shaiva traditions have focussed directly on Shiva rather than the
Avatar concept.[155]

72
Major regional and pan-Indian Hindu deities[edit]

Avatārs or
Other Geograph Early
Name Associated Image
Names y illustrative art
Deities

Matsya, Kurma
, Varāha, Nṛsi
mha, Vāmana,
Parashurāma,
Nārāyana, Rāma, Kṛshna,
Venkateshwara, Kalki, Vithoba, India, Nepal,
Vishnu
Jagannatha Dat Gopāl, Balara Sri Lanka 2nd-century BC
tatreya m,
Lady Mohini,
Naraenten (那
羅延天, Japan)

Mahādeva, Pas
hupati,
Tripurantaka,
Vishwanatha,
Dakshinamurth Achalanatha (J India, Nepal,
Shiva
y, Kālāntaka, apan)[165][166] Sri Lanka
Bhairava, Rudr
a, 1st-century
Nataraja, Sadas BC[167]
hiva Dattatreya

Aadi-Prajāpati,
Virinci,
Bonten (Japan)
Vaidyanaatha, India, Nepal,
,[168]
Vakpati, Sri Lanka,
Brahmā Phra
Varishta-deva, Southeast
Phrom (Thailan
Kamalaja, Asia
d)
Srashtaa,
6th-century AD
Kartaa, Dhaataa

73
 Avatārs or
Other Geograph Early
Name Associated Image
Names y illustrative art
Deities

Ganapati, Vinā
yaka, Kangiten (Japa India, Nepal,
Ganesha
Lambodara, n) Sri Lanka
Gajānana

7th-century AD

India, Sri
Kārtikey Skanda,
Lanka,
a Murugan
Malaysia

2nd-century BC

Umahi (烏摩妃
Uma, Devi,
, Japan)
Gauri, India, Nepal,
Pārvati Dewi
Durga, Kāli, An Sri Lanka
Sri (Indonesia)[
napurna 169]

5th-century AD

74
 Avatārs or
Other Geograph Early
Name Associated Image
Names y illustrative art
Deities

Sita, Rādhā,
Kisshōten (Jap
Sri
an) India, Nepal,
Lakshmi Devi, Gajalaksh
Nang Sri Lanka
mi, Kamalāsanā
Kwak (Thailan
d)[170] 1st-century BC

Benzaiten (Jap
an),
Biàncáitiān
India, Nepal,
Vāgishvari, (China),
Saraswati Java, Bali,
Vīnāpāni Thurathadi
Sri Lanka
(Myanmar),
Suratsawadi 10th-century
(Thailand)[171] AD

Pārvati, Kāli, M
Betari Durga India, Nepal,
Durgā ahishāsuramard
(Indonesia)[172] Sri Lanka
ini

8th-century AD

75
 Avatārs or
Other Geograph Early
Name Associated Image
Names y illustrative art
Deities

India, Nepal,
Kāli Durga, Parvati
Sri Lanka

12th-century
AD

India (mostly
in South
Mariam India),
Durga, Parvati
man Southeast
Asia, Sri
10th-century
Lanka
AD

Harihara
(Half
India, Sri
Vishnu -
Lanka
Half
Shiva)
6th-century AD

76
 Avatārs or
Other Geograph Early
Name Associated Image
Names y illustrative art
Deities

Ardhanār
īshvara (
Half India, Nepal,
Shiva - Sri Lanka
Half
Parvati)

1st-century AD

77
 CHAPTER V
HINDU GODDESSES

Goddesh Maheshwari
Philosophical musings as far back as the Rig Veda contemplated the universe as the result of an
interplay between the male principle (purusha ), the prime source of generative power but
quiescent, and a female principle that came to be known as prakriti , an active principle that
manifests reality, or power (shakti ), at work in the world. On a philosophical level, this female
principle ultimately rests in the oneness of the male, but on a practical level it is the female that
is most significant in the world. The vast array of iconography and mythology that surround the
gods such as Vishnu and Shiva is a backdrop for the worship of their female consorts, and the
male deities fade into the background. Thus it is that the divine is often female in India. Steven
M. Kossak and Edith W. Watts from The Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote: “One of the most
striking characteristics of Hinduism is the importance of goddesses. As Hinduism developed,
Vedic goddesses came to the fore. Lakshmi and Sarasvati, for instance, became the consorts of
Vishnu. Other goddesses, who may have been worshipped independently outside of the Vedic
tradition, gradually appeared as powerful deities on their own, most prominently, Devi, who
represents the essence of female power."

78
 Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi, has a number of well-known incarnations that are the center of cults
in their own right. In the Ramayana , for example, female characters are responsible for most of
the important events, and the dutiful Sita, who resists the advances of lustful Ravana, is a much
beloved figure of devotion. Lakshmi receives direct worship along with Ram during the big
national festival of Dipavali (Diwali), celebrated with massive fireworks demonstrations, when
people pray for success and wealth during the coming year. The Mahabharata is equally packed
with tales of male and female relationships in which women hold their own, and the beautiful
Draupadi, wife of the five Pandava heroes, has her own cult in scattered locations throughout
India.

Shakti: Feminine Energy and Goddess Power

Jean Johnson wrote in an Asia Society article: “The term shakti refers to multiple ideas. Its
general definition is dynamic energy that is responsible for creation, maintenance, and
destruction of the universe. It is identified as female energy because shakti is responsible for
creation, as mothers are responsible for birth. Without shakti, nothing in this universe would
happen; she stimulates siva, which is passive energy in the form of consciousness, to create.
Ardhanarishvara, a Hindu deity who is half male and half female, is an iconic representation of
this idea. The deity is equally male and female, illustrating that the creation, maintenance, and
destruction of the universe is dependent on both forces.

Adi Shakti, the Supreme Spirit without attributes

“Shakti also refers to the manifestations of this energy, namely goddesses. Some goddesses
embody the destructive aspects of shakti, such as death, degeneration, and illness, while other
goddesses embody the creative and auspicious powers of shakti, such as nature, the elements,
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music, art, dance, and prosperity. Shakti may be personified as the gentle and benevolent Uma,
consort of Shiva, or Kali, the terrifying force destroying evil, or Durga, the warrior who conquers
forces that threaten the stability of the universe. Goddess worshippers often view their deity as
the all-powerful Supreme Being, second not even to a male god. There are enduring goddess
traditions all over India, especially in West Bengal and south India. Goddesses symbolizing
various aspects of power very often predominate in village culture. Village men, women, and
children, when they pray for immediate needs, address a female, not a male.
Saundaryalahari said: “Only when Shiva is united with Shakti does he have the power to create”
- The scholar David Kinsley writes: “Sakti [shakti] means “power”; in Hindu philosophy and
theology sakti is understood to be the active dimension of the godhead, the divine power that
underlies the godhead's ability to create the world and to display itself. Within the totality of the
godhead, sakti is the complementary pole of the divine tendency toward quiescence and stillness.
It is quite common, furthermore, to identify sakti with a female being, a goddess, and to identify
the other pole with her male consort. The two poles are usually understood to be interdependent
and to have relatively equal status in terms of the divine economy...Texts or contexts exalting the
Mahadevi [Great Goddess], however, usually affirm sakti to be a power, or the power,
underlying ultimate reality, or to be ultimate reality itself. Instead of being understood as one of
two poles or as one dimension of a bipolar conception of the divine, sakti as it applies to the
Mahadevi is often identified with the essence of reality." [Source: David R. Kinsley, “Hindu
Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition” Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1986, 133]
“The Hindu tradition also considers women the vessels of shakti. This identification with shakti
acknowledges women as the vessels of both creative and destructive power. Like many modern
cultures, Hindu culture has a hard time reconciling the biological compulsion of these two
powerful forces. Some feminists and scholars criticize this identification because they believe it
has led society to label women either as saints or sinners, with little room in between. They argue
that women, like benevolent goddesses, are expected to exhibit forgiveness, compassion, and
tolerance of others’ transgressions. If they conform to this role, patriarchal society accepts them;
if they do not, and attempt to exhibit independence and assertiveness, they are considered
destructive, disrupting community and family social structures. However, others argue that the
idea of shakti can be used to empower Indian women to resist patriarchy.

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 Shiva and ParvatiOn Goddess worship, Arthur Basham, a well-known historian of India, wrote:
The theme of shakti perhaps grew out of a conflict and eventual compromise between a powerful
matriarchal culture that existed in India before the Aryan migrations (2500, B.C. [B.C.E.") and
the male'dominated society of the Aryans. The Mother Goddess of the Indus Valley people never
really gave place to a dominant male. The Earth Mother continues to be worshipped in India as
the power that nurtures the seed and brings it to fruition. This basic reverence of an agricultural
people affirms that man is really dependent on woman for she gives life, food and strength.
Mother Goddesses were worshipped at all times in India, but between the days of the Harappa
Culture (2500-1500 B.C. [B.C.E.") and the Gupta period (ca. 300-500) the cults of goddesses
attracted little attention from the learned and influential, and only emerged from obscurity to a
position of real importance in the Middle Ages, when feminine divinities, theoretically connected
with the gods as their spouses, were once more worshipped by the upper classes…by the Gupta
Period the wives of the gods, whose existence had always been recognized, but who had been
shadowy figures in earlier theology, began to be worshipped in special temples [Source: Arthur
L. Basham, Wonder That Was Indiad Revised Edition [London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1967],
313).

Early Hindu Goddesses

Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth and generosity. She is also the goddess of good fortune.
Lakshmi is represented as a beautiful golden woman with four arms. She is usually shown sitting
or standing on a lotus. Two elephants holding garlands in their trunks shower her with water.
Lakshmi is the wife of the god Vishnu. [Source: British Museum]
Prithvi is the goddess of the earth. She is also a goddess of fertility. Prithvi appears as a cow.
She had three children with the god Dyaus. Her daughter Ushas is the goddess of the dawn. Her
two sons were Agni, the god of fire, and Indra, the god of thunder.
Ushas is the goddess of the dawn. She wears red robes and a golden veil. Ushas rides in a
shining chariot driven by seven cows. Ushas is friendly to humans and is a giver of wealth to all
people. She is the daughter of Dyaus and sister of Agni and Indra.

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Devi and Her Incarnations-Devi-Kali
Steven M. Kossak and Edith W. Watts from The Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote: “The
Great Goddess Devi appears in myriad forms. As Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and beauty, she is
one of the most popular deities in India and is sometimes shown flanked by two elephants who
honor her by pouring water over her head with their trunks. Devi, in the form of Lakshmi, is
Vishnu's wife. Devi also appears as Vishnu's wife in two of his incarnations: when he is Rama
she is Sita, and when he is Krishna she is Radha. [Source: Steven M. Kossak and Edith W.
Watts, The Art of South, and Southeast Asia, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York <*>]
Parvati is another form of Devi. In Hindu mythology, she is the reincarnation of Shiva's first
wife Sati, who killed herself because of an insult to her husband. (The traditional custom, now
outlawed, in which a Hindu widow throws herself upon her husband's funeral pyre is called
suttee, a word derived from Sati. As the name implies, suttee recre- ates Sati's final act of loyalty
and devotion to her husband.) Beautiful Parvati was born to lure the mourning Shiva into another
marriage, thus taking him away from the life of the ascetic into the more active realm of husband
and father. Like Lakshmi, Parvati represents the ideal wife and mother. She is portrayed as a
perfect balance between purity and sensuality. <*>

The militant Durga, another incarnation of Devi, was created by the gods to kill a demon that the
male gods, even combining their powers, could not vanquish. Durga holds in her multiple hands
the weapons lent to her. The conch shell, a war trumpet which in spiral form symbolizes the
origin of existence The war discus, a wheel-shaped weapon with a sharp cutting edge A club or
mace, symbol of authority and the power of knowledge The lotus, symbol of transcendence and
purity 31 her by the gods; for instance, Shiva's trident and Vishnu's war disk. She also holds a
sword, bell, and rhyton (drinking vessel) shaped like a ram for drinking the blood of demons she
has killed. Despite her awesome powers, when she kills the demon Mahisha, her face is serene

82
and beautiful and her body is the female ideal. Violent, ferocious images of the goddesses
Chamunda and Kali symbolize the darker side of the Great Goddess, who in these forms kills
demons, repels evil, defeats ignorance, and protects the devotee and the temple. <*>

Favorite Hindu Goddesses

Annapurna, the goddess of nourishment and abundance, is an aspect of the goddess Parvati and
is often depicted with a pot overflowing with rice and a vessel filled to the brim with milk. She is
the deity that beggars often prey to.

Ganga in Hardiwar/Laxmi
The Ganges is named after Ganga, a river goddess who descended from heaven and had her fall
broken by Shiva's hair. She is the second wife of Shiva. Her sisters are Yamuna, Godavari,
Saraswati, Narmada, Sindhu and Kaveri. Prayers honoring all these holy relatives are recited in
the holy river when the bathers submerge themselves to be purified. Ganga represents fertility
because she provides water for land. She is often depicted with a bowl of water in one hand and
lotus flower in another, sitting on a makara , a legendary sea monster.
Garelaisama. is a female deity associated with edible plants and good luck in hunting as is said
to have the power to keep drunk people from quarreling. Whenever an animal is caught a piece
of meat is cut off and immediately offered to Garelaisama. In the past hunters often tried to kill
only male animals so as not upset the female deity. If one was accidently killed the hunter prayed
for forgiveness.
Other Hindu goddesses: 1) Savitri, goddess of movement; 2) Usha, daughter of the sky and her
sister night; and 3) Saraswati, goddess of wisdom and knowledge (See Brahma);

83
Lakshima
One of the most popular goddesses of Hindu mythology, Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth,
purity, good fortune and beauty. She is Vishnu's consort and wife. She has two or four arms and
is often shown seated on a lotus flower between two elephants with their trunks raised above her,
sprinkling water on her. She is often depicted holding a lotus blossom, conch, disc and mace of
Vishnu. Many people worship her because she brings good fortune.

Lakshima
Lakshima is commonly portrayed as a beautiful woman with four arms, standing on a lotus
flower. There is usually one, or sometimes two elephants behind her. She is often depicted sitting
beneath Vishnu, massaging his feet. Hindus worship Lakshmi at home as well as in the temple.
Friday is believed to be the most auspicious day for her worship. Hindus believe that anybody
who worships Lakshmi sincerely, and not in greed, will be blessed with fortune and success. It is
said that Lakshmi resides in places of hard work, virtue and bravery, but leaves whenever these
qualities are not apparent any more.
According to the BBC: “ Lakshmi is particularly worshipped during the festival of Diwali. This
festival commemorates the epic story, Ramayana. Ramayana is the legend of Lord Rama's battle
with the demon Ravana, in which Lakshmi features. In the story of Ramayana, Sita is married to
Lord Rama. Hindus believe Sita is an incarnation of Lakshmi. The story tells us that Rama had
been cast out of his rightful kingdom, and had gone to live in a forest with his wife and brother.
The battle between Rama and the demon Ravana begins when Ravana abducts Sita from the
forest. The epic follows the story of Rama defeating the demon, and his eventual return to his
kingdom. [Source: BBC |::|]
“As the three heroes, Rama, his brother Lakshman and Sita, returned home, people lit candles to
guide their way in the dark. In honour of this, on the second day of Diwali people light candles in
their homes to guide Lakshmi, in the hope that she will bestow good fortune on their home for
the coming year. After worshipping Lakshmi on Diwali, many Hindus gamble and spend
profusely, believing that Lakshmi has bestowed good fortune upon them. In addition to this, two
days before Diwali, a festival called Dhantares is celebrated to seek more blessings from her.
During this time Hindus buy gold and silver and start new business ventures.

Lakashima and the Churning of the Milky Ocean

Lakshima was born in the Churning of the Ocean of Milk. She descended to earth as one of
Vishnu's avatars. She is sometimes depicted as Sita, the wife of Rama, or Rukmini, the consort
of Krishna. She appears with each of Vishnu's incarnations. When Vishnu came to earth as
Vamana, the dwarf, Lakshmi appeared as a lotus.

84
Churning of the Ocean of Milk at Angkor Wat
According to the BBC: “One of the most compelling stories in Hindu mythology is that of the
Churning of the Milky Ocean. It is the story of the gods versus the demons and their fight to gain
immortality. It also tells of the rebirth of Lakshmi. Indra, the warrior god, was given the
responsibility of protecting the world against the demons. He had protected it successfully for
many years, and the goddess Lakshmi's presence had made him sure of success.
“One day, a wise sage offered Indra a garland of sacred flowers. In his arrogance, Indra threw
the flowers to the floor. According to Hindu belief, this display of arrogance upset Lakshmi, who
left the world of the gods and entered into the Milky Ocean. Without her, the gods were no
longer blessed with success or fortune. The world became darker, people became greedy, and no
offerings were made to the gods. The gods began to lose their power and the asuras (demons)
took control. |::|
“Indra asked Vishnu what should be done. He told Indra that the gods would need to churn the
Milky Ocean to regain Lakshmi and her blessings. He then told them the Ocean held other
treasures which would also help them. This included the elixir of life, a potion bestowing
immortality, which would enable them to defeat the demons. Finally, the treasures began to rise
to the surface. Among them, a beautiful woman standing on a lotus flower. This was Lakshmi,
who had returned to the world. With her presence, the gods eventually defeated the demons and
chased them out of the world. |::|
“The story of the Churning of the Ocean tells of how the gods worked together to churn the
ocean. They churned for many years, but it was 1,000 years before anything rose to the surface.
This story highlights the good fortune and success that Lakshmi bestows upon those who work
hard and seek help sincerely. It also demonstrates that during times of success, one must never
become complacent or arrogant, as success has a way of getting away from people."

Shakti (Devi)
Shakti, also known as Devi or Mahadevi, is the mother goddess of India and the wife of Shiva.
Like Shiva, she has a benevolent and malevolent side and is regarded as both sexy and strong.
Shakti is often depicted with multiple arms. Her forms and manifestations include Parvati, Gauri,
and the ugly Kali---all of whom have various associations with Shiva. Her mount is a tiger.

85
 Shakti is believed to have evolved from indigenous earth-mother goddesses, one of which
existed in the ancient Indus Civilization, and is closely linked with thousands of local goddess
found throughout India. These goddesses can be both beneficent and benign and powerful and
destructive and often are associated with fertility and agriculture and sometimes placated with
sacrificial blood offerings.
Shakti is regarded as local protector for thousands of villages and characterized as the “dispeller
of the Fear of Time." Her most famous achievement is the slaying of a buffalo demon of egoism
by using a red noose to pull the demon out of the buffalo's body.
The word Shakti is also used to describe the "the essence of female energy” which in turn is
closely linked with Tantrism and is regarded as the female complement to Shiva's male energy.
Shakti's power and that of females is characterized as dark, mysterious and omnipresent. Shakti
and her different forms are also closely linked to Tantrism.

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 CHAPTER VI
Devī : दे िी
THE CONCEPT OF GODDESS IN HINDUISM

Devī (Sanskrit: दे िी) is the Sanskrit word for 'goddess'; the masculine form is deva. Devi—the
feminine form—and deva, the masculine form, mean 'heavenly, divine, anything of excellence',
and are also gender specific terms for a deity in Hinduism.
The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas, which were composed around the
3rd millennium BCE. However, they do not play a central role in that era.[1] Goddesses such
as Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Saraswati and Kali have continued to be revered in the modern
era.[1] The medieval era Puranas witness a major expansion in mythology and literature
associated with Devi, with texts such as the Devi Mahatmya, wherein she manifests as the
ultimate truth and supreme power. She has inspired the Shaktism tradition of
Hinduism.[2] Further, Devi is viewed as central in the Hindu traditions of Shaktism and Shaivism.
Devi and deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature around the 3rd millennium
BCE. Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi. Monier-Williams translates
it as 'heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones'.
Etymologically, the cognates of devi are Latin dea and Greek thea. When
capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred
to as devatā, and devi as devika.
According to Douglas Harper, the etymological root dev- means 'a shining one', from *div-, 'to
shine', and it is a cognate with Greek dios, 'divine' and Zeus, and Latin deus (Old Latin deivos).
God and gender in Hinduism

In Hinduism, there are diverse approaches to conceptualizing God and gender. Many Hindus
focus upon impersonal Absolute (Brahman) which is genderless. Other Hindu traditions conceive
God as androgynous (both female and male), alternatively as either male or female, while
cherishing gender henotheism, that is without denying the existence of other Gods in either
gender.
Male and female deities are extensively mentioned in the Vedas. The
earliest mandalas ("Books"; the authorship of each mandala is traditionally ascribed to a
particular rishi or that rishi's family) of the Rigveda, estimated to have been composed sometime
in the 2nd millennium BCE, invoke and praise both gods and goddesses. Ushas ("Goddess of
Dawns") is praised in twenty Hymns of Chapters VI.64, VI.65, VII.78 and X.172, with Hymn
VI.64.5 declaring goddess Ushas as the one who must be worshipped first.
Hymn to Ushas (Abridged):
The shining tints of the Dawn have spread like the waves of the waters,
Beautifying the world, she renders all good roads easy to traverse,
She who is replete with delight, excellence and health,

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Divine Ushas, though art seen auspicious, thou shinest afar,
thy bright rays spread over the sky, lovely and radiant with great splendour;
Do thou Ushas bring me opulence, daughter of heaven;
thou who art divine, who art lovely, who art to be worshipped at the first daily rite;
At thy dawning, divine Ushas, birds fly from their resting places, men arise to work;
Thou, divine Ushas, bring ample wealth to the mortal, the offerer of these prayers.

— Rigveda, VI.64
Goddesses, other than Ushas, mentioned in early Vedic literature
include Prthivi (earth), Aditi (mother of gods, abundance), Sarasvati (river,
nourishment), Vac (sound and speech), and Nirrti (death, destruction). Similarly male gods
feature prominently in the Vedas, with Indra (rain, lightning), Agni (fire), Varuna (rta,
law), Dyaus (sky, virility), Savitr (Surya, sun), and Soma (drink) some of the most mentioned.
The two deities most mentioned in Rigveda are Indra and Agni, both male.[7] Surya is the third
most revered god, again a male. Each is mentioned, anywhere rain and fire is evoked. They are
profusely praised, with ceremonies and prayers to all gods and goddesses symbolically organized
around fire (Agni yajna). The hymns seek strengthening of fire, and it is god Indra who increases
the energy of the fire, while god Surya increases his brightness. Max Muller states that, while
there are difference in frequency of mentions, gods and goddesses in Rig veda are "neither
superior nor inferior; almost every one is represented as supreme and absolute".
Gross states that ancient and medieval Hindu literature is richly endowed with gods, goddesses
and androgynous representations of God.[9] This, states Gross, is in contrast with several
monotheistic religions, where God is often synonymous with "He" and theism is replete with
male anthropomorphisms.[9] In Hinduism, goddess-imagery does not mean loss of male-god,
rather the ancient literature presents the two genders as balancing each other and complementary.
The Goddesses in Hinduism, states Gross,[9] are strong, beautiful and confident, symbolizing
their vitality in cycle of life. While masculine Gods are symbolically represented as those who
act, the feminine Goddesses are symbolically portrayed as those who inspire action.[9] Goddesses
in Hinduism are envisioned as the patrons of arts, culture, nurture, learning, arts, joys, spirituality
and liberation.
God is not either male or female concept in ancient Indian literature. Androgynous concepts of
god are common place as well.
Brahman
Most major schools of Hindu philosophy focus their philosophical discourse on the Universal
Absolute, called Brahman, which is a grammatically genderless noun.[10] This Universal
Absolute, states Zimmer, is "beyond the differentiating qualifications of sex, beyond any and all
limitations, individualizing characteristics whatsoever". The Brahman is the Great Cosmic Spirit,
the Ultimate True Reality, the Supreme Self. It is a transcendental concept that includes all
virtues, forms, genders, characteristics, capacities, knowledge and being-ness.[10] The history of
the genderless concept of Brahman, as the omnipresent Absolute Spirit and Supreme Self, can be
traced back to Vedas, and extensively in the earliest Upanishads, such as hymns 1.4.10 and 4.4.5
of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,[11] and hymn 6.2.1 of Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1.
Zimmer clarifies the notion of gender in Sanskrit language and its relation to the concepts of
Brahman and God in Hinduism, as follows:

88
It must be understood that in Sanskrit, grammatical gender is not always a sign of physical sex.
Gender infers function, sex infers form; so that an individual may be masculine from one point
of view and feminine from another. (...) Brahman can be regarded as the "womb" of life, and as
in Christianity "this man" and "this woman" are equally "feminine to God" [in Hinduism].
Absolutely, Brahman, although grammatically neuter, is the principle of all such differentiation.
Essence and nature are respectively masculine and feminine, logically distinct, but "one in God,"
who is neither this nor that [in Hinduism], and therefore "It" rather than "He" or "She"
specifically.

— Heinrich Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization

Hindu mythology incorporates numerous devas (gods) and devis (goddesses). These are
symbolic stories that synthesize God and gender, with ideas and values. The Vishnu Purana, for
example, recites one such myth describes gods and goddesses with names that are loaded with
symbolism. An excerpt of the story is as follows,
The progeny of Dharma by the daughters of Daksha were as follows: by Sraddhá (devotion) he
had Kama (desire); by Lakshmí (wealth, prosperity), was born Darpa (pride); by Dhriti
(courage), the progeny was Niyama (precept); by Tusht́i (inner comfort), Santosha
(contentment); by Pusht́i (opulence), the progeny was Lobha (cupidity, greed); by Medhá
(wisdom, experience), Sruta (sacred tradition); by Kriyá (hard work, labour), the progeny were
Dańd́ a, Naya, and Vinaya (justice, politics, and education); by Buddhi (intellect), Bodha
(understanding); by Lajjá (shame, humility), Vinaya (good behaviour); by Vapu (body, strength),
Vyavasaya (perseverance). Shanti (peace) gave birth to Kshama (forgiveness); Siddhi
(excellence) to Sukha (enjoyment); and Kírtti (glorious speech) gave birth to Yasha (reputation).
These were the sons of Dharma; one of whom, Kama (love, emotional fulfillment) had baby
Hersha (joy) by his wife Nandi (delight).
The wife of Adharma (vice, wrong, evil) was Hinsá (violence), on whom he begot a son Anrita
(falsehood), and a daughter Nikriti (immorality): they intermarried, and had two sons, Bhaya
(fear) and Naraka (hell); and twins to them, two daughters, Máyá (deceit) and Vedaná (torture),
who became their wives. The son of Bhaya (fear) and Máyá (deceit) was the destroyer of living
creatures, or Mrityu (death); and Dukha (pain) was the offspring of Naraka (hell) and Vedaná
(torture). The children of Mrityu were Vyádhi (disease), Jará (decay), Soka (sorrow), Trishńa
(greediness), and Krodha (wrath). These are all called the inflictors of misery, and are
characterised as the progeny of Vice (Adharma). They are all without wives, without posterity,
without the faculty to procreate; they perpetually operate as causes of the destruction of this
world. On the contrary, Daksha and the other Rishis, the elders of mankind, tend perpetually to
influence its renovation: whilst the Manus and their sons, the heroes endowed with mighty
power, and treading in the path of truth, as constantly contribute to its preservation.

— Vishnu Purana, Chapter 7, Translated by Horace Hayman Wilson

Smarta and Advaita

The Smarta tradition, which by and large, follows Advaita philosophy believes all forms, male
and female, to be different forms of the impersonal Absolute, Brahman which is of neuter gender
and can never be defined. Brahman is viewed as without personal attributes (Nirguna Brahman)
or with attributes (Saguna Brahman, equated with Ishvara) as God. In Advaita Vedanta, Ishvara

89
is Brahman. Thus according to Smarta views, the divine can be with attributes, Saguna Brahman,
and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a goddess) a devotee conceives.
Siva and Vishnu]
In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, God, Vishnu or Shiva respectively, is personified as male. God,
however, transcends gender in these sub-schools, and the male form is used as an icon to help
focus the Puja (worship). The use of icons is not restricted to male forms. It takes various forms
and shapes. The Shaivites and Vaishnavites worship God in non-anthropomorphic, symbolic
male-female images as well, such as the linga-yoni and Saligram respectively. In their literature,
the principle of God's true nature as sexless is emphasized as in the Vishnu sahasranama
Thus, the first few names, of Vishnu sahasranama, in particular, do not describe features of
Vishnu in detail and hence are not anthropomorphic
Shakti
Shaktism, on the other hand, is a denomination of Hinduism that worships Shakti,
or Devi Mata—the Hindu name for the Great Divine Mother—in all of her forms whilst not
rejecting the importance of masculine and neuter divinity (which are however deemed to be
inactive in the absence of the Shakti). In pure Shaktism, the Great Goddess, or Devi, is
worshiped. N. N. Bhattacharyya explained that "[those] who worship the Supreme Deity
exclusively as a Female Principle are called Shakta.
Alternative interpretations of Shaktism, however—primarily those of Shaivite scholars, such
as Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami—argue that the feminine manifest is ultimately only the
vehicle through which the masculine Un-manifest Parasiva is ultimately reached.
Radha Krishna
The common separation of Sakti and Saktiman, i.e. Female and Male principle in god arrives at
the conclusion Sakti and Saktiman are the same. Each and every god has its partner, 'better-half'
or Sakti and without this Sakti he is sometimes viewed being without essential power. In some
Bhakti schools, devotees of Hinduism worship both genders as a God-pair, rather than a specific
gender.
From the Vaishnava point of view the divine feminine energy (Shakti) implies a divine source of
energy, i.e. God as shaktiman. "Sita relates to Rama; Lakshmi belongs to Narayana; Radha has
Her Krishna." The female, in these pairs, is viewed as the source of energy and essence of the
male.
One of the prominent features of Vaishnavism in Manipur, for example, is the worship of the two
genders together. Devotees do not worship Krishna alone, or Radha alone, but Radha-
Krishna.[24] Rasa and other dances are a feature of the regional folk and religious tradition and
often, for example, a female dancer will portray both 'male' Krishna and his consort, Radha, in
the same piece.
The Shakti tradition conceives of God as a female. Other Bhakti traditions of Hinduism have
both male and female gods. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine deva of
the Hindu pantheon is partnered with a feminine who is often a devi
The worship of Devi-like deity dates back to period of Indus Valley Civilization.

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The Devīsūkta of the Rigveda (10.125.1 to 10.125.8) is among the most studied hymns declaring
that the ultimate reality is a goddess:
I have created all worlds at my will without being urged by any higher Being, and dwell within
them. I permeate the earth and heaven, and all created entities with my greatness and dwell in
them as eternal and infinite consciousness.

— Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.8, Translated by June McDaniel

The Vedas name numerous cosmic goddesses such
as Parvati (power), Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral
order), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction), Ratri (night) and Aranyani (forest); bounty goddesses
such as Dinsana, Raka, Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati and Mahi are among others are mentioned in
the Rigveda. However, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods (devas). Parvati
appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, but verses dedicated to her do not suggest
that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic era. All gods and goddesses are
distinguished in Vedic times, but in post-Vedic texts, particularly in the early medieval era
literature, they are ultimately seen as aspects or manifestations of one Devi, the Supreme Power.
Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism; in the Smarta tradition, she is one
of the five primary forms of Brahman that is revered. In other Hindu traditions, Devi embodies
the active energy and power of Deva, and they always appear together complementing each
other. Examples of this
are Parvati with Shiva in Shaivism, Saraswati with Brahma in Brahmanism and Lakshmi with Vi
shnu in Vaishnavism.
Devi-inspired philosophy is propounded in many Hindu texts such as the Devi Upanishad, which
teaches that Shakti is essentially Brahman (ultimate metaphysical Reality) and that from her
arises prakṛti (matter) and purusha (consciousness) and that she is bliss and non-bliss,
the Vedas and what is different from it, the born and the unborn and all of the universe. Shakti
is Parvati, Shiva’s wife. [20] She is also mentioned as the creative power of Shiva in Tripura
Upanishad, Bahvricha Upanishad and Guhyakali Upanishad.
Devi identifies herself in the Devi Upanishad as Brahman in her reply to the gods stating that she
rules the world, blesses devotees with riches, that she is the supreme deity to whom all worship
is to be offered and that she infuses Ātman in every soul. Devi asserts that she is creator of earth
and heaven and resides there. Her creation of the sky as father and the seas as mother is reflected
as the 'Inner Supreme Self'. Her creations are not prompted by any higher being and she resides
in all her creations. She is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and
heaven, and 'all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-
Brahman'. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, says June McDaniel, is the usage of the
terms yantra, bindu, bija, mantra, shakti and chakra.
Among the major world religions, the concept of Goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine,
has had the strongest presence since ancient times.
Parvati

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Parvati in her warrior form riding a lion

Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, beauty, purity, fertility and devotion, divine power and
killing asua. She is the Adi Parashakti. She is the mother goddess in Hinduism and has many
attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over
10008 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, including the popular name Gauri. Along

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with Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and prosperity) and Saraswati (goddess of knowledge and
learning), she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses.
Parvati is the wife of Shiva - the destroyer, recycler and regenerator of universe and all life. She
is the mother of Hindu gods Ganesha and Kartikeya.
Rita Gross states, that the view of Parvati only as ideal wife and mother is incomplete symbolism
of the power of the feminine in the mythology of India. Parvati, along with other goddesses, are
involved with the broad range of culturally valued goals and activities. Her connection with
motherhood and female sexuality does not confine the feminine or exhaust their significance and
activities in Hindu literature.She manifests in every activity, from water to mountains, from arts
to inspiring warriors, from agriculture to dance. Parvati's numerous aspects, states Gross, reflects
the Hindu belief that the feminine has universal range of activities, and her gender is not a
limiting condition.
In Hindu belief, Parvati is the recreative energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a
bond that connects all beings and a means of their spiritual release.
Devi is portrayed as the ideal wife, mother, and householder in Indian legends. In Indian art, this
vision of ideal couple is derived from Shiva and Parvati as being half of the other, represented
as Ardhanarisvara. Parvati is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and
iconography grace ancient and medieval era Hindu temples all over South Asia and Southeast
Asia.
Lakshmi

Lakshmi
Lakshmi, also called Sri, is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune, and prosperity (both material
and spiritual). She is the consort and active energy of Vishnu. Her four hands represent the four
goals of human life considered important to the Hindu way of life – dharma, kāma, artha,

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and moksha. She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Lakshmi, Parvati (goddess of power,
fertility, love, beauty), and Saraswati (goddess of music, wisdom, and learning).
In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. The
marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband, states Patricia
Monaghan, is "the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu
weddings."
Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for goddess
Lakshmi in the Scytho-Parthian kingdom and throughout India by the 1st millennium
BCE.[42] She is also revered in other non-Hindu cultures of Asia, such as in Tibet. Lakshmi's
iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia,
estimated to be from second half of 1st millennium CE. In modern times, Lakshmi is worshipped
as the goddess of wealth. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are
celebrated in her honor.[
Saraswati

Image of goddess Saraswati

Saraswati, is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning. She is the
consort of Brahma.
The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in Rigveda. She has remained
significant as a goddess from the Vedic age through modern times of Hindu traditions. Some
Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring) in her honour, and
mark the day by helping young children learn how to write alphabets on that day. She is also part
of Tridevi which consists of Saraswati, Parvati (goddess of power, fertility, love, beauty),
and Lakshmi (goddess of material wealth, prosperity, and fortune).

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Saraswati is often depicted dressed in pure white, often seated on a white lotus. She not only
embodies knowledge but also the experience of the highest reality. Her iconography is typically
in white themes from dress to flowers to swan – the colour symbolizing Sattwa Guna or purity,
discrimination for true knowledge, insight and wisdom.
She is generally shown to have four arms, but sometimes just two. The four hands hold items
with symbolic meaning — a pustaka (book or script), a mala (rosary, garland), a water pot and a
musical instrument (lute or vina). The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the
universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning. A mālā of crystals,
representing the power of meditation, a pot of water represents powers to purify the right from
wrong. The musical instrument, typically a veena, represents all creative arts and sciences,] and
her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony. The Saraswatirahasya
Upanishad of the Yajurveda contain ten verses called "dasa sloki" which are in praise of
Sarasvati. In this Upanishad, she is extolled as
You are the swan gliding over the pond of creative energy, waves and waves of creative forces
emanating from your form! Radiant Goddess resplendent in white, dwell forever in the Kashmir
of my heart.
Saraswati is also found outside India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali (Indonesia) and Myanmar.
Durga and Kali

Durga (left) killing the demon Mahishasura. In her most ferocious form, Durga metamorphoses
into Kali (right).
Vedic literature does not have any particular goddess matching the concept of Durga. Her
legends appear in the medieval era, as angry, ferocious form of mother goddess Parvati take
the avatar as Durga or Kali. She manifests as a goddess with eight or ten arms holding weapons
and skulls of demons, and is astride on a tiger or lion. In Skanda Purana, Devi
Bhagbhatpuran and other purans Parvati assumes the form of a warrior-goddess and defeats a
demon called Durg who assumes the form of a buffalo. In this aspect, she is known by the name
Durga. In later Hindu literature, states Jansen, she is attributed the role of the "energy, power
(shakti) of the Impersonal Absolute".
In the Shaktism traditions of Hinduism, found particularly in eastern states of India, Durga is a
popular goddess form of Parvati. In the medieval era composed texts such as the Puranas, she

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emerges as a prominent goddess in the context of crisis, when evil asuras were on the ascent. The
male gods were unable to contain and subdue the forces of evil, The warrior goddess, Parvati,
she kills the asura, she is thereafter invincible and revered as "preserver of Dharma, destroyer of
evil".
Durga's emergence and mythology is described in the Puranas, particularly the Devi Mahatmya.
The text describes Kālī's emerging out of Parvati when she becomes extremely angry. Parvati's
face turns pitch dark, and suddenly Kali springs forth from Parvati's forehead. She is black,
wears a garland of human heads, is clothed in a tiger skin, rides a tiger, and wields a staff topped
by a human skull. She destroys the asuras. Literature on goddess Kali recounts several such
appearances, mostly in her terrifying but protective aspects. Kali appears as an independent
deity, or like Durga, viewed as the wife of Shiva. In this aspect, she represents the
omnipotent Shakti of Shiva. She holds both the creative and destructive power of time.] Kali,
also called Kalaratri, is called in Yoga Vasistha as Prakṛti or "all of nature". She is described in
the text, state Shimkhanda and Herman, as the "one great body of cosmos", and same as Devis
"Durga, Jaya and Siddha, Virya, Gayatri, Saraswati, Uma, Savitri".She is the power that supports
the earth, with all its seas, islands, forests, deserts and mountains, asserts Yoga Vasistha. She is
not to be confused with the Kali Yuga, which is spelled similarly yet holds a different meaning.
The Kali Yuga is presented as a threat to Mother India, with pictures from the nineteenth century
depicting the age as a "ferocious meat-eating demon" in comparison to India's depiction of "a
cow giving milk to her children".
The largest annual festival associated with the goddess is Durga Puja celebrated in the month
of Ashvin (September–October), where nine manifestations of Parvati (Navadurga) are
worshipped, each on a day over nine days. These
are: Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kaalratri,
Mahagauri and Siddhidaatri.
Tridevi
In the feminist Shaktidharma denomination of Hinduism, the supreme deity Mahadevi manifests
as the goddess Mahasaraswati in order to create, as the goddess Mahalaxmi in order to preserve,
and as the goddess Mahakali (Parvati) in order to destroy. These three forms of the supreme
goddess Mahadevi are collectively called the Tridevi.

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97
Sita
Sita, an incarnation of Lakshmi, is the wife of Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. She is shakti or
prakriti of Rama as told in the Ram Raksha Stotram. In Sita Upanishad, a shakta Upanishad, Sita
is extolled as the supreme goddess. The Upanishad identifies Sita with Prakrti (nature) which is
constituted by "will" ichha, activity (kriya) and knowledge (jnana). The Upanishad also states
that Sita emerged while furrowing, at the edge of the plough. She is extolled as one of
the Panchakanya for her virtuous qualities; taking their names destroys all sins.
Her life story and journeys with her husband Rama and brother-in-law Lakshmana are part of the
Hindu epic Ramayana, an allegorical story with Hindu spiritual and ethical teachings. However,
there are many versions of Ramayana, and her story as a goddess in Hindu mythology. Her
legends also vary in southeast Asian versions of the epic Ramayana, such as in
the Ramakien of Thailand where she is spelled as Sida (or Nang Sida).
In Valmiki Ramayana, Sita is repeatedly expressed as manifestation of Lakshmi, as the one who
blesses abundance in agriculture, food, and wealth. She is referred to golden goddess, wherein
after Rama (Vishnu) is bereaved of her, he refuses to marry again, insists that he is married
solely and forever to her, and uses a golden image of Sita as a substitute in the performance of
his duties as a king. Sita, in many Hindu mythology, is the Devi associated with agriculture,
fertility, food and wealth for continuation of humanity.
Radha

Sculpture of Radha
Radha means "prosperity, success, and lightning." She is the female counterpart of Krishna.
In Puranic literature such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, she is known as the Goddess of love.
She is known as goddess from the 12th century onwards and has figured prominently in the
poems of Vidyapati (1352–1448) as a cosmic queen. She is also considered as an incarnation

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of Lakshmi. According to legend, Radha was married but she had mystical intimacy with
Krishna.
Radha was made famous through Jayadeva's Gitagovinda poems. She was born as a milkmaid.
She is considered a goddess of the heaven (Goloka) who was considered a combination of Shakti
and Vishnu's power. Her love affair with Krishna was set in Vraja and its surrounding forests
much before Krishna married Rukmini and Satyabhama. Her attribute is lotus and she has always
been a part of the bhakti movement symbolising "yearning of human soul drawn to Krishna".
In South India she is considered as Bhumidevi and is linked to Saraswati. The Gitagovinda (12th
century), a lyrical drama, a "mystical erotic poem", describes the love of Krishna and gopis,
Radha in particular, a symbolism for the human soul.
Mahadevi
In the sixth century when Devi Mahatmya came into practice the name Devi (goddess) or
Mahadevi (Great Goddess) came into prominence to represent one female goddess to encompass
the discrete goddesses like Parvati and so forth. In the Hindu mythology, Devi and Deva are
usually paired, complement and go together, typically shown as equal but sometimes the Devi is
shown smaller or in the subordinate role. Some goddesses, however, play an independent role in
Hindu pantheon, and are revered as Supreme without any male god(s) present or with males in
subordinate position. Mahadevi, as mother goddess, is an example of the later, where she
subsumes all goddesses, becomes the ultimate goddess, and is sometimes just called Devi.[75] The
counterpart of Mahadevi is Mahadeva who is Shiva so many people think of Mahadevi
as Parvati.

Tripura Sundari, one aspect of Mahadevi, is shown above with all major male gods as smaller,
subordinate and subsumed.
Theological texts projected Mahadevi as ultimate reality in the universe as a "powerful, creative,
active, transcendent female being." The Puranas and Tantra literature of India celebrates this

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idea, particularly between the 12th–16th century, and the best example of such texts being the
various manuscript versions of Devi Bhagavata Purana with the embedded Devi Gita therein.
Devi Bhagavata Purana gives prime position to Mahadevi as the mother of all-encompassing the
three worlds and gives her the position of being all of universe – the material and the spiritual. In
the Upanishadic text Devi Upanishad, a Sakta Upanishad and an important Tantric text probably
composed sometime between the ninth and fourteenth centuries the Goddess is addressed in the
most general and universal of terms, as Mahadevi, and represents all goddesses as different
manifestations of her. The Lalita Sahasranama (Thousand names of Lalita (Parvati) states that
Mahadevi is known by different synonyms such as Jagatikanda (anchors the
world), Vishvadhika (one who surpasses the universe), Nirupama (one who has no
match), Parameshwari (dominant governor), Vyapini (encompasses
everything), Aprameya (immeasurable), Anekakotibrahmadajanani (creator of many
universes), Vishvagarbha (she whose Garba or womb subsumes the universe), Sarvadhara (helps
all), Sarvaga (being everywhere at the same time, Sarvalokesi (governs all worlds)
and Vishavdaharini one who functions for the whole universe).
The Mahadevi goddess has many aspects to her personality. She focuses on that side of her that
suits her objectives, but unlike male Hindu deities, her powers and knowledge work in concert in
a multifunctional manner.[80] The ten aspects of her, also called Mahavidyas (or great forms of
her knowledge) are forms of Parvati and they are: Kali, Tara, Tripura
Sundari, Bhairavi, Bhuvanesvari, Chhinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, Matangi and Kamala
.
Tantra and Devis

Yantra are used as icons for Devi in Tantra; above is Tripura-Bhairavi yantra
Tantric literature such as Soundarya Lahari meaning "Flood of Beauty", credited to Adi
Shankaracharya a shakta or tantric poem, is dedicated to the Supreme Deity of the
sect, Parvati who is considered much superior to Shiva. It celebrates Parvati and her feminine
persona. It is an approach to the tantra through Parvati.
In Shakti Tantra traditions, Devis are visualized with yantra and are a tool for spiritual journey
for the tantric adept.[83] The adepts ritually construct triangle yantras with proper use of
visualization, movement, and mantra. The adepts believe, state John Stratton Hawley and Donna

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Marie Wulff, that "to establish such yantra is to place the macrocosm within oneself", and doing
so can yield temporal benefits, spiritual powers or enlightenment.
A tantric text titled "Vigyan Bhairav Tantra", 'Vigyan' meaning "consciousness" is a
conversation between Shiva and Parvati rendered in 112 verses, elaborates on "wisdom and
insight of pure consciousness."
Devi Puja is the worship of Parvati which is observed through four forms of Devi Yantra; the
first is Tara that exists in the realm of the fourth chakra representing the spiritual heart; Saraswati
emanates in the first chakra; Lakshmi forms the second chakra; and Parvati is at the heart of the
third chakra and completes the chakra. Worship through this Yantra leads to the realization of
"cosmic energy" within oneself
Matrika
Matrikas, that is, the mothers, are seven or eight female divinities, which are depicted as a group.
They are all forms of Parvati. They are Brahmani, Vaishnavi, Maheshvari, Indrani,
Kaumari, Varahi and Chamundi or Narasimhi. The Matrikas concept are important in Tantric
traditions.[86] They are described in the Isaanasivagurudevapaddhati, as creations to facilitate
Lord Shiva face his adversary Andhakasura. All the Matrikas are depicted in a sitting
position, Lalitasana, and bedecked with heavy jewellery.
Scholars state that the concept of Matrikas as powerful goddesses emerged in the early 1st
millennium AD, and possibly much earlier.
The idea of eight mother goddesses together is found in Himalayan Shaivism, while seven divine
mothers (Sapta Matrika) is more common in South India.
The Devi Matrikas (flanked by Shiva and Ganesha), representing various Shakti aspects, from
9th-century Madhya Pradesh

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 CHAPTER VII
L A X M I

Lakshmi is the consort of the god Vishnu. She is one of the most popular goddesses of Hindu
mythology and is known as the goddess of wealth and purity.
What does Lakshmi look like?

Lakshmi

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Lakshmi is commonly portrayed as a beautiful woman with four arms, standing on a lotus
flower. There is usually one, or sometimes two elephants behind her, anointing her with water.
She is often depicted sitting beneath Vishnu, massaging his feet.

The rebirth of Lakshmi

One of the most compelling stories in Hindu mythology is that of the Churning of the Milky
Ocean. It is the story of the gods versus the demons and their fight to gain immortality. It also
tells of the rebirth of Lakshmi.
Indra, the warrior god, was given the responsibility of protecting the world against the demons.
He had protected it successfully for many years, and the goddess Lakshmi's presence had made
him sure of success.
One day, a wise sage offered Indra a garland of sacred flowers. In his arrogance, Indra threw the
flowers to the floor. According to Hindu belief, this disply of arrogance upset Lakshmi, who left
the world of the gods and entered into the Milky Ocean.
Without her, the gods were no longer blessed with success or fortune.
The world became darker, people became greedy, and no offerings were made to the gods. The
gods began to lose their power and the asuras (demons) took control.
Indra asked Vishnu what should be done. He told Indra that the gods would need to churn the
Milky Ocean to regain Lakshmi and her blessings. He then told them the Ocean held other
treasures which would also help them. This included the elixir of life, a potion bestowing
immortality, which would enable them to defeat the demons.
The story of the Churning of the Ocean tells of how the gods worked together to churn the ocean.
They churned for many years, but it was 1,000 years before anything rose to the surface.
Finally, the treasures began to rise to the surface. Among them, a beautiful woman standing on a
lotus flower. This was Lakshmi, who had returned to the world. With her presence, the gods
eventually defeated the demons and chased them out of the world.

The sacred lotus flower representing Lakshmi ©

This story highlights the good fortune and success that Lakshmi bestows upon those who work
hard and seek help sincerely. It also demonstrates that during times of success, one must never
become complacent or arrogant, as success has a way of getting away from people.

Worshipping Lakshmi
Hindus believe that anybody who worships Lakshmi sincerely, and not in greed, will be blessed
with fortune and success. It is said that Lakshmi resides in places of hard work, virtue and
bravery, but leaves whenever these qualities are not apparent any more.
Lakshmi is particularly worshipped during the festival of Diwali. This festival commemorates
the epic story, Ramayana. Ramayana is the legend of Lord Rama's battle with the demon
Ravana, in which Lakshmi features.

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In the story of Ramayana, Sita is married to Lord Rama. Hindus believe Sita is an incarnation of
Lakshmi. The story tells us that Rama had been cast out of his rightful kingdom, and had gone to
live in a forest with his wife and brother.
The battle between Rama and the demon Ravana begins when Ravana abducts Sita from the
forest. The epic follows the story of Rama defeating the demon, and his eventual return to his
kingdom.
As the three heroes, Rama, his brother Lakshman and Sita, returned home, people lit candles to
guide their way in the dark. In honour of this, on the second day of Diwali people light candles in
their homes to guide Lakshmi, in the hope that she will bestow good fortune on their home for
the coming year.
After worshipping Lakshmi on Diwali, many Hindus gamble and spend profusely, believing that
Lakshmi has bestowed good fortune upon them.
In addition to this, two days before Diwali, a festival called Dhantares is celebrated to seek more
blessings from her. During this time Hindus buy gold and silver and start new business ventures.
Hindus worship Lakshmi at home as well as in the temple. Friday is believed to be the most
auspicious day for her worship.

Every God and Goddess has a profound importance in Hinduism which is reflected in the ancient
scriptures. In recent times, For Hindus, the goddess Lakshmi symbolizes good luck. The word
Lakshmi is derived from the Sanskrit word Laksya, and she is the goddess of wealth and
prosperity of all forms, both material and spiritual. Lakshmi is the household goddess of mostly
all Hindu families and is worshipped daily, but October is the main festive month for Lakhsmi.
Lakshmi is known to be the daughter of the mother Goddess Durga, and the wife of Vishnu,
whom she accompanied, taking different forms in each of his incarnations. To understand the
story of the birth of Goddess Lakshmi, let us throw some light on Vishnu Puranas.
The story begins with a meeting between Sage Durvasa and Lord Indra. Sage Durvasa, with a lot
of respect, offers a garland of flowers to Lord Indra.Lord Indra takes the flowers and places it on
the forehead of his elephant, Airavat. The elephant takes the garland and throws it down on the
earth.

The chief of sages Durvasa gets angry at this disrespectful treatment of his gift, says to the King
of Gods, “ you have an inflated ego and in your arrogance, you have not respected the garland
which was the dwelling of the Goddess of fortune. Sage Durvasa curses Lord Indra that his
kingdom will also be ruined like he has thrown the garland onto the ground in his excessive pride
since Lord Indra has not bowed in front of him.
Sage Durvasa walks away and Indra returns to his capital Amravati. The changes in Amravati
starts to take place following Durvasa’s curse. The gods & people lose their vigour and energy,
all the vegetable products and plants start dying, men stop doing charity, minds become
corrupted, people start engaging in ultimate sensory pleasures and men and women started
getting excited by objects. Everyone’s desires become uncontrollable.
With the Gods getting weak in Amravati, the demons invaded the Gods and defeated them. This
is the reason the Gods and Demons reside in us and are representative of the good and evil within
us.
After being defeated, the Gods went to Lord Vishnu who suggested the churning of the ocean to
restore the power back to the Gods by providing them with the Amrit that would make them
immortal.

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This is how the churning of the ocean began. The churning is symbolized by a literal tug of war
between the Gods and Demons in the story. From this churning, Goddess Lakshmi rises out of
the waves seated on a full-blown lotus. The Goddess Lakshmi chooses Vishnu as her Master and
thus chooses the Gods over the demons. The Gods get their power back and fight the Asuras
again and prevail over them.
The first lesson in this story is that Lakshmi, the Goddess of fortune forsakes even the Gods if
they become arrogant.Lakshmi Goddess is not only about material wealth. When the Goddess of
Fortune gets angry, it leads to an inability to perform good work, lack of energy, hunger,
poverty, lack of mental peace, lack of willpower and a meaningless life.

Draped in red saree, bedecked with gold ornaments, seated on a lotus, pot in hand, flanked by
white elephants, the image of Lakshmi adorns most Hindu homes and business establishments.
Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, luxury, beauty, fertility, and auspiciousness.
She holds the promise of material fulfilment and contentment. She is described as restless,
whimsical yet maternal, with her arms raised to bless and to grant. For centuries Hindus have
invoked her thus:
Beautiful goddess seated on a chariot,
Delighted by songs on lustful elephants,
Bedecked with lotuses, pearls and gems,
Lustrous as fire, radiant as gold,
Resplendent as the sun, calm as the moon,
Mistress of cows and horses —
Take away poverty and misfortune
Bring joy, riches, harvest and children.
The world may have changed, but the thirst for material comfort continues to form the core of
most human aspirations.

Shri—the sacred name

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Shri is the sacred sound of cosmic auspiciousness and abundance since Vedic times.
The popularity of Lakshmi can be gauged by the fact that her sacred name—Shri. Shri is written
atop most documents and spoken before addressing a god, a teacher, a holy man or any revered
individual. The word evokes amongst other things: grace, affluence, abundance, auspiciousness,
authority.
When the word is spoken or written, an aura of holiness is established. Whatever follows the
word is imbued with divine blessing. Married men and women are addressed
as Shriman and Shrimati as they have Lakshmi’s blessings to harness the wealth of the world to
support family and sustain society. Ascetics are not addressed as Shriman as they have
renounced worldly riches; unmarried men and women are not addressed
as Shriman and Shrimati as they are still in preparation for the householder’s life.
Just as the word ‘aum’ is associated with the mystical side of life, the word ‘shri’ is associated
with the material side of existence.

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Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity; modern calendar art.

Widespread appeal
The practice of personifying the beauty and bounty of earth as a goddess was prevalent in all
ancient cultures.
The Greeks had Core, the corn-goddess, who was known to Romans as Demeter. The Egyptians
had Isis, Sumerians had Innana, Babylonians had Ishtar, Persians had Anahita and Vikings had
Freia. Shri-Lakshmi is the Hindu form of the timeless mother-goddess who nurtures and
nourishes all life.
In India, not only Hindus but also Buddhists and Jains adore Lakshmi. Buddhism and Jainism are
primarily monastic orders that turned away from Vedic rituals and Brahmanical dogmas about
2,500 years ago. They, however, could not abandon this delightful goddess.
In the Buddhist Jatakas, there are tales of men and women who request the goddess Lakshmi to
drive away the goddess of misfortune, Kalakanni. Images of Kubera, the pot-bellied yaksha-king
and treasurer of the gods, who is closely associated with Lakshmi, adorn most Buddhist shrines.
In holy Jain texts, it is said when an exalted soul like a Tirthankara is about to be born his mother
dreams of many auspicious things, including the goddess Shri. Symbols of wealth and royal
power commonly associated with Lakshmi are auspicious to both Buddhists and Jains. These
include: the pot, a pile of gems, a throne, a flywhisk, a conch, a fish, a parasol, nagas, yakshas, a
footstool, a horse, an elephant, a cow, and the wish-fulfilling tree.

An ancient goddess
Shri-Lakshmi has a long history testified by the fact that her first hymn, the Shri Shukta, was
added to the Rig Veda, the oldest and most revered of Hindu scriptures, somewhere between
1000 and 500 BC.
Considering her popularity amongst Buddhists and Jains, it has been proposed that her worship
may predate the Vedic culture and may have developed independently before she was brought
into the Vedic, Buddhist and Jain folds.
Scholars are of the view that initially the words Shri and Lakshmi referred to anything that was
auspicious or brought good luck or bestowed riches and power. Later the two words were
personified into two goddesses who eventually merged. Thus, Shri-Lakshmi came into being.
Fragmentary verses in the Shatapatha Brahmana, written not long after the Vedas, talks of the
birth of Lakshmi from the mouth of Prajapati to provide the inhabitants of the cosmos food,
clothing, shelter, and all things that make life more comfortable. She also offered wisdom,
strength, beauty, luck, sovereignty and splendour—the good things in life.
Stories of Lakshmi first appeared in the epics Ramayana and Mahabharta, that were composed
between 300 BC and 300 AD, a period that witnessed the waning popularity of Vedic gods and
the rise of gods who offered moksha such as Shiva and Vishnu. Gods and demons fought over
her and both strove to churn her out of the ocean of milk. As folk heroes such as Rama and
Krishna were viewed as incarnations of Vishnu, their consorts Sita, Radha and Rukmini became
increasingly identified with Lakshmi. In the Harivamsa, appendix to the Mahabharata,
Manmatha, the god of love, lust and fertility, was described as her son.
The mythology of Lakshmi acquired full form in the Puranas, chronicles of gods, kings and
sages that were compiled between 500 and 1500 AD. In them, the goddess came to be projected
as one of the three primary forms of the supreme mother-goddess, the other two being Saraswati,
the goddess of knowledge, and Kali or Durga, the goddess of power. Lakshmi was visualised

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both as an independent goddess and as Vishnu’s consort, seated on his lap or at his feet. Prithvi,
the Vedic earth-goddess, became Bhoodevi in the Puranas and a manifestation of Lakshmi. In
south India, the two goddesses were visualised as two different entities, standing on either side of
Vishnu, Bhoodevi representing tangible wealth while Lakshmi or Shridevi representing
intangible wealth. In north India, the two goddesses became one.
Images of Lakshmi started appearing around the third century BC in sculptures found in
Kausambi, in north India, and on coins issued during the reign of the Gupta dynasty around the
fourth century AD. She became a favourite of kings as more and more people believed she was
the bestower of power, wealth and sovereignty. Separate shrines to Lakshmi within the precincts
of Vishnu temples may have been built as early as the seventh century; such shrines were
definitely in existence by the 10th century AD.

Popular 20th century image showing Lakshmi at the feet of Vishnu.

Fickle and independent

Nowadays, Hindus accept Lakshmi as the eternal consort of Vishnu, the preserver of the world.
In her long history, however, the goddess has been associated with many other deities.
According to Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas, the goddess Lakshmi first lived with the
demons before the gods acquired her. She graced asuras such as Hiranayaksha, Hiranakashipu,
Prahalad, Virochana and Bali, rakshasas such as Ravana and yakshas such as Kubera before she
adorned the court of Indra, king of devas, the most renowned of Vedic gods. Cities of
the asuras (Hiranyapura), yakshas (Alakapuri), rakshasas (Lanka) and nagas (Bhogavati) have
all been described as cities of gold, Lakshmi’s mineral manifestation.
Within the Vedic pantheon, Lakshmi was linked with many gods, especially those associated
with water bodies: Indra, the rain-god (bestower of fresh water); Varuna, the sea-god (source of
all water); Soma, the moon-god (waxer and waner of tides). Indra’s wife Sachi was also known

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as Puloma, which is the name of an asura-woman suggesting entry of Lakshmi from the world of
asuras into world of devas.
As the Vedic gods waned into insignificance around the fifth century BC, two gods came to
dominate the classical Hindu worldview: the world renouncing hermit-god Shiva and the world
affirming warrior-god Vishnu. Lakshmi was briefly associated with Shiva before she became the
faithful consort of Vishnu-Narayana, the ultimate refuge of man. With Vishnu, she was
domesticated. No longer fleet footed, she sat demurely by his side, on his lap or at his feet.
The association with many gods has led to Lakshmi being viewed as fickle, restless and
independent. Sociologists view the mythology of Lakshmi’s fickleness as indicative of her cult’s
resistance to being assimilated with mainstream Hinduism. Even today there is tension between
the mythology of Lakshmi as an independent goddess and her mythology as Vishnu’s consort.
Philosophers choose to view the fickleness and independence of Lakshmi as an allegory for the
restlessness of fortune. More often than not, there are no rational explanations for fortune and
misfortune. Good times come without warning and leave as suddenly.

Shri Vaishnava tradition

In the twelfth century AD, a new form of Vaishnavism called Shri-Vaishnavism evolved in
South India. Like other Vaishnava orders, it visualised Vishnu as the embodiment of the supreme
divine principle. However, this order was unique as it refused to acknowledge Vishnu
independently. It insisted on the presence of Lakshmi beside him.
For Shri-Vaishnava scholars, such as Vedanta Deshika, Lakshmi is indispensable while
approaching Vishnu. He represents righteousness; she represents compassion. She is like a
mother intervening between a stern father (God) and an errant son (the devotee).
Maha-Lakshmi, the great goddess

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Maha-Lakshmi, the Tantrik form of Lakshmi, is less the goddess of wealth and more the
supreme mother-goddess; painting from Orissa.
In Tantrik texts, which were composed around the same time as the Puranas, Lakshmi acquired
supreme importance. She was Maha-Lakshmi, the supreme goddess.
Lakshmi is often differentiated from Maha-Lakshmi. While the former is the consort of Vishnu
and the goddess of wealth, Maha-Lakshmi is viewed as an autonomous entity, the supreme
embodiment of the mother-goddess. When worshipped as Maha-Lakshmi, Lakshmi is not
visualised as a beautiful goddess seated on a lotus, pot in hand, but like a virginal warrior-
goddess riding a lion, much like Durga. This form of the goddess is especially popular in
Maharashtra.
Ancient Pancharatra texts that adore Maha-Lakshmi consider her to be the root of all creation. In
the beginning, they say, the cosmic soul—the unfathomable unmanifest Narayana—desired to
create the cosmos. But he did not have the resources to do so. As he pondered over this problem,
his dormant energy, his shakti, burst forth in a blinding light, manifesting as Maha-Lakshmi.
Maha-Lakshmi placed the seed of divine desire in the palm of her hand and unleashed the
dynamic forces of creation until the three worlds took shape and all forms of life came forth.
In the Lakshmi Tantra, the goddess says: “I am inherent in existence. I am the inciter, the
potential that takes shape. I manifest myself. I occupy myself with activity and finally dissolve
myself. I pervade all creations with vitality, will and consciousness. Like ghee that keeps a lamp
burning, I lubricate the senses of living beings with the sap of my consciousness.”
Lakshmi is the divine power that transforms dreams into reality. She is prakriti, the perfect
creation: self-sustaining, self-contained Nature. She is maya, the delightful delusion, the dream-
like expression of divinity that makes life comprehensible, hence worth living. She is shakti,
energy, boundless and bountiful.
To realise her is to rejoice in the wonders of life.

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Lakshmi seated on a lotus surrounded by white elephants (symbols of power and fertility)
married couples (symbols of conjugal bliss and worldliness); Tantrik painting from Nepal.
Excerpted with permission from Vakils, Feffer & Simons from the book

Lakshmi is both the wife and divine energy (shakti) of the Hindu god Vishnu, who according to
Vaishnavism is the protector, the destroyer and regenerator of the universe and all
life.[9] Lakshmi as prakriti (Mahalakshmi) is identified with three forms, Sri, Bhu and Durga and
assist Lord Vishnu (purusha) during the creation , sustenance , and destruction of the entire
universe.[20] There are eight prominent manifestations of Lakshmi which symbolizes the eight
sources of wealth which governs the life of all human beings known as the Ashta Lakshmi. In
each manifestation she fulfills certain necessities and desires of human beings.
Whenever Vishnu descended on the earth as an avatar, Lakshmi accompanied him as wife,
assuming forms appropriate to these avatars. Dashavatara are the ten primary avataras
(incarnations) of Vishnu. Out of the ten, in his most important avatars Rama and Krishna,
Lakshmi descended as Sita and Rukmini (according to Vishnu Purana)

Lakshmi is depicted in Indian art as an elegantly dressed, prosperity-showering golden-coloured

woman with an owl as her vehicle, signifying the importance of economic activity in
maintenance of life, her ability to move, work and prevail in confusing darkness.[24] She typically
stands or sits like a yogini on a lotus pedestal, while holding a lotus in her hand, symbolizing
fortune, self-knowledge, and spiritual liberation. Her iconography shows her with four hands,
which represent the four aspects of human life important to Hindu culture: dharma, kāma, artha,
and moksha.

Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi
existing by the 1st millennium BCE. Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in
Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st
millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in
her honor

Goddess Saraswati, Goddess Lakshmi and Goddess Durga are the consorts of Lord Brahma (the
creator), Lord Vishnu (the protector) and Lord Shiva (the destroyer) respectively.

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What do Goddesses Lakshmi, Saraswati and Durga symbolise?

In Hinduism, the feminine power holds great significance. In fact, there's a distinct division that
only worships the female form of the Supreme force that governs the entire universe. And it is
called Shaktism or Sakht parampara. In this web-post, we shall understand what Goddesses
Lakshmi, Saraswati and Durga represent.

Goddess Saraswati
Goddess Saraswati is the consort of Lord Brahma, the creator. Dressed in white (that symbolises
serenity), the Mother Goddess is hailed as the Goddess of learning, fine arts and music. The
pictorial depiction of the Goddess shows her with four hands. She holds the Vedas in one of her
left hands and a japmala (rosary) or a peacock feather in one of the right hands. Seated on a full-
bloomed white lotus, Goddess Saraswati is seen playing the musical instrument Veena.
The Vedas represent knowledge, while the peacock feather symbolises a pen and the japmala
denotes the power to stay focused in life. These emphasise on the importance of learning while
the Veena signifies music and arts.
Goddess Saraswati is worshipped to attain knowledge and wisdom. In a nutshell, by praying or
imbibing the qualities of Devi Saraswati, one can remove ignorance and darkness from his or her
life. Moreover, her vehicle, a Swan, possesses the power to distinguish between the good and the
evil.
Goddess Lakshmi
Devi Lakshmi is the consort of Lord Vishnu, the protector. Dressed in red (that represents the
Rajasic tattva), the Devi Lakshmi is hailed as the Goddess of wealth and prosperity. The pictorial
depiction of the Goddess shows her with four hands. She holds a lotus in the upper right and uper

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 left hands. Her lower left-hand holds a Kalash filled with gold coins inclined frontward. And one
of her right hands gestures the Abhaya Mudra, that symbolises fearlessness and divine
protection. Seated on a full-bloomed pink lotus, Goddess Lakshmi symbolises prosperity and
wealth.
Goddess Lakshmi is invoked for a happy and prosperous life.
An owl is found seated close to the feet of the Goddess. The bird is believed to be her vehicle,
and it represents the need to remain grounded and vigilant. The owl is a bird that remains awake
all night and can see only in darkness. Hence, it teaches us not to get blinded by wealth and
refrain from misusing it.

Goddess Durga
Goddess Durga is the consort of Lord Shiva, the destroyer. Dressed in red, the Mother Goddess
represents power. She took birth to kill a demon named Mahishasura, and hence, she is hailed as
Mahishasura Mardini. The pictorial depiction of the Goddess shows her with ten hands holding
different weapons that symbolise the following:
 A chakra or discus represents uprightness
 The conch represents harmony
 The bow and arrow represent energy
 Vajra or thunderbolt symbolises stability
 Lotus represents detachment
 Sword symbolises enlightenment
 Trishul depicts the Sattvic, Rajasic and Tamasic gunas
 Gada or mace represents loyalty
 A pot of fire represents wisdom
 Abhaya Mudra symbolises protection
Goddess Durga's vehicle or vahana is a lion that symbolises courage. This form of the Mother
Goddess shows the power and strength of the feminine.
Etymology
Lakshmi in Sanskrit is derived from the root word lakṣ (लक्ष् ) and lakṣa (लक्ष), meaning 'to
perceive, observe, know, understand' and 'goal, aim, objective', respectively. These roots give
Lakshmi the symbolism: know and understand your goal. A related term is lakṣaṇa, which
means 'sign, target, aim, symbol, attribute, quality, lucky mark, auspicious opportunity'.

In Hindu text

Shri Lakshmi lustrated by elephants, Uttar Pradesh, Kausambi, 1st century B.C./A painting of Lakshmi on
the inner walls of the Tanjore Big temple.

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Lakshmi (Lakṣmī) is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in
ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, in which the name is used to mean
'kindred mark, sign of auspicious fortune'.

भद्रै र्ां लक्ष्मीवनदवहतावि िावि "an auspicious fortune is attached to their words"
bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmīrnihitādhi vāci
—Rig Veda, x.71.2
In Atharva Veda, transcribed about 1000 BCE, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with
plural manifestations. Book 7, Chapter 115 of Atharva Veda describes the plurality, asserting
that a hundred Lakshmis are born with the body of a mortal at birth, some
good, punya ('virtuous') and auspicious, while others bad, paapi ('evil') and unfortunate. The
good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. The concept and spirit of Lakshmi and her
association with fortune and the good is significant enough that Atharva Veda mentions it in
multiple books: for example, in Book 12, Chapter 5 as punya Lakshmi.[38] In some chapters of
Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, an auspicious sign, good luck, good fortune,
prosperity, success and happiness

Goddess Lakshmi
Bharhut Stupa, circa 110 BCE
Coins of Gandhara, 1st century
BCE

Coinage of Gupta Empire Cambodia

Vietnam, 10th

Malaysia
century
Lakshmi is one of the trinity of Hindu goddesses. Her
iconography is found in ancient and modern Hindu temples.

Later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife
of Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa). For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed
between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in ancient India,
about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati,
after his intense meditation on creation of life and nature of universe. Sri is described as a

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resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy and powers. The gods are
bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and
request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents and gifts. Prajapati refuses, tells
the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The
gods then approach Lakshmi, deity Agni gets food, Soma gets kingly authority, Varuna gets
imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets force, Brihaspati gets priestly
authority, Savitri acquires dominion, Pushan gets splendour, Saraswati takes nourishment and
Tvashtri gets forms. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born
with and personifying a diverse range of talents and powers.
According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water
on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as wife of Dharma,
mother of Kāma, sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine
Shaktis of Viṣṇu, a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharatasrama and
as Sita, wife of Rama.
In the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches,
happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendour In another Hindu legend, about the creation of
universe as described in Ramayana, Lakshmi springs with other precious things from the foam of
the ocean of milk when it is churned by the gods and demons for the recovery of Amṛta. She
appeared with a lotus in her hand and so she is also called Padmā

Bas relief of GajaLakshmi at the Buddhist Sanchi Stupa, Stupa I, North gateway, Satavahana
dynasty sculpture, 1st century CE.

Lakshmi is a member of the Tridevi, the triad of great goddesses. She represents the Rajas guna,
and the Iccha-shakti.
The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is
derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective. Her four
arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in
Hinduism: dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of
life), kama (pursuit of love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge,
liberation).
In Lakshmi's iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a
lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian

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traditions. It symbolises knowledge, self-realisation, and liberation in Vedic context, and
represents reality, consciousness and karma ('work, deed') in the Tantra (Sahasrara)
context.[45] The lotus, a flower that blooms in clean or dirty water, also symbolises purity
regardless of the good or bad circumstances in which it grows. It is a reminder that good and
prosperity can bloom and not be affected by evil in one's surrounding.[46][47] The Gupta
period sculpture used to associated lion with Lakshmi but was later attributed to Durga or a
combined form of both goddesses.
Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is very often shown with one or two elephants, known
as Gajalakshmi, and occasionally with an owl. Elephants symbolise work, activity and strength,
as well as water, rain and fertility for abundant prosperity. The owl signifies the patient striving
to observe, see and discover knowledge particularly when surrounded by darkness. As a bird
reputedly blinded by daylight, the owl also serves as a symbolic reminder to refrain from
blindness and greed after knowledge and wealth has been acquired.

In some representations, wealth either symbolically pours out from one of her hands or she
simply holds a jar of money. This symbolism has a dual meaning: wealth manifested through
Lakshmi means both materials as well as spiritual wealth. Her face and open hands are in a
mudra that signifies compassion, giving or dāna ('charity').
Lakshmi typically wears a red dress embroidered with golden threads, symbolizes fortune and
wealth. She, goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often represented with her husband Vishnu, the
god who maintains human life filled with justice and peace. This symbolism implies wealth and
prosperity is coupled with maintenance of life, justice, and peace.
In Japan, where Lakshmi is known as Kisshōten, she is commonly depicted with the Nyoihōju
gem (如意宝珠) in her hand.

Nomenclature:

Gaja Lakshmi, Cambodia, ca. 944-968 Manuscript painting of Gaja-Lakshmi, ca 1780 AD.

Lakshmi has numerous names and numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite her
various names:
 Padmā: She of the lotus (she who is mounted upon or dwelling in a lotus)
 Kamalā or Kamalatmika: She of the lotus
 Padmapriyā: Lotus-lover
 Padmamālādhāra Devī: Goddess bearing a garland of lotuses
 Padmamukhī: Lotus-faced (she whose face is as like as a lotus)

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 Padmākṣī: Lotus-eyed (she whose eyes are as beautiful as a lotus)
 Padmahasta: Lotus-hand (she whose hand is holding [a] lotus[es])
 Padmasundarī: She who is as beautiful as a lotus
 Sri: Radiance, eminence, splendor, wealth
 Śrījā: Jatika of Sri
 Viṣṇupriyā: Lover of Vishnu (she who is the beloved of Vishnu)
 Ulūkavāhinī: Owl-mounted (she who is riding an owl)
 Nandika: The one who gives pleasure, vessel made up of clay and Vishnupriya (she who is
the beloved of Vishnu)
Her other names include: Aishwarya, Akhila, Anagha, Anumati, Apara, Aruna, Atibha, Avashya,
Bala, Bhargavi, Bhudevi, Chakrika, Chanchala, Devi, Haripriya, Indira, Jalaja, Jambhavati,
Janamodini, Jyoti, Jyotsna, Kalyani, Kamalika, Ketki, Kriyalakshmi, Kuhu, Lalima, Madhavi,
Madhu, Malti, Manushri, Nandika, Nandini, Nila Devi, Nimeshika, Parama, Prachi, Purnima,
Ramaa, Rukmini, Samruddhi, Satyabhama, Shreeya, Sita, Smriti, Sridevi, Sujata, Swarna
Kamala, Taruni, Tilottama, Tulasi, Vaishnavi, Vasuda, Vedavati, Vidya, and Viroopa.

Ancient Literature: Shakta Upanishads are dedicated to the Trinity (Tridevi) of goddesses—
Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati. Saubhagyalakshmi Upanishad describes the qualities,
characteristics and powers of LakshmiIn the second part of the Upanishad, the emphasis shifts to
the use of yoga and transcendence from material craving in order to achieve spiritual knowledge
and self-realisation, the true wealth. Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad synonymously uses Sri to
describe Lakshmi.

Stotram and sutras

Numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite hymns dedicated to Lakshmi.[52] She is
a major goddess in Puranas and Itihasa of Hinduism. In ancient scriptures of India, all women are
declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. For example:
Every woman is an embodiment of you.
You exist as little girls in their childhood,
As young women in their youth
And as elderly women in their old age.
— Sri Kamala Stotram
Every woman is an emanation of you.
— Sri Daivakrta Laksmi Stotram

Hindu Goddess Lakshmi

Ancient prayers dedicated to Lakshmi seek both material and spiritual wealth in prayers.[52]

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Through illusion,
A person can become disconnected,
From his higher self,
Wandering about from place to place,
Bereft of clear thought,
Lost in destructive behaviour.
It matters not how much truth,
May shine forth in the world,
Illuminating the entire creation,
For one cannot acquire wisdom,
Unless it is experienced,
Through the opening on the heart....

Puranas
Sculpture of Lord Vishnu & Goddess Lakshmi at Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu
Lakshmi features prominently in Puranas of Hinduism. Vishnu Purana, in particular, dedicates
many sections to her and also refers to her as Sri. J. A. B. van Buitenen translates passages
describing Lakshmi in Vishnu Purana.
Sri, loyal to Vishnu, is the mother of the world. Vishnu is the meaning, Sri is the speech. She is
the conduct, he the behavior. Vishnu is knowledge, she the insight. He is dharma, she the
virtuous action. She is the earth, he earth's upholder. She is contentment, he the satisfaction. She
wishes, he is the desire. Sri is the sky, Vishnu the Self of everything. He is the moon, she the
light of moon. He is the ocean, she is the shore.

Subhasita, Genomic and Didactic Literature

Lakshmi, along with Parvati and Saraswati, is a subject of extensive Subhashita, genomic and
didactic literature of India. Composed in the 1st millennium BC through the 16th century AD,
they are short poems, proverbs, couplets, or aphorisms in Sanskrit written in a precise meter.
They sometimes take the form of dialogue between Lakshmi and Vishnu or highlight the
spiritual message in Vedas and ethical maxims from Hindu Epics through Lakshmi.[58] An
example Subhashita is Puranartha Samgraha, compiled by Vekataraya in South India, where
Lakshmi and Vishnu discuss niti ('right, moral conduct') and rajaniti ('statesmanship' or 'right
governance')—covering in 30 chapters and ethical and moral questions about personal, social
and political life.

Devi Lakshmi is worshipped as:

 Ambabai in the Kolhapur Shakti peetha,
 Mookambika in Kollur (Karnataka),
 Bhagavathi in Chottanikkara Temple (Kerala),
 Sri Kanaka Maha Lakshmi in Vishakhapatnam.
In eastern India, Lakshmi is seen as a Devi. Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati are typically
conceptualised as distinct in most of India, but in states such as West Bengal and Odisha, they
are regionally believed to be forms of Durga.

Primary Manifestations

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In Vaishnava tradition, Lakshmi is considered as Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with
three form — Sri, Bhu and Durga. The three forms consists of Satva ('goodness'),[3] rajas,
and tamas ('darkness') gunas, and assists Vishnu (Purusha) in creation, preservation and
destruction of the entire universe. In Vedas, the Śrī Sūkta, Bhu Sūkta and Ratri Sūkta are
dedicated to these three forms of Lakshmi respectively.
In South India, Lakshmi is seen in two forms, Sridevi and Bhudevi, both at the sides of
Sri Venkateshwara or Vishnu. Bhudevi is the representation and totality of the material world or
energy, called the Apara Prakriti, or Mother Earth; Sridevi is the spiritual world or energy called
the Prakriti. According to Lakshmi Tantra, Nila Devi, one of the manifestations or incarnations
of Lakshmi is the third wife of Vishnu.

In Durga form she represents the power to fight, conquer and punish the demons and anti-gods.
According to Markandeya Purana, Lakshmi killed Mahishasura in her incarnation form of durga
and hence she is known by the name Mahishasura Mardhini.

Inside temples, Lakshmi is often shown together with Krishna. In certain parts of India, Lakshmi
plays a special role as the mediator between her husband Vishnu and his worldly devotees. When
asking Vishnu for grace or forgiveness, the devotees often approach Him through the
intermediary presence of Lakshmi. She is also the personification of spiritual
fulfillment.[ Lakshmi embodies the spiritual world, also known as Vaikunta, the abode of
Lakshmi-Narayana or what would be considered heaven in Vaishnavism. Lakshmi is the
embodiment of the creative energy of Vishnu, and primordial Prakriti who creates the universe.
In South India, she is also worshipped as Andal, an incarnation of Lakshmi.

Secondary manifestations
Ashta Lakshmi (Sanskrit: अष्टलक्ष्मी, Aṣṭalakṣmī, 'eight Lakshmis') is a group of eight
secondary manifestations of Lakshmi. The Ashta Lakshmi preside over eight sources of wealth
and thus represent the eight powers of Shri Lakshmi. Temples dedicated to Ashta Lakshmi are
found in Tamil Nadu, such as Ashtalakshmi Kovil near Chennai and in many other states of
India.

Murti of Sri Lakshmi and her owl Vahana, Uluka.

Ashta Lakshmi

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Adi Lakshmi The First manifestation of Lakshmi
Dhanya Lakshmi Granary Wealth
Veera Lakshmi Wealth of Courage
Gaja Lakshmi Elephants spraying water, wealth of fertility, rains and food.[75]
Santana Lakshmi Wealth of Continuity, Progeny
Vidya Lakshmi Wealth of Knowledge and Wisdom
Vijaya Lakshmi Wealth of Victory
Dhana / Aishwarya Lakshmi Wealth of prosperity and fortune

Ashta Lakshmi murti worshipped in a Golu display during Dusshera.

Other secondary representations of the goddess include Lakshmi manifesting in three forms: Sri
Devi, Bhudevi and Nila Devi. This threefold goddess can be found, for example, in Sri Bhu
Neela Sahita Temple near Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh, and in Adinath Swami Temple in
Tamil Nadu.
In Nepal, Mahalakshmi is shown with 18 hands, each holding a sacred emblem, expressing a
sacred gesture, or forming a mudra (lotus, pot, mudra of blessing, book, rosary, bell, shield, bow,
arrow, sword, trident, mudra of admonition, noose, skull cap and kettledrum.)[77] In this
representation, Mahalakshmi manifests as a kind, compassionate, tranquil deity sitting not on a
lotus, but on a lion.

Jain tradition

Gaja Lakshmi at Shravanabelagola Temple, Karnataka.

Some Jain temples also depict Sri Lakshmi as a goddess of artha ('wealth') and kama ('pleasure').
For example, she is exhibited with Vishnu in Parshvanatha Jain Temple at the Khajuraho

120
Monuments of Madhya Pradesh, where she is shown pressed against Vishnu's chest, while
Vishnu cups a breast in his palm. The presence of Vishnu-Lakshmi iconography in a Jain temple
built near the Hindu temples of Khajuraho, suggests the sharing and acceptance of Lakshmi
across a spectrum of Indian religions. This commonality is reflected in the praise of Lakshmi
found in the Jain text Kalpa Sūtra.

Legands:
A manuscript depicting Samudra Manthan, with Lakshmi emerging with the lotus in her hands.
Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism. Amrita, the divine
nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning Kshirasagar ('Ocean of Milk').
The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshirasagar with Mount
Mandhara. The samudra manthan commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras on the
other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise and a mountain was placed on the tortoise as a
churning pole. Vasuki, the great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the mountain
and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the churning.
Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be daughter of
the sea god since she emerged from the sea.

In Garuda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana, Lakshmi is said to have been born as
daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyati and was named Bhargavi. According to
Vishnu Purana, the universe was created when the devas and asuras churn the cosmic
Kshirasagar. Lakshmi came out of the ocean bearing lotus, along with divine
cow Kamadhenu, Varuni, Parijat tree, Apsaras, Chandra (the moon),
and Dhanvantari with Amrita ('nectar of immortality'). When she appeared, she had a choice to
go to Devas or Asuras. She chose Devas' side and among thirty deities, she chose to be with
Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated.

121
 CHAPTER VII

Ashta Lakshmi ("Eight Lakshmis") or Ashtalakshmi are a group of eight manifestations

of Devi Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth. She presides over eight sources of wealth:
"Wealth" in the context of Ashta-Lakshmi means prosperity, fertility, good fortune or good luck,
good health, knowledge, strength, progeny and power.
The Ashta Lakshmi are always depicted and worshipped in a group in temples
The prayer "Shri Ashta Lakshmi Stotram" lists all of the Ashta Lakshmis in which all of the
Ashta Lakshmis are depicted as seated on a lotus.
Adi Lakshmi
Adi Lakshmi or Maha Lakshmi ("First / Primeval Lakshmi" or "Great Lakshmi") is an ancient
form of Lakshmi.
She is depicted as four-armed, carrying a lotus and a white flag, other two arms in Abhaya
mudra and varada mudra. 'Adi' means source.Adi Laxmi is the divine principle as wealth that
supports a seeker to reach at their source i.e.'atman' or consciousness.If one individual posseeses
AdiLaxmi, they can effortlessly delve deep into dhyana and realize the state of absolute silence,
bliss and peace. Without Adi Lakshmi a seeker fails to quieten their wavering and chattering
mind .Out of all Ashta Lakshmis this particular aspect is responsible for furthering of spiritual
wealth.
Dhana Lakshmi

Dhana Lakshmi //Dhanya Lakshmi //Adi Lakshmi

Dhana Lakshmi ("Money Lakshmi"), is the goddess of wealth.
Goddess Dhana Lakshmi is Four-armed, in red garments, carries Sudarshana
Chakra, Shankha, Kalasha (water pitcher with mango leaves and a coconut on it) or Amrita
Kalasha (a pitcher containing Amrita – elixir of life), bow-arrow, a Lotus(flower) and an arm in
abhaya mudra with gold coins falling from it.
Dhanya Lakshmi

122
Dhanya Lakshmi ("Grain Lakshmi") is the goddess of agricultural wealth.
She is depicted as eight-armed, in green garments, carrying two lotuses, gada (mace), paddy
crop, sugarcane, bananas, and her two hands in abhaya mudra and varada mudra.Dhanya Laxmi
is also the principle of wealth that provides the ability to consume or to indulge.If a person
possesses Dhanya Laxmi, they will have the fortune to enjoy the worldly pleasures.
Gaja Lakshm

Gaja Lakshmi Santana Lakshmi

Gaja Lakshmi ("Elephant Lakshmi") is the giver of animal wealth (such as cattle) or the giver of
power of royalty, as interpreted by Swami Chidananda.
According to Hindu mythology, Gaja Lakshmi brought back the wealth lost by Indra (king
of demi-gods) from the ocean. Vasudha Narayanan interpreted the name as "one who is
worshipped by elephants".
She is depicted as four-armed, in red garments, carrying two lotuses, other two arms in abhaya
mudra and varada mudra, surrounded by two elephants bathing her with water pots.
Santana Lakshmi ("Progeny Lakshmi") is the goddess of bestowing offspring
She is depicted as six-armed, carrying two kalashas (water pitcher with mango leaves and a
coconut on it), sword, shield, a child on her lap, a hand in abhaya mudra and the other holding
the child. Her sword and shield symbolises a mother's ability to even kill someone to save her
own child . The child holds a lotus.

123
Veera/Dhairya Lakshmi

Veera / Dhairya Lakshmi //Vijaya / Jaya Lakshmi

Veera Lakshmi ("Valourous Lakshmi") or Dhairya Lakshmi ("Courage Lakshmi") is the goddess
who bestows valour during battles and courage plus strength for overcoming difficulties in life.
She is depicted as eight-armed, in red garments, carrying a chakra, shankh, bow, arrow, trishul
(or sword), a bundle of palm leaf scriptures, other two hands in abhaya mudra and varada mudra.
she is the one who took the avtar of Durga
Jaya/Vijaya Lakshmi
Vijaya Lakshmi or Jaya Lakshmi ("Victorious Lakshmi") is the goddess and the giver of victory,
not only in battles but also for conquering hurdles in order to achieve success.
She is depicted as eight-armed, in red garments, carrying the chakra, shankh, sword, shield,
lotus, pasha, other two hands in abhaya mudra and varada mudra.
Vidya Lakshmi

Vidya Lakshmi
Vidya Lakshmi ("Knowledge Lakshmi") is the goddess and the bestower of knowledge of arts
and sciences. She is dressed in a white saree and has a resemblance to the goddess Saraswati.
She holds a book of vedas, a peacock feather as a pen, vard mudra and abhay mudra.

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Additional Forms
In some Ashta Lakshmi lists, other forms of Lakshmi are included,

1. Aishwarya Lakshmi ("Prosperity Lakshmi") : Goddess of riches only form

of Lakshmi Goddess which mounts horse. She generally replaces Vidya Lakshmi from
the Astalakshmi list.
2. Saubhagya Lakshmi ("Giver of good Fortune") : Giver of prosperity in general
3. Rajya Lakshmi ("Royal Lakshmi"): "She who blesses rulers (with power)"
4. Vara Lakshmi ("Boon Lakshmi"): "The goddess who bestows boons"
The rise in popularity of the Ashta Lakshmi can be linked with the rising popularity of the Ashta
Lakshmi Stotram.
Around the 1970s, a leading Sri Vaishnava theologian, Sri U. Ve. Vidvan Mukkur
Srinivasavaradacariyar Svamikal published a poem called Ashta Lakshmi Stotram dedicated to
the eight Lakshmis. Narayanan comments,
“Although these attributes (which represent the wealths bestowed by the Ashta Lakshmi) of Sri
(Lakshmi) can be found in traditional literature, the emergence of these eight (Ashta Lakshmi
goddesses) in precisely this combination is, as far as I can discern, new.”
The Ashta Lakshmi are now widely worshipped both by Sri Vaishnava and other Hindu
communities in South India.[1] Occasionally, the Ashta Lakshmi are depicted together in shrines
or in "framing pictures" within an overall design and are worshipped by votaries of Lakshmi who
worship her in her various manifestations. In addition to emergence of Ashta Lakshmi temples
since the 1970s, traditional silver articles used in home worship as well as decorative jars
('Kumbha') now appear with the Ashta Lakshmi group molded on their sides.
Books, popular prayers manuals, pamphlets sold outside temples in South India; ritual worship
and "a burgeoning audiocassette market" are also popularizing these eight forms of Lakshmi.

Ashtalakshmi Kovil - Temple of Eight Lakshmi's, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

 Ashtalakshmi Temple, Besant Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India: The Ashta Lakshmi
Kovil, built in 1974, is the first shrine dedicated exclusively to the Ashta Lakshmi where
Lakshmi is given greater importance than Vishnu. It has eight small shrines arranged in
clockwise direction, dedicated to the Ashta Lakshmi and then a ninth shrine dedicated to
Vishnu and Lakshmi together, unlike the traditional separate shrines.
 Ashtalakshmi Temple, Vasavi Colony, Dilsukh Nagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India

125
 Sydney Durga Temple - The Hindu Temple, located in Regents Park, Sydney, Australia has
8 small sanctums dedicated to the Ashta Lakshmi.
 Ashtalakshmi Temple, Sugar Land, Houston, Texas, United States
 Ashtalakshmi Temple, North Hollywood, California, United States
 At the entrance - leading from Vittavasal Street to Meenakshi Temple, Madhurai,
a mandapam (Hall) called Ashta Lakshmi Mandapam is dedicated to the Ashta Lakshmi, the
statues of which support the roof on either side.
 Parashakthi Temple, Pontiac, Michigan has the deities installed there.
 Asta Lakshmi Devasthanam, Fremont, California. Address incorrect, call to find out
 Sree Vasudevapuram Mahavishnu temple situated in Ernakulam district of Kerala India
conducts the ASHTALAKSHMI THAMPOOLASAMRPANA MAHOTSAVAM every year
starting on the eve of Akshaya Tritheye. The belief is that Maha Lakshmi gives darshan and
shower blessings on devotees only on eight days in a year as Ashta Lakshmis. The most
auspicious ritual of the temple known as ‘’Thampoolasamarpanam” is performed during
the mahotsavam.

Diwali celebrations include puja (prayers) to Lakshmi and Ganesha. Lakshmi is of the
Vaishnavism tradition, while Ganesha of the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism.
Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Diwali, the festival of lights. It is celebrated in autumn,
typically October or November every year. The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light
over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil and hope over despair.
Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate and decorate their homes and offices. On Diwali
night, Hindus dress up in new clothes or their best outfits, light up diyas (lamps and candles)
inside and outside their home, and participate in family puja (prayers) typically to Lakshmi.
After puja, fireworks follow,[87] then a family feast including mithai (sweets), and an exchange
of gifts between family members and close friends. Diwali also marks a major shopping period,

126
since Lakshmi connotes auspiciousness, wealth and prosperity This festival dedicated to
Lakshmi is considered by Hindus to be one of the most important and joyous festivals of the
year.

Gaja Lakshmi Puja is another autumn festival celebrated on Sharad Purnima in many parts of
India on the full-moon day in the month of Ashvin (October). Sharad Purnima, also called
Kojaagari Purnima or Kuanr Purnima, is a harvest festival marking the end of monsoon season.
There is a traditional celebration of the moon called the Kaumudi celebration, Kaumudi meaning
moonlight. On Sharad Purnima night, goddess Lakshmi is thanked and worshipped for the
harvests. Vaibhav Lakshmi Vrata is observed on Friday for prosperity.

Countless hymns, prayers, shlokas, stotra, songs, and legends dedicated to Mahalakshmi are
recited during the ritual worship of Lakshmi. These include:
 Sri Lalitha Sahasranamam,
 Sri Mahalakshmi Ashtakam,
 Sri Lakshmi Sahasaranama Stotra (by Sanath kumara),
 Sri Stuti (by Sri Vedantha Desikar),
 Sri Lakshmi Stuti (by Indra),
 Sri Kanakadhāra Stotram (by Sri Adi Shankara),
 Sri Chatussloki (by Sri Yamunacharya),
 Narayani Stuti,
 Devi Mahatmyam Middle episode,
 Argala Stotra,
 Sri Lakshmi Sloka (by Bhagavan Sri Hari Swamiji), and
 Sri Sukta, which is contained in the Vedas and includes Lakshmi Gayatri Mantra ("Om Shree
Mahalakshmyai ca vidmahe Vishnu patnyai ca dheemahi tanno Lakshmi prachodayat Om").
Archeology:

Greek-influenced statue of Gaja Lakshmi, holding lotus and cornucopia, flanked by two elephants and two
lions. From Kashmir, 6th century AD.

A representation of the goddess as Gaja Lakshmi or Lakshmi flanked by two elephants spraying
her with water, is one of the most frequently found in archaeological sites. An ancient sculpture

127
of Gaja Lakshmi (from Sonkh site at Mathura) dates to the pre-Kushan Empire era. Atranjikhera
site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with images of Lakshmi dating to 2nd
century BCE. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi terracotta figurines from the 1st
millennium BCE include Vaisali, Sravasti, Kausambi, Campa, and Candraketugadh.
The goddess Lakshmi is frequently found in ancient coins of various Hindu kingdoms from
Afghanistan to India. Gaja Lakshmi has been found on coins of Scytho-Parthian kings Azes
II and Azilises; she also appears on Shunga Empire king Jyesthamitra era coins, both dating to
1st millennium BCE. Coins from 1st through 4th century CE found in various locations in India
such as Ayodhya, Mathura, Ujjain, Sanchi, Bodh Gaya, Kanauj, all feature
Lakshmi.[92] Similarly, ancient Greco-Indian gems and seals with images of Lakshmi have been
found, estimated to be from 1st millennium BCE.

A 1400-year-old rare granite sculpture of Lakshmi has been recovered at the Waghama village
along Jehlum in Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir.
The Pompeii Lakshmi, a statuette supposedly thought to be of Lakshmi found in Pompeii, Italy,
dates to before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE.

She is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples. Additionally, in Buddhism,
she has been viewed as a Goddess of abundance and fortune, and is represented on the oldest
surviving stupas and cave temples of BuddhismIn Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal, and Southeast
Asia, Lakshmi Goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics and attributes of the Hindu
Goddess, with minor iconographic differences.

China
In China, Lakshmi's name is written as Lāhākxīmǐ (拉克希米; 'competed-gain hope rice').
Japan
The Japanese goddess of fortune and prosperity, Kishijoten (吉祥天, 'Auspicious Heavens'),
corresponds to Lakshmi. Kishijoten is considered the sister of Bishamon (毘沙門, also known as
Tamon or Bishamon-ten), who protects human life, fights evil, and brings good fortune. In
ancient and medieval Japan, Kishijoten was the goddess worshiped for luck and prosperity,
particularly on behalf of children. Kishijoten was also the guardian goddess of Geishas.
While Bishamon and Kishijoten are found in ancient Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature,
their roots have been traced to deities in Hinduism.
Tibet and Nepal
In Tibetan Buddhism, Lakshmi is an important deity, especially in the Gelug School. She has
both peaceful and wrathful forms; the latter form is known as Palden Lhamo, Shri Devi Dudsol
Dokam, or Kamadhatvishvari, and is the principal female protector of (Gelug) Tibetan Buddhism
and of Lhasa, Tibet.
Goddess Vasudhara in Tibetan and Nepalese culture is closely analogous to goddess Lakshmi as
well.
Bali (Indonesia)
Goddess Lakshmi is closely linked to Dewi Sri, who is worshipped in Bali as the goddess of
fertility and agriculture.
Ashta Lakshmi (Sanskrit: अष्टलक्ष्मी, IAST: Aṣṭalakṣmī; lit. "Eight Lakshmis")
or Ashtalakshmi are a group of eight manifestations of Devi Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of
wealth. She presides over eight sources of wealth: "Wealth" in the context of Ashta-Lakshmi

128
means prosperity, fertility, good fortune or good luck, good health, knowledge, strength, progeny
and power.[2]
The Ashta Lakshmi are always depicted and worshipped in a group in temples.
The prayer "Shri Ashta Lakshmi Stotram" lists all of the Ashta Lakshmis in which all of the
Ashta Lakshmis are depicted as seated on a lotus.
Adi Lakshmi

Adi Lakshmi
Adi Lakshmi or Maha Lakshmi ("First / Primeval Lakshmi" or "Great Lakshmi") is an ancient
form of Lakshmi.
She is depicted as four-armed, carrying a lotus and a white flag, other two arms in Abhaya
mudra and varada mudra. 'Adi' means source.Adi Laxmi is the divine principle as wealth that
supports a seeker to reach at their source i.e.'atman' or consciousness.If one individual posseeses
AdiLaxmi, they can effortlessly delve deep into dhyana and realize the state of absolute silence,
bliss and peace. Without Adi Lakshmi a seeker fails to quieten their wavering and chattering
mind .Out of all Ashta Lakshmis this particular aspect is responsible for furthering of spiritual
wealth.
Dhana Lakshmi

Dhana Lakshmi…Dhanya Laxmi,,,Gaja Laxmi/Dhana Lakshmi ("Money Lakshmi"), is the

goddess of wealth. /Goddess Dhana Lakshmi is Four-armed, in red garments, carries Sudarshana
Chakra, Shankha, Kalasha (water pitcher with mango leaves and a coconut on it) or Amrita
Kalasha (a pitcher containing Amrita – elixir of life), bow-arrow, a Lotus(flower) and an arm in
abhaya mudra with gold coins falling from it.

Dhanya Lakshmi

129
Dhanya Lakshmi
Dhanya Lakshmi ("Grain Lakshmi") is the goddess of agricultural wealth.[3]
She is depicted as eight-armed, in green garments, carrying two lotuses, gada (mace), paddy
crop, sugarcane, bananas, and her two hands in abhaya mudra and varada mudra.Dhanya Laxmi
is also the principle of wealth that provides the ability to consume or to indulge.If a person
possesses Dhanya Laxmi, they will have the fortune to enjoy the worldly pleasures.
Gaja Lakshmi

Gaja Lakshmi ("Elephant Lakshmi") is the giver of animal wealth (such as cattle) or the giver of
power of royalty, as interpreted by Swami Chidananda.[4]
According to Hindu mythology, Gaja Lakshmi brought back the wealth lost by Indra (king
of demi-gods) from the ocean. Vasudha Narayanan interpreted the name as "one who is
worshipped by elephants"
She is depicted as four-armed, in red garments, carrying two lotuses, other two arms in abhaya
mudra and varada mudra, surrounded by two elephants bathing her with water pots.
Santana Lakshmi

Santana Lakshmi Veera / Dhairya Lakshmi Vijaya / Jaya Lakshmi Vidya Lakshmi

Santana Lakshmi ("Progeny Lakshmi") is the goddess of bestowing offspring.

She is depicted as six-armed, carrying two kalashas (water pitcher with mango leaves and a
coconut on it), sword, shield, a child on her lap, a hand in abhaya mudra and the other holding
the child. Her sword and shield symbolises a mother's ability to even kill someone to save her
own child . The child holds a lotus.
Veera/Dhairya Lakshmi[edit]

Veera Lakshmi ("Valourous Lakshmi") or Dhairya Lakshmi ("Courage Lakshmi") is the goddess
who bestows valour during battlesand courage plus strength for overcoming difficulties in life.[2]
She is depicted as eight-armed, in red garments, carrying a chakra, shankh, bow, arrow, trishul
(or sword), a bundle of palm leaf scriptures, other two hands in abhaya mudra and varada mudra.
she is the one who took the avtar of Durga
Jaya/Vijaya Lakshmi

Vijaya Lakshmi or Jaya Lakshmi ("Victorious Lakshmi") is the goddess and the giver of
victory,[4] not only in battles but also for conquering hurdles in order to achieve success.
130
She is depicted as eight-armed, in red garments, carrying the chakra, shankh, sword, shield,
lotus, pasha, other two hands in abhaya mudra and varada mudra.
Vidya Lakshmi

Vidya Lakshmi ("Knowledge Lakshmi") is the goddess and the bestower of knowledge of arts
and sciences. She is dressed in a white saree and has a resemblance to the goddess Saraswati.
She holds a book of vedas, a peacock feather as a pen, vard mudra and abhay mudra.
Additional Forms
In some Ashta Lakshmi lists, other forms of Lakshmi are included,
1. Aishwarya Lakshmi ("Prosperity Lakshmi"): Goddess of riches only form
of Lakshmi Goddess which mounts horse. She generally replaces Vidya Lakshmi from
the Astalakshmi list.
2. Saubhagya Lakshmi ("Giver of good Fortune") : Giver of prosperity in general.
3. Rajya Lakshmi ("Royal Lakshmi"): "She who blesses rulers (with power)"
4. Vara Lakshmi ("Boon Lakshmi"): "The goddess who bestows boons".

The star is used in Hinduism to symbolize Ashtalakshmi, the eight forms of wealth

Around the 1970s, a leading Sri Vaishnava theologian, Sri U. Ve. Vidvan Mukkur
Srinivasavaradacariyar Svamikal published a poem called Ashta Lakshmi Stotram dedicated to
the eight Lakshmis. Narayanan comments,
“Although these attributes (which represent the wealths bestowed by the Ashta Lakshmi) of Sri
(Lakshmi) can be found in traditional literature, the emergence of these eight (Ashta Lakshmi
goddesses) in precisely this combination is, as far as I can discern, new.”
The Ashta Lakshmi are now widely worshipped both by Sri Vaishnava and other Hindu
communities in South India. Occasionally, the Ashta Lakshmi are depicted together in shrines or
in "framing pictures" within an overall design and are worshipped by votaries of Lakshmi who
worship her in her various manifestations.[5] In addition to emergence of Ashta Lakshmi temples
since the 1970s, traditional silver articles used in home worship as well as decorative jars
('Kumbha') now appear with the Ashta Lakshmi group molded on their sides.
Books, popular prayers manuals, pamphlets sold outside temples in South India; ritual worship
and "a burgeoning audiocassette market" are also popularizing these eight forms of Lakshmi.

Ashtalakshmi Kovil - Temple of Eight Lakshmi's, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

131
 Ashtalakshmi Temple, Besant Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India: The Ashta Lakshmi
Kovil, built in 1974, is the first shrine dedicated exclusively to the Ashta Lakshmi where
Lakshmi is given greater importance than Vishnu. It has eight small shrines arranged in
clockwise direction, dedicated to the Ashta Lakshmi and then a ninth shrine dedicated to
Vishnu and Lakshmi together, unlike the traditional separate shrines
 Ashtalakshmi Temple, Vasavi Colony, Dilsukh Nagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
 Sydney Durga Temple - The Hindu Temple, located in Regents Park, Sydney, Australia has
8 small sanctums dedicated to the Ashta Lakshmi.
 Ashtalakshmi Temple, Sugar Land, Houston, Texas, United States
 Ashtalakshmi Temple, North Hollywood, California, United States
 At the entrance - leading from Vittavasal Street to Meenakshi Temple, Madhurai,
a mandapam (Hall) called Ashta Lakshmi Mandapam is dedicated to the Ashta Lakshmi, the
statues of which support the roof on either side.
 Parashakthi Temple, Pontiac, Michigan has the deities installed there.
 Asta Lakshmi Devasthanam, Fremont, California. Address incorrect, call to find out.
 Sree Vasudevapuram Mahavishnu temple situated in Ernakulam district of Kerala India
conducts the ASHTALAKSHMI THAMPOOLASAMRPANA MAHOTSAVAM every year
starting on the eve of Akshaya Tritheye. The belief is that Maha Lakshmi gives darshan and
shower blessings on devotees only on eight days in a year as Ashta Lakshmis. The most
auspicious ritual of the temple known as ‘’Thampoolasamarpanam” is performed during
the mahotsavam.

Jyestha or Jyeshtha (Sanskrit: ज्येष्ठा, Jyeṣṭhā, "the eldest" or "the elder") is

the Hindu goddess of inauspicious things and misfortune. She is regarded as the elder sister and
antithesis of Lakshmi, the goddess of good fortune and beauty.
Jyestha is associated with inauspicious places and sinners. She is also associated with sloth,
poverty, sorrow, ugliness and the crow. She is sometimes identified with Alakshmi, another
goddess of misfortune. Her worship was prescribed for women, who wished to keep her away
from their homes.
Jyestha appears in the Hindu tradition, as early as 300 BCE. Her worship was at its peak in South
India in the 7th-8th century CE, but by the 10th century, her popularity waned pushing her into
oblivion. Today, numerous ancient images of Jyestha still exist, though she is rarely worshipped.

Texts that elaborate on the iconography of Jyestha are: the Agamas such as
the Amshumadbhedagama, the Suprabhedagama and the Purvakarangama;
the Vishnudharmottara Purana and other shorter references in the Baudhayanagrhyasutra.[3] The
earliest recorded bilingual inscription detailing the iconography and worship practices from the
8th century is found in the caves of Tiruparankunram near Madurai.
Jyestha is usually depicted with two arms. Her nose is long and prominent to the extent that she
is sometimes called elephant-faced. Jyestha is described as having "large pendulous breasts
descending as far as her navel, with a flabby belly, thick thighs, raised nose, hanging lower lip,
and is in colour as ink.” Her large stomach is described to support her swollen pendulous breasts.
Her complexion is black or red. She wears blue-black or red garments. She is often depicted
seated comfortably on a throne with her feet on the ground.
According to textual descriptions, Jyestha holds a blue or white lotus in her right hand. A water-
pot is held in her left hand or placed near her throne or placed in the hand that makes

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the abhaya mudra - gesture of protection. Her left hand usually rests on her seat or on her
thigh.[6] Sometimes, Jyestha holds a broom, in her hand.
Jyestha wears different ornaments and a tilaka mark on her forehead, a sign of her married
status.[6] Her hair is usually braided and piled on top of her head or wound around her head in the
hairstyle called vasikabandha.

Jyestha has a banner depicting a crow, and is popularly called "crow-bannered" (Kakkaikkodiyal)
in Tamil. A group of two attendant goddesses sometimes stand beside her, usually carrying a
crow and a broom.[7] Sometimes a crow stands next to her.[5] Jyestha is often depicted with two
attendants, sometimes interpreted as her son and daughter. The man is bull-faced and holds a
rope or cord. The woman is depicted as a beautiful damsel with a conical crown.[8]
Though Jyestha is almost never depicted astride on a mount, she is described in most texts as
riding a donkey like Alakshmi. In other texts, she is drawn in a chariot by lions or followed by
tigers or astride a camel or lion.

Various scenes from the samudra manthan episode (c. 1820). In right bottom corner, Jyestha is
depicted as a dark woman, wearing dirty clothes and carrying a broom and a pan.

Most Hindu legends narrate about Jyestha's birth during the churning of the cosmic ocean. She is
usually described to be born when the poison Halahala streams from the ocean, while
Lakshmi — her antithesis, the goddess of good fortune — is born when the elixir of life emerges.
In the Padma Purana, when the churning of the ocean commences, the poison first appears from
the ocean. It is swallowed by the god Shiva and then Jyestha appears from the ocean, wearing
red garments. When she asks the gods what she is supposed to do, she is ordered to dwell in
inauspicious places. She is described to bring sorrow and poverty. She is said dwell in houses
with quarrel, where liars use harsh language, where evil and sinful men live, where there is long
hair, skulls, bones, ashes or charcoal (signs of an unorthodox mendicant).
According to the Linga Purana, the god Vishnu divides the world into the good and the bad. He
creates Lakshmi (Sri) and Jyestha, both born from the churning of the cosmic ocean. While
Lakshmi marries Vishnu, Jyestha is married to the sage Dussaha. The sage soon discovers that
his ugly wife can not bear the sound or sight of any auspicious things and complains to Vishnu or
the sage Markendeya (in some versions). Vishnu/Markendeya recommends Dussaha to take
Jyestha only to inauspicious places. Jyestha is described to stay away from religious people.
Jyestha then earns the epithet Alakshmi, "one who is inauspicious". She dwells in places where
"family members quarrel and elders eat food while disregarding the hunger of their children".
She is described to comfortable in company of false mendicants, naked Jain monks

133
and Buddhists, who were considered as heretics by Hindus. Eventually tired of her anti-social
nature, Dussaha abandons Jyestha in a place where non-Vedic (heretical) rituals are performed.
She then approaches Vishnu for relief. Vishnu decreed that Jyestha would be sustained by
offerings of women.
According to the Kamba Ramayana, Jyestha appears during the churning of the cosmic ocean.
The Hindu trinity — the Trimurti find her and order her to live in inauspicious places. As Jyestha
emerged before Lakshmi, Jyestha is considered the elder sister of Lakshmi. Thus, Jyestha is also
called Mudevi or Mudhevi.
Shaiva Puranas extol her as one of eight portions of the Supreme Goddess (Parashakti), who
regulates human lives in different ways.

Jyestha with her attendants

Jyestha denotes the negatives of a Hindu wife, while Lakshmi denotes the positives. Jyestha is
also associated with the senior wife — who is also called Jyestha in Sanskrit — in
a polygamous family. She is also associated with her namesake nakshatra (constellation) -
Jyestha, which inherits the negative qualities of the goddess. If a bride enters a household in the
Jyestha constellation, then her eldest brother-in-law is believed to die.

According to Leslie, as Jyestha is described as elephant-faced and invoked to remove obstacles, a

role akin to the elephant-headed god Ganesha, Jyestha could be a precursor of Ganesha. In some
parts of India, she is identified with Shitala Devi, the goddess of small pox. The lotus,
the abhaya mudra and her relationship with Lakshmi associate her with the Vaishnava (related to
Vishnu) pantheon. Her terrifying aspects and her association with Shaktism suggest
a Shaiva (related to Shiva) connection. The crow - the symbol of bad luck - links her deities
like Nirriti and Yama.[14] Kinsley associates Jyestha with Dhumavati, a widow goddess, part of
the Tantric Mahavidya goddess group. Like Jyestha, Dhumavati is dark, ugly and is associated
with the crow. Also like Jyestha, she dwells in quarrels, inauspicious places, and has a bad

134
temper.[15] Lakshmana Desika, the commentator on the Saradatilaka-Tantra, identifies
Dhumavati with Jyestha.

While Jyestha does not fit in the class of benevolent (saumya) Hindu goddesses with beautiful
bodies, she is a contrast to the other class of the fierce (ugra) goddesses with terrible features,
emaciated bodies and malevolent qualities. As the goddess of sloth, Jyestha's ugliness and
obesity streams from her laziness. She is merely inauspicious and troublesome, but not terrifying.

Worship: Jyestha appears early in the Hindu tradition.[5] She first appears in
the Baudhayanagrhyasutra (300 to 600 BCE). Many of her images still exist, usually on the
outskirts of villages. During the 7th-8th century CE, she was a popular goddess in South India.
As Shaktism spread, her fame slowly declined. The Vaishnava Alvar saint Thondaradippodi
Alvar, dated between 7th to 9th century, comments on number of "foolish devotees" who
worship Jyestha, who keeps them away from the truth. He decreed that it was useless to worship
her. By the 10th century, her worship more or less ceased.
Jyestha's images are rarely worshipped today. They are kept unrecognised in neglected corners in
temples or thrown out of temples. Where they are still recognised, they are objects of fear. In a
temple in Uttaramerur, the Jyestha image is kept with the face towards the ground. The mere
glance of the goddess is believed to bring death on the village.
However, at the height of the popularity, Jyestha was a goddess, who needed to propitiated by a
good wife daily. The Stridharmapaddhati declares that a wife must offer food offerings to
Jyestha before having her own meal. One who does not do so would end up in hell after death;
but the one who follows this routine would be blessed with progeny and
prosperity.[18] The Bodhayana Sutra also elaborates on the worship of Jyestha.[2] As per the
legend in the Linga Purana, it is believed that the women of houses that please the goddess by
offerings can keep her away from their homes.
The 13th century Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri prime minister Hemadri, who wrote a book on
religious vows and fasts, notes that Jyestha should be worshipped by a male devotee to bring
fortune to his wife and progeny. The Saradatilaka-Tantra describes that in Tantric ritual, Jyestha
is worshipped to cause enmity between friends (Vidvesa). Jyestha as the presiding deity
of Vidvesa, was invoked before the start of the rituals.

Keresanthe Sri Mahalakshmi Temple also spelled Laksmi, (Sanskrit: लक्ष्मी lakṣmī, Hindi
pronunciation: [ˈləkʃmi]) is the Hindu goddess of wealth, love, prosperity (both material
and spiritual), fortune, and the embodiment of beauty. She is the wife and active energy
of Vishnu. Her four hands represent the four goals of human life considered proper in Hindu way
of life – dharma, kama, artha, and moksha. Representations of Lakshmi are also found
in Jain monuments. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasundhara
mirrors the characteristics and attributes of Hindu goddess Lakshmi, with minor iconographic
differences. Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six
auspicious and divine qualities, or Gunas, and also because she is the source of strength even to
Vishnu.

135
Lakshmi is commonly portrayed as a beautiful woman with four arms, standing on a lotus
flower. There is usually one, or sometimes two elephants behind her, anointing her with water.
She is often depicted sitting beneath Vishnu.

BBC in: Lakshmi, BBC, 24 August 2009

One of the most compelling stories in Hindu mythology is that of the Churning of the Milky
Ocean. It is the story of the gods versus the demons and their fight to gain immortality. It also
tells of the rebirth of Lakshmi... This story highlights the good fortune and success that Lakshmi
bestows upon those who work hard and seek help sincerely. It also demonstrates that during
times of success, one must never become complacent or arrogant, as success has a way of getting
away from people.
 Hindus believe that anybody who worships Lakshmi sincerely, and not in greed, will
be blessed with fortune and success. It is said that Lakshmi resides in places of
hard work, virtue and bravery, but leaves whenever these qualities are not apparent
any more
 In India Hindus will leave the windows and doors of their houses open so that
Lakshmi can come in. Rangoli are drawn on the floors - Rangoli are patterns and the
most popular subject is the lotus flower.
o BBC in: Festival of Lights: Diwali - 23 October 2014, BBC, 5 October 2014
 The name [Divali] is derived from the Sanskrit term Dipavali meaning “row of
lights,” which are lit on the new-moon night to bid the presence of Lakshmi,
the goddess of wealth. In Bengal, however, the goddess Kali is worshiped, and
in north India the festival also celebrates the return of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana,
and Hanuman to the city of Ayodhya, where Rama’s rule of righteousness would
commence.
 Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth, comes of Her own accord where fools are not
respected, grain is well stored up, and the husband and wife do not quarrel. The
Goddess of wealth is unsteady, and so is the life breath.
Chanakya in: Abhi Sharma he Great Book Of Best Quotes Of All Time, AppLife17 July 2014, p.
49
 tvam hi durgaa dashapraharanadhaarinee
kamalaa kamala dalabihaarinee
vaanee vidyaadaayinee
namaami tvaam
namaami kamalaam
amalaam atulaam,
sujalaam sufalaam
maataram
 English translation: For thou art Durga holding her ten weapons of war,
Kamala [Lakshmi] at play in the lotuses
And speech, the goddess, giver of all lore,
to thee I bow!
I bow to thee, goddess of wealth
pure and peerless,
richly-watered, richly-fruited,
The Mother!

136
 o Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in: Vande Mataram (1909) by Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay, translated by Aurobindo Ghose, Wikisource
o It is an extract of the Indian national prayer "Vandemataram"
 'īśvara' holds the semantic field: master, lord, prince, king, mistress, queen, a
husband, God, the Supreme Being, the supreme soul (आत्मन् ), Shiva (वर्शि), the god
of love, Durga (दु गाद ), Lakshmi (लक्ष्मी), of any other of the shaktis (र्शक्तिs) or female
energies of the deities, and it is often glossed 'controller' in English.
o Dattareya in: Translation:Avadhuta Gita/Chapter 1/1:1 semantic field,
Wikisourcce
G-L
 He [God] is a magician. He simply puts the seed in his imagination –which
is Prakriti, Lakshmi or Mother Goddess of the world and the universe comes into
existence.
o Gandhi in The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi, 15 June 2010 p. 165

Ashta
Lakshmi temple in Chennai

O Devi [Lakshmi], whose heart is full of mercy, who is worshipped throughout the
three worlds and who is the giver of all fortune and the mother of Creation. All
glories to You, o shelter of all living entities. O fulfiller of all desires, You are the
wonderful energy of Lord Achyuta [Vishnu], who is maintaining the three worlds.
You are the Supreme Goddess... - Bhagavad Gita.

- The scriptures reveal that Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva are
all maya of Ma Lakshmi. Ma Lakshmi has many forms, names and dimensions. The
Shri Ma Vaibhava Lakshmi Vrata is related to eight dimensions [Ashta Lakshmi]...

137
 Lotus-maiden [Lakshmi], you who claim
All the sweetness of your name,
Lakshmi, fortune's queen, defend you,... - Sarojini Naidu.
 O Devi [Lakshmi], whose heart is full of mercy, who is worshipped throughout the
three worlds and who is the giver of all fortune and the mother of Creation. All
glories to You, o shelter of all living entities. O fulfiller of all desires, You are the
wonderful energy of Lord Achyuta [Vishnu], who is maintaining the three worlds.
You are the Supreme Goddess. O protector of the devotees, all glories to You. O
Devi, it is You who fulfills the desires of the devotees, and it is You who engages
them in the service of Lord Achyuta. You are eternal and deliverer of all fallen souls.
All glories unto You. O Devi, for the welfare and protection of the three worlds, You
take on many forms such as Ambika, Brahmi, Vaishnavi, Maheshwari, Varahi Maha-
Lakshmi, Narasimhi, Indri, Kumari, Chandika,
Lakshmi, Savitri, Chandrakala, Rohini and Parameshwari. All glories unto You,
whose glories are unlimited. Kindly be merciful upon me.
o Bhagavad Gita in: The Bhagavad Gita (Telang translation) Chapter 12,
Wikisource
 Ganesha is frequently depicted with Saraswati, the Goddess of learning and music,
and Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth and prosperity. Since Ganesha is associated
with similar attributes as the goddesses, many devotees believe that they are his
wives in previous incarnations. This assumption is reinforced by their worship along
with Ganesha, especially during Diwali. But no myths support this notion. The
deities are worshiped together simply because they represent similar goals.
o Royina Grewal in:The Book of Ganesha, Penguin Books India, 2009, p. 64
 The scriptures reveal that Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva are all maya of
Ma Lakshmi. Ma Lakshmi has many forms, names and dimensions. The Shri Ma
Vaibhava Lakshmi Vrata is related to eight dimensions [Ashta Lakshmi]:
1) Gaja Lakshmi - Giver of animal wealth like cattle and elephants (gaja);
2) Dhanya Lakshmi - Giver of agricultural wealth;
3)Aishwarya Lakshmi - Goddess of riches;
4)Adhi Lakshmi – Goddess of spiritual contentedness;
138
 5)Vijay Lakshmi – Goddess of victory, not only in battle, but also over conquering
hurdles in order to beget success;
6)Dhana Lakshmi – Goddess of money and gold;
7) Veer Lakshmi – Goddess of valor, not only in battle, but also
providing courage and strength to overcome difficulties in life;
8)Santana Lakshmi - Goddess of family, bestows followers with children.
o Katha in: Shri Vaibhava Lakshmi Vrata Katha, Vanchan Vishesh: News &
Knowledge (vanchanvishesh.com)
M-R
 Sri Suktam:
Hiranya varnam harinim
suvarna-rajathas-rajam
Chandhram hiranmayim lakshmim
jathavedho ma avaha
Tham ma avaha jathavedho
lakshmi manapagaminim
Yasyam hiranyam vindheyam
gam-ashvam purushan-aham
 English translation:Oh God of Fire, invoke for you, the Goddess Lakshmi who
shines like gold, yellow in colour, wearing gold and silver garlands, radiating like
the moon, the embodiment of wealth. Oh God of Fire! Invoke for me the unfailing
Lakshmi, blessed by whom, I shall have wealth, cattle, horses and men.
o Mantras in: Goddess Narayani Moola Mantra, .narayanipeedam.org
 Lotus-maiden [Lakshmi], you who claim
All the sweetness of your name,
Lakshmi, fortune's queen, defend you,
Lotus-born like you, and send you
Balmy moons of love to bless you,
Gentle joy-winds to caress you.
Lotus-maiden, may you be
Fragrant of all ecstasy.
o Sarojini Naidu in: The Golden Threshold by Sarojini Naidu To my Children,
Wikisource
 ...Purusha was personified as Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva while Prakriti was
personified as Saraswati, Lakshmi and Shakti.
o Devdutt Pattanaik, in Myth = Mithya : A Handbook of Hindu Mythology (2008),
p. 39
 भद्रै र्ां लक्ष्मीवनद वहतावि िावि}}
bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmīrnihitādhi vāci}}
"An auspicious fortune is attached to their words."
o Rig Veda, x.71.2, Translated by John Muir
S - Z[edit]
 Kural-179 [Hymn-1790]:
Good fortune draws anigh in helpful time of need,
To him who, schooled in virtue, guards his soul from greed.
Lakshmi, knowing the manner (in which she may approach) will immediately come

139
 to those wise
men who, knowing that it is virtue, covet not the property of others.
o Tiruvalluvar in: Tirukural/Chapter 18, Wikisource
 The crowd that thronged Ayodhyá wept,
With agonizing woe distressed.
With him in hermít's mantle dressed
In guise of Sítá Lakshmí went,
And none his glory may prevent.
o Valmiki in: The Ramayana of Valmiki , translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith Canto
XLIV: Sumitra's Speech, Wikisource

 First Diwali day called Dhanteras or wealth worship. We perform Laskshmi-Puja in

evening when clay diyas lighted to drive away shadows of evil spirits.In Diwali,
goddess Lakshmi visits all people. Cows are worshipped for they are incarnations of
Goddess Lakshmi.
o Zak Vera in: Invisible River, AuthorHouse, 1 February 2010, p. 179
 Every woman is an emanation of you.
o Sri Daivakrta Laksmi Stotram as quoted by in Constantina Rhodes (2011),
Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony, State
University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438433202
 Every woman is an embodiment of you.
You exist as little girls in their childhood,
As young women in their youth
And as elderly women in their old age.
o  Sri Kamala Stotram as quoted in ibid.
 The grace of both Lakshmi (goddess of fortune) and Sarasvati (goddess of learning)
now shines on the peoples of the Western countries. They do not stop at the mere
acquisition of the objects of enjoyment, but in all their actions they seek for a sort
of beauty and grace.
o Swami_Vivekananda in: The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda by Swami
Vivekananda The East and The West, Wikisource

Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses

During [Durga Puja]...very frequently, small images of

Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kartikeya and Ganesha are also placed by the side of the
goddess [Durga]. At the close of the festival, these images are immersed into the
river.

140
 Lakshmi Narayan - Sometimes this Goddess [Lakshmi] is shown as being one with
the Lord Vishnu, when then is called Lakshmi Narayan. This conjoined deity denotes
that in his supreme state Vishnu is one with his consort, who represents
his power and energy.
Suresh Chandra in: Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses, Sarup & Sons, 1998
 During [Durga Puja]...very frequently, small images of
Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kartikeya and Ganesha are also placed by the side of the
goddess [Durga]. At the close of the festival, these images are immersed into the
river.
o In: p. 83
 Consorts of all these gods [Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva], are known as goddesses. They
are Saraswati — wife of Brahma as well as Goddess of Knowledge, Lakshmi — wife
of Vishnu as well as Goddess of Prosperity, Parvati — wife of Shiva as well as
Goddess of Power.
o In: p. 106
o Deepavali is also considered a festival to worship Goddess Lakshmi, the consort
of Lord Vishnu and Goddess of Wealth. A special Goddess Lakshmi pooja is
performed in most Hindu homes during this festival. During Deepavali people
visit friends and exchange sweets.In: p. 125
 In the Rigveda [Chapter X, hymn 129) the first enunciation in world’s literature is
made of the idea that the Creator willed to create the universe through the idea that
the creator willed to create the universe through the agency of a female principle.
This idea was expressed in the supposed marriage of heaven and earth and
the Sankhya philosophy’s union of Purusha and Prakriti. It gathered so great a
strength that later on every principal deity of Hindu mythology had his own female
companion, who shares the worship paid to male god,
e.g., Sita and Rama, Parvati and Shiva, Radha and Krishna, Lakshmi and Vishnu.
o In: p. 127-28
 [Lakshmi] a, major Hindu goddess who originated perhaps as a mother goddess but
who now represents wealth, prosperity and epitomizes the later Hindu (Brahmanical)
notion of the active female principle of Shakti in a male deity. According to
the Ramayan, she arose from the primal Hindu sea of milk. Identified Lakshmi as the
consort of Vishnu.
o In: p. 196
 Sometimes this Goddess [Lakshmi] is shown as being one with the Lord Vishnu,
when then is called Lakshmi Narayan. This conjoined deity denotes that in his
supreme state Vishnu is one with his consort, who represents his power and energy.
o In: p. 200
 His [Vishnu's] wife is Lakshmi or Sri, the goddess of wealth and fortune. His place
of abode is Vaikuntha (heaven) and his vehicle is Caruda, a giant-sized eagle which
often is "shown as a winged human-shaped figure having a break-like nose. Vishnu
is the infinite ocean from which the world emerges.
o In: p. 367
o
Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious
Tradition[edit]

141
 One of the most popular and enduring representations of Sri-Laksmi shows her
flanked by two elephants in the so-called Gaja-Laksmi images. The elephants shower
her with water from their trunks or empty pots of water over her.

At Angkor
Sri-Laksmi is today one of the most popular and widely venerated deities of the
Hindu pantheon. Her auspicious nature and her reputation for
granting fertility, luck, wealth, and well-being seem to attract devotion in every
Indian village...
David Kinsley in: Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu
Religious Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1 January 1998
 Laksmi expresses Hindu thinking about kingship and the relationship of the ruler to
the fertility of the world. The many goddesses associated with geographical features
of the Indian subcontinent suggest Hindu thinking about the relationship
between sacred space and spiritual liberation.
o In: p. 4
 The goddess Sri, who is also commonly known by the name Laksmi, has been
known in the Hindu tradition since pre-Buddhist times. She is one of the most
popular goddesses in the Hindu pantheon. She has a considerable body
of mythology and worshipped by Hindus of all castes throughout India to this day.
o In: p. 19
 The most detailed picture of Sri-Laksmi in Vedic literature is found in the Sri-sukta,
a hymn in praise of Sri which is part of an appendix to the Rigveda and which is
probably pre-Buddhist in date. This is surely one of the earliest hymns to Sri.
o In: p. 20
 One of the most popular and enduring representations of Sri-Laksmi shows her
flanked by two elephants in the so-called Gaja-Laksmi images. The elephants shower
her with water from their trunks or empty pots of water over her.
o In: p. 22
 As Vishnu's wife, Laksmi loses her fickle nature. As the great cosmic king's queen
she is depicted as a model Hindu wife, loyal and submissive to her husband. One of
her most popular iconographic depictions shows her kneeling before Vishnu to
massage his feet. In her early history Sri-Lakshmi was strongly associated with

142
 growth and fecundity as manifested in vegetation. A teeming vitality animated her
presence, a power that gave birth inexhaustibly to life.
o In: p. 28
 In Pancaratra school Laksmi comes to play the central role in
the creation and evolution of the universe as the shakti of Vishnu. In the Pancaratra
creation scenario Vishnu remains almost entirely inactive, relegating the creative
process to Laksmi. After awakening Laksmi at the end of the night of dissolution,
Vishnu’s role in the creation of the universe is restricted to that of
inactive architect whose plan put into effect by a builder. Lakshmi alone acts, and the
impression throughout the cosmogony is that she acts independently of Vishnu,
although it is stated that she acts according to his wishes.
o In: p. 30
 Sri-Laksmi is today one of the most popular and widely venerated deities of the
Hindu pantheon. Her auspicious nature and her reputation for
granting fertility, luck, wealth, and well-being seem to attract devotion in every
Indian village. All of India’s back country is the dominion of Lakshmi, the goddess
of the lotus...she accompanies every mile traveled through central India, every visit
to a temple...Her likenesses are omnipresent on the walls, pillars, lintels and niches
of sanctuaries, regardless of the deity of their specific dedication.
o In: p. 32
 Laksmi is worshiped throughout the year in a variety of festivals, and she is the
constant object of vratas, "religious vows," by means of which devotees ask her for
a blessing in return for undertaking some act of devotion or piety on her behalf.
o In: p. 33
 Finally, in Saiva Siddhanta, a southern school of Saivism, Parvati sometimes takes
on the role of Shiva's embodied grace and thus comes to play a role somewhat
similar to Sri-Laksmi's role in Sri Vaisnavism.
o In: p. 36
 Saraswati is also said to have had her origin from the god Vishnu... Her association
with Vishnu makes her the co-wife of Laksmi in many myths. In this relationship
Saraswati for the most part represents spiritual, ascetic, or religious goals and values,
whereas Laksmi represents worldly well-being as manifest in wealth,
material power, and fertility.
o In: p. 58
 The divinity of Rama and Sita is not stressed in the
early Ramayana of Valmiki (written sometime between 200 BC and 200 AD), but
they increasingly become identified as manifestations of the god Vishnu and his
consort Sri-Laksmi in later texts.
o In: p. 65

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 Central among these are the nectar of immortality and the goddess Sri-Laksmi. Sri
represents good luck, well-being, abundance, and fertility and is well known as
dwelling wherever a righteous king reigns. She is sovereignty personified, and where
she dwells there always exist wealth and abundance of all good things.
 She [Sita] is not mentioned very often and is overshadowed by much more
popular goddesses associated with fertility, such as Sri-Laksmi. Nevertheless, Sita
does seem to be part of a fundamental intuition concerning the fertility of the
plowed earth and necessity of a male power to awaken, arouse and inseminate her.
o In: p. 66
 Central among these are the nectar of immortality and the goddess Sri-Laksmi. Sri
represents good luck, well-being, abundance, and fertility and is well known as
dwelling wherever a righteous king reigns. She is sovereignty personified, and where
she dwells there always exist wealth and abundance of all good things.
o In: p. 68
 When Bhudevi complains that she is being oppressed by a certain demon, Vishnu,
attentive to the welfare of the earth, assumes the appropriate form and recuses the
earth from her predicament. Iconographically it is common to see Vishnu flanked by
Sri-Lakshmi on one side and Bhudevi on the other.
o In: p. 179
Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings, and Models

144
 ...there are three varieties of Lakshmi images: those symbolic of agricultural
abundance and the king's treasury, as the divine wife who tenderly massages her
husband's foot, and as a Yogini rooted in the waters of the ocean.

Vedic culture, which developed into an agricultural and pastoral society, revered both
the earth and cattle. More importantly, significant agricultural goddesses such
as Gaja-Lakshmi emerged. In Epic literature attempts were made to consolidate
couples (Mithuna) and give single females and males individual personalities.
Madhu Bazaz Wangu in: Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings, and Models,
Abhinav Publications, 1 January 2003
 Vedic culture, which developed into an agricultural and pastoral society, revered
both the earth and cattle. More importantly, significant agricultural goddesses such
as Gaja-Lakshmi emerged. In Epic literature attempts were made to consolidate
couples (Mithuna) and give single females and males individual personalities.
o In: p. 29
 The features of Sri Lakshmi expanded from the notion of fertility of the earth.
Several variations of her name are Lakshmi, Gaja-Lakshmi and Sri Lakshmi. The
term Sri is used to refer to the splendour and power of a king or raja. Sri is his
splendour and dominion. She is associated with qualities such as power, capability,
high rank and glory. In the hymn of Purusha Sukta, a supplement to the Rig Veda,
Sri is portrayed as a bright, beautiful and embellished goddess. Furthermore the
hymn identifies Sri and Lakshmi as one and the same goddess.
o In: p. 36
 In other hymns she is considered the luck and light in men and splendid energy in
women. She is firm, motionless, and wide. She is the one who gives nourishment,
wealth and love. She is asked to pour milk as a mother does for a son. Her breasts are
full of nectar which gives long life, and she is praised as the nourisher of all creatures
wicked and good, demonic and divine.
o In: p. 36
 ...the hymn identifies Sri and Lakshmi as one and the same goddess. Prior to this text
a clear distinction was made between the two goddesses.
o In: p. 36
 Yakshini images include Salabhanjika (Yakshini on a Sala tree), Vrikshadevata (Tree
as female deity) and Gaja-Lakshmi (goddess of wealth). These are vegetative or
progenitive spirits directly controlling and bestowing fertility and wealth,or simply
abundance.
o In: p. 39
 The goddess of abundance and fortune, Sri Lakshmi, reflected the accumulated
wealth and financial independence of the Buddhist monasteries. Her image became
one of the popular visual themes carved on their monuments.
o In: p. 57
 Each single deity such as Shiva, Parvati, Vishnu, SriLakshmi and others is
considered personal and the highest god by individual Hindu worshippers. This
particular religious perspective resulted in a popular movement in which
fervent devotion was offered to the deity of one’s choice.
o In: p. 61

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 Lakshmi is believed to have emerged from the ocean at the time of its churning
by gods on one side and demons on the other. The figure of Mahalakshmi, however,
is austere and solemn. All the figures surrounding her, as if magnetized, move
towards her. She is the nucleus of the whole composition.
o In: p. 89
 ... there are three varieties of Lakshmi images: those symbolic of agricultural
abundance and the king's treasury, as the divine wife who tenderly massages her
husband's foot, and as a Yogini rooted in the waters of the ocean.
o In: p. 91
 The Nilmata Purana states that the goddesses Lakshmi and Uma manifested
themselves in the valley as the rivers Jhelum (locally known as Vitasta) and Sindhu,
to purify the land. The sources of water are considered sacred by the Kashmiris.
o In: p. 136
Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony

All Women Are Embodiments of Lakshmi Whether exhibiting steadfastness

or restlessness, nurturing, independence, or any other embodiment or mode
of expression. Lakshmi always retains her core essence as the divine feminine.
Constantina Rhodes in: Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and
Ceremony, SUNY Press, 29 September 2010

All Women Are Embodiments of Lakshmi Whether exhibiting steadfastness

or restlessness, nurturing, independence, or any other embodiment or mode
of expression. Lakshmi always retains her core essence as the divine feminine.
o In: p. 26
Every one of her forms is specifically female – most distinctly
as Radha, Sita and Rukmini who are consorts of various forms of Vishnu. She
is prithvi the divine feminine embodied as mother earth... the gods proclaim: You
exist as little girls in their childhood, As young women in their youth, And as elderly
women in their old age.

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 o In: p. 26
Through her expression of kåma, Laksmi becomes Rådhå, the beloved of Krishna,
whom she meets for secret love-play in the enchanted Vrinda forest. In "The
Heavenly Gods' Praise-Song for Laksmi" (Sri Daivakarta Laksmi Stotram),
the celestial ones celebrate Laksmi in her glorious display of such forms:
In Goloka
You are the goddess more dear to Krishna
Than life itself,
His own Radhika
Deep in the forest
Deep in the Vrnda forest,
You are mistress of mesmerizing rasa dance
In the bows of the sacred bhandira tree,
You are Krishna’s desire.
In the sandalwood forest you are Candra,
In the grove of yellow jasmine you are Viraja,
On the hundred-peaked mountain you are the lovely Sundari.
o In: p. 32-33
 The useful, life-giving currents of gold, of water, of fructifying rains, and indeed of
any form of energy are all variations on the same image of Lakshmi's bestowal
of prosperity. In some images, elephants lustrate the goddess with streams of water,
increasing the magnitude of bounty and also illustrating an important point – that the
goddess of plenty herself enjoys replenishment.
o In: p. 33
 Prasanna Vadana Sri Laksmi stotram (Prasanna Vadana hymn):
Consumed by dire poverty
I am breathless with anxiety and fever.
In this impossibly painful state,
I am driven to your side,
O Lakski, Ocean of Compassion,
Bestow wealth,
And guide me to a state of propensity.
o In: p. 36
 This [.sattva i.e dynamic equipoise.] is Laksmi’s fullness and life-energy, and it
expresses what the Greek philosophers put forth: truth is beauty and beauty is truth.
Laksmi dwells in expansion and reception: in the fullness of giving and receiving of
gifts, nourishment, and pleasure in the commercial exchange of goods and services,
and in the ritual exchange of offerings and boons.
o In: p. 36
 Those who hear or recite
This birth story of Laksmi
Attract the presence of Sri in their homes
For three generations
Alaksmi, repository of penury and strife,
Never gains entrance into those homes
Whose inhabitants offer songs to Sri.

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 o In: p. 44-45
 Diwali is considered as the most auspicious day despite the fact that this day falls on a
Amavasya – the new moon day of the dark fortnight of Ashwin month. There is a custom
to worship Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesha together on this festival of lights.
Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth, fortune, luxury and prosperity and Ganesha is the lord
of intellect and wisdom, and he is revered as the remover of obstacles. So no celebration
is deemed complete without invoking Lord Ganesha where Goddess Lakshmi is
worshipped. Diwali is no exception either. Hence, ‘Gajanan’ is worshipped along with
Maa Lakshmi on this festival to get rid of all obstacles. And then the most significant part
of the festival is performed that is worshipping Goddess Maha Lakshmi.
 It is believed that on the Diwali night, Goddess Lakshmi visits each house to bless her
devotees with great wealth and luxuries. Those worshipping Lakshmi for wealth would
first have to worship Ganesha to seek her blessings. Otherwise, they would not be blessed
by her. To gain wealth, one has to gain intellect first with the blessings of Lord Ganesha.
Without intellect, there would only be misuse of wealth. So one must acquire the
intelligence to earn and spend the wealth in the right manner.
 There is a mythological story behind the ritual of worshipping Ganesha with Lakshmi.
One day, Goddess Lakshmi was having a conversation with her husband, Lord Vishnu.
During the whole conversation, Lord Vishnu observed that Goddess Lakshmi was
praising only herself and giving herself the credit for all worldly blessings and pleasures.
She considered herself the most worshipped deities in the universe. After hearing this,
Lord Vishnu decided to reduce her ego. For that, he told her that a woman is incomplete
without feeling motherhood and Lakshmi never experienced it. On knowing this,
Goddess Lakshmi became disheartened. She approached Goddess Parvati to seek her help
and get the grace of motherhood. She requested Parvati that she wanted to adopt one of
her sons, either Kartikeya or Ganesha. Goddess Parvati was not in favour of giving any of
her sons to Goddess Lakshmi as Lakshmi did not have a permanent place to reside. She
always kept moving from place to place. So Parvati was in a dilemma whether Lakshmi
would be able to take care of her son or not. Then Lakshmi assured Parvati that she
would take all good care of her adopted son and he will always be worshipped along with
her. People who would not worship him along with her, they would not be blessed with
pleasure, money, wealth and prosperity. On hearing this, Parvati got ready and handed
over Ganesha to Lakshmi. Diwali is no exception. So Ganesha poojan is a must along
with Lakshmi poojan on this festival.
 Lord Ganesha and Maa Lakshmi are historically the principal gods of the merchants due
to their close ties with wealth and prosperity. On Deepawali, merchants close their
accounts of last year and pray to both deities that the coming new year should open with
even bigger profits and increase in trade. This tradition is now catching up in every
community in India irrespective of the work people do – who does not want money?
 The happier Maa Lakshmi is with the visit to your house, the more blessings she would
shower on you. Here are a few things which you can perform to please the Goddess
on this Diwali:

1. Clean every corner of your house. Purify it by sprinkling Ganga Jal.

2. Decorate your house beautifully with lights and flowers to attract the Goddess of wealth.

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3. Prepare sweets at home to welcome the Goddess. Take care of purity and freshness of the
ingredients used and prepare them in the best possible hygienic conditions.
4. Prepare a raised platform using a chowki and a new red cloth to place the idols of
Ganesha and Lakshmi.
5. Make a swastik in the centre of the chowki and place a kalash on it. Fill it three-fourth
with clean water. Add one supari, little rice, a marigold flower and a coin to it. Arrange
mango leaves on the mouth of the kalash giving them a flower shape.
6. Place Ganesha and Lakshmi idols in a big plate having edges. Make the idols bath with
‘panchamrit’ first and then with clean water. Wipe them with a clean cloth.
7. Make a lotus flower on the right side of the kalash with haldi-kumkum. Make a small
mountain of rice on it. Place the idol of Goddess Lakshmi in the centre of the heap of
rice. Now place Lord Ganesha’s idol on the left side of the kalash. Light a pure ghee
‘panchmukhi’ diya in front of the idols. Place a lotus flower in a bowl filled with water in
front of Maa Lakshmi’s idol. Offer the deities’ natural scents and fresh flowers.
8. You can place your gold and silver items, cash etc. in pooja thali to worship them as the
blessing of the Goddess.
9. Light an ‘akhand’ mustard oil diya which should burn overnight in front of the idols.
Recite Ganesha-Lakshmi mantras. Pray to the Goddess to shower her blessings for wealth
and prosperity on you. At the same time pray to Lord Ganesha to bless you with wisdom
and intellect to earn that money and use it wisely. Also pray to the Lord to remove all
obstacles which can come in the way of your success and prosperity.
10. At last do Ganesha and Lakshmi aarti and thank the deities for their blessings.
11. Many people observe a full day fast on Diwali. The fasting may be either Nirjal (without
water) or falahari (with milk and fruits) depending upon the body’s capability and the
will power of the observer. Diwali poojan should be done at the right Muhurat. Apart
from Lakshmi-Ganesha poojan, there is a ritual of Kuber pooja. You can place an idol of
Kuber on the pooja chowki while offering Diwali prayers. Kuber is also considered as the
god of money.
12. Generally the new moon day of dark fortnight is considered inauspicious. But this day is
an exception to the rule. May this Diwali make all your desires come true.
13. May Lord Ganesha bestow you with divine knowledge and guide you on the right path of
life and Maa Laksmi bless you with wealth, prosperity and happiness!

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 CHAPTER VIII
Vaishnuism

Hindu pantheon is very complex, organized and hierarchical. Without proper introduction into
Hinduism, it is very difficult to understand the complexity surrounding the Hindu gods and
goddesses and make sense of their numerous names, aspects, emanations and manifestations.
The gods and goddesses belong to one large family of gods, headed by Supreme Brahman on one
side as Purusha or Isvara and Para Shakti or Mother Goddess as His dependent or independent
aspect on the other.
Overtime, the pantheon of gods and goddesses underwent many changes, additions and
deletions, resulting in further complexity. In the early Vedic period, the Vedic gods occupied a
place of prominence, with Agni, Indra, Vayu, Soma, Varuna, Adityas, Maruts, Visvadevas,
Brahma, Prajapati, Pusan, Asvins etc. playing a central role in the sacrificial rituals.
The Brahmanas, Kshatriya, Vaisyas, who formed the original divisions of Vedic society,
worshipped their own classes of gods. Individually, when the Brahmanas performed sacrifices
for themselves in the domestic rites etc. they made offerings to their own gods. But when they
officiated for the sacrifices where the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas were patrons or hosts of sacrifices

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(yajamanas) they made offerings to the gods their patrons worshipped. Thus in the Vedas you
find invocations to numerous deities.
The Kshatriyas worshipped gods of kshatra power, namely Indra, Varuna, Soma, Rudra,
Parjanya, Yama, and Isana. The Brahmanas worshipped gods of Sattvic nature, namely Agni and
Surya and later Adityas, or aspects of the Sun, chief among whom were Savitr and later Vishnu.
The Vaisyas worshipped the gods of vis or commonality, namely Vasus, Rudras, Visvadevas and
Maruts. The sudras worshipped, Pusan, an Aditya, and several local and village deities some of
whom were outside the pale of Vedic tradition.
These divisions of gods are stated in the Chandogya Upanishad (1.4.11-13). With the decline of
the original Kshatriya clans, probably due to wars and internal squabbles, the worship of their
gods declined and were replaced by the deities worshipped by a new class of rulers such as the
Nandas, Mauryas, Sakas, Kushanas, Pahlavas, Barashivas, Kanvas etc. They hailed from
different social and caste backgrounds, and worshipped different gods, some of whom were
unknown to the early Vedic people and never mentioned in the early Vedic literature.
Presently we have many gods and goddesses in Hinduism. Although numerically they were said
to be hundreds and thousands, Hindus worship chiefly a few gods namely Brahma, Vishnu, Siva,
Sarasvathi, Lakshmi, Parvathi, their manifestations, incarnations and emanations.

Chief among the incarnations of Vishnu are Rama, Krishna, and Narasimha. His prominent
image formations (arcavataras) are Lord Venkateswara, Ranganatha, Pandarinatha, Vittalnatha
and Jagannatha. Prominent manifestations of Siva are Dakshinamurthy and nine Jyotirlingas.
The goddesses also have various aspects.
Prominent among the attendant deities are Lord Ganesha, Kumara, Nandi, Hanuman, Garuda.
Apart from them, Hindus also worship many saintly persons such as Dattatreya, Chaitanya,
Mantralaya Raghavendra Swami and Shirid Baba.
Although Hindus worship many gods and goddess, strictly speaking Hinduism is not a
polytheistic religion. Hinduism has elements of both monotheism, polytheism and sometimes
classified as "henotheism or kathenotheism - a belief in single gods, each in turn standing out as
the highest."
This is well illustrated in a conversation between Yajnavalkya and Vidagdha Sakalya as quoted
in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (3:9). When Sakalya asks how many gods are there,
Yajnavalkya begins the conversation saying, "as many as mentioned in the offerings made to the
gods of the universe, namely three hundred and three, three thousand and three." When Sakalya
keeps on asking the same question, Yajnavalkya reduces the number to thirty three, then to six,
then to three, then to two, then to one and half and finally to one. When asked who is the one, he
replies that he is the immortal person (Self) who is in the body. Thus, in Hinduism the concept of
one God acting as many or manifesting as many dates back to early Vedic period. One God
manifests as many. He is the sum total of all things in the universe.

That highest God of Hinduism is known as Brahman who is extolled in the Vedas as the
Supreme Universal Self. He is both manifested and unmanifested, Being and Non-Being,
Existence (sat) and non-existence (asat).All the numerous gods and goddesses are the eyes, ears,
hands and feet of Brahman only. In their individual aspects they represent diversity and His
numerous duties (dharmas); but in their unified and highest aspect they represent Brahman, the
Supreme Self.

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Thus Hinduism is neither monotheistic nor polytheistic, but represents elements of both. The
following is a brief description of the numerous gods and goddesses of Hinduism, followed by a
list of internal links that point to numerous articles explaining their significance and symbolism
in Hinduism.
Atman and Brahman
Atman and Brahman represent two eternal realities ever present in existence. Their relationships
is the subject matter of discussions in numerous schools of Hinduism. Following is a brief
description of the two.
Brahman: As stated already, Brahman is the highest God of Hinduism. He is supreme, universal
Self who is eternal, indestructible and infinite, who is described in the Vedas as both manifested
and unmanifested, and Being and Non-Being. He has numerous aspects. In the early Vedic
descriptions He is often symbolized as the Sun. Those who attain liberation reach His world and
become immortal by the northern path (Uttarayana). For more information on Brahman please
check the links to Brahman found in the section on Brahman. For further information, you may
also read my book Brahman. Brahman is not worshipped in temples or public places, but only
internally.
Atman: Atman is the individual Self. He is the lord of the microcosm (body). He is described in
the Upanishads as the immortal, transcendental, imperishable Self, who cannot be reached
through senses or the mind, but only in a non-dual state of self-absorption. Like Brahman, Atman
is not worshipped in temples or public places, but only internally through concentration and
meditation.
The highest gods of Hinduism
Brahman, Vishnu and Shiva are the highest gods of Hinduism. These gods do not form part of
the early Vedic pantheon. They rose to prominence subsequently, during the eastern and
southern expansion of the Vedic religion in the Indian subcontinent. A brief description of the
three deities is presented below.
Brahma: Brahma is the creator god. He is originally known as Prajapati. He is the first born,
father of the gods, humans and demons. He is also their teacher, who taught them about the
nature of Self and the importance of virtue. He is also the revealer of the Vedas to the mankind.
He has several mind born sons. In the early Upanishads and Vedic hymns he is credited with
incarnations and described as the Cosmic Person (Purusha) as well as Isvara, Hiranyagarbha and
Viraj. In some verses, he is also described as Prakriti or Nature. Brahma enjoyed an exalted
position in ancient times, when the original Kshatriyas ruled the land. With their decline, his
popularity declined. He is presently worshipped only in a few temples, mostly located in the
areas, adjoining or forming part of the ancient Sindhu Saraswathi region, where the Kshatriyas
ruled in ancient times. His abode is called Brahmaloka.
Vishnu: He is currently the most popular god of Hinduism. Vaishnavism is also currently the
most popular and dominant sect of Hinduism, with several sub sects and independent teacher
traditions. Devotees of Vishnu worship Him as the highest supreme Brahman. In popular
Hinduism he is considered the preserver responsible for the preservation and maintenance of
creation. He goes by several names, such as Narayana, Adita, Padmanabha, Ananatasayana etc.
He has also manifested upon earth as incarnations (avataras), manifestations (vyuhas), partial
incarnations (amsavataras) and aspects such as Jagannatha, Panduranga, Ranganatha, Varadaraja,
Venkateswara etc. India is dotted with numerous temples of Vishnu and His numerous aspects
and incarnations. His abode is known as Vaikuntha.

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Shiva: In ancient times, Shiva was the most popular deity of Hinduism, worshipped in numerous
form and diverse communities throughout the Indian subcontinent and even outside. While
Saivism lost ground to Vaishnavism in the last century, it is still a very popular sect of Hinduism
with dedicated followers. As in case of Vaishnavism, Saivism has several sects and sub sects.
Followers of Siva worship Him as the Supreme Brahman who is responsible for the creation,
preservation, and destruction of the worlds, besides delusion and liberation of the beings. In
popular Hinduism he is considered the destroyer. He goes by several names such as Rudra,
Ardhanariswara, Mahadev, Mahesvara, Isvara etc. He has also several aspects, manifestations,
emanations and attendant deities. His abode is called Kailās. He is worshipped in the temples and
households in his anthromorphic form and in the form of Sivalinga. In Tantra, he is also
worshipped in the form of symbols.
Trimurthis: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are considered the Trimurthis, often translated into
English as the Trinity of Hindu gods. In reality, they represent the triple functions of Brahman in
creation. In their highest aspect, they are said to be the same, but different in their functional
aspect, each ruling over a particular sphere and participating in creation along with their
attendant deities. They are often compared to the Isvara, Hiranyagarbha and Viraj aspects of
Brahman. Brahma is the reflection of Brahman in rajas, Vishnu in sattva and Siva in tamas. To
know about their symbolism please check the links below.

The main goddesses of Hinduism

Lakshmi: Lakshmi is the goddess of abundance who is responsible for health, wealth, luck and
happiness. She is the consort of Vishnu. She was born in milky oceans during the churning of the
oceans and gifted to Vishnu. She is usually depicted with four or two hands, either alone or in the
company of Vishnu. When alone she is shown either seated in a lotus or standing in it, with
elephants in the background. She goes by many names, the most popular being Sri. She
incarnated several times upon earth along with Vishnu and participated in his duties as the
preserver. Owl is described as her vehicle. She has numerous forms. Worship of eight forms of
Lakshmi, known as ashta-lakshmis is a very popular Hindu tradition
Shakti: The practice of worshipping Mother Goddess was in vogue in Indian since the Indus
valley civilization. Shakti means energy. Hindus worship Shakti, also known as Mother Goddess,
Divine Mother, Prakriti, Maya and various other names. In creation she represents the materiality
and objectivity. Hence she is also known as the Field (kshetra). In the beings, she represents the
mind and body. If Brahman is the instrumental cause of creation, Shakti is the material cause. If
Brahman represents the will and consciousness, Shakti represents the numerous objects, worlds
and beings in which the will and consciousness of Brahman remains hidden. In the Tantra
tradition, Shakti is considered the highest supreme reality itself, with Brahman remaining in the
background as the passive witness consciousness. In Vedic tradition she is a dependent reality,
but in tantra she is independent. As the companion of Shiva, Shakti is worshipped in numerous
temples across India.

Saraswathi: Saraswathi is the goddess of knowledge and learning. She symbolizes our
knowledge, virtue and creative intelligence. She is the consort of Brahma. As the source of
knowledge, she is also the cause of knowledge, wisdom and liberation among the intelligent
beings. She is responsible for refinement in speech, all artistic expressions and civilized

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behavior. Saraswathi means the flowing one. A river which flowed in the ancient past in the
northwestern India is extolled frequently as Saraswathi. The civilization that thrived on the banks
of the river and adjoining areas is known as Sindhu-Saraswathi civilization. The goddess is
responsible for many crafts and skills. Some descriptions suggest hamsa or swan as her vehicle,
while some mention peacock. She is usually depicted carrying a vina, an Indian musical
instrument.

Parvathi: Parvathi is the consort of Shiva and goddess of love, devotion, and destruction. She
personifies numerous aspects of Mother Goddess and even equated with her in her role as the
Mother of the Universe. She also figures prominently as Uma Haimavathi in the Kena
Upanishad. She is also considered the second incarnation of Mother Goddess after the self-
immolation of her first incarnation as Dakshayani or Sati. There are numerous shakti pithas
installed in various parts of India to worship Sati. She goes by several names such as
Haimavathi, Girija, Uma, Lalitha, Durga, Rudrani. She has both pleasant and fierce aspects. In
some Puranas, she is described as the sister of Vishnu. In the images, she is depicted either alone
or in the company of Shiva. In the Arthanariswra form, as Prakriti she is represented as one half
of Siva, the Purusha.

Vedic gods and goddesses

The Samhita portion of the Vedas contain hymns addressed to various gods, which are described
below.

Indra: Indra is the leader of gods, the lord of the heaven and the chief deity who figures
prominently in the Vedas, with a quarter of the Rig-Veda Samhita devoted to his praise. The
hymns extol him as a great warrior who slew his enemies including the demon Vrata and clipped
the wings of mountains with his mighty weapon the thunderbolt. He is depicted in the
Upanishads as the student of Brahma and teacher of Prataradana son of Divodasa. The white
elephant Airavat is his vehicle and Indrani is his consort. By the time the Puranas were
composed, this mighty god of the early Vedic period lost his prominence and was relegated to an
inferior position.

Agni: Agni figures prominently in the Rig-Veda, with the highest number of hymns addressed to
him. They describe him as the highest god, priest, messenger, master of wealth, minister of
sacrifice, dispeller of night and provider of wealth and progeny to the worshippers, who brings
the gods to the sacrificial place. He manifests are fire upon earth, lightning in the mid-region and
the sun in the highest realm. In the images he is depicted as an old man with two heads, three
legs, a red body, pot belly, seven tongues, four horns and seven arms, each holding different
objects with his consorts Svaha and Svadha on either side. The ram is his vehicle. In the body he
personifies the digestive power.

Vayu: Vayu is the wind god who is described in the Vedas as the lord of the mid-region and a
great absorber. In the body he represents the breath. He rides upon a chariot drawn by a large

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number of horses, depending the upon and the intensity with which he blows. As an invisible
deity he forms part of the subtle realm. He figures prominently in the hymns regarding Soma
sacrifice. They describe him as a drinker of Soma and friend of Indra. In the images he is
depicted as a blue colored god with four hands.

Surya: Surya is the sun god, and one of the solar deities (Adityas). He is described in the Vedic
hymns as the foreseeing one, a flying bird, a jewel in the sky, and the giver of light, with radiant
hair who knows all that lives and who traverses the sky and the mid-region seeing all things that
have birth, riding on a chariot driven by seven horses. He is also praised as a healer who cures
the diseases of the heart and takes away the yellow hue. Savitr, to whom the Gayatri mantra is
addressed, is an aspect of the sun before sunrise. In some hymns he is also addressed as Pusan.

Varuna: Varuna is described in the Vedas as the god of rains, clouds, water, rivers and oceans.
Some hymns beseech him for protection and forgiveness since he is the king and guardian of
moral laws who keeps a close watch on the people and their actions with a thousand eyes. He
knows the ways of men as well as the ways of gods. Some hymns also elevate him as the highest
God who sustains the Asvattha tree whose roots are in heaven and branches below and who
created a wide pathway for the sun to traverse the sky. In some hymns he is associated with Indra
as Indra-Varuna, the guardian of men and in some with Mitra as Varuna-Mitra. In the images he
is depicted as riding a crocodile or seven swans with four hands holding a conch, a vessel of
precious stones, lotus and noose.

Soma: Soma or Soma Pavamana is an important Vedic deity who is extolled in several hymns.
The entire ninth mandala of Rig-Veda is dedicated to him. He is associated with Soma juice,
which was extracted by the Vedic priests ritually during Soma sacrifices from an unknown plant.
It was evidently an intoxicating drink used in the rituals to enter into communion with gods and
ancestors. The hymns describe him as wise, king, lord of heroes, lord of speech, pure energy,
lord of plants, leader who leads the ancestors along a straight path and who makes mortal wise
sages. He was instrumental in the slaying of vrata by Indra

Asvins: Asvins are twin gods who are well known for their healing ability and who are
invariably invoked during sacrificial ceremonies since they always strive to do good to others.
They are described in the hymns as divine physicians and surgeons well versed in the art of
healing, surgery and even organ transplantation. They are rich in treasure, lords of splendor,
having nimble hands, heroes, wonder workers and full of pleasantness, who bestow boons upon
those who worship them and seek their protection.

Aditi: Aditi is the prima mother of gods, especially the twelve solar deities known as Adityas, of
whom Vishnu is one. She is a prototype of Mother Goddess or Prakriti, who is often compared in
the Vedas to the sky and the space. The hymns suggest that she was born to Daksha and Daksha
in turn was born to her. Although no specific hymns is addressed to her in the Vedas, she is
mentioned in several hymns along with other gods as the might Aditi having the ability to grant

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the grace of Rudra. One hymn in particular describes Aditi as the heaven, the mid-region, the
mother, the sons, all gods, five divisions of men and all that was born and shall be born. The
Puranas describe her as the wife of sage Kashyapa and the mother of the Aditya, Indra and
Vamana.

Adityas: The Adityas are solar deities and sons of Aditi who figure in the hymns addressed to
Visvadevas, Rhbus, Agni etc., and mentioned along with Maruts, Vasus, Rudras and other gods
of commonality. They are described in the Rig-Veda as pure gods, lords of liberal gifts, free
from blemish, who help the worshippers in prosperity, providing shelter, showing the way and in
defeating their enemies. Surya is an Aditya but he does not figure in the list of Adityas. The
Adityas were most likely aspects of the same sun, or the different suns who appear in the sky
during the different hours of the day and given different names or identified with different
deities. Many hymns of the Rig-Veda mention them collectively as Aditya without specifying
their names. Some hymns even distinguish them from Indra, Vayu, Brihaspati, Mitra, Agni,
Surya, Vishnu, Pusan, and Bhaga. In the Puranas their number went up from eight to twelve
probably due to the division of time into twelve hours instead of seven or eight. The Vishnu
Puranas lists the following 12 Aditya: Amsa, Aryaman, Bhaga, Dhuti, Mitra, Pusan, Sakra,
Savitr, Tvstr, Varuna, Vishnu, Vivsvat.

Usha: Usha is described in the Rig-Veda as the goddess of dawn, daughter of the sky, heaven's
radiant daughter, auspicious goddess, opulent, and lady of the light with resplendent rays, who
dawns upon people with prosperity and who graciously answers to the prayers with abundance
and with brilliant light. Such descriptions suggest she may be even a precursor to Lakshmi, who
also rises from the ocean like Usha. The Rig-Veda also describes her as the brightest and fairest,
the sister of Savitr who wakes up people with sounds of joy and sends them great riches, who
brings forth all the gods from the heaven so that they may drink the Soma.

Yama: Yama means restraining one. According to the legends, he was the first to die and depart
to the heaven. Subsequently, he became the lord of the underworld, Yamaloka. He is assisted in
his duties by two fierce dogs with four eyes and wide nostrils who guard the path that lead the
departed to his world. The Puranas describe him as the god death, and the ruler of southern
quarter, who is known for his knowledge, judgment and fairness in punishing the sinners. They
also describe the different kinds of punishments meted out to the sinner in his world according to
the list of sins recorded by his assistant and record-keeper Chitragupta.

Pusan: The Chandogya Upanishad describes Pusan as the god of the Sudras. In the Rig-Veda he
is portrayed as a solar deity and a guardian of the world, who shines brightly in the sky, showing
the way to people on earth as well as to the departing souls who are on their way to the other
world. He is the wonder worker, who has goats for his steeds, who drives away from the path
wolves, robbers, the wicked and the like, the lord of all prosperity and wielder of golden sword,
who leads people to meadows rich in grass. Pusan is also associated with livestock as the

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vigorous one, who invigorates them by leading them to green pastures and protects them by
helping men to find their lost cattle. In the Puranas he is described as one of the Adityas.

Visvadevas: The Visvadevas are gods of commonality. According to the Chandogya Upanishad
(1.24.1), the evening extractions of the Soma juice are offered to Adityas and Visvadevas.
Adityas dwell in the heaven and Visvadevas in our world. As the name suggests they are
guardian deities of the world. Several hymns are addressed to them in the Rig-Veda, in which
they are addressed variously as Indra, Vayu, Brihaspati, Mitra, Agni, Pusan, Bhaga, Adityas and
Maruts. Most likely Visvadevas is a generic name given to all the gods of heaven when they are
invoked collectively rather than individually and their blessings and help are sought jointly for
the common good. However, the Puranas list ten Visvadevas, namely Vasu, Satya, Kratu, Daksa,
Kala, Kama, Dhriti, Kuru, Pururavas, and Madravas

Rudras: Rudra is the god of storms, who howls and roars, with shining body and braided hair,
and wields the thunderbolt, bow and arrow. Although fearsome to look and wrathful, he is a
benevolent god, repels the anger of gods and helps the worshippers. The Rig-Veda describes him
as strong, bounteous, most excellent, and wise, with braided hair, who is the lord of heroes and
ruler of valiant men, and who shines in splendor like the sun. He is an excellent physician and
healer with thousands of medicines with which he cures the sickness of humans. He is often
equated with Agni and later with Shiva. The Rudras are his attendant deities, whose number is
mentioned as eleven in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. In the body, they are equated to the
breaths and the mind. The Puranas mention eight Rudras, namely Bhava, Sarva, Isana, Pasupati,
Bhima, Ugra, Mahadeva and Rudra.

Maruts: Like the Rudras, the Maruts are also storm or wind deities of the mid-region who are
often invoked along with Agni in the sacrifices to come together. They are described as the sons
of Rudra and attendants and companions of Indra, who sit as deities in heaven above the mid-
region's luminous sphere, and scatter the clouds. The Rig-Veda describes them as violent and
aggressive with golden weapons, sons of Prisni, self-luminous, born together, bearers of spears,
swords and glittering ornaments, fiercely vigorous and strong, who shake the heaven and earth
like a garment. Their number vary fro 27 to 60. It appears that they were also invoked during war
times to create unfavorable weather conditions and discourage the enemies from moving
forward.

Brihaspati: Brihaspati is the teacher of gods and a planetary deity equated with Jupiter among
the planets. In the Vedas the role of teacher is originally ascribed to Prajapati, who is the teacher
of not only gods, but also humans and demons. Hence, more likely Brihaspati may be an aspect
of Prajapati in his role as a teacher. He is also often equated with Ganapati and Brahmanaspati.
He is described in the Rig-Veda as the son of Angiras, sweet-tongued, mighty, leader of Samans,
resplendent, whom both God and mortal listen and whose Samans pervade the earth and heaven.
According to the Puranas, he was appointed as the teacher of gods by Shiva. He has rivalry with

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Shukracarya, the teacher of demons. He has three brothers and three wives. The three wives bore
him nine daughters and nine sons.

Vasus: According to the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Vasus are eight in number. They are
fire, earth, air, the mid-region, the sun, heaven, the moon and stars. They are so called because
they the dwelling places for practically everything in creation. The Mahabharata mention the
eight Vasus with their specific names: Dhara (the earth), Anala (fire), Apa (water), Anila (wind),
Dhruva (the polestar), Soma (moon), Prabhasa (dawn) and Pratyusha (light). According to the
Mahabharata due to a curse delivered by sage Vashista, the Vasus were born as the sons of
Ganga. Of them due to the same curse, seven died instantly, while the last one survived and
became renowned as Bhishma.

Other gods: The other deities mentioned in the Vedas include Rtu, Savitr, Apris, Svanaya,
Rbhus, Mitra, Bhavyaya, Aryaman, Indri, Saraswathi, and Brahmanaspati. Of them Saraswathi is
the most important deity, who is mentioned frequently in the Rig-Veda and whom we have
already described under the Shaktis as the consort of Brahma.

Attendant deities of Vishnu

Two gods figure prominently in Hindu pantheon as attendant deities of Vishnu, Garuda,
Adisesha. To them we may also add Hanuman who played a prominent role in during the
incarnation of Rama. Their importance is described below.

Garuda: The Eagle shaped god, Garuda or Garutmanta, is the vehicle of Vishnu, whose images
are found in Vaishnava temples as an associate deity of Vishnu or his aspects near or opposite
the sanctum sanctorum. According to the Puranas, he is described as the son of Kashyapa and
Vinata and brother of Aruna, the charioteer of Surya. Vishnu accepted him as his vehicle,
impressed by his act of bringing the pot of nectar from Indra's heaven. In the images he is show
part human and part bird with feature of both. He has a human body with wings and the head of
an eagle. Garuda personifies humility, devotion and knowledge.

Adishesha: Adishesha, is the serpent king who is also known as Shesha and Anantashesa. He is
generally described as many thousand hooded serpent with a mass of coils floating in the waters
of creation, upon which rests Vishnu and Lakshmi. In some images, he is also found with five or
seven heads. Symbolically, he represents the materiality of creation. Since Vishnu rests upon him
before, during and after creation, he is considered indestructible. According to the Mahabharata
he was born to Kashyapa and his wife Kadri. He performed penances and earned the right to stay
in the underworld (Patala) perennially to provide support to the earth. However, it is possible that
this Shesha described in the Mahabharata, may be an aspect of the eternal Adisesha who carries
Vishnu all the time.

Hanuman: Hanuman is one of the most popular gods of Hinduism today. He is the son of Vayu,
born with the powers and blessings of Shiva. He played a vital role in the Ramayana, assisting

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Rama in finding Sita and fighting on his behalf with the demons of Ravana. He has the features
of a monkey, with a strong human body and heart of gold. He is known for his exemplary
devotion to Rama and Sita. He also served as an emblem for the Pandavas during the
Mahabharata war. He is worshipped in numerous temples across India and elsewhere. Hanuman
Chalisa is the most popular prayer of Hanuman which are sung in millions of Hindu households
and temples to invoke Hanuman and seek his blessings.

Incarnations of Vishnu

One of the important beliefs of Hinduism is the incarnation of God in a mortal form upon earth
from time to time to restore order and regularity. The duty of such incarnations falls upon
Vishnu, who is the preserver. According to the Puranas, he has so far incarnated upon earth nine
times and this tenth incarnation is yet to happen. The list of the nine incarnations vary. The
following is the widely accepted list of Vishnu's incarnations upon earth. Each of these gods
have different forms, characteristic features and temples and followers of them. Of them Rama
and Krishna are the most popular and the incarnation of Buddha is a negative incarnation.

Matsya. This is the incarnation of Vishnu as a mighty fish (matsya), in the Satya Yuga or the
Age of Truth to save Manu, the father of mankind, the sages and the knowledge of the Vedas for
the renewal of life upon earth, following a great flood.

Kurma. This is the incarnation of Vishnu as a tortoise (kurma), in the Satya Yuga to support the
mountain Mandhara and prevent it from sinking, when it was used by gods and demons to churn
the oceans to obtain Amrita or the elixir of life.

Varaha. This is the incarnation Vishnu as a boar, again in the Satya Yuga to save the earth from
destruction when the demon Hiranyaksha submerged it under an ocean. Assuming the form of a
boar, Vishnu lifted the earth and saved the mankind.

Narasimha. In this incarnation, which also happened in the Satya Yuga, Vishnu assumed the
fierce form of a man-lion with a human body but the head of a lion, to save Prahlada, his
devotee, from the oppression of his father Hiranyakasipu who was displeased with son's devotion
for Vishnu.

Vamana. In this incarnation which happened in the Treta Yuga, Vishnu assumed the form of a
dwarfish Brahman boy to slay Bali, a noble but demonic king, who defeated Indra and occupied
the heaven. After obtaining permission from Bali to secure a space equal to three steps for
himself, with two strides he covered the whole universe and with the third he pushed Bali into
the underworld.

Parashurama. In this incarnation during Treta Yuga, Vishnu was born as the son of Brahmana
couple, Jamadagni and Renuka, but assumed the duties of a warrior to destroy the entire
Kshatriya race as they had become tyrannical and fallen into sinful ways. This incident probably

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alludes to a conflict between Kshatriya and Brahmanas, and the subsequent decline of the
Kshatriyas, which was discussed before.

Rama: In this incarnation again during Treta Yuga, which is well described in the epic
Ramayana, Vishnu was born as the warrior prince Rama with a specific purpose to slay the ten-
headed demon king Ravana, who had become invincible due to a boon obtained by him from
Shiva. In this incarnation he was assisted by his brother Lakshmana, who is considered an
incarnation of Adisesha, and by Hanuman, the son of Vayu.

Krishna. In this incarnation which happened in Dwapara Yuga, Vishnu was born as the younger
brother of Balarama, who is also described in some accounts as an incarnation of Vishnu to
restore order as the earth was troubled by numerous demons and evil beings. He played a key
role in the Mahabharata war and because a household name for his exploits and his teaching of
the Bhagavadgita, which he delivered to Arjuna in the middle of the battlefield.

Buddha. The incarnation of Buddha figures only in certain accounts. In others it is ascribed to
Balarama. Where it is included, it is described in negative terms. According to one version, in
this incarnation which happened during Kali Yuga, Vishnu was born as Buddha, with a specific
mission to mislead the demons who were born as atheists and non-believers and cause their
downfall and destruction by preaching them the philosophy of no-soul and no God.

Kalki. In this incarnation, which is expected to happen at the end of Kali Yuga or the Age of
Darkness, Vishnu will incarnate as a fierce warrior. Riding upon the back of a white horse and
carrying a sword, he will destroy the sinners and the wicked ones to restore Dharma and herald
the dawn of a new golden age.

Minor incarnation of Vishnu

The minor or partial incarnations of Vishnu are known as amsavataras, meaning only specific
aspects of Vishnu manifest in the deities who appear upon earth to perform certain specific tasks
as part of preservation and continuation of creation and dharma. Sometimes, going by the
definition, the incarnations of Balarama and even Rama are included in this list. The most
notable among the partial incarnations of Vishnu are Dattatreya, Dhanvantari, Hayagriva, Kapila,
Mohini, Nara-Narayana, Vyasa and Yajna. A brief description of each is provided below.

Dattatreya: Born to Atri and his wife Anasuya, Dattatrreya is regarded as a human
manifestation of the combined power of the trinity, teacher of non-Vedic people and originator
of certain magical rites and Soma rituals. He is always accompanied by four dogs, which
represent the four Vedas.

Dhanvantari: Dhanvantari manifested from the waters during the churning of the oceans,
holding the pot of Amrita. He is credited with the knowledge of the medical sciences and healing

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among the gods. Subsequently, he was born as a king of Kasi and reintroduced the same
knowledge to the people of the earth.

Hayagriva. He is associated with the knowledge of Yajurveda, which he received rom Surya,
after performing a severe penance. The knowledge he gained thus forms part of the Vajasaneyi
Samhita. According to some version, Lord Vishnu was born as Hayagriva to rescue the Vedas
from two demons, Madhu and Kaitabha when they stole them. In the images, he is shown with
the head of a horse, having four or eight arms, holding several weapons and objects in them.

Kapila: He is credited with the authorship of Kapila Sutras and the founding of the Samkhya
school of philosophy. According to the Puranas, he was instrumental in the coming down of the
Ganga from heaven to the earth, since it was he reduced the children of Sagara to ashes, where
upon Bhagiratha performed a great penance to bring them back to life. He is said to be the son of
Kardama and Devahuti. In the images he is depicted as an ascetic with knotted hair, long beard
and four arms.

Mohini: During the churning of the oceans, when the pot of elixir finally manifested, it became
necessary for Vishnu, at the behest of gods, to appear as a beautiful maiden and delude the
demons to prevent them from partaking the elixir and instead opt for an intoxicating drink. So
beautiful was the form of Mohini that even Shiva was overcame with feelings of love and
infatuation.

Nara-Narayana: Nara and Narayana are described as two sages who were born to Dharma and
Ahimsa. They performed a great penance to destroy Sahasrakavaca, the demon of a thousand
armors. Later they said to have taken birth as Arjuna and Krishna respectively. According to
another version, at the end of the incarnation of Narasihma, his body was split into two. The
human part became Nara and the lion part became Narayana. Then they performed a great
penance, during which Indra sent celestial nymphs to tempt them. Narayana then produced
Urvasi from his thigh, who was much more beautiful than all of them. Symbolically, Nara-
Narayana represent the relationship between man and God.

Vyasa: Sage Vyasa, also known as Krishna-Dvaipayana, is credited with the authorship of
several scriptures, which include the Vedas, the Mahabharata, all the Puranas and the
Brahmasutras. He is also credited with the composition of the Bhagavadgita since it forms part of
the Mahabharata. He was said to be the son of sage Parasara. In the images he is depicted as a
sage with long hair knotted into a crown and long beard with his four disciples by his side.

Yajnesa: Yajna, Yajnesa or Yajnesvara is the lord of the sacrifice. The whole manifestation
happened because of a sacrifice and Vishnu is its sacrificer, sacrificed and object of sacrifice.
Hence, the various limbs of the deity are compared to various parts of a sacrifice. According to
the Puranas, Yajnesa was born to Ruci and Akuti. In his images he is shown with two heads,
seven hands, three legs and four horns, suggesting his affinity with Agni. His hands hold various
objects used in a sacrifice.

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Vyuhas - Emanations of Vishnu

According to Vaishnava tradition, five classes of manifestations are attributed to Vishnu, namely
transcendental (para), emanating (vyuha), incarnating (vibhava), the hidden (antaryami) and
image forms (arca).

Of these we have already discussed the transcendental and incarnating aspects of Vishnu. Of the
remaining, the hidden aspect is considered the Supreme Self who resides in the heart of a being,
apart from the individual Self, as its eternal companion.

Arca constitute the living and breathing images and sacred symbols which embody of Vishnu
and which are used in human worship.

Finally, the Vyuhas are the emanations of Vishnu, which are four. Together they are called
caturvyuhas or caturmurthis. They are usually associated with Krishna who is also known as
Vasudeva.

Of the four, the first one emanates from the transcendental Vishnu. The second one from the
first, the third one from second and so on. The four deities also undergo change from epoch
(yuga) to epoch as indicated by the changes in their colors.

Symbolically the four emanations represent the internal organ. Vasudeva represents the
consciousness (citta). Samkarshana stands for ego. Pradyumna for intelligence, and Aniruddha
for the mind (manas). They also represent the fours state of consciousness, wakefulness, dream
state, deep sleep state and transcendental state.

In some accounts, Vasudeva is equated with Vishnu or Para Vasudeva, since both possess six
qualities, and the Vyuhas are counted as three. The four Vyuhas are described below.

Vasudeva: He is identified with Sri Krishna, endowed with six supreme qualities, namely
knowledge (jnana), power (Shakti), strength (bala), lordship (aisvarya), virility (virya) and light
(tejas). Those who attain liberation are able to enter into his presence and experience supreme
bliss at the mere sight of him.

Samkarshana: He emnates from Vasudeva and is endowed with knowledge and strength. He
introduces the knowledge of the scriptures and destroys the universe in the end. He is also
identified with Balarama.

Pradyumna: He represents strength and lordship. He is the creator who manifests the universe
and the Dharma.

Aniruddha: He represents virility and light. He is protector of the world and exponent of
dharma.

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Vyuhantaras: The four emanations later manifest as 12 further emanations called Vyuhantaras,
three from each Vyuha. They are: Kesava, Madhava and Narayana from Vasudeva; Govindha,
Vishnu and Madhusudhana from Samkarshana; Trivikrama, Vamana and Sridhara from
Pradymna; and Hrisikesa, Padmanabha and Damodara from Aniruddha. Each of these deities,
just as the Vyuhas are used in meditation by the devotees of Vasudeva.

Arcavataras or Vishnu in Image form

According to Vaishnava tradition, Vishnu also manifested in the mortal world in the form of
images and symbols called Arcavataras. They are the living images of God. Unlike the
incarnations, which happened once and the Vyuhas which are abstract and beyond the reach of
the perceptual world, the Arcas are the permanent incarnations of Vishnu which are within the
reach of the senses and part of our existence. Since the transcendental power of God manifests in
these objects of Nature, they carry a powerful presence of God having the ability to fulfill the
wishes of His devotees. The Arcavataras are divided into four kinds: self-manifested
(svayamvyakta), established by divine beings (divya), installed by seers and sages (arsha), and
installed by human beings (manusa). Of them the first category are the most potent. The images
installed in the temples at Srirangam, Tirupathi, Puri, Kanci etc. come under the first category. In
the last category are the images installed in households and numerous local temples. These
images gain mystic powers to the extent they are worshipped and made offerings. Worship of the
images is considered equal to the worship of God since they embody the presence of God and are
considered the living and breathing images of God. Hence, in the temples they are served with
utmost devotions with honors due to a king or a person of great importance.

Aspects of Shiva

Although in popular Hinduism, Shiva is considered the destroyer and part of the Trimurthis, in
Saiva tradition he is considered the highest Supreme Self and Brahman Himself. As the lord of
the universe (Isvara) He assumes numerous forms. He also goes by numerous names, some
representing Shiva himself and some his manifestations. Although, in Saivism there is no
concept of incarnation, Saivaites recognize numerous aspects of Siva, some of which are his
functional aspects and some represent his independent manifestations. As the lord of the
universe, Siva carries out five different functions: creation, preservation, concealment, revelation
and destruction. Each of these are represented as a deity. Apart from them there are several other
aspects of Shiva which are principally categorized into pleasant, (saumya), fierce (ugra), dancing
(nrtta or tandava) etc., which will be discussed below. The following are important aspects of
Shiva.

Pancanana: As stated before, Siva carries out five specific functions in creation. Each of his
functional aspects manifests as an independent deity. The five gods associated with his five
functions are Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Tatpurusha, Aghora and Isana. Sadyojata is the creator who
brings forth the world and beings. He is comparable to Brahma. Vamadeva is the upholder and

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preserver of the worlds whose functions are similar to that of Vishnu. Tatpurusha is the lord of
concealment who obscures the reality of existence. He is responsible for the darkness, ignorance
and delusion of beings. Aghora represents the destructive nature of Shiva. He participates in the
destruction and renewal of objects and worlds. Isana is also known as Sadasiva. He is the
liberator. in the images the pancanana Shivas are depicted together, each deity facing a particular
direction. Thus Sadyojata faces west, Vamadeva north, Tatpurusha east, Aghora south and Isana,
either sky or northeast.

Saumya murthi: Shiva has several pleasant aspects, in which he showers grace upon his
devotees and grants them boons. They include those forms in which he offered protection
(abhaya) or fulfilled the wishes of his devotees in the past, such as Ravana, Candesa, Amba,
Nandisvara and Vighneswara. He is usually found in these forms in the presence of his consort
Parvathi, Ganesha, Kumara, and Nandi and when he appears before his closest and dearest
devotees who perform penances for him and show exemplary devotion.

Ugra murthi : Usually, Shiva assumes terrible forms to slay the troublesome demons or restore
order. The demons he slew in the past include those to whom he might have granted boons in his
pleasant mood. Since, he cannot slew his own devotees in a pleasant form, he assumes fierce
forms to accomplish the duty. His fierce forms include Bhairava, Veerabhadra, Gajasuravadha-
murthi, Tripurantaka-murthi, Sarabha, Kalari-murthi, Kamantaka-murthi etc.

Nritta-murthi: Shiva is a master of dance and originator of 108 dance forms. He dances in order
to relieve the beings from suffering and to ensure the order and regularity of the world. Through
his dance he sets in motion numerous vibrations which are vital to the continuation of the worlds.
The dance also symbolizes his role as the destroyer of the world. Among his dance forms,
Nataraja is the most well known. with great symbolic significance. His other dancing aspects
mentioned in the Agamas are Ananda Tandava Murthi which he manifests when he dances with
ecstasy, Uma Tandava Murthi which appears when dances with his consort and Tripura Tandava
Murthi which appeared when he was engaged in fierce battle with Tripurasura.

Other aspects: Shiva is also revered as the master of yoga (Yogisvara), Hari-Hara also known as
Haryardhamurthi, Ardhanarisvara, universal teacher (Dakshinamurthy), wandering ascetic
(Bhikshatanamurthi), and he who manifested from the linga (lingodvhavamurthi) to prove his
superiority in a contest with Brahma and Vishnu. Of these Ardhanariswara (half man and half
woman) represent Purusha (Shiva) and Prakriti (Parvathi) as the dualities or twin realities of
Shiva in his role as the lord of the universe. In the images, Parvathi appears on the left side and
Shiva on the right side.

Attendant gods of Shiva

Ganesha: He is the son of Shiva and lord of obstacles, who goes by several names such as
Ganapati, Vinayaka, Gajanana, Vighnaraja, Vakratunda etc. He is one of the most popular gods
of the Hindu pantheon, who is invariably worshipped in all rituals before offerings are made to

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other deities. He enjoys this exalted position because he is considered the leader of the gods and
the first among them. He has a rather unusual forms due to the circumstances related to his
origin. He has an elephant head with a rather oversized human body, with four or more hands.
He is considered god of knowledge and wisdom and often equated with Brihaspati or
Bahmanspati, the teacher of gods, mentioned in the Vedas. There is a sect of Hinduism, called
Ganapatya sect, in which he is worshipped as Brahman himself. He has numerous aspects, some
pleasant and some fierce. Sometimes, he is shown in the company of his consorts, Riddhi and
Siddhi and sometime in the company of Lakshmi as Lakshmi Ganapati. There are numerous
temples built in his honor in various parts of India.

Kumara: He is the eldest son of Shiva, who goes by different names as Kumara Swamy,
Mallikarjuna, Kartikeya, Shaktidhari, and Muruga. He is much older deity than Ganesha and
depicted in some of the ancient coins of the Kushanas. He was born with a specific purpose to
slay the demon Tarakasura. A number of legends are associated with his birth and early exploits.
He was brought up by six mothers. When he grew up, he became the commander-in-chief of the
Siva ganas. Peacock is his vehicle and sword is his weapon with which he slew Tarakasura. Valli
and Devasena, the daughter of Indra, are his consorts. He is also a god of virtue, who practices
celibacy, likes the company of Brahmanas and helps people grow spiritually. In the images he is
depicted in the company of his vehicle peacock usually with one head and two arms and at times
with six heads and twelve arms.

Ayyappa: He is also known as Sasta, Arya and Hariharaputra and in some versions considered
Kumaraswamy or an aspect of him. According to one legend, he was born to Shiva and Hari,
when the latter assumed the form of Mohini and Shiva became infatuated with her. According to
another version, after the death of Mahisasura, his wife Mahisi obtained a boon from Brahma
which made her invincible. Shiva and Vishnu then came together to create her destroyer in the
form of a baby. He was brought up a king named Rajasekhara in Kerala, who named him
Manikanthan. When he attained the age of 12, he killed Mahisi. Later he said to have
disappeared after advising his father to build, which subsequently became renowned as
Sabarimalai temple. It is currently one of the popular pilgrim places of Hindus. Devotees who
want to visit the temple on a ritual pilgrimage observe 41 days of penance before paying him a
visit.

Nandi: Nandi serves as the vehicle of Shiva and occupies an important place in the Saiva
Pantheon, next only to Ganesha and Kumara. Although he has the form of a bull, he is a god of
knowledge and wisdom, born by the grace of Shiva to Silada, who later gifted him to Shiva. He
served as the teacher of 18 adepts (siddhas) including Patanjali and Thirumular. He also
participated in several wars along with Shiva or on his own, mostly to help the gods and save
them from demons. The images of Nandi are invariably found in all Shiva temples. His
anthromorphic forms are also found in some temples. There are several temples, which are solely
built for him. Large Nandi statues are found at several places in India such as Lepakshi in
Andhra Pradesh and the one on Chamundi Hill near Mysore, in Karnataka. He is worshipped in
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some places as a fertility god. In Saiva temples, his images are usually installed in front of
sanctum sanctorum within the visual range so that deities can see Shiva directly by looking over
his head just as he would appear to him.

Bhringi: He is a sage who is described as one of the most ardent devotees of Shiva, who upon
achieving liberation became a part of Shiva's retinue. He is so single-minded in his devotion to
Shiva that once when he saw Shiva and Parvathi together in the form of Arthanariswara, he
became a bee and tried to circle around Shiva only by trying to bore through the middle of their
joint form, much to the annoyance of Parvathi who cursed him to become deprived of flesh and
blood whereby he became a mere skeleton without flesh and blood and unable to stand. Shiva
took pity on him and gave him a third leg. Bhringi then realized his mistake and decided to
worship them both. In the images, Bhringi is shown as having three legs usually in the company
of Shiva or Parvathi. His images are found only in a few temples. He and Nandi are often shown
as doorkeepers (dwarapalakas) in Shiva temples.

Chandesvara: He is another important devotee of Shiva who invariably appears in the north
eastern corner of Shiva temples as an attendant deity. Since he is considered a messenger and
mediator who can plead with Shiva on behalf the devotees who approach him, devotees go to
him with their prayers and supplications. Unlike Bhringi, he is a fierce deity, who holds various
weapons in his hands suggestive of his warrior background.

Aspects of Devi or Shakti

As stated already, Shakti is the materiality of the universe. She is the Isvari principle, which is
eternal, independent and dynamic. In some traditions she is depicted as a dependent reality.
Symbolically, she represents the field of experience, objectivity, Nature and its aspects, and
manifestation itself. She has both gross and subtle aspects. She is inseparable from Purusha and
well represented in the Ardhanariswara as an equal and supreme aspect of existence. Like
Brahman, she has both manifested and unmanifested aspects. Even modern science
acknowledges that the universe can be boiled down to eternal and indestructible principles, space
and energy. In Hinduism pure consciousness objectified as space represents Purusha and energy
objectified as matter and materiality represents Shakti. Their combination is Brahman, existence
itself.

Just as the highest gods of Hinduism manifest variously and just as they are worshipped
numerously, Shakti or Mother Goddess has also numerous aspects and is worshipped in various
ways. One of the earliest references to energy manifesting itself variously is be found in the
Mundaka Upanishad which distinguishes seven kinds of flaming fire and refers to them as "Kali,
Karali, Manojava, Sulohita, Sudhumravarna, Sphulingini, and Visvaruci." Some of these names
later appear as manifestation of Shakti.

In the mortal world, the primal Mother manifests as Maha Shakti. She in turn manifests as three
distinct functional deities, Maha Saraswathi, Maha Lakshmi and Maha Devi. The names I have

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used to identify them are not universal. People use different names to identify them. What is
important is to know that these four aspects exist, just as Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva represent the
functional aspects of Isvara. Each of these deities in turn manifest numerously. Collectively,
these goddesses are not only responsible for the modifications in the Field of our experience and
the resultant bondage to the cycle of births and deaths, but also for our self-transformation and
liberation. Following are some of the important aspects of Shakti

Aspects of Saraswathi: Although Saraswathi is one of the oldest deities of Hinduism, we do not
have much information about her aspect. In the Rigveda she was worshipped as a river goddess.
But she became more popular as the goddess of learning. She has numerous names, such as
Sarada, Bharati, Brahmi, Vidyadhari, Vedavathi and in all these her association with various
branches and aspect of learning is self-evident. We may symbolically say that just as there are
numerous branches of knowledge and forms of learning, Saraswathi also has numersou aspects.
However we have no information that she was worshipped in all those forms. As the Mother of
all knowledge and as an aspect of Maya, she has three basic forms. As the reflection in tamas,
she manifests as Avidya (ignorance). As the reflection in rajas, she manifests as Vidya (lower
knowledge of worldly knowledge), and as the reflection in sattva, she manifests in us as
Paravidya (transcendental knowledge).

Aspects of Maha Lakshmi: Just as abundance has various forms, Maha Lakshmi has several
names and aspects. As the Mother of all abundance and consort of Vishnu, she also manifests
variously in creation, sometimes as part of Vishnu's duties as preserver and sometimes on her
own. Of her numerous forms eight are the most prominent, known as Ashta Lakshmis, namely
Adi Lakshmi, Dhanya Lakshmi, Dhairya Lakshmi or Sahasa Lakshmi, Gaja Lakshmi, Santana
Lakshm, Vijaya Lakshmi, Vidya Lakshmi, and Dhana Lakshmi. Apart from these, Lakshmi also
manifests in either other forms as the corresponding eight aspects of Vishnu. They are: Sridevi,
Bhudevi, Sarasvathi, Priti, Kirti, Santi, Tusti and Pusti. They represent the eight supreme
abundancew of Vishnu as Bhagavan. Lakshmi also has an opposite aspect or a negative aspect,
called Alakshmi, who is sometimes mentioned as Bhudevi or Jyesthadevi, the goddess of
suffering, adversity and forbearance. While Alakhmi may not give you wealth, if you pray to her,
she gives you the fortitude to bear with pain and suffering. In addition to these, Lakshmi also has
incarnated upon earth in the past as part of Vishnu's incarnations. Of them Varahi, Narasimhi,
Sita and Rukmini are the most popular.

Aspects of Maha Devi: Parvathi, the consort of Shiva, also has numerous aspects both as Maha
Devi (or Parvathi) and as Isvari, or the Divine Mother. Just as the seven forms of fire mentioned
before, the Devi appears in creation as seven mothers (sapta matrikas), namely Brahmi,
Mahesvari, Kaumari, Vaisnavi, Varahi, Narasimhi (or Chamundesvari) and Aindri. As the names
suggest these deities are the corresponding energies of Brahma, Shiva, Kumara, Vishnu, Varaha,
Narasimha and Indra. Just as theri names, in the images they bear the same distiguishing features
as their male counterparts, carrying similar weapons and objects in their hands and using the
same vehicles. They also have a symbolic significance in the spiritual realm, since each of them
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represents a particular spiritual aspect of the Devi and facilitates the self-transformation and
spiritual growth of a devotee in different stages.

The Tantras mention ten aspects of Devi, called Dasamavidyas. Vidya means knowledge. Hence,
as the name suggests, they represent ten different types of liberating knowledge and the power
that acts as their source. They are, Kali, Tara, Sodasi, Bhuvanesvari, Bhairavi, Cinnamasta,
Dhumavathi, Bagala, Matangi, and Kamala. Of these some are pleasant forms and some very
fierce and destructive. Some have altenate names and are identified with other goddesses. For
example, Dhuma is identified with Alakshmi and Kamala with Lakshmi.

Apart from Parvathi manifests in other forms, namely Durga, Mahisasura-Mardini, Mahakali and
Lalitha. Foremost among them is Durga, who is prominently described in the Devibhagavatam
and who goes by different names as Chandi, Devi, Yogini, Vindhyavasini, Bhramari etc. She
rides a lion or a tiger as her vehicle and has both pleasant and fierce forms. In Hindu pantheon,
she is as popular as the main aspects of Shakti. Mahisasura-Mardini manifested from the
combined power of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva to slay the demon Mahisasura. She personifies
numerous perfections. The same Devi manifested again as Kausiki Durga who became popular
as Kali or Mahakali. She is the embodiment of Parvathi in Tamas. She slew several demons and
restored order. She is of fierce form and worshipped in numerous temples according to both
Vedic and Agamic traditions. Lalita or Lalita Tripurasundari is another famous aspect of
Parvathi, who is worshipped in several parts of India, especially south. Devotee worship her
extolling her virtues and chanting her numerous names, using prayers such as Lalita-Sahasra-
Namam, Khadga-Mala-Stotram, Lalita-Tristari-Naman, Panca-Dasa-Akshari, Lalita-Pratastavam
etc. They also worship her using her graphic representation (yantra) called Sricakra.

The Devi has too many aspects to specify in this general presentation. There are numerous
temples, sacred places, and village deities in India who are identified and worshipped as aspects
of Devi. We will end this section by naming a few of her remaining aspects, which may be
categorized as minor aspects. They are Annapurna, Aparajita, Aparna, Bala, Bhadrakali,
Brahmini, Bhutamata, Camunda, Gayatri, Indrakshi, Jagadhatri, Kamesvari, Kanaka
Paramesvari, Katyayani, Manonmani, Rajarajesvari, Sivaduti, Tripuresvari, Yogini etc.

Other gods of Hindusim

Hindus also worship planetary gods called Grahas and rules of directions called Dikpalas. Their
details are mentioned below.

Navagrahas: Hinduism believes in both free will and fate. While the individuals are responsible
and accountable for their actions, they are also subject to chance, the actions of others, Nature
and God. One of the beliefs in Hinduism, which is central to Vedic astrology is the belief in the
influence of planets, according to which the arrangement of planets and their position at the time
of birth and also during the course of one's life carry a great influence in shaping that person's
life. Hinduism recognizes nine planetary gods, called Navagrahas, namely Surya, Soma or

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Chandra, Mangala, Budha, Guru, Sukra, Sani, Rahu and Ketu. Of them the first seven are gods,
while last two are demons, who along with Sani cast a negative influence upon people when the
planetary gods are not properly aligned. The seven days in a week in the Hindu calendar. are also
named after the seven gods. Although these gods not exactly the same as the planets in the Solar
systems, they are identified with some planets. Thus Surya is the Sun, Soma is the Moon,
Mangala is Mercury, Budha is Mars, Guru is Jupiter, Sukra is Vensu, Sani is Saturn. Each of
these gods have their own distinguishing features, vehicles, weapons and significance in Hindu
pantheon. The images and statues of the nine gods are installed together in most of the Hindu
temples on raised platforms, which people circle while praying to them. There are also some
temples exclusively dedicated to them.

Ashta Dikpalas: The Dikpalas are rulers of directions (dik). Directions play a prominent role in
Vedic tradition, since they denote the infinity and extent of the Cosmic Self, Purusha who is
spread in all directions. In the body the legs personify direction. The eight directions of the
Cosmic being, who is usually described as four footed are mentioned in several hymns and
verses of the Upanishads. For example one verse in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (1.2.3)
compares the head of four footed Brahman in the form of a hores with the eastern direction, arms
with northeast and south east, tail with western direction, two legs with southwest and northwest,
sides with southern and norther directions, with the sky as his back, the mid region as his belly
and the earth as his chest. The directions also play a vital role in the journey of the departed souls
after they die. The directions assumed greater importance in the later Vedic period with the
emergence of temple building and Vastu sastra. It was believed that each direction in the space
was ruled by a particular Vedic deity, who was originally identified as a god of Kshatra power.
Thus in Hinduism, eight rulers of space or directions are identified, four for the main directions
and four for the intermediary directions. Indra, Varuna, Kubera and Yama are the rulers of the
four main directions, namely east, west, north and south respectively. Agni, Niruthi, Isana and
Vayu are the rulers of intermediary directions, namely south-east, south-west, north-east and
north-west respectively. The importance of these deities has already been explained under the
section Vedic deities except for Kubera, who is an Yaksha and god of wealth and Niruthi, the
chief of demons, with certain divine qualities.

Lesser divinities

Apart from the main deities and minor deities, Hindus also worship several local deities, village
deities, serpents, trees, rivers, mountains, animals, spirits, ancestors.

Serpent worship: Serpent worship is very common in various parts of India. Images of serpents
are found in most Hindu temples. Women worship both live serpents located in their natural
habitats in sacred places or under sacred trees or they worship images and status of serpents in
temple premises, seeking boons, to ward off evil or for children.

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Tree worship: Among the trees Hindus consider Banyan tree, Pipal tree and Bulrush tree worthy
of worship. The older the tree the greater the faith. Their location is also important. Trees that are
located on the banks of sacred rivers and streams or located in temples or near the images of
imporant deities attract wider attention.

River worship: Hindus also worship many rives. Rivers such as Saraswathi, Ganga, Yamuna,
Narmada, Kshipra, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna and Kavery are considered sacred and
worshipped on auspicious occasions. It is also customary for people take a dip in these rives and
make offerings to gods and ancestors using the river water either standing in the river or on the
banks of the such rivers.

Mountain worship: Worshipping mountains and hills is a very ancient practice in Hinduism.
Many Hindu temples are located on the hill tops and in the mountain ranges. Most well known
among them are the Tirumala hills, Arunacala Hill, Chamundi Hill, Mount Kailash etc. People
worship them either by making a parikrama (circumambulation) around them, offering prayers to
their presiding deities or by visiting the temples located on them.

Worship of ancestors: Currently ancestral worship is practiced only on a limited scale in certain
communities located in parts of Kerala, Tamilnadu and Bali in Indonesia. However, Hindus
make offerings ritually as per tradition on memorial days to their ancestors to ensure their
continuity and wellbeing in the ancestral world. It was customary in the past for the Rajput
princely families in central and western India to build temples for their ancestors and worship
them. Some of these temples can still be found in places like Indore and Jaipur.

Worship of saints and seers: In Hinduism a liberated person (jivanmukta) is equal to a god or
divinity. An enlightened person is God in human form and worthy of worship. Since ancient
times, Hindus have been worshipped saints and seers who achieve liberation or spent their lives
in the service of God. Most prominent among them are Alvars and Nayanars, several teachers
such as Valmiki, Patanjali, Vyasa, Agastya, Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Gorakshanatha,
Basavanna, Mirabai and Sri Raghavendra of Mantralayam. Mention may also made of
Ramakrishna Paramahansa, Ramana Maharshi, Shirdi Saibaba, Paramahansa Yogananda, Swami
Sivananda Saraswathi and Bhagavan Nityananda (of Siddha Yoga Tradition). These gurus may
not be worshipped by everyone, but their close followers and those who believe in them worship
them with great faith.

Worship of symbols and sacred objects: Several Hindu gods are not only worshipped in their
anthropomorphic form but also as objects and symbols. We have already explained the
importance of image as a living symbol of God in Hinduism. Some of the important symbols and
objects worshipped by Hindus on specific occasions or part of their rituals offerings include,
Poorna Kalasa which symbolizes fertility, auspiciousness and Divine Mother, Shivalinga which
symbolizes Shiva and Parvathi in close embrace, Salagrama which symbolizes Vishnu, images of
footprints attributed to deities or saintly persons, ornaments adorning the deities in temples,

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vehicles of gods and goddesses, domestic animals, chariots used in the temple rituals, elephants
associated with temples, sacred diagrams (yantras) drawn on the temples walls or on the ground,
conches, and objects temporarily made of sandal paste, clay or balls of rice.

Conclusion

Thus one can see that Hindus worship literally everything, from heaven to earth, the sun, moon,
stars, the five elements, the human body, the sacred Self and practically the entire universe.
Hindus venerate the entire creation as one and many. They acknowledge not only its diversity
and duality but also its unity. The numerous divinites worshipped in Hinduism are the
manifestations of one Supreme Self. The same God finds Himself in the numerous forms and
modifications of Prakriti. Every deity worshipped in Hinduism is an aspect of Brahman and
represent Brahman only in its ultimate aspect. The same approach justifies the fundamental
belief of Hinduism that one can reach God through any deity and any path one may chose, as
long as the goal is to reach Brahman only or the highest supreme, indivisible and indestructible
reality.

Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that
includes Brahma and Shiva. In Vaishnavism tradition, Vishnu is the supreme being who creates,
protects and transforms the universe. In the Shaktism tradition, the Goddess, or Devi, is
described as one of the supreme, yet Vishnu is revered along with Shiva and Brahma. A goddess
is stated to be the energy and creative power (Shakti) of each, with Lakshmi the equal
complementary partner of Vishnu.He is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana
puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.

According to the Vaishnavism sect, the highest form of Ishvar is with qualities (Saguna), and
have certain form but is limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, and the
primal Atman (soul, self) of the universe. There are many both benevolent and fearsome
depictions of Vishnu. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient sleeping on the coils
of the serpent Adishesha (who represents time) floating in the primeval ocean of milk
called Kshira Sagara with wife Lakshmi.

Whenever the world is threatened with evil, chaos, and destructive forces, Vishnu descends in
the form of an avatar (incarnation) to restore the cosmic order and
protect Dharma. Dashavatara are the ten primary avataras (incarnations) of Vishnu. Out of the
ten, Rama and Krishna avatars are most important.

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Vishnu and his avatars (Vaikuntha Chaturmurti): Vishnu himself or Vāsudeva-Krishna in human
form, Narasimha as a lion, Varaha as a boar. Art of Mathura, mid-5th century CE. Boston
Museum.

Vishnu (or Viṣṇu, Sanskrit: विष्णु) means 'all pervasive'[14] and, according to Medhātith (c. 1000
CE), 'one who is everything and inside everything'.[15] Vedanga scholar Yaska (4th century BCE)
in the Nirukta defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā ('one who enters everywhere');
also adding atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati ('that which is free from fetters and
bondage is Vishnu').

108 Names of Vishnu

In the tenth part of the Padma Purana (4-15th century CE), Danta (Son of Bhīma and King
of Vidarbha) lists 108 names of Vishnu (17.98–102. These include the ten primary avatars
(see Dashavarara, below) and descriptions of the qualities, attributes, or aspects of God.

The 1000 Names of Vishnu

Main article: Vishnu Sahasranama

The Garuda Purana (chapter XV)[18] and the "Anushasana Parva" of the Mahabharata both list
over 1000 names for Vishnu, each name describing a quality, attribute, or aspect of God. Known
as the Vishnu Sahasranama, Vishnu here is defined as 'the omnipresent'.

Other notable names in this list include Hari ('remover of sins'), Kala ('time'), Vāsudeva ('Son
of Vasudeva', i.e. Krishna), Atman ('the soul'), Purusa ('the divine being'), and Prakrti ('the divine
nature').

MahaVishnu

MahaVishnu ('Great Vishnu')—also known as Kāraṇodakaśāyī Viṣṇu—is another important

name that denotes his being the source and creator of the multiverse as the total material energy
(mahat-tattva).

Garbhodakaśāyī Viṣṇu (stimulation of energy to create diverse forms) and Kṣīrodakaśāyī

Vishnu (diffusion of the paramatman or 'supersoul' in the hearts of all living beings) are
expansions of MahaVishnu. At the highest level, Vishnu is the formless Parabrahman, and all
other deities including Brahma and Shiva are simply expansions of Vishnu.

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A statue of Vishnu

Vishnu iconography shows him with a dark blue, blue-gray or black colored skin, and as a well
dressed jeweled man. He is typically shown with four arms, but two armed representations are
also found in Hindu texts on artworks.[19][20]

The historic identifiers of his icon include his image holding a conch shell
(shankha named Panchajanya) between first two fingers of one hand (left back), a chakra – war
discus named Sudarshana – in another (right back). The conch shell is spiral and symbolizes all
of interconnected spiraling cyclic existence, while the discus symbolizes him as that which
restores dharma with war if necessary when cosmic equilibrium is overwhelmed by evil.[19] One
of his arms sometimes carries a gada (club, mace named Kaumodaki) which symbolizes
authority and power of knowledge.[19] In the fourth arm, he holds a lotus flower (padma) which
symbolizes purity and transcendence.[19][20][21] The items he holds in various hands varies, giving
rise to twenty four combinations of iconography, each combination representing a special form
of Vishnu. Each of these special forms is given a special name in texts such as the Agni
Purana and Padma Purana. These texts, however, are inconsistent.[22] Rarely, Vishnu is depicted
bearing the bow Sharanga or the sword Nandaka. He is depicted with the Kaustubha gem in a
necklace and wearing Vaijayanti, a garland of forest flowers. The shrivatsa mark is depicted on
his chest in the form of a curl of hair. He generally wears yellow garments.

Vishnu iconography show him either in standing pose, seated in a yoga pose, or reclining.[20] A
traditional depiction of Vishnu is that of Him reclining on the coils of the serpent Shesha,
accompanied by his consort Lakshmi, as he "dreams the universe into reality."[23]

The Trimurti

Main article: Trimurti

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The Trimurti at Ellora.

Particularly in Vaishnavism, the so-called Trimurti (also known as the Hindu Triad or Great
Trinity)[24][25] represents the three fundamental forces (guṇas) through which the universe is
created, maintained, and destroyed in cyclic succession. Each of these forces is represented by a
Hindu deity:[26][27]

 Brahma: represents Rajas (passion, creation)

 Vishnu: represents Sattva (goodness, preservation)
 Shiva: represents Tamas (darkness, destruction)
In Hindu tradition, the trio is often referred to as Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh. All have the same
meaning of three in One; different forms or manifestations of One person the Supreme Being.[28]

Avatars

Main articles: Avatar and Dashavatara

Caturvyūha Viṣṇu

An early sculpture showing the "Caturvyūha Viṣṇu", the four emanations of

Vishnu.[29] Vāsudeva-Krishna (avatar of Vishnu) is fittingly in the center with his decorated

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heavy mace on the side and holding a conch, his elder brother Balarama to his right under a
serpent hood and holding a cup, his son Pradyumna to his left (lost), and his
grandson Aniruddha emerging on top.[29] 2nd century CE, Art of Mathura, Mathura Museum.

The concept of the avatar (or incarnation) within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu,
the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu Trimurti. The avatars of Vishnu
descend to empower the good and to destroy evil, thereby restoring Dharma and relieving the
burden of the Earth. An oft-quoted passage from the Bhagavad Gita describes the typical role of
an avatar of Vishnu:

Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth.

For the protection of the good and for the destruction of evil,
and for the establishment of righteousness,
I come into being age after age.

— Bhagavad Gita 4.7–8

Vedic literature, in particular the Puranas ('ancient'; similar to encyclopedias)

and Itihasa ('chronicle, history, legend'), narrate numerous avatars of Vishnu. The most well-
known of these avatars are Krishna (most notably in the Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana,
and Mahabharata; the latter encompassing the Bhagavad Gita), and Rama (most notably in
the Ramayana). Krishna in particular is venerated in Vaishnavism as the ultimate,
primeval, transcendental source of all existence, including all the other demigods and gods such
as Vishnu.

The Mahabharata

In the Mahabharata, Vishnu (as Narayana) states to Narada that He will appear in the following
ten incarnations:

Appearing in the forms of

1. swan [Hamsa],
2. tortoise [Kurma],
3. fish [Matsya],
4. boar [Varaha],
5. Man-lion (Nrisingha),
6. dwarf [Vamana],
7. Rama of Bhrigu's race, then as
8. Rama, the son of Dasaratha,
9. Krishna the scion of the Sattwata race, and lastly

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 10. Kalki.
— Book 12, Santi Parva, Chapter CCCXL (340), translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, 1883-
1896

The Puranas

Specified avatars of Vishnu are listed against some of the Puranas in the table below. However,
this is a complicated process and the lists are unlikely to be exhaustive because:

 Not all Puranas provide lists per se (e.g. the Agni Purana dedicates entire chapters to avatars,
and some of these chapters mention other avatars within them)
 A list may be given in one place but additional avatars may be mentioned elsewhere (e.g. the
Bhagavata Purana lists 22 avatars in Canto 1, but mentions others elsewhere)
 A personality in one Purana may be considered an avatar in another (e.g. Narada is not
specified as an avatar in the Matsya Purana but is in the Bhagavata Purana)
 Some avatars consist of two or more people considered as different aspects of a single
incarnation (e.g. Nara-Narayana, Rama and his three brothers)
Avata Names / Descriptions (with chapters and verses) - Dashavatara lists are
Purana
rs in bold

Matsya (2), Kurma (3), Dhanvantari (3.11), Mohini (3.12), Varaha (4), Nara
12 simha (4.3-4), Vamana (4.5-11), Parasurama (4.12-20), Rama (5-11; one of
the 'four forms' of Vishnu, including his
brothers Bharata, Laksmana and Satrughna), Krishna (12), Buddha (16), Kal
Agni[31] ki (16)

10 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Buddha,

and Kalki (Chapter 49)

Kumaras, Varaha, Narada, Nara-

22 Narayana, Kapila, Dattatreya, Yajna, Rsabha, Prthu, Matsya, Kurma,
Dhanvantari, Mohini, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Vyasadeva,
Rama, Balarama and Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Canto 1, Chapter 3).
Bhagava
ta
Varaha, Suyajna (Hari), Kapila, Dattātreya, Four Kumaras, Nara-Narayana,
20 Prthu, Rsabha, Hayagriva, Matsya, Kurma, Nṛsiṁha, Vamana, Manu,
Dhanvantari, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Canto 2,
Chapter 7)

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 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Hayagriva, Buddha, Rama,
Brahma[3
4] 15 Kalki, Ananta, Acyuta, Jamadagnya (Parashurama), Varuna, Indra,
and Yama (Volume 4: 52.68-73)

Kumara, Varaha, Narada, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, Datta (Dattatreya), Yajna,

20 Urukrama, Prthu, Matsya, Kurma, Dhanavantari, Mohini, Narasimha,
Vamana, Parasurama, Vyasadeva, Balarama, Krishna, and Kalki (Volume 1:
Chapter 1)

Garuda[3
5]
10 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna,
Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 1, Chapter 86, Verses 10-11)

10 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna, Balarama,

Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 3, Chapter 30, Verse 37)

10

Linga Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna,

Buddha, and Kalki (Part 2, Chapter 48, Verses 31-32)

Matsya 10 3 celestial incarnations of Dharma, Nrishimha, and Vamana; and 7 human

incarnations of Dattatreya, Mandhitri, Parasurama, Rama, Vedavyasa
(Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter XLVII / 47)

Narada[3 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama (Vamana), Parasurama,

9] 10
Sri-Rama, Krisna, Buddha, and Kalki (Part 4, Chapter 119, Verses 14-19)

Padma Part 7: Yama (66.44-54) and Brahma (71.23-29) name 'Matsya, Kurma,
10 and Varaha. Narasimha and Vamana, (Parasu-)rama, Rama, Krsna, Buddha,
and Kalki'; Part 9: this list is repeated by Shiva (229.40-44).

Shiva Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, 'Rama trio' [Rama, Parasurama,
10 Balarama], Krishna, Kalki (Part 4: Vayaviya Samhita: Chapter 30, Verses
56-58 and Chapter 31, verses 134-136)

Skanda 14 Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Nrsimha, Vamana, Kapila, Datta, Rsabha,

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 Bhargava Rama (Parashurama), Dasarathi Rama, Krsna, Krsna Dvaipayana
(Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Part 7: Vasudeva-Mamatmya: Chapter 18)

10 Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama (Vamana), Parasurama,

Sri-Rama, Krisna, Buddha, and Kalki (Part 15: Reva Khanda: Chapter 151,
Verses 1-7)

Varaha Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna,

10 Buddha, and Kalki (Chapter 4, Verses 2-3; Chapter 48, Verses 17-22; and
Chapter 211, Verse 69)

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Rama and his brothers are considered as one unit. Volume 3, Chapter
276 also lists the same incarnations. Samba, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha have not been
counted; a list of the Dashavatara is provided in chapter 49.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Others such as Hamsa, Ajita, Samba, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha are
mentioned elsewhere but have not been counted. For a complete list, see Bhagavata
Purana
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c Kumara is more likely to be the Four Kumaras (one unit) than - as the
translator believes - Karttikeya, one of Shiva's sons and the Hindu god of war
4. ^ These avatars are stated to incarnate 'for the good of the world' in every cycle of yugas;
It is also stated that there are other avatars due to the curse of Bhrgu
5. ^ Narada, Samba, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha, etc., have not been counted
Dashavatara

Vishnu surrounded by his Avatars

The Dashavatara is a list of the so-called Vibhavas, or '10 [primary] Avatars' of Vishnu.
The Agni Purana, Varaha Purana, Padma Purana, Linga Purana, Narada Purana, Garuda Purana,
and Skanda Purana all provide matching lists. The same Vibhavas are also found in the Garuda
Purana Saroddhara, a commentary or ‘extracted essence’ written by Navanidhirama about the
Garuda Purana (i.e. not the Purana itself, with which it seems to be confused):

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The Fish, the Tortoise, the Boar, the Man-Lion, the Dwarf, Parasurama, Rama, Krisna, Buddha,
and also Kalki: These ten names should always be meditated upon by the wise. Those who recite
them near the diseased are called relatives.

— Navanidhirama, Garuda Purana Saroddhara, Chapter VIII, Verses 10-11, translated by E.

Wood and S.V. Subrahmanyam[47][48]

Apparent disagreements concerning the placement of either the Buddha or Balarama in

the Dashavarara seems to occur from the Dashavarara list in the Shiva Purana (the only other
list with ten avatars including Balarama in the Garuda Purana substitutes Vamana, not Buddha).
Regardless, both versions of the Dashavarara have a scriptural basis in the cannon of
authentic Vedic literature (but not from the Garuda Purana Saroddhara).

Matrikas

Matrikas ('Mother Goddesses') are the feminine, personified powers of different Devas (and
avatars of Vishnu). For example, the female form (or Shakti) of Vishnu is Vaishnavi, of the man-
lion avatar Narasimha it is Narasimhi, of the tortoise avatar Kurma it is Kumari, and of the boar
avatar Varaha it is Varahi. There is no scriptural evidence that any of Matrikas are counted as de-
facto avatars of Vishnu or any other Deva.

Thirumal

Thirumal (Tamil: திருமால் )—also known as Perumal or Perumaal (Tamil: பெருமாள் ),

or Maayon (as described in the Tamil scriptures)—was appropriated as manifestation of Lord
Vishnu in later Hinduism is a popular Hindu deity among Tamilans in Tamil Nadu as well
among the Tamil diaspora.[49][50]

Literature

Vishnu icons across cultures

The iconography of Hindu god Vishnu has been widespread in history

RIGHT-Vishnu Nicolo Seal,

4th–6th century CE, Gandhara.

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 13th IMyanmar Indonesia
century Cambodian Vishnu.

Vedas

Vishnu is a Rigvedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni and
others. Just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda are dedicated to Vishnu, although He is
mentioned in other hymns.[15] Vishnu is mentioned in the Brahmana layer of text in the Vedas,
thereafter his profile rises and over the history of Indian mythology, states Jan Gonda, Vishnu
becomes a divinity of the highest rank, one equivalent to the Supreme Being.[51][52]

Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important
characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda, such as 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3.[51] In these
hymns, the Vedic mythology asserts that Vishnu resides in that highest home where
departed Atman (souls) reside, an assertion that may have been the reason for his increasing
emphasis and popularity in Hindu soteriology. He is also described in the Vedic literature as the
one who supports heaven and earth.

तदस्य वप्रयमवभ पाथो अश्ां नरो यत्र 5. Might I reach that dear cattle-pen of his, where
दे ियिो मदक्ति । उरुक्रमस्य स वह men seeking the gods find elation, for exactly that
is the bond to the wide-striding one: the
बन्धुररत्था विष्णोोः पदे परमे मध्व उत्सोः
wellspring of honey in the highest step of Viṣṇu.
॥५॥ ऋग्वेद १-१५४-५

—RV. 1.154.5 —translated by Stephanie Jamison, 2020

आहं वपतॄन्सुविदत्रााँ अविक्तत्स नपातं 3. I have found here the forefathers good to find and
ि विक्रमणं ि विष्णोोः । the grandson and the wide stride of Viṣṇu.
Those who, sitting on the ritual grass, share in the
बवहद र्दो ये स्विया सुतस्य भजि
pressed soma and the food at (the cry of) “svadhā,”
वपत्वस्त इहागवमष्ठाोः ॥३॥ ऋग्वेद
they are the most welcome arrivals here.

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 १०-१५-३

—RV 10.15.13 —translated by Stephanie Jamison, 2020

In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps
in killing the symbol of evil named Vritra. His distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his
association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu. In section 7.99 of the
Ragveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he
shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu
is Surya or Savitr (Sun god), who also bears the name Suryanarayana. Again, this link to Surya
is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and Agni, wherein
different hymns, they too "bring men together" and cause all living beings to rise up and impel
them to go about their daily activities.

In hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses
asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda,
Vishnu is a close friend of Indra. Elsewhere in Rigveda, Atharvaveda and Upanishadic texts,
Vishnu is equivalent to Prajapati, both are described as the protector and preparer of the womb,
and according to Klaus Klostermaier, this may be the root behind post-Vedic fusion of all the
attributes of the Vedic Prajapati unto the avatars of Vishnu.

In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka (10.13.1), "Narayana sukta", Narayana is mentioned as the
supreme being. The first verse of "Narayana Suktam" mentions the words paramam padam,
which literally mean 'highest post' and may be understood as the 'supreme abode for all souls'.
This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam, or Vaikuntha. Rigveda 1.22.20 also
mentions the same paramam padam.

In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic
ocean appears, but without the word Vishnu or his alternate avatar names. In post-Vedic
mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called
the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu.

Trivikrama: The Three Steps of Vishnu

The Three Strides of Vishnu

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The depiction of the "three strides of Vishnu" is common in Hindu art, wherein his leg is shown
raised like a gymnast, symbolizing a huge step. Left: Trivikrama in the Art of
Mathura, Gupta period. Center: at a temple in Bhaktapur, Nepal; Right: at 6th-century Badami
cave temples, India.

Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama, which is
one of the lasting mythologies in Hinduism since the Vedic times.[62] It is an inspiration for
ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the
Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu.[63][64] Trivikrama refers to the
celebrated three steps or "three strides" of Vishnu. Starting as a small insignificant looking
being, Vishnu undertakes a herculean task of establishing his reach and form, then with his first
step covers the earth, with second the ether, and the third entire heaven.

विष्णोनुद कं िीयाद वण प्र िोिं योः पावथदिावन विममे रजां वस ।

यो अस्कभायदु त्तरं सिस्थं वििक्रमाणस्त्रेिोरुगायोः ॥१॥…

viṣṇōrnu kaṃ vīryāṇi pra vōcaṃ yaḥ pārthivāni vimamē rajāṃsi |

yō askabhāyaduttaraṃ sadhasthaṃ vicakramāṇastrēdhōrugāyaḥ ||1||

I will now proclaim the heroic deeds of Visnu, who has measured out the terrestrial regions,
who established the upper abode having, wide-paced, strode out triply…

— Rigveda 1.154.1, Translated by Jan Gonda

The Vishnu Sukta 1.154 of Rigveda says that the first and second of Vishnu's strides (those
encompassing the earth and air) are visible to the mortals and the third is the realm of the

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immortals. The Trivikrama describing hymns integrate salvific themes, stating Vishnu to
symbolize that which is freedom and life.[62] The Shatapatha Brahmana elaborates this theme of
Vishnu, as his herculean effort and sacrifice to create and gain powers that help others, one who
realizes and defeats the evil symbolized by the Asuras after they had usurped the three worlds,
and thus Vishnu is the savior of the mortals and the immortals (Devas).

Brahmanas

To what is One

Seven germs unripened yet are heaven's prolific seed:

their functions they maintain by Vishnu's ordinance.
Endued with wisdom through intelligence and thought,
they compass us about present on every side.

What thing I truly am I know not clearly:

mysterious, fettered in my mind I wonder.
When the first-born of holy Law approached me,
then of this speech I first obtain a portion.
(...)

They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni,

and he is heavenly-winged Garutman.
To what is One, sages give many a title.

— Rigveda 1.164.36-37, 46

The Shatapatha Brahmana contains ideas which Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism has long
mapped to a pantheistic vision of Vishnu as supreme, he as the essence in every being and
everything in the empirically perceived universe. In this Brahmana, states Klaus Klostermaier,
Purusha Narayana (Vishnu) asserts, "all the worlds have I placed within mine own self, and mine
own self have I placed within all the worlds."] The text equates Vishnu to all knowledge there is
(Vedas), calling the essence of everything as imperishable, all Vedas and principles of universe
as imperishable, and that this imperishable which is Vishnu is the all.

Vishnu is described to be permeating all object and life forms, states S. Giora Shoham, where he
is "ever present within all things as the intrinsic principle of all", and the eternal, transcendental
self in every being. The Vedic literature, including its Brahmanas layer, while praising Vishnu
do not subjugate others gods and goddesses. They present an inclusive pluralistic henotheism.
According to Max Muller, "Although the gods are sometimes distinctly invoked as the great and
the small, the young and the old (Rig Veda 1:27:13), this is only an attempt to find the most
comprehensive expression for the divine powers and nowhere is any of the gods represented as

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the subordinate to others. It would be easy to find, in the numerous hymns of the Veda, passages
in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute."

Upanishads

The Vaishnava Upanishads are minor Upanishads of Hinduism, related to Vishnu theology.
There are 14 Vaishnava Upanishads in the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads.[72] It is unclear
when these texts were composed, and estimates vary from the 1st-century BCE to 17th-century
CE for the texts.

These Upanishads highlight Vishnu, Narayana, Rama or one of his avatars as the supreme
metaphysical reality called Brahman in Hinduism. They discuss a diverse range of topics, from
ethics to the methods of worship

Puranas

The Bhagavata Purana is centered around Krishna, a Vishnu avatar.

5th-century Vishnu at Udayagiri Caves.RIGHT 11th-century Vishnu sculpture at Brooklyn

Museum. The edges show reliefs of Vishnu avatars Varaha, Narasimha, Balarama, Rama, and
others. Also shown is Brahma.

Vishnu is the primary focus of Vaishnavism-focused Puranas genre of Hindu texts. Of these,
according to Ludo Rocher, the most important texts are the Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu
Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana and Vayu Purana. The Purana texts include many

184
versions of cosmologies, mythologies, encyclopedic entries about various aspects of life, and
chapters that were medieval era regional Vishnu temples-related tourist guides
called mahatmyas.

One version of the cosmology, for example, states that Vishnu's eye is at the Southern Celestial
Pole from where he watches the cosmos. In another version found in section 4.80 of the Vayu
Purana, he is the Hiranyagarbha, or the golden egg from which were simultaneously born all
feminine and masculine beings of the universe.

Vishnu Purana

The Vishnu Purana presents Vishnu as the central element of its cosmology, unlike some other
Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are. The reverence and the worship of Vishnu
is described in 22 chapters of the first part of Vishnu Purana, along with the profuse use of the
synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari, Janardana, Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha and
others.

The Vishnu Purana also discusses the Hindu concept of supreme reality called Brahman in the
context of the Upanishads; a discussion that the theistic Vedanta scholar Ramanuja interprets to
be about the equivalence of the Brahman with Vishnu, a foundational theology in the Sri
Vaishnavism tradition.

Bhagavata Purana

Vishnu is equated with Brahman in the Bhagavata Purana, such as in verse 1.2.11, as "learned
transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance
as Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan."

The Bhagavata Purana has been the most popular and widely read Purana texts relating to
Vishnu avatar Krishna, it has been translated and available in almost all Indian
languages.[86] Like other Puranas, it discusses a wide range of topics including cosmology,
genealogy, geography, mythology, legend, music, dance, yoga and culture.[87][88] As it begins, the
forces of evil have won a war between the benevolent devas (deities) and evil asuras (demons)
and now rule the universe. Truth re-emerges as the Vishnu avatar first makes peace with the
demons, understands them and then creatively defeats them, bringing back hope, justice, freedom
and good – a cyclic theme that appears in many legends. The Bhagavata Purana is a revered text
in Vaishnavism. The Puranic legends of Vishnu have inspired plays and dramatic arts that are
acted out over festivals, particularly through performance arts such as the Sattriya, Manipuri
dance, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Kathak, Bharatanatyam, Bhagavata
Mela and Mohiniyattam.

Other Puranas

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Some versions of the Purana texts, unlike the Vedic and Upanishadic texts, emphasize Vishnu as
supreme and on whom other gods depend. Vishnu, for example, is the source of creator
deity Brahma in the Vaishnavism-focussed Purana texts. Vishnu's iconography typically shows
Brahma being born in a lotus emerging from his navel, who then is described as creating all the
forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.[94] In contrast, the Shiva-focussed
Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by Ardhanarishvara, that is half Shiva
and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from Rudra, or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma
creating each other cyclically in different aeons (kalpa).

In some Vaishnava Puranas, Vishnu takes the form of Rudra or commands Rudra to destroy the
world, thereafter the entire universe dissolves and along with time, everything is reabsorbed back
into Vishnu. The universe is then recreated from Vishnu all over again, starting a
new Kalpa.[96] For this the Bhagavata Purana employs the metaphor of Vishnu as a spider and
the universe as his web. Other texts offer alternate cosmogenic theories, such as one where the
universe and time are absorbed into Shiva.

Agama

The Agama scripture called the Pancharatra describes mode of worship of Vishnu.

Sangam & Post-Sangam Literature

The mythologies of Vishnu avatar Krishna are extensive, such as baby Krishna stealing butter, or
playing the flute. These themes appear in ancient and medieval coins of South Asia and the
motifs described by 3rd-century poet Hala.

The Sangam literature refers to an extensive regional collection in the Tamil language, mostly
from the early centuries of the common era. These Tamil texts revere Vishnu and his avatars
such as Krishna and Rama, as well as other pan-Indian deities such as Shiva, Muruga, Durga,
Indra and others. Vishnu is described in these texts as mayon, or "one who is dark or black in
color" (in north India, the equivalent word is Krishna). Other terms found for Vishnu in these
ancient Tamil genre of literature include mayavan, mamiyon, netiyon, mal and mayan.

Krishna as Vishnu avatar is the primary subject of two post-Sangam Tamil

186
epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, each of which was probably composed about the 5th
century CE. These Tamil epics share many aspects of the story found in other parts of India, such
as those related to baby Krishna such as stealing butter, and teenage Krishna such as teasing girls
who went to bathe in a river by hiding their clothes.

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Bhakti Movement

Ideas about Vishnu in the mid 1st millennium CE were important to the Bhakti
movement theology that ultimately swept India after the 12th century. The Alvars, which
literally means "those immersed in God", were Tamil Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of
Vishnu as they traveled from one place to another. They established temple sites such
as Srirangam, and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as Alwar
Arulicheyalgal or Divya Prabhandham, developed into an influential scripture for the
Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its
emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars
question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel
developments in other parts of India.

The Angkor Wat Temple was built as a dedication to Vishnu.

The Bhagavata Purana summarizes the Vaishnava theology, wherein it frequently discusses the
merging of the individual soul with the Absolute Brahman (Ultimate Reality, Supreme Truth), or
"the return of Brahman into His own true nature", a distinctly Advaitic or non-dualistic
philosophy of Shankara.[87][109][110] The concept of moksha is explained as Ekatva ('Oneness')
and Sayujya ('Absorption, intimate union'), wherein one is completely lost in Brahman (Self,
Supreme Being, one's true nature).[111] This, states Rukmini (1993), is proclamation of "return of
the individual soul to the Absolute and its merging into the Absolute", which is unmistakably
Advaitic in its trend.In the same passages, the Bhagavata includes a mention of Bhagavan as the
object of concentration, thereby presenting the Bhakti path from the three major paths of Hindu
spirituality discussed in the Bhagavad Gita.

The theology in the Bhagavad Gita discusses both the sentient and the non-sentient, the soul and
the matter of existence. It envisions the universe as the body of Vishnu (Krishna), state Harold
Coward and Daniel Maguire. Vishnu in Gita's theology pervades all souls, all matter and
time.[113] In Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition, Vishnu and Sri (goddess Lakshmi) are described as
inseparable, that they pervade everything together. Both together are the creators, who also
pervade and transcend their creation.

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The Bhagavata Purana, in many passages, parallels the ideas of Nirguna Brahman and non-
duality of Adi Shankara. For example:

The aim of life is inquiry into the Truth, and not the desire for enjoyment in heaven by
performing religious rites,

Those who possess the knowledge of the Truth, call the knowledge of non-duality as the Truth,
It is called Brahman, the Highest Self, and Bhagavan.

— Sūta, Bhagavata Purana 1.2.10-11, translated by Daniel Sheridan

Scholars describe the Vaishnava theology as built on the foundation of non-dualism speculations
in Upanishads, and term it as "Advaitic Theism."[110][115] The Bhagavata Purana suggests that
God Vishnu and the soul (Atman) in all beings is one. Bryant states that the monism discussed in
Bhagavata Purana is certainly built on the Vedanta foundations, but not exactly the same as the
monism of Adi Shankara.[116] The Bhagavata asserts, according to Bryant, that the empirical and
the spiritual universe are both metaphysical realities, and manifestations of the same Oneness,
just like heat and light are "real but different" manifestations of sunlight.[116]

In the Bhakti tradition of Vaishnavism, Vishnu is attributed with numerous qualities such as
omniscience, energy, strength, lordship, vigour, and splendour.[117] The Vaishnava tradition
started by Madhvacharya considers Vishnu in the form of Krishna to be the supreme creator,
personal God, all-pervading, all devouring, one whose knowledge and grace leads to
"moksha". In Madhvacharya Vaishnava theology, the supreme Vishnu and the souls of living
beings are two different realities and nature (dualism), while in Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism,
they are different but share the same essential nature (qualified non-dualism).

Lakshmi

Vishnu with Lakshmi(Laxminarayan) at Halebidu.

Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity (both material and spiritual), is the
wife and active energy of Vishnu.She is also called Sri or Thirumagal in Tamil because she is the
source of eight auspicious strengths for Vishnu. When Vishnu incarnated on the Earth as
the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi incarnated as his respective consorts: Sita (Rama's wife)
and Rukmini (Krishna's wife).[126] Lakshmi and Padmavati are wives of Lord Vishnu at Tirupati.
In Hinduism, Lord Vishnu had incarnated as Lord Venkatachalapathi at Tirupati, although this
grand form of him is not counted as one of the dasavatars.

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Garuda

Vishnu's mount (Vahana) is Garuda, the eagle. Vishnu is commonly depicted as riding on his
shoulders. Garuda is also considered as Vedas on which Lord Vishnu travels. Garuda is a sacred
bird in Vaishnavism. In Garuda Purana, Garuda carries Lord Vishnu to save the
Elephant Gajendra.

Vishvaksena

Vishvaksena, also known as Senadhipathi (both meaning 'army-chief'), is the commander-in-

chief of the army of Vishnu.

Harihara and Harirudra

Harihara-Half Vishnu and half Shiva

Shiva and Vishnu are both viewed as the ultimate form of god in different Hindu denominations.
Harihara is a composite of half Vishnu and half Shiva, mentioned in literature such as

190
the Vamana Purana (chapter 36), and in artwork found from mid 1st millennium CE, such as in
the cave 1 and cave 3 of the 6th-century Badami cave temples. Another half Vishnu half Shiva
form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in Mahabharata.

Sikhism

Vishnu is referred to as Gorakh in the scriptures of Sikhism. For example, in verse 5 of Japji
Sahib, the Guru ('teacher') is praised as who gives the word and shows the wisdom, and through
whom the awareness of immanence is gained. Guru Nanak, according to Shackle and Mandair
(2013), teaches that the Guru are "Shiva (isar), Vishnu (gorakh), Brahma (barma) and mother
Parvati (parbati)," yet the one who is all and true cannot be described.

The Chaubis Avtar lists the 24 avatars of Vishnu, including Krishna, Rama, and Buddha.
Similarly, the Dasam Granth includes Vishnu mythology that mirrors that found in
the Vaishnav tradition.[136] The latter is of particular importance to Sanatan Sikhs,
including Udasis, Nirmalas, Nanakpanthis, Sahajdhari, and Keshdhari/Khalsa sects of Sikhism;
however, the Khalsa Sikhs disagree with the Sanatan Sikhs. According to Sanatan Sikh writers,
the Gurus of Sikhism were avatars of Vishnu, because the Gurus brought light in the age of
darkness and saved people in a time of evil Mughal-era persecution.

Buddhism

Uthpalawarna Vishnu Devalaya in Devinuwara, Matara, Sri Lanka.

While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, Buddhists in Sri Lanka
venerate Vishnu as the custodian deity of Sri Lanka and protector of Buddhism.

Vishnu is also known as Upulvan or Upalavarṇā, meaning 'Blue Lotus coloured'. Some
postulate that Uthpala varna was a local deity who later merged with Vishnu while another belief
is that Utpalavarṇā was an early form of Vishnu before he became a supreme deity in Puranic
Hinduism. According to the chronicles of Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and folklore in Sri Lanka,
Buddha himself handed over the custodianship to Vishnu. Others believe that Buddha entrusted
this task to Sakra (Indra), who delegated this task of custodianship to god
Vishnu. Many Buddhist and Hindu shrines are dedicated to Vishnu in Sri Lanka. In addition to

191
specific Vishnu Kovils or Devalayas, all Buddhist temples necessarily house shrine rooms
(Devalayas) closer to the main Buddhist shrine dedicated to Vishnu.

A statue in Bangkok depicting Vishnu on his vahana Garuda, the eagle. One of the oldest
discovered Hindu-style statues of Vishnu in Thailand is from Wat Sala Tung in Surat Thani
Province and has been dated to ~400 CE.

John Holt states that Vishnu was one of the several Hindu gods and goddesses who were
integrated into the Sinhala Buddhist religious culture, such as the 14th and 15th-
century Lankatilaka and Gadaladeniya Buddhist temples. He states that the medieval Sinhala
tradition encouraged Visnu worship (puja) as a part of Theravada Buddhism just like Hindu
tradition incorporated the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu, but contemporary Theravada monks
are attempting to purge the Vishnu worship practice from Buddhist temples. According to Holt,
the veneration of Vishnu in Sri Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability over many centuries, to
reiterate and reinvent culture as other ethnicity have been absorbed into their own. Though the
Vishnu cult in Ceylon was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in the early 1700s, Holt states
that Vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous ruins in the medieval

capital Polonnaruwa.

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14th-century Vishnu, Thailand.

Vishnu iconography such as statues and etchings have been found in archaeological sites of
Southeast Asia, now predominantly of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. In Thailand, for
example, statues of four armed Vishnu have been found in provinces near Malaysia and dated to
be from the 4th to 9th-century, and this mirror those found in ancient India. Similarly, Vishnu
statues have been discovered from the 6th to 8th century eastern Prachinburi Province and
central Phetchabun Province of Thailand and southern Đồng Tháp Province and An Giang
Province of Vietnam. Krishna statues dated to the early 7th century to 9th century have been
discovered in Takéo Province and other provinces of Cambodia.

Archeological studies have uncovered Vishnu statues on the islands of Indonesia, and these have
been dated to the 5th century and thereafter. In addition to statues, inscriptions and carvings of
Vishnu, such as those related to the "three steps of Vishnu" (Trivikrama) have been found in
many parts of Buddhist southeast Asia. In some iconography, the symbolism of Surya, Vishnu
and Buddha are fused.

In Japanese Buddhist pantheon, Vishnu is known as Bichū-ten (毘紐天), and he appears in

Japanese texts such as the 13th century compositions of Nichiren.

Other Cultures

During an excavation in an abandoned village of Russia in

the Volga region, archaeologist Alexander Kozhevin excavated an ancient Cult image of Vishnu.
The idol dates from between the 7th and 10th centuries. In the interview, Kozhevin stated that
"We may consider it incredible, but we have ground to assert that Middle-Volga region was the
original land of Ancient Rus. This is a hypothesis, but a hypothesis, which requires thorough
research."

The front-view of Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

Some of the earliest surviving grand Vishnu temples in India have been dated to the Gupta
Empire period. The Sarvatobhadra temple in Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, for example, is dated to the
early 6th century and features the ten avatars of Vishnu. Its design based on a square layout and
Vishnu iconography broadly follows the 1st millennium Hindu texts on architecture and
construction such as the Brihat Samhita and Visnudharmottarapurana.

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Archaeological evidence suggest that Vishnu temples and iconography probably were already in
existence by the 1st century BCE. The most significant Vishnu-related epigraphy and
archaeological remains are the two 1st century BCE inscriptions in Rajasthan which refer to
temples of Sankarshana and Vasudeva, the Besnagar Garuda column of 100 BCE which
mentions a Bhagavata temple, another inscription in Naneghat cave in Maharashtra by a Queen
Naganika that also mentions Sankarshana, Vasudeva along with other major Hindu deities and
several discoveries in Mathura relating to Vishnu, all dated to about the start of the common era.

The Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, is dedicated to Vishnu. The

temple has attracted huge donations in gold and precious stones over its long history.

Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu located

in Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India. The temple occupies an area of 156 acres
(630,000 m2) with a perimeter of 4,116 m (13,504 ft) making it the largest temple in India and
one of the largest religious complexes in the world.[

Vaishnavism is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism,
and Smartism. It is the largest Hindu denomination with 67.6% of Hindus being Vaishnavas.[1] It
is also called Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas or Vaishnavites, and it
considers Vishnu as the Supreme Lord.[2][3] The tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine,
wherein Vishnu is revered in one of many distinct
incarnations. Rama, Krishna, Narayana, Kalki, Hari, Vithoba, Kesava, Madhava, Govinda,
Srinathji and Jagannath are among the names of popular avatars all seen as different aspects of
the same supreme being.[4][5][6] Vaishnavism emerged as a fusion of various regional non-Vedic
religions, which were aligned with the trans-regional Brahminical tradition. It has 1st millennium
BCE Vedic roots in the Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatism,[7][8] and in the Vedic

194
water deity Nara c.q. Narayana.[9] Non-Vedic roots are found in a merger of several popular non-
Vedic theistic traditions, which developed in the 7th to 4th century BCE.[10][11] The deified
heroes Vāsudeva and Krishna[11][12] merged with the non-Vedic cult of Gopala-
[11][13]
Krishna. This "Greater Krsnaism" then adopted the Rigvedic Vishnu as Supreme deity to
increase its appeal towards orthodox elements, resulting in Vaishnavism.[11][14][15]
Later developments led by Ramananda created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest
monastic group in Asia.[16][17] The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas (denominations,
sub-schools) ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya to Vishishtadvaita
school of Ramanuja and Pushtimarg of Vallabhacharya.[18][19]
The Vaishnavite tradition is known for the loving devotion to an avatar of Vishnu (often
Krishna), and as such has been key to the spread of the Bhakti movement in South Asia in the
2nd millennium CE.[20][21] Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads,
the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra (Agama) texts, Naalayira Divya Prabhandham and
the Bhagavata Purana.

Main article: Historical Vishnuism

Vaishnavism originates in the latest centuries BCE and the early centuries CE, with the cult of
the heroic Vāsudeva, a leading member of the Vrishni heroes, which was then amalgamated
with Krishna, hero of the Yadavas, and still several centuries later with the "divine child" Bala
Krishna of the Gopala traditions, followed by a syncretism of these non-Vedic traditions with
the Mahabharata canon, thus affiliating itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to
the orthodox establishment. Krishnaism first became associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval
period.[note 1]
Origins[edit]
Northern India[edit]

Vāsudeva on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria, circa 190–180 BCE.[27][28] This is "the earliest
unambiguous image" of the deity.[29]

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The inscription of the Heliodorus pillar that was made by Indo-Greek envoy Heliodorus in 110
BCE, in what is modern Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh). The inscription states Heliodorus is
a Bhagavata devoted to the "God of gods" Vāsudeva.[30][31]

See also: Vāsudeva Krishna and Bala Krishna

The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent and

scanty.[9] Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity,[12] he is mentioned less often compared to
Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities, thereby suggesting that he had a minor position in the Vedic
religion.[32] According to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to
Bhagavatism.[7] According to Preciado-Solís, there are other Vedic deities, such as water
deity Nara (also mentioned as Narayana-Purusha in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas), who
together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism.[9]
According to Dandekar, what is understood today as Vaishnavism did not originate in Vedism at
all, but emerged from the merger of several popular theistic traditions which developed after the
decline of Vedism at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the second urbanisation of
northern India, in the 7th to 4th century BCE.[33][11] It initially formed around Vāsudeva, a deified
leader of the Vrishnis, and one of the Vrishni heroes.[11] Later, Vāsudeva was amalgamated
with Krishna "the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas",[11][12] to form the
merged deity Bhagavan Vāsudeva-Krishna,[11] due to the close relation between the tribes of
the Vrishnis and the Yadavas.[11] This was followed by a merger with the cult of Gopala-
Krishna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras[11] in the 4th century CE.[13] The character
of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic.[34] According to Dandekar, such mergers
consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the
orthodox Vedic religion.[11] The "Greater Krsnaism", states Dandekar, then adopted the Rigvedic
Vishnu as Supreme deity to increase its appeal towards orthodox elements.[11]
Syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism.[14][15] At this stage that
Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism and became the equivalent
of the Supreme God.[12] The appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the
period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into
the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism.[8]
Finally, the Narayana worshippers were also included, which further brahmanized
Vaishnavism.[35] The Nara-Narayana worshippers may have originated in Badari, a northern

196
ridge of the Hindu Kush, and absorbed into the Vedic orthodoxy as Purusa Narayana.[35] Purusa
Narayana may have later been turned into Arjuna and Krsna.[35]
In the late-Vedic texts (~1000 to 500 BCE), the concept of a metaphysical Brahman grows in
prominence, and the Vaishnavism tradition considered Vishnu to be identical to Brahman, just
like Shaivism and Shaktism consider Shiva and Devi to be Brahman respectively.[36]
This complex history is reflected in the two main historical denominations of Vishnavism.
The Bhagavats, worship Vāsudeva-Krsna, and are followers of brahmanic Vaishnavism, while
the Pacaratrins regard Narayana as their founder, and are followers of Tantric Vaishnavism.[35]
Southern India[edit]
According to Hardy,[note 2] there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism," despite the tendency
to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions.[37] South Indian texts show close
parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, so ubiquitous in later
North Indian text and imagery.[39] Early writings in Dravidian culture such as Manimekalai and
the Cilappatikaram present Krishna, his brother, and favourite female companions in the similar
terms.[39] Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation"
of the bhakti of the Tamil alvars.[40]
Devotion to southern Indian Mal (Tirumal) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since Mal
appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu.[41] The Alvars,
whose name can be translated "sages" or "saints", were devotees of Mal. Their poems show a
pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make
the distinction between Krishna and Vishnu on the basis of the concept of the Avatars.[41] Yet,
according to Hardy the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism" when referring
to Mal or Mayon.[37]
Gupta era[edit]
Vishnu in three incarnations (Chaturvyuha): Vishnu himself or Vāsudeva-Krishna in human
form, Varaha as a boar, Narasimha as a lion. Gupta art, Mathura, mid-5th century CE. Boston
Museum.[42]

Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375-413 CE) were
known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas.[43][35] But following the Huna invasions,
especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented,
ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had
been so ardently promoting.[44] The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India,
such as the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred
adopting Saivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva,
and its ideology of power.[44] Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not
been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir.[44]
Early medieval period[edit]
Main article: Alvars

After the Gupta age, Krishnaism rose to a major current of Vaishnavism,[26] and Vaishnavism
developed into various sects and subsects, most of them emphasizing bhakti, which was strongly
influenced by south Indian religiosity.[35] Modern scholarship posit Nimbarkacharya (c.7th
century CE) to this period who propounded Radha Krishna worship and his doctrine came to be
known as (dvaita-advaita).[45]

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Vaishnavism in the 8th century came into contact with the Advaita doctrine of Adi Shankara.
Many of the early Vaishnava scholars such as Nathamuni, Yamunacharya and Ramanuja,
contested the Advaita Vedanta doctrines and proposed Vishnu bhakti ideas
instead.[46][47] Vaishnavism flourished in predominantly Shaivite Tamil Nadu during the seventh
to tenth centuries CE with the twelve Alvars, saints who spread the sect to the common people
with their devotional hymns. The temples that the Alvars visited or founded are now known
as Divya Desams. Their poems in praise of Vishnu and Krishna in Tamil language are
collectively known as Naalayira Divya Prabandha (4000 divine verses).[48][49]
Later medieval period[edit]
See also: Bhakti movement

Krishna with Gopis, painted circa 1660.

The Bhakti movement of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th-century, but rapidly
expanded after the 12th-century. It was supported by the Puranic literature such as the Bhagavata
Purana, poetic works, as well as many scholarly bhasyas and samhitas.
This period saw the growth of Vashnavism Sampradayas (denominations or communities) under
the influence of scholars such as Ramanujacharya, Vedanta
Desika, Madhvacharya and Vallabhacharya. Bhakti poets or teachers such as Manavala
Mamunigal, Namdev, Ramananda, Surdas, Tulsidas, Eknath, Tyagaraja, Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu and many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism.Even Meera (princess of
Mehwar and Rajasthan) took part in this specific movement.[55][56][57] These Vaishnavism
sampradaya founders challenged the then dominant Shankara's doctrines of Advaita Vedanta,
particularly Ramanuja in the 12th century, Vedanta Desika and Madhva in the 13th, building
their theology on the devotional tradition of the Alvars (Sri Vaishnavas).[58]
In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval
movements Ramananda in the 14th century, Sankaradeva in the 15th
and Vallabha and Chaitanya in the 16th century. Historically, it was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who
founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after
becoming a sannyasi.

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Modern times[
During the 20th century, Vaishnavism has spread from India and is now practiced in many places
around the globe, including North America, Europe, Africa, Russia and South America. This is
largely due to the growth of the ISKCON movement, founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami
Prabhupada in 1966

Vishnu
In Vishnu-centered sects Vishnu or Narayana is the one supreme God. The belief in the
supremacy of Vishnu is based upon the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu listed in
the Puranic texts, which differs from other Hindu deities such as Ganesha, Surya or Durga.]
To the devotees of the Srivaishnava Sampradaya "Lord Vishnu is the Supreme Being and the
foundation of all existence."

Krishna
In the Krishnaism group of independent traditions of Vaishnavism, such as the Nimbarka
Sampradaya (the first Krishnaite Sampradaya developed by Nimbarka c. 7th century
CE), Ekasarana Dharma, Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Mahanubhava, Rudra
Sampradaya (Pushtimarg), Vaishnava-Sahajiya and Varkari, devotees worship Krishna as the
One Supreme form of God, and source of all avatars, Svayam Bhagavan
Krishnaism is often also called Bhagavatism—perhaps the earliest Krishnite movement was
Bhagavatism with Krishna-Vasudeva (about 2nd century BCE)—after the Bhagavata
Purana which asserts that Krishna is "Bhagavan Himself," and subordinates to itself all other
forms: Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana etc
Radha Krishna
Radha Krishna is the combination of both the feminine as well as the masculine aspects of God.
Krishna is often referred as Svayam bhagavan in Gaudiya Vaishnavism theology and Radha is
Krishna's supreme beloved.[90] With Krishna, Radha is acknowledged as the Supreme Goddess,
for it is said that she controls Krishna with Her love.[91] It is believed that Krishna enchants the
world, but Radha "enchants even Him.
Dashavatara
According to The Bhagavata Purana, there are twenty-two avatars of Vishnu,
including Rama and Krishna. The Dashavatara is a later concept. In contrast, the Pancaratrins
follow the vyuhas doctrine, which says that God has four manifestations (vyuhas), namely
Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha. These four manifestations represent "the
Highest Self, the individual self, mind, and egoism."

Restoration of dharma
Vaishnavism theology has developed the concept of avatar (incarnation) around Vishnu as the
preserver or sustainer. His avataras, asserts Vaishnavism, descend to empower the good and fight
evil, thereby restoring Dharma. This is reflected in the passages of the ancient Bhagavad Gita as:
Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth.
For the protection of the good and for the destruction of evil,
and for the establishment of righteousness,
I come into being age after age.
— Bhagavad Gita 4.7–8

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In Vaishnava theology, such as is presented in the Bhagavata Purana and the Pancaratra,
whenever the cosmos is in crisis, typically because the evil has grown stronger and has thrown
the cosmos out of its balance, an avatar of Vishnu appears in a material form, to destroy evil and
its sources, and restore the cosmic balance between the everpresent forces of good and
evil.[97][75] The most known and celebrated avatars of Vishnu, within the Vaishnavism traditions
of Hinduism, are Krishna, Rama, Narayana and Vasudeva. These names have extensive literature
associated with them, each has its own characteristics, legends and associated
arts.[97] The Mahabharata, for example, includes Krishna, while the Ramayana includes Rama.[5]

The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Agamas are the scriptural sources
of Vaishnavism, while the Bhagavata Purana is a revered and celebrates popular text, parts of
which a few scholars such as Dominic Goodall include as a scripture. Other important texts in
the tradition include the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as texts by
various sampradayas (denominations within Vaishnavism). In many Vaishnava traditions,
Krishna is accepted as a teacher, whose teachings are in the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata
Purana.
Scriptures-Vedas and Upanishads
Vaishnavism, just like all Hindu traditions, considers the Vedas as the scriptural
authority.[103][104] All traditions within Vaishnavism consider the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and
the Upanishads embedded within the four Vedas as Sruti, while Smritis, which include all the
epics, the Puranas and its Samhitas, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, are considered as "exegetical
or expository literature" of the Vedic texts.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita is a central text in Vaishnavism, and especially in the context of
Krishna. The Bhagavad Gita is an important scripture not only within Vaishnavism, but also to
other traditions of Hinduism. It is one of three important texts of the Vedanta school of Hindu
philosophy, and has been central to all Vaishnavism sampradayas.
The Bhagavad Gita is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, and presents Bhakti, Jnana and
Karma yoga as alternate ways to spiritual liberation, with the choice left to the individual.

Other texts
Mahabharata and Ramayana
The two Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana present Vaishnava philosophy and
culture embedded in legends and dialogues. The epics are considered the fifth Veda in Hindu
culture. The Ramayana describes the story of Rama, an avatara of Vishnu, and is taken as a
history of the 'ideal king', based on the principles of dharma, morality and ethics. Rama's
wife Sita, his brother Lakshman, with his devotee and follower Hanuman all play key roles
within the Vaishnava tradition as examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behaviour. Ravana, the
evil king and villain of the epic, is presented as an epitome of adharma, playing the opposite role
of how not to behave.
The Mahabharata is centered around Krishna, presents him as the avatar of transcendental
supreme being. The epic details the story of a war between good and evil, each side represented
by two families of cousins with wealth and power, one depicted as driven by virtues and values
while other by vice and deception, with Krishna playing pivotal role in the drama The
philosophical highlight of the work is the Bhagavad Gita.

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The Puranas are an important source of entertaining narratives and histories, states Mahony, that
are embedded with "philosophical, theological and mystical modes of experience and
expression" as well as reflective "moral and soteriological instructions".
More broadly, the Puranic literature is encyclopedic, and it includes diverse topics such
as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods,
folk tales, travel guides and pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy,
humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy. The Puranas were a living genre of texts
because they were routinely revisedtheir content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and
each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The
Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries.
Of the 18 Mahapuranas (great Puranas), many have titles based on one of the avatars of Vishnu.
However, quite many of these are actually, in large part, Shiva-related Puranas, likely because
these texts were revised over their history. Some were revised into Vaishnava treatises, such as
the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, which originated as a Puranic text dedicated to the Surya (Sun
god). Textual cross referencing evidence suggests that in or after 15th/16th century CE, it went
through a series of major revisions, and almost all extant manuscripts of Brahma Vaivarta
Purana are now Vaishnava (Krishna) bhakti oriented Of the extant manuscripts, the main
Vaishnava Puranas are Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda
Purana, Vayu Purana and Varaha Purana. The Brahmanda Purana is notable for the Adhyatma-
ramayana, a Rama-focussed embedded text in it, which philosophically attempts to
synthesize Bhakti in god Rama with Shaktism and Advaita Vedanta. While an avatar of Vishnu
is the main focus of the Puranas of Vaishnavism, these texts also include chapters that revere
Shiva, Shakti (goddess power), Brahma and a pantheon of Hindu deities.
The philosophy and teachings of the Vaishnava Puranas are bhakti oriented (often Krishna, but
Rama features in some), but they show an absence of a "narrow, sectarian spirit". To its bhakti
ideas, these texts show a synthesis of Samkhya, Yoga and Advaita Vedanta ideas.
In Gaudiya Vaishnava, Vallabha Sampradaya and Nimbarka sampradaya, Krishna is believed to
be a transcendent, Supreme Being and source of all avatars in the Bhagavata Purana. The text
describes modes of loving devotion to Krishna, wherein his devotees constantly think about him,
feel grief and longing when Krishna is called away on a heroic mission.

201
Jiva Gosvami's Bhajan Kutir at Radha-kunda. Jiva Goswamis Sandarbhas summarize Vedic
sources of Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition's accretion of the concept Krishna to be the supreme
Lord.

Sectarian texts
In the Varkari movement the following scriptures are considered sacred in addition to general
body of the common writing:
 Dyaneshawri
 Tukaram-Gatha
 Sopandevi
 Namdev-Gatha
 Eknathi-Bhagwat
The Chaitanya movement has the following texts.
 Sad Sandarbhas
 Brahma Samhita

Attitude toward scriptures

Chaitanya Vaishnava traditions refer to the writings of previous acharyas in their respective
lineage or sampradya as authoritative interpretations of scripture. While many schools
like Smartism and Advaitism encourage interpretation of scriptures philosophically and
metaphorically and not too literally, Chaitanya Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya
vṛitti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih -
"The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or
allegorical interpretations."
Bhakti
The Bhakti movement originated among Vaishnavas of South India during the 7th-century CE,
spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra towards the end of
13th-century, l uncertainty and Hindu-Islam conflicts.
The Alvars, which literally means "those immersed in God", were Vaishnava poet-saints who
sang praises of Vishnu as they travelled from one place to another. They established temple sites
such as Srirangam, and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as Divya
Prabhandham, developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata
Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on bhakti, have led
many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this
evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts
of India.
Vaishnava bhakti practices involve loving devotion to a Vishnu avatar (often Krishna), an
emotional connection, a longing and continuous feeling of presence. All aspects of life and living
is not only a divine order but divinity itself in Vaishnava bhakti. Community practices such as
singing songs together (kirtan or bhajan), praising or ecstatically celebrating the presence of god
together, usually inside temples, but sometimes in open public are part of varying Vaishnava
practices. These help Vaishnavas socialize and form a community identity.

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Tilaka

Left: A Vaishnava Hindu with Tilaka (Urdhva Pundra)

Right: A Shaiva Hindu with Tilaka (Tripundra)

Vaishnavas mark their foreheads with tilaka made up of Chandana, either as a daily ritual, or on
special occasions. The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have their own distinctive style of
tilaka, which depicts the siddhanta of their particular lineage. The general tilaka pattern is of a
parabolic shape resembling the letter U or two or more connected vertical lines on and another
optional line on the nose resembling the letter Y, which usually represents the foot of Vishnu and
the centre vertical line symbolizing his manhood. Alternate interpretations suggest that the
symbol is representation of male and female parts in union.
pilgrimage and temple sites in Vaishnavism. Orange markers are UNESCO world heritage sites.

In tantric traditions of Vaishnavism, during the initiation (diksha) given by a guru under whom
they are trained to understand Vaishnava practices, the initiates accept Vishnu as supreme. At the
time of initiation, the disciple is traditionally given a specific mantra, which the disciple will
repeat, either out loud or within the mind, as an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars.
The practice of repetitive prayer is known as japa.
In the Gaudiya Vaishnava group, one who performs an act of worship with the name of Vishnu
or Krishna can be considered a Vaishnava by practice, "Who chants the holy name of Krishna
just once may be considered a Vaishnava."
Pilgrimage sites
Important sites of pilgrimage for Vaishnavas include Guruvayur
Temple, Srirangam, Vrindavan, Mathura, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Pandharpur (Vitthal), Puri
(Jaggannath), Nira Narsingpur (Narasimha), Mayapur, Nathdwara, Dwarka Udipi
(Karnataka), Shree Govindajee Temple(Imphal)and Muktinath.

Holy places- Vrindavana and Goloka

Vrindavana is considered to be a holy place by several traditions of Krishnaism. It is a center of
Krishna worship and the area includes places like Govardhana and Gokula associated with
Krishna from time immemorial. Many millions of bhaktas or devotees of Krishna visit these
places of pilgrimage every year and participate in a number of festivals that relate to the scenes
from Krishna's life on Earth.
On the other hand, Goloka is considered the eternal abode of Krishna, Svayam
bhagavan according to some Vaishnava schools, including Gaudiya Vaishnavism and
the Swaminarayan Sampraday. The scriptural basis for this is taken in Brahma
Samhita and Bhagavata Purana.

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Four sampradayas and other sects
The Vaishnavism traditions may be grouped within four sampradayas, each exemplified by a
specific Vedic personality. They have been associated with a specific founder, providing the
following scheme: Brahma Sampradaya (Madhvacharya), Sri Sampradaya (Ramanuja), Rudra
Sampradaya (Vishnuswami, Vallabhacharya), Kumaras Sampradaya (Nimbarka).
These four sampradayas emerged in early centuries of the 2nd millennium CE, by the 14th
century, influencing and sanctioning the Bhakti movement

Early traditions
The Bhagavats were the early worshippers of Krishna, the followers of Bhagavat, the Lord,
in the person of Krishna, Vasudeva, Vishnu or Bhagavan. The term bhagavata may have
denoted a general religious tradition or attitude of theistic worship which prevailed until the 11th
century, and not a specific sect, and is best known as a designation for Vishnu-devotees. The
earliest scriptural evidence of Vaishnava bhagavats is an inscription from 115 BCE, in
which Heliodoros, ambassador of the Greco-Bactrian king Amtalikita, says that he is a bhagavata
of Vasudeva. It was supported by the Guptas, suggesting a widespread appeal, in contrast to
specific sects
Heliodorus pillar

Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha, India.

Period/culture late 2nd century BCE

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 Place Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Present location Vidisha, India

Heliodorus pillar

Pancaratra and Narayana

The Pāñcarātra is the tradition of Narayana-worship. The term pāñcarātra means "five nights,"
from pañca, "five,"and rātra, "nights," and may be derived from the "five night sacrifice" as
described in the Satapatha Brahmana, which narrates how Purusa-Narayana intends to become
the highest being by performing a sacrifice which lasts five nights.
The Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata describes the ideas of
the Pāñcarātras. Characteristic is the description of the manifestation of the Absolute through a
series of manifestations, from the vyuha manifestations of Vasudeva and pure creation, through
the tattvas of mixed creation into impure or material creation
Vaikhanasas

The Vaikhanasas are associated with the Pāñcarātra, but regard themselves as a Vedic orthodox
sect.
Modern Vaikhanasas reject elements of the Pāñcarātra and Sri Vaishnava tradition, but the
historical relationship with the orthodox Vaikhanasa in south India is
unclear.] The Vaikhanasas may have resisted the incorporation of the devotic elements of the
Alvar tradition, while the Pāñcarātras were open to this incorporation.
Vaikhanasas have their own foundational text, the Vaikhanasasmarta Sutra, which describes a
mixture of Vedic and non-Vedic ritual worship. The Vaikhanasas became chief priests in a lot of
south Indian temples, where they still remain influential.
Medieval traditions

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Smartism

The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the
beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between
Brahmanism and local traditions. According to Flood, Smartism developed and expanded with
the Puranas genre of literature By the time of Adi Shankara, it had developed
the pancayatanapuja, the worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal,
namely Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya and Devi (Shakti), "as a solution to varied and conflicting
devotional practices."
Traditionally, Sri Adi Shankaracharya (8th century) is regarded as the greatest teacher and
reformer of the Smarta.[240][241] According to Hiltebeitel, Adi Shankara Acharya established the
nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition.

Nammalvar

Alvars

The Alvars, "those immersed in god," were twelve Tamil poet-saints of South India who
espoused bhakti (devotion) to the Hindu god Vishnu or his avatar Krishna in their songs of
longing, ecstasy and service. The Alvars appeared between the 5th century to the 10th century
CE, though the Vaishnava tradition regards the Alvars to have lived between 4200 BCE - 2700
BCE.
The devotional writings of Alvars, composed during the early medieval period of Tamil history,
are key texts in the bhakti movement. They praised the Divya Desams, 108 "abodes" (temples) of
the Vaishnava deities. The collection of their hymns is known as Divya Prabandha. Their Bhakti-
poems has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a culture that opposed the ritual-
oriented Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation.
Contemporary traditions
Gavin Flood mentions five most important contemporary Vaisnava orders.

Sri Vaishnava
The Sri Vaishnava community consists of both Smarta Brahmans and non-Brahmans.[245] It
existed along with a larger purana-based Brahamanic worshippers of Vishnu, and non-
Brahmanic groups who worshipped and felt possessed by non-Vishnu village deities.[245] The Sri

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Vaishnavism movement grew with its social inclusiveness, where emotional devotionalism to
personal god (Vishnu) has been open without limitation to gender or caste.[58][note 10]
The most striking difference between Srivaishnavas and other Vaishnava groups lies in their
interpretation of Vedas. While other Vaishnava groups interpret Vedic deities like Indra, Savitar,
Bhaga, Rudra, etc. to be same as their Puranic counterparts, Srivaishnavas consider these to be
different names/roles/forms of Lord Narayan citing solid reasons thus claiming that the entire
Veda is dedicated for Vishnu worship alone. Srivaishnavas have remodelled Pancharatra homas
like Sudarshana homa, etc. to include Vedic Suktas like Rudram in them, thus giving them a
Vedic outlook.
Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 10th century. It incorporated two different
traditions, namely the tantric Pancaratra tradition and the puranic Vishnu worship of northern
India with their abstract Vedantic theology, and the southern bhakti tradition of the Alvars of
Tamil Nadu with their personal devotion. The tradition was founded by Nathamuni (10th
century), who along with Yamunacharya, combined the two traditions and gave the tradition
legitimacy by drawing on the Alvars. Its most influential leader was Ramanuja (1017-1137), who
developed the Visistadvaita ("qualified non-dualism") philosophy. Ramanuja challenged the then
dominant Advaita Vedanta interpretation of the Upanishads and Vedas, by formulating the
Vishishtadvaita philosophy foundations for Sri Vaishnavism from Vedanta.
Sri Vaishnava includes the ritual and temple life in the tantra traditions of Pancaratra, emotional
devotionalism to Vishnu, contemplative form bhakti, in the context of householder social and
religious duties. The tantric rituals, refers to techniques and texts recited during worship, and
these include Sanskrit and Tamil texts in South Indian Sri Vaishnava tradition.[ According to Sri
Vaishnavism theology, moksha can be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and
detachment from the world. When moksha is reached, the cycle of reincarnation is broken and
the soul is united with Vishnu after death, though maintaining their distinctions, in vaikuntha,
Vishnu's heaven. Moksha can also be reached by total surrender and saranagati, an act of grace
by the Lord. Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism subscribes to videhamukti (liberation in afterlife), in
contrast to jivanmukti (liberation in this life) found in other traditions within Hinduism, such as
the Smarta and Shaiva traditions
Two hundred years after Ramanuja, the Sri Vaishnava tradition split into
the Vadakalai ("northern culture") and Tenkalai ("southern culture"). The Vatakalai relied
stronger on the Sanskrit scriptures, and emphasized bhakti by devotion to temple-icons, while
the Tenkalai relied more on the Tamil heritage and total surrender.
Gaudiya Vaishnavism
Gaudiya Vaishnavism, also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism and Hare Krishna, was founded
by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to the Gauḍa region (present
day Bengal/Bangladesh) with Vaishnavism meaning "the worship of Vishnu or Krishna". Its
philosophical basis is primarily that of the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana.
The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (bhakti) of Radha and Krishna, and
their many divine incarnations as the supreme forms of God, Svayam Bhagavan. Most popularly,
this worship takes the form of singing Radha and Krishna's holy names, such as "Hare",
"Krishna" and "Rama", most commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna (mantra), also known
as kirtan. It sees the many forms of Vishnu or Krishna as expansions or incarnations of the one
Supreme God, adipurusha.
After its decline in the 18-19th century, it was revived in the beginning of the 20th century due to
the efforts of Bhaktivinoda Thakur. His son Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura founded

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sixty-four Gaudiya Matha monasteries in India, Burma and Europe Thakura's disciple Srila
Prabhupada went to the west and spread Gaudiya Vaishnavism by the International Society for
Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).
Varkari-tradition and Vithoba-and Varkari
The Varkari-tradition is a non-Brahamanical tradition which worships Vithoba, also known as
Vitthal, who is regarded as a form of Vishnu or Krishna. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark
young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his main
consort Rakhumai. The Varkari-tradition is geographically associated with the Indian state
of Maharashtra.
The Varkari movement includes a duty-based approach towards life, emphasizing moral
behavior and strict avoidance of alcohol and tobacco, the adoption of a strict lacto-
vegetarian diet and fasting on Ekadashi day (twice a month), self-restraint (brahmacharya)
during student life, equality and humanity for all rejecting discrimination based on the caste
system or wealth, the reading of Hindu texts, the recitation of the Haripath every day and the
regular practice of bhajan and kirtan. The most important festivals of Vithoba are held on the
eleventh (ekadashi) day of the lunar months" Shayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha,
and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartik.
The Varkari poet-saints are known for their devotional lyrics, the abhang, dedicated to Vithoba
and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature includes the Kannada hymns of the
Haridasa, and Marathi versions of the generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light
to the deity. Notable saints and gurus of the Varkaris
include Jñāneśvar, Namdev, Chokhamela, Eknath, and Tukaram, all of whom are accorded the
title of Sant.
Though the origins of both his cult and his main temple are debated, there is clear evidence that
they already existed by the 13th century. Various Indologists have proposed a prehistory for
Vithoba worship where he was previously a hero stone, a pastoral deity, a manifestation
of Shiva, a Jain saint, or even all of these at various times for various devotees.

Ramanandi tradition
The Ramanandi Sampradaya, also known as the Ramayats or the Ramavats, is one of the largest
and most egalitarian Hindu sects India, around the Ganges Plain, and Nepal today. It mainly
emphasizes the worship of Rama, as well as Vishnu directly and other incarnations. Most
Ramanandis consider themselves to be the followers of Ramananda, a Vaishnava saint in
medieval India. Philosophically, they are in the Vishishtadvaita (IAST Viśiṣṭādvaita) tradition.

Its ascetic wing constitutes the largest Vaishnava monastic order and may possibly be the largest
monastic order in all of India.[260] Rāmānandī ascetics rely upon meditation and strict ascetic
practices, but also believe that the grace of god is required for them to achieve liberation.
Northern Sant traditions: Kabir and Nanak

Kabir was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and saint, whose writings influenced the Bhakti
movement, but whose verses are also found in Sikhism's scripture Adi Granth. His early life was
in a Muslim family, but he was strongly influenced by his teacher, the Hindu bhakti
leader Ramananda, he becomes a Vaishnavite with universalist leanings.

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Some scholars state Kabir's ideas were one of the many influences on Guru Nanak, who went on
to found Sikhism in the fifteenth century. Other Sikh scholars disagree, stating there are
differences between the views and practices of Kabir and Nanak.
Harpreet Singh, quoting Hew McLeod, states, "In its earliest stage Sikhism was clearly a
movement within the Hindu tradition; Nanak was raised a Hindu and eventually belonged to
the Sant tradition of northern India, a movement associated with the great poet and mystic
Kabir." Surjit Singh disagrees, and writes "Guru Nanak in his thought pattern as well as in action
model was fundamentally different from Kabir and for that matter other radical Bhaktas or saints
(saint has been erroneously used for such Bhaktas by Mcleod). Hence to consider Kabir as an
influence on Guru Nanak is wrong, both historically and theologically".
McLeod places Nanak in the Sant tradition that included Kabir, and states that their fundamental
doctrines were reproduced by Nanak. JS Grewal contests this view and states that McLeod's
approach is limiting in its scope because, "McLeod takes into account only concepts, ignores
practices altogether, he concentrates on similarities and ignores all differences".
Manipuri Vaishnavism
Main article: Vaishnavism of Manipur

In Manipuri Vaishnavism practised by Meitei people of Manipur, Vaishnavas do not worship

Krishna alone, but Krishna and Radha together. Every village there has a Thakur-ghat and a
temple.
Ekasarana dharmaThe Ekasarana dharma was propagated by Srimanta Sankardev in
the Assam region of India.It considers Krishna as the only God. Satras are institutional
centers associated with the Ekasarana dharma.
There is no data available on demographic history or trends for Vaishnavism or other traditions
within Hinduism. Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in Vaishnavism compared
to other traditions of Hinduism. Website Adherents.com gives numbers as of year 1999 Klaus
Klostermaier and other scholars estimate Vaishnavism to be the largest. According to a 2010
estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641
million or 67.6% of Hindus.

Vaishnava body headed by Gautham Padmanabhan in Trivandrum which intends to bring about
a single and precise book called Hari-grantha to include all Vaishnava philosophies.
Vaishnavism is the largest branch of modern Hinduism. Its devotees worship Vishnu, or one of
his avatars, as the Supreme God. Vaishnavism has numerous sects and their beliefs vary.
Despite the differences, all Vaishnavas believe that there is one Supreme God over all creation.
And like other Hindu branches, they believe in the existence of many lower deities under that
Supreme God. Vaishnava beliefs are, in large part, based on the Upanishads, as well as the texts
of the Vedas and the Bhagavad Gita, among others.
Vaishnavism is associated with Bhakti yoga, a spiritual yogic practice focused on love and
devotion toward the Supreme God. Also called Vishnuism, this form of Hinduism believes that
Vishnu is the manifestation of brahman (supreme existence or absolute reality). Through his
various incarnations – the most prominent of which are Krishna and Rama – Vishnu
defends dharma (universal truth or moral law).
The various sects and groups within Vaishnavism differ in their worship of Vishnu. For some,
the goal of bhakti (religious devotion) is moksha (liberation from the life-death cycle,
or samsara). For others, the goal is prosperity and health.

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Most Vaishnavas believe in the concept of a life of eternity with Vishnu after death. Some sects
believe that the phenomenal world is not real. Others believe that Vishnu and the soul are
separate entities. But one group, the Gaudiya sect, asserts that the relationship between Vishnu
and the world is completely beyond comprehension.

And because Laxmi is the consort of Vishnu, the worship of Laxmi became
popular.Hence LAXMI PUJAN the basis of this book.
Vaishnavism is centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. According to Schweig, it is a
"polymorphic monotheism, i.e. a theology that recognizes many forms (ananta rupa) of the one,
single unitary divinity," since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking
many forms. Okita, in contrast, states that the different denominations within Vaishnavism are
best described as theism, pantheism and panentheism.

The Vaishnava sampradaya started by Madhvacharya is a monotheistic tradition wherein Vishnu

(Krishna) is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent. In contrast, Sri Vaishnavism
sampradaya associated with Ramanuja has monotheistic elements, but differs in several ways,
such as goddess Lakshmi and god Vishnu are considered as inseparable equal divinities.
According to some scholars, Sri Vaishnavism emphasizes panentheism, and not monotheism,
with its theology of "transcendence and immanence",where God interpenetrates everything in the
universe, and all of empirical reality is God's body. The Vaishnava sampradaya associated with
Vallabhacharya is a form of pantheism, in contrast to the other Vaishnavism traditions. The
Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Chaitanya, states Schweig, is closer to a polymorphic bi-
monotheism because both goddess Radha and god Krishna are simultaneously supreme.

Vaishnavism precepts include the avatar (incarnation) doctrine, wherein Vishnu incarnates
numerous times, in different forms, to set things right and bring back the balance in the
universe. These avatars include Narayana, Vasudeva, Rama and Krishna; each the name of a
divine figure with attributed supremacy, which each associated tradition of Vaishnavism believes
to be distinct.

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 CHAPTER IX

The stone or metal deity images in Hindu temples and shrines are not mere symbols of the Gods.
They are the form through which their love, power and blessings flood forth into this world. We
may lik-en this mystery to our ability to communicate with others through the telephone. We do
not talk to the telephone; rather we use it as a means of communication with another person.
Without the telephone, we could not converse across long distances; and without the sanctified
icon in the temple, we cannot easily commune with the Deity. Divinity can also be invoked and
felt in a sacred fire, or in a tree, or in the enlightened person of a satguru. In our temples, God is
invoked in the sanctum by highly trained priests. Through the practice of yoga, or meditation, we
invoke God inside ourself. Yoga means to yoke oneself to God within. The image or icon of
worship is a focus for our prayers and devotions.

Another way to explain icon worship is to acknowledge that Hindus believe God is everywhere,
in all things, whether stone, wood, creatures or people. So, it is not surprising that they feel
comfortable worshiping the Divine in His material manifestation. The Hindu can see God in
stone and water, fire, air and ether, and inside his own soul. Indeed, there are Hindu temples
which have in the sanctum sanctorum no image at all but a yantra, a symbolic or mystic diagram.
However, the sight of the image en-hances the devotee's worship.

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Elaboration: In Hinduism one of the ultimate attainments is when the seeker transcends the
need of all form and symbol. This is the yogi's goal. In this way Hinduism is the least idol-
oriented of all the religions of the world. There is no religion that is more aware of the
transcendent, timeless, formless, causeless Truth. Nor is there any religion which uses more
symbols to represent Truth in preparation for that realization.

Humorously speaking, Hindus are not idle worshipers. I have never seen a Hindu worship in a
lazy or idle way. They worship with great vigor and devotion, with unstinting regularity and
constancy. There's nothing idle about our ways of worship! (A little humor never hurts.) But, of
course, the question is about "graven images." All religions have their symbols of holiness
through which the sacred flows into the mundane. To name a few: the Christian cross, or statues
of Mother Mary and Saint Theresa, the holy Kaaba in Mecca, the Sikh Adi Granth enshrined in
the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Arc and Torah of the Jews, the image of a meditating
Buddha, the totems of indigenous and Pagan faiths, and the artifacts of the holy men and women
of all religions. Such icons, or graven images, are held in awe by the followers of the respective
faiths. The question is, does this make all such religionists idol worshipers? The answer is, yes
and no. From our perspective, idol worship is an intelligent, mystical practice shared by all of the
world's great faiths.

The human mind releases itself from suffering through the use of forms and symbols that awaken
reverence, evoke sanctity and spiritual wisdom. Even a fundamentalist Christian who rejects all
forms of idol worship, including those of the Catholic and Episcopal churches, would resent
someone who showed disrespect for his Bible. This is because he considers it sacred. His book
and the Hindu's icon are much alike in this way.

Murti embodiment, or solid object') is a general term for an image, statue or idol of a deity or
mortal in Indian culture. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. A murti is itself not a god
in Hinduism, but it is a shape, embodiment or manifestation of a deity. Murti are also found in
some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered mortals inside Jain
temples, and are worshiped in murtipujaka rituals.

A murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or through pottery.
Ancient era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include
the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions,
ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Kali), as well
as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya
images are most common in Hindu temples. Other murti forms found in Hinduism include
the linga.
A murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In
religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a
beloved guest and serve as a participant of puja in Hinduism. In other occasions, it serves as the
centre of attention in annual festive processions and these are called utsava murti. The earliest
murti are mentioned by Pāṇini in 4th century BCE. Prior to that the agnicayana ritual ground

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seemed to served as a template for the temple. Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi,
or vigraha or pratima.

The earliest mention of the term murti occurs in primary Upanishads composed in the 1st
millennium BCE, particularly in verse 3.2 of Aitareya Upanishad, verse 1.13 of Shvetashvatara
Upanishad, verse 6.14 of Maitrayaniya Upanishad and verse 1.5 of Prashna Upanishad. For
example, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the term to mean a "form, manifestation of time". The
section sets out to prove Time exists, acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists
by Pramana (epistemology in Indian philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference
for epistemological proof as follows,
On account of subtleness of Time, this is the proof of its reality;
On account of it the Time is demonstrated.
Because without proof, the assumption which is to be proved, is not admissible;
But, that which is itself to be proved or demonstrated, when one comprehends it in its parts,
becomes the ground of proof, through which it brings itself into consciousness (in the inductive
way).
— Maitri Upanishad 6.14

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Krishna Temple Madura is a photograph by Kantilal Patel which was uploaded on November
25th, 2011.

One of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of murti, is found
in Jivikarthe Capanye by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini who lived about 4th century BCE. He
mentions Acala and Cala, with former referring to images in a shrine, and the latter meaning
images that were carried from place to place. Panini also mentions Devalaka, meaning
custodians of images of worship who show the images but do not sell them, as well as Jivika as
people whose source of livelihood was the gifts they received from devotees. In ancient Sanskrit
texts that follow Panini's work, numerous references are found to divine images with terms such
as Devagrha, Devagara, Devakula, Devayatana and others. These texts, states Noel Salmond,
strongly suggest that temples and murti were in existence in ancient India by about 4th century
BCE. Recent archaeological evidence confirms that the knowledge and art of sculpture was
established in India by the Maurya Empire period (~3rd century BCE).
By early 1st millennium BCE, the term murti meant idols, image or statue in various Indian texts
such as Bhavishya Purana verse 132.5.7, Brihat Samhita 1.8.29 and inscriptions in different parts
of India. The term murti has been a more generic term referring to an idol or statue of anyone,
either a deity, of any human being, animal or any art. Pratima includes murti as well as painting
of any non-anthropomorphic object. In contrast, Bera or Bimba meant "idol of god" only,
and Vigraha was synonymous with Bimba.[2]
Murti in diverse Hindu traditions vary widely in their expression. Raudra or ugra images express
destruction, fear and violence, such as Kali image on left. Shanta or saumya images express joy,
knowledge and harmony, such as Saraswati (centre). Saumya images are most common in Hindu
temples. Linga murti (right) are an alternate form.

A murti in contemporary usage is any image or statue. It may be found inside or outside a temple
or home, installed to be moved with a festive procession (utsava murti), or just be a landmark. It
is a significant part of Hindu iconography, and is implemented in many ways. Two major
categories include:
 Raudra or Ugra - are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have
wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were
worshipped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or errors.
Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in
remote areas of a kingdom.
Shanta and Saumya - are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love,
compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry
symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things.
In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns.

Beyond anthropomorphic forms of religious murti, some traditions of Hinduism

cherish aniconism, where alternate symbols are shaped into a murti, such as the linga for
Shiva, yoni for Devi, and the saligrama for Vishnu.
Shilpa Shastras, Tantra, and Āgama (Hinduism)

Murti, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras.
They recommend materials, measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti.

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Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription
of specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the
image are found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a
murti is installed by priests through the Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited
sometimes with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the
"divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed
as one would welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric
traditions through texts such as Tantra-tattva follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti.
Some tantra texts such as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers an icon of
Vishnu as nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell". The use of murti and
particularly the prana pratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised
by Hindu groups. These groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra
books", and there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony.
A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a murti

Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity,

Salutations to you!
I worship you per rules, kindly accept it.
May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere,
May they forgive us now, we bow to them.
—Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11

The artists who make any art or craft, including murti, were known as shilpins. The formally
trained Shilpins shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical
manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of
construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth
century Brihat Samhita and eighth century text Manasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art
using method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver,
copper, stone, wood, sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel,
grit), abhasa (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta). For abhasa, the texts describe working
methods for various types of marble, specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity
(transparent, translucent and crystal).

Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to

gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the pratima (murti) height
should be of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima height and the sanctum
sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum
room width, thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions. Chapter 58
of the text describes the ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along
with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration
and dimensions of local regional traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition.
Proper murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts. They describe
proportions, posture, expressions among other details, often referencing to nature.

The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items
the murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or

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goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also
include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras,
different types of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate
the area near the murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale
of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative
measurements.
In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in
North India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter,
but the faith and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees
meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God
(saguna Brahman) during a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of
Jainism, thus making the material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually
important.
According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the
Buddha figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the
orthodox 'Hindu' deities". This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al.
state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in
Jainism and Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations,
and this knowledge grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including
those for Buddhism

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.

Ganesh

A murti of mother goddess Matrika, from Rajasthan 6th century CE.

Major Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartaism favour the use
of murti. These traditions suggest that it is easier to dedicate time and focus
on spirituality through anthropomorphic or non-anthropomorphic icons. Hindu scriptures such as
the Bhagavad Gita, states in verse 12.5,
It is much more difficult to focus on God as the unmanifested than God with form, due to human
beings having the need to perceive via the senses.
In Hinduism, states Jeaneane Fowler, a murti itself is not god, it is an "image of god" and thus a
symbol and representation. A murti is a form and manifestation, states Fowler, of the formless
Absolute.[ Thus a literal translation of murti as 'idol' is incorrect, when idol is understood as
superstitious end in itself. Just like the photograph of a person is not the real person, a murti is an
image in Hinduism but not the real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of
emotional and real value to the viewer. When a person worships a murti, it is assumed to be a
manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are
meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is not confined in it.

Devotional (bhakti movement) practices centred on cultivating a deep and personal bond of love
with God, often expressed and facilitated with one or more murti, and includes individual or
community hymns, japa or singing (bhajan, kirtan or aarti). Acts of devotion, in major temples
particularly, are structured on treating the murti as the manifestation of a revered guest, and the
daily routine can include awakening the murti in the morning and making sure that it "is washed,
dressed, and garlanded." In Vaishnavism, the building of a temple for the murti is considered an
act of devotion, but non-murti symbolism is also common wherein the aromatic Tulsi plant

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or Saligrama is an aniconic reminder of the spiritualism in Vishnu. These puja rituals with the
murti correspond to ancient cultural practices for a beloved guest, and the murti is welcomed,
taken care of, and then requested to retire.

Christopher John Fuller states that an image in Hinduism cannot be equated with a deity and the
object of worship is the divine whose power is inside the image, and the image is not the object
of worship itself, Hindus believe everything is worthy of worship as it contains divine energy
emanating from the one god. According to the Agamas, the bimba murti (स्थूलमूवतद / वबम्बमूवतद ) is
different from the mantra murti from the perspective of rituals, gestures, hymns and offerings.
Some Hindu denominations like Arya Samaj and Satya Mahima Dharma reject idol worship.

Murti and temples were well established in South Asia, before the start of Delhi Sultanate in the
late 12th century CE. They became a target of destruction during raids and religious wars
between Islam and Hinduism through the 18th-century.
During the colonial era, Christian missionaries aiming to convert Hindus to Christianity wrote
memoirs and books that were widely distributed in Europe, which Mitter, Pennington and other
scholars call as fictionalised stereotypes, where murti were claimed as the evidence of lack of
spiritual heritage in primitive Hindus, of "idolatry and savage worship of stones" practices akin
to Biblical demons, calling Murti as monstrous devils to eroticised bizarre beings carved in
stone. The British Missionary Society with colonial government's assistance bought and
sometimes seized, then transferred murti from India and displayed it in their "trophies" room in
the United Kingdom with the note claiming that these were given up by Hindus who now accept
the "folly and sin of idolatry".In other instances, the colonial British authorities, seeking
additional government revenue, introduced Pilgrim Tax on Hindus to view murti inside major
temples.
The missionaries and orientalist scholars attempted to justify the need for colonial rule of India
by attacking murti as a symbol of depravity and primitiveness, arguing that it was, states Tanisha
Ramachandran, "the White Man's Burden to create a moral society" in India. This literature by
the Christian missionaries constructed the foundation of a "Hindu image" in Europe, during the
colonial era, and it blamed murti idolatry as "the cause for the ills of Indian society". By 19th-
century, ideas such as pantheism (universe is identical with god), contained in newly translated
Sanskrit texts were linked to idolatry of murti and declared as additional evidence of
superstitions and evil by Christian missionaries and colonial authorities in British India.
The polemics of Christian missionaries in colonial India triggered a debate among Hindus,
yielding divergent responses.. It ranged from activists such as Rammohun Roy who denounced
all murti, to Vivekananda who refused to denounce murti and asked Hindus in India and
Christians in the West to introspect, that images are used everywhere to help think and as a road
to ideas, in the following words:

Superstition is a great enemy of man, but bigotry is worse. Why does a Christian go to church?
Why is the cross holy? Why is the face turned toward the sky in prayer? Why are there so many
images in the Catholic Church? Why are there so many images in the minds of Protestants when
they pray? My brethren, we can no more think about anything without a mental image than we
can live without breathing. By the law of association the material image calls up the mental idea
and vice versa.
— Vivekananda, World Parliament of Religions

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Religious intolerance and polemics, state Halbertal and Margalit, have historically targeted idols
and material symbols cherished by other religions, while encouraging the worship of material
symbols of one's own religion, characterising the material symbols of others as grotesque and
wrong, in some cases dehumanising the others and encouraging the destruction of idols of the
others. The outsider conflates and stereotypes the "strange worship" of the other religions as
"false worship" first, then calls "false worship" as "improper worship and false belief" of pagan
or an equivalent term, thereafter constructing an identity of the others as "primitive and
barbarians" that need to be saved, followed by justified intolerance and often violence against
those who cherish a different material symbol than one's own.[69] In the history of Hinduism and
India, states Pennington, Hindu deity images (murti) have been a religious lens for focusing this
anti-Hindu polemic and was the basis for distortions, accusations and attacks by non-Indian
religious powers and missionaries.

Ancient Indian texts assert the significance of murti in spiritual terms. The Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad,
whose palm-leaf manuscripts were discovered in the 1970s among remote villages of Orissa –
four in Oriya language and one in crude Sanskrit, asserts that the doctrine of murti art making is
founded on the principles of origin and evolution of universe, is a "form of every form of cosmic
creator" that empirically exists in nature, and it functions to inspire a devotee towards
contemplating the Ultimate Supreme Principle (Brahman). This text, whose composition date is
unknown but probably from late 1st millennium CE, discusses the significance of images as,
state Alice Boner and others, "inspiring, elevating and purifying influence" on the viewer and
"means of communicating a vision of supreme truth and for giving a taste of the infinite that lies
beyond". It adds (abridged):

From the contemplation of images grows delight, from delight faith, from faith steadfast
devotion, through such devotion arises that higher understanding (parāvidyā) that is the royal
road to moksha. Without the guidance of images, the mind of the devotee may go astray and
form wrong imaginations. Images dispel false imaginations. (... ) It is in the mind
of Rishis (sages), who see and have the power of discerning the essence of all created things of
manifested forms. They see their different characters, the divine and the demoniac, the creative
and the destructive forces, in their eternal interplay. It is this vision of Rishis, of gigantic drama
of cosmic powers in eternal conflict, which the Sthapakas (Silpins, murti and temple artists)
drew the subject-matter for their work.
— Pippalada, Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Introduction by Alice Boner et al

In the fifth chapter of Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Pippalada asserts, "from tattva-rupa (essence of a
form, underlying principle) come the pratirupani (images)". In the sixth chapter, Pippalada
repeats his message that the artist portrays the particular and universal concepts, with the
statement "the work of the Sthapaka is a creation similar to that of the Prajapati" (that which
created the universe). Non-theistic Jaina scholars such as Jnansundar, states John Cort, have
argued the significance of murti along the same lines, asserting that "no matter what the field –
scientific, commercial, religious – there can be no knowledge without an icon", images are part
of how human beings learn and focus their thoughts, icons are necessary and inseparable from
spiritual endeavours in Jainism.
While murti are an easily and commonly visible aspect of Hinduism, they are not necessary to
Hindu worship. Among Hindus, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised Self (Soul, Atman)
and the Universal Principle (Brahman, god) within himself, there is no need for any temple or
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divine image for worship. Those who have yet to reach this height of realisation, various
symbolic manifestations through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are
offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient
Hindu scriptures. For example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:
A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself,
images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59)
— Jabaladarsana Upanishad,

Introduction: All religions have been engaging in idolatry without actually knowing it – it’s
always hard to see whether someone is really worshipping something, or just using it as a symbol
of a totally different thing.
Are Christians idol worshippers? Exodus 20:4, 5: “You must not make for yourself a carved
image or a form like anything that is in the heavens above or that is on the earth underneath or
that is in the waters under the earth. You must not bow down to them nor be induced to serve
them, because I Jehovah your God am a God exacting exclusive devotion.”
The Christians worship the statue of Jesus or the Cross or Jesus in the cross in their Church.
Catholics pray to Mary and have statues of her. Isn’t that idolatry? If you come to India,
especially South India, you can see thousands of new Churches made as replica of Hindu
temples, with Dwaja Sthamba (flag banner high column) among other things, creating more idols
to worship. I don’t think anything other than the cemetery in the Churches that doesn’t fit into
external culture. Christianity is almost Indianised.
During first few centuries Jesus was pictured as Asiatic – bald, bearded and short – because of
Asian origin. Later all images of Jesus became that of a European white man. So their idol
clearly is Jesus Christ of European race. Can a Christian worship a black or Asian Jesus? Their
main idols are Christ and Cross.

Islam doesn’t have direct “idol worship” as Christians or Hindus do. The first condition to be a
Muslim is: the act of worship should be devoted to Allah Alone. Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning): “And they were commanded not, but that they should worship Allah, and worship
none but Him Alone (abstaining from ascribing partners to Him).” [Al-Bayyinah 98:5]
But you can see Idolatry in that religion too. Islam asks Muslims to pray towards Mecca.
Direction or destination is focal point – an idol as per definition. Something becomes sacred only
when you worship it. Muslims worship the black Kaaba Stone in Mecca.
There are three explanations for the stone – (1) As per Islamic belief- it is sent by their god,
Allah (2) Some serious historians say it’s a Shiv Linga (3) some people claim it’s a Meteorite.
Whatever it is, Kaaba is an important icon that they worship. Zamzam water in Makkah is also
sacred for them.
Let alone idols, Islam strictly prohibits worshipping any man-made objects. Millions of copies of
Holy Quran are printed in many printing presses by men and made into book form by man. Isn’t
it a man-made object? How can it be worshipped? If you say it is a representation of god’s
words, it is an idol by definition. The printed quotes are photo-framed, kept in the wall and
worshipped. It’s also man-made. Alphabets used to describe god are also man-made images.
Most of the Mosques (place of worship) have photograph of Kaaba. Some are visiting Dargah
(grave of a revered religious figure) to offer worship.
To my understanding, Muslims are forbidden to, and therefore do not, worship Prophet
Mohammed. Muslims shouldn’t even keep images of him. But indirectly they do. If anybody
talks one word against him, he/she will be cut into pieces. Isn’t that fanatic worship? Millions of
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Muslims worship holy hair of Prophet Mohammed and now building India’s biggest mosque
Sha’re Mubarak Masjid (literally: Blessed Hair Grand Mosque) in Kerala.
You can also find images of Muhammad’s face in manuscript illustrations from hundreds of
years ago, some of which are on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Some
of the earliest Islamic coins were minted with Muhammad’s face on them! The celebration of
Muhammad birthday is contradictory to Islamic law. But India has official Holiday on Prophet’s
birthday similar to Christmas and Krishna Jayanti. What is it other than iconic worship?
I agree lot of Muslims still worship only the formless God. But, they are still praying to a God
which has all other attributes except that of “form”. Therefore they only seem to be rejecting the
attribute of “form”, whereas they still seem to accept all other attributes in God (omnipotence,
omnipresence etc.) which are also accepted by people from other religions who worship and pray
to God using idols.
Even atheist philosophies like Marxism follow Idolatry. They have created Martyrs who they
worship with garland and flowers. They call it “Rakthasakshi Mandapam”- Temple for martyrs.
The world capital of superstitious worship is communist China. Even African tribals are better
than Chinese when it comes to superstitions and idol worships.
From a Western viewpoint, Hindus are still worst. They worship almost everything. Apart from
33 crores Gods and Goddesses, they worship rat, cow, stones, birds, sexual organs, mountain,
weapons etc. They have made idols or icons out of almost everything in this universe. But
Hindus have the honesty and courage to admit that, “Yes we do have idol worship and that is
important to our religion.”
An Idol is an adjective of God. Idol is NOT an equivalent word for Vigraha (body or form) and
Bimba (image, picture or object) in Sanskrit. The word ‘idol’ may be inadequate to mean
‘Vigraha’, except to indicate that the ‘shilpa’ or ‘figure’ indicates a kind of ‘model’ through
which to visualize God.
In Sanskrit, “Viseshal Grahyathe ithi Vigraha” (The One which is acceptable or liked or holds
passionately) is Vigraham.
In early stages of one’s quest for divinity, a representative form becomes necessary. That’s how
the concept of Vigrahas (idols) came up in all religions. Vigraha (Vishesham Grihamiti = Special
abode), Pratima (Mam prati = In front of me), Bimba smile emoticon Image) or Moorti smile
emoticon the utensil to fill) are synonyms of Vigraha.
The purpose of Vigraha is actually to help the seekers to focus on the concepts. So, the seekers
are seeing the manifestation of a divine power in such idol. They believe use of an idol or a
physical symbol in worship and prayer is intended to enhance the focus on Brahmam (the
universal or supreme god) with respect to a certain attribute (Saguna) of Brahmam. Such Idol
worship is called “Saguna Aradhana” (Worshipping forms and names) in India.
Contrary to popular misconceptions, idol is not the god for Hindus. For the beginners, it is like
this: Those who wish to offer worship to the Brahmam in whichever form he/she prefers, invite
‘That’ into the favourite ‘Vigraha’. Aavahayami (I invite), Sthapayami (I establish/seat),
Poojayami (I worship). Then we offer water, flowers, leaves, fragrant substances, delicious food,
music, dance etc. as part of worship to ‘That’. Then we ask ‘That’ to grant our wishes and needs.
At the end of the day or period of worship, we offer the pooja again and ask ‘That’ to leave the
Vigraha. This process is called Visarjana (disperse). Then it becomes just an idol.
In short, if you carefully observe you can see all religions and ideologies have some form of idol
worship – it may be a statue, book, person, symbol, icon or thing. Everybody worships either
images and or political symbols. The only difference would be in the method or degree in

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worshipping.
It is thus quite apparent for the entire mankind – all religions – whether it is atheism, pluralism,
animism, fanaticism, fundamentalism, gurudom, kingdom of priests and extreme materialism,
the idol worship comes natural. Man creates various idols or images and then stuck there. They
fight and kill for those idols. So, there is no point in anybody holding a “Holier than Thou”
attitude. Why can’t a believer move beyond idols or images? Because human mind needs some
form of image or imagery to its very survival. This is the limitation of all religions.
So, our ancestors, the great sages, found that humans have to move beyond beliefs if he/she
wants to realize the truth. They should go beyond idolatry – it is Nirguna Aradhana. The only
religion that talks about truly formless and undefined god is Sanatan Dharma. It says the
Brahmam – the divine power – is truly without a form, a gender or anything for that matter,
while all other religions believe that god has a gender, a race and a language.
As Sankracharya says, “To describe Brahmam even the words recoil.” So anybody trying to
describe god through words or images (Idolatry) is like blinds describing elephant. You have to
go beyond a name and a form (shape) to realise the Brahmam. (Lalitha Sahasranamam says
‘Nama roopa vivarjitha’)

Vedas say the Brahmam is formless, ineffable (nirguna) and Unmoved Mover. Upanishads
describe Nirguna Brahmam- the ineffable God as, “Whole is that, whole too is this and from the
whole, whole cometh and take whole, yet whole remains.” This cannot be understood with using
mind as the mind CANNOT go beyond images (idols) or beliefs.
That’s the reason our ancestors said God is an experience to be experienced by the experiencer.
It cannot be explained. It cannot be described. In his final stages of quest, a Sanatan Dharma
follower realizes and sees god’s presence in everything in the universe (Isavasyam idam sarvam).
That’s why he prays “May all beings be happy” (Lokah Samastah Sukhino Bhavantu). That’s
how the universal compassion develops. That’s how the inclusive philosophy of non-violence,
equality and tolerance develops. That’s why ancient Indians could welcome and accept all
religions, ideologies and philosophies including Atheism. No beliefs in the world can take a
human being to such elevated higher dimension.

the whole idea of doing idol worship or not-doing idol worship is a malicious propaganda to
convert people from older religions. Idols are used as means to worship God or its infinite
representations. No Hindus consider that there are two Param-Atma or supreme God, but they
consider that he has infinite representation & yet no form because God is totality of all things &
non-things. Hindus consider God to be in all things, everywhere, omnipresent, omni-potent &
considered world to be just manifestation of his own self out of his mere wish. And Idols are
ways to focus some positive manifestation of God to remove all other distractions. They used
lamps, stones, pictures, or music for same purpose. No Ram, Shiva or Ganesh worshiper will say
that you are worshiping wrong God, because they are clear that you select the channel or image
that you love most, focus on that characteristics but eventually you merge to same God. While
Upanishads are the first to describe one God that pervades all, before any other religion could
even come into being, still later religions could use propaganda & disparage Hinduism. The
whole idea of idol worship or not idol worship is a big deceitful propaganda. Hindus philosophy
defines the whole thing in one of the most clear languages known to humans Sanskrit & in of of
the most refined philosophies as accepted by best philosophers world wide. God of Upanishads
is most in sync whatever scientists and greater philosophers have found till date.

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a Hindu believes God exists in stones. But he understands that it doesn’t mean God is the
stone.
One must realize that Hindus do not worship any idol but worship God through the image. The
best explanation of image worship that I have come across is that of Swami Tapasyananda:

…Worship of a God who is not also the Absolute is idolatry, and a mere Absolute, who is
characterless and is irresponsive, is not better than matter. The Vedanta accepts the Supreme as
both Personal and Impersonal. When the votary in the course of his spiritual development
becomes de-personalized on achieving the elimination of his ego-based body-mind, he will be
able to understand the true Impersonal. Till then, that is, so long as he is a person, the
Impersonal and the Absolute can only mean for him a Personal Being who is much more than
what he, a person, has grasped or can grasp of Him. To illustrate, the Impersonal-Personal
Divine of the Vedanta is the ocean and the God of adoration of the devotee is like a big field or
backwater into which the water of that ocean has flowed. The many deities that form the object
of worship of Vedantism are like these tanks and backwaters in the analogy. They are so many
manifestations of the Personal-Impersonal Sat-chit-ananda in the thought structures of those
who adore Him, or are forms adopted by Him for the achievement of cosmic purposes in his
world-play. The worship of these forms with an understanding of the infinitude that informs their
finitude ...... is the only form of true worship that the human mind is capable of, so long as man
remains a limited person. The other ideas of the Divine which Semitic religions hold – their so
called boasted monotheism – is only a form of disguised idolatry; for when it is said that
Jehovah is a jealous God, or that there is no God but Allah, it is obvious that the Supreme Being
is being identified as an exclusive individual and not as an expression of an Infinite Being in
terms of the human mind. When the link with the Infinite is forgotten, a Deity, whether it is a
monotheistic entity or a polytheistic being becomes a mere idol. Real worship of the Supreme
Being is possible only when the principle of Vedantic theism is understood – that principle being
the perception of the Infinite Personal-Impersonal Being through a limited manifestation of Him.
A Vedantic Deity is never aggressive, demanding the overthrow of other deities. But,
a monotheistic Deity, always a jealous God, cannot tolerate another Deity. As Toynbee has
pointed out, the monotheistic Deity of the Semitics is only an apotheosis of the group or tribal
consciousness of certain people, a sentiment that held together societies before nationalism
took its place. Just as the nationalistic patriotism is eager to absorb all other countries, that
form of group consciousness masquerading as monotheism wants to supplant all other
religions and establish its Deity in their sanctuaries. Proselytism, for which many religions
stand but which has no place in the Vedantic scheme, is the consequence of the Infinite Being
but a personalisation of the group consciousness of a people.’

The principle enunciated above in regard to Deities is applicable also to worship of God in holy
images, which critics, who are practicing real idolatry, have stigmatised as idolatry. The
Vedantin’s God is not an individual as the Semite’s. He is the Universal Spirit who has
manifested as All-Nature. He is one with all, and if a person with faith wants to see Him
anywhere, He is present there. Like water running all through the ground, He is everywhere; and
if the well of faith is dug, He becomes available for worship. A holy image is thus a point at
which His real presence is available for imperfect man to apprehend and commune with. It is
not a mere means for practising concentration as some apologists say. It is much more. It is a

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point of real communion with the Divine when the eye of faith reveals Him as accepting the
worship and offering made by the devotee.
[Adapted from Swami Tapasyananda’s introductory remarks in ‘A Primer of Hinduism’ by
D.S.Sarma]

Murthi Puja became a subject of intense debate in 19th century Bengal mainly due to Christian
missionary propaganda. Even educated Bengali Hindus began opposing murthi Puja. I am
posting below a conversation between M and Sri Ramakrishna where M asks Sri Ramakrishna
about murthi puja.

Idols in the Hindu Way of Life – Why Are They Worshipped?

.

India is one place where they went into elaborate systems of idol-making. This has been
misunderstood by other cultures as worshiping some doll as a god. No. Here, people are very
much aware that it is we who create the shapes and forms. If you look at it from the standpoint of
modern science, we know today that everything is the same energy, but everything is not the
same in the world. This energy can be like an animal or this energy can function like the Divine.
When I say “the Divine,” I am not talking about you as a being. I am talking about the body
itself. The physical body itself can be transformed into a Divine entity if we just reorganize our
systems in a particular way.
Hindu is a cultural identity, not a religious identity. In the Hindu way of life, the only important
thing in human life is his liberation.

For example, between the full moon day and the new moon day, each of the fourteen nights are
so different. Today, we live with so much electric light, so you don't know the difference.
Suppose you lived on a farm or in a forest where there was no electricity, then every night would
be very different because the moon comes up at different times and it has different shapes and

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forms. But it is the same moon. It is not a different entity. The same moon has different
impacts at different times. Just a little rearrangement, see what a difference it has made.
Similarly, if you re-arrange the energy system in the body, this body which is just a mass of flesh
right now, can become a divine entity. The whole system of yoga is oriented towards this.
Gradually, if you give it sufficient attention and practice, you will see that this body is no longer
just craving for self-preservation and procreation, it has become something else altogether. It is
no longer just a physical entity. Though it is physical, though it is biology, it need not be limited
to the physical. It can function and operate in a completely different dimension. Its very presence
can become different. It is from this context that many yogis who made their bodies in a certain
way, allowed people to worship their bodies. They themselves would not be there in the body,
but they let people worship their body because it has become like a divine entity. It is a
reorganized energy – completely engineered.
The Hindu Way of Life
One fundamental thing that I would like to clear up about the Hindu way of life is, with the
Hindu, there is no “ism” because it is a geographical and cultural identity. Anyone born in the
land of Indus is a Hindu. There is no particular belief system, god or ideology which you can call
as the Hindu way of life. Whatever you do in this culture is Hindu. You can worship a man-god
and be a Hindu. You can worship a woman-god and be a Hindu. You can worship a cow and be a
Hindu. You can worship a tree and be a Hindu. Or you don’t worship anything and you can be a
Hindu. Hindu is a cultural identity, not a religious identity. In the Hindu way of life, the only
important thing in human life is his liberation. Mukti is the only goal.
The Science of Idol-Making
There is a whole science of idol-making where a certain form is created with a particular material
and energized in a certain way. Different idols are made in different ways where they relocate or
rearrange the chakras in certain places to make them into completely different possibilities. Idol-
making is that science through which you manifest the energy in a particular way so that
your quality of life can be enhanced.
The temple was not created as a place of God or a place of prayer. It was created as a place of
energy where everyone could go and make use of it.

Temples in India, were built as a very deep science. They were not created for worship. When I
say temple, I am referring to the ancient temples. Most modern temples are built just the way you
build shopping complexes. Temple building is a very deep science. If the basic aspects of the
temple – the size and shape of the idol, the mudra that the idol holds, the parikrama, the garbha
griha, and the mantras used to consecrate the idol are properly matched, a powerful energy
system is created.
In Indian tradition, no one told you that if you go to a temple, you must worship and give money
and ask for something. This is something that people have started now. Traditionally, they told
you, if you go to the temple, you must sit for a while and come. But today you just touch your
bottom to the floor and run away. This is not the way. You are required to sit there because there
is a field of energy that has been created. In the morning, before you go out into the world, the
first thing you do is you go sit in the temple for a while. This is a way of recharging yourself
with very positive vibrations of life so that you go into the world with a different perspective.
The temple was not created as a place of God or a place of prayer. No one was ever allowed to
lead a prayer. It was created as a place of energy where everyone could go and make use of it.

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 1. Till the realisation of perfect knowledge a man should continue the ritualistic worship
of Shiva. 59-60. In order to convince the world, the rituals must be continued. Just as
the sun is reflected in many vessels, in the same manner, O devas, know that the
supreme Brahman, Shiva, assumes the form of whatever is seen or heard in the world
real or unreal.
2. There is difference in vessels but not in the water they contain. This is what those who
know the real meaning of the Vedas say.
3. "Lord Shiva is within the heart of beings in this world." Of what avail are images to
those who have the real knowledge?
4. Having an image is very auspicious for a person who has no such knowledge. It is a
ladder that enables him to climb to a higher position.
5. It is very difficult to climb to a position without a support. The image is only a means
to achieve the Nirguna Shiva.
6. The attainment of the Nirguna through a Saguna is certainly possible. In this manner,
the symbols of all lords are conductive to steady faith and belief.
7. This lord is very great and this is the mode of worship of that lord. If there is no image,
of what avail are scents, sandal paste, flowers etc?
8. Till the realisation of true knowledge, the image shall necessarily be worshipped. If
any one does not worship the image before he attains perfect knowledge, his downfall
is sure.
These are aesthetic expressions of devotion in architecture and sculpture, music and painting.
Idols are the personifications of the Almighty or the natural forces, in one aspect or another for a
closer identification and understanding of them rather conveniently by common people, who feel
a more intimate and trustworthy relationship with the deity with his assumed and acknowledged
form and figure in their hearts and before their eyes.
Temples were located and built in a manner to best utilise the magnetic energy and desirable
properties of earth and mother nature to help a devotee to concentrate and meditate more
peacefully. Besides temples serve as centres of religious discourses, festive celebrations and
social interactions.

The practice of Idol Worship in Hinduism. In Indian society, idol worship is one of the major
superstitions that preclude the development of a scientific bent of mind….. Almost all societies
of the world practiced them in one form or another during certain period. But, considering its evil
effect, many societies began to shed ‘Idol worship’. Jewish society dropped it during 600 BC.
European societies gave-up idol worship from the third century onwards synchronizing with the
spread of Christianity. Arabian societies dispensed with idolatry from the seventh century
onwards coinciding with the spread of Islam….. “In India, idolatry remains as an integral part of
Hindu religion. It is being given much importance by the priestly class to further their interests.
Many fictitious stories about the effectiveness of the worship of the idols of Gods and Goddesses
are being spread by the priestly class. Believing those fictitious stories, Hindus throng the
temples in large numbers to worship the different idols….. “The masses assume that by
worshipping idols, their sins will be forgiven and they will be rewarded in this life as well as
after life. Only under that notion, they perform costly pilgrimages to the so called holy places
and fill the temple coffers with money and valuables. This illusion prevents people from

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acquiring worldly wisdom. It also averts people from realizing the value of thought and work. As
a result, people live in vain hope. They expect wonders to happen in their lives. Under this false
hope, they don’t involve themselves in any productive and creative activities sincerely. This
wrong mental attitude towards life and work acts as a major hurdle to our progress.” Idol-
worship has been the favorite weapon Hinduphobic people who have used it to criticize
Hinduism for the last many centuries. It is considered as the foremost evidence that establishes
Hinduism as being nothing more than a set of superstitions. The passages about ‘idol-worship’
that have been quoted at the beginning are from an article titled ‘Superstition and Indians’ by N.
Anandan, published in the July 2011 issue of ‘The Modern Rationalist.’ Though the article is a
few years old, the views expressed in the article clearly sums up the view of many self-claimed
liberals, rationalists, and secularists of present society about the issue of idol worship in
Hinduism. Now let us see what idol worship really is and how valid are these assessments and
criticisms. Idol Worship and Moksha Photo: The Hindu ‘Idol Worship’ or ‘Image worship’ is
one of the central aspects of Hindu practice. Sanatana Dharma has created a wide framework of
spiritual practices and lifestyle choices to suit people of different temperaments and
competencies. Hence, it has an equal place for those who worship nature as well as those who
contemplate on their innermost self. Further, these diverse practices are not segregated belief
systems distinct from one another as many scholars have concluded over last few centuries.
Instead, these diversities are expressions of one united wholeness. There is a unity in the goal
that various spiritual paths lead to as well as in the framework that upholds these diverse paths.
The ultimate goal of Hinduism is Moksha or Liberation and every aspect of life, both secular and
spiritual have been propounded to assist a person to eventually attain this goal. Hence, there is
clearly a unity in the ultimate goal. Further, there is another unity that interconnects all the
various paths and stays beneath them, and acts as the very foundation of them. It is the unity
provided by Dharma which upholds life and which is the framework that has made it possible for
such diverse paths to express itself without losing the eye on the goal.

Hence, Idol worship is one of the prominent valid means that a person can adopt to travel the
path that leads to Moksha. The validity of the worship of idols is its efficacy in helping a devotee
to connect with his object of devotion i.e. Brahman. In fact, the worship of the idol is not about
worshiping stone or wood. Instead, it is about worshiping Brahman/God who has manifested in
the form of a Devata (deity) in that idol. Before proceeding further, let us briefly understand how
Brahman is understood in Hinduism. Concept of God in Hinduism God or Supreme reality is
referred by the term ‘Brahman’ in Hinduism. Unlike some religions that conceive God as a
creator who is different from his creations, Hinduism recognizes that Brahman is both
transcendent reality as well as immanent reality. Hindu scriptures speak about Brahman as being
present in all objects as their very innermost Self-Atman. The term Brahman therefore refers to
the transcendent aspect and the term Atman to the immanent aspect. Hence, the often quoted
Vedanta definition of Moksha as the realization of ‘Brahma-Atma-Aikyam-Union of Brahman
and Atman’. The scriptures further speak about Brahman in its transcendent absolute state as
being nameless, formless, attribute-less, and birth-less infinite whole. At the same time, the

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scriptures also recognize that this Brahman can take an infinite number of forms and names as
well. He is formless, yet a repository of all forms. Hence, the famous Veda statement “One truth
is called by various names” (Rig Veda 1.164.46). Yaska in his Nirukta says that there is only one
God, and that God appears as Agni on the physical universe, as Indra in the middle realms, and
as Savitr in the celestial realms. Further, various other deities in these three realms are various
aspects of these three manifestations of God.(1) Therefore, though Brahman is one infinite whole
without any forms, he himself assumes various forms of Devatas/deities to uphold the Universe.
Hence, various Devatas are in essence non-different from Brahman, but in their limited aspect
(of name and form), they represent particular aspect/attribute of Brahman. Therefore, Devatas
serve as a bridge between devotees (who cannot comprehend Brahman because He is beyond
perception) and Brahman (who is the end goal of spiritual path). Worship or Upasana in
Hinduism As mentioned about, Moksha is possible only by the realization of Brahman as being
non-different from the innermost Self (Atman). In other-words, Moksha is possible through Self-
Realization or Atma Jnana. But, people in general are completely attached to the material
objects.

A person identifies himself with his name, body, and his possessions. Therefore, in order to truly
realize the innermost Self, a person must remove the false identifications with his possessions,
with the body and the mind. But, this is not easy. The mind is full of thought patterns called
Vrittis. The mind is further afflicted by impurities like lust, anger, delusion, pride, etc. that
increase the attachment to the body and material objects. Hence, the false identifications can be
removed only by purifying the mind by removing the impurities and further calming the mind by
bringing thought Vrittis to rest. Yoga Sutra calls this as “Chitta-Vritti Nirodha”. This purification
and the stilling of mind in turn is brought about by the practice of duties (Dharma Anushtana)
and devotion (Bhakti/Upasana). It is for this reason, the Vedas are divided into Karma Khanda
(duty/actions portion), Upasana Khanda (Meditation/devotion portion) and Jnana Khanda
(Knowledge portion). The purpose of Upasana is to attain one-pointed concentration, so that the
mind can be stilled. Upasana literally means ‘to sit near or become close to.’ Hence, the act of
worship is nothing but bringing a devotee close to his devata/deity. In fact, Mahanirvana Tantra
(14.123) defines worship as the union of the Jiva (individual) with Atman (God). How is this
closeness achieved?

By the practice of various external and internal spiritual practices. In fact, every external practice
has been designed such that it induces certain internal transformations. The external practices
may be in the form of Yajna (fire ritual), Tarpana (using water), or Murti puja (representing earth
element) wherein the Devata is invoked in the fire, water, or the idol respectively. These external
practices are accompanied by internal meditations on the Devatas. These internal meditations
itself are referred as Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana
(meditation) in Patanjali Yoga. These meditations are referred as Vidyas (Knowledge of the
deities) in the Upanishads. It is by concentrating on the Nama (name), Mantra, or the Rupa
(form) of the Devata, a person purifies the mind and removes all thought Vrittis of it. Therefore,

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Upasana is inevitable for spiritual progress. But, this Upasana is not a one size fits all kind of
practice. Instead, there are hundreds of methods of Upasanas that have been explained in various
scriptures to help people of various temperaments. Idol-Worship is one such important and very
effective mode of worship. Philosophy behind the practice of Idol Worship Photo:

e
www.newindianexpress.com

The most important element of Idol worship is Idol itself. Idol called as ‘Murti’ is both a symbol
for God as well as His abode. An Idol is basically a form, an image that represents a particular
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Devata. Hence, the primary function of an Idol is that of ‘Pratima’. It acts as a symbol that helps
a devotee to have a connection, to have some perception of the essence of Devata, who otherwise
is beyond sensory perception. Thus, Idol can be understood as a reflection, an image that gives a
glimpse of the Devata, just as a photograph of a person helps one to remember him. This
function of the Idol or Murti as a Pratima is very crucial in the practice of one pointed
concentration and meditation. A meditator who thus meditates realizes that the Idol itself is
neither Brahman nor Devata, but it is a reflection, an image of the Devata that aids concentration.
This concentration will further lead to deep meditation on that form, which will slowly result in
the manifestation of the real Devata within the mind. This fact is further brought out in the
iconography details that is associated with each deity. Devatas have many common features, yet
each one of them have some unique features as well. These are not accidental or the products of
imagination of some artists of the old. Instead, each element of the iconography represents a
particular element about that Devata. For example, the moon on Shiva’s head represents Shiva as
being endowed with pure Knowledge. Similarly, the ten hands depicted in some deities represent
the 10 directions that include the top and bottom. The idols are made only according to the
iconographic descriptions given in various scriptures and not otherwise. These show that, idols
act as symbols for decoding the essence of various deities and when concentrated upon the idols,
thought Vrittis corresponding to those aspects of Devatas are formed in the mind. This kind of
meditation where external or internal aids are used as props to attain one-pointed concentration is
well established in the Upanishads, Puranas, as well as Tantrika literatures. But, this is only one
way of worshiping Devatas using Idols. The other way is self-evident in the very name with
which the idols are referred- ‘Murti’. Murti literally means form, manifestation, embodiment, or
simply an abode.

Hence, idol is not simply a symbol, but it is a place that can hold the energy and the essence of
the particular manifestation of Brahman. That is, the idol is nothing but a body of the Devata. It
is for this reason, the worship of the Devata begins with Prana Pratishtapana where in the life-
force, the essence, as well as the form of the deity is infused into the stone or wooden idol. This
is done through procedures like Kumbabhishekam etc. in the temples. In fact, without
consecration, the stone idol remains simply a stone and does not become a Pratima (image) of
God. Regarding this, S.K. Ramachandra Rao, a renowned author and Sanskrit scholar says: “The
devotee knows that the image of a god is a mere artefact and toy unless it is properly
consecrated. And consecration involves the investment of the devotee’s devotion and passion,
and getting the devotee effectively related to the particular god invoked in the image. Rituals are
naturally important for transforming an artefact into an icon. The icon is meant to accommodate
the rituals, so that human devotion can flower out in the light of God that is reflected through the
icon.”(2) Therefore, the idols are not just the symbol or a reflection of the Devata, but it is the
very abode of the Devata. A common criticism of Idol worship is that Hindus worship the stone
and other such insentient objects. But, as seen above it is not the stone that is worshiped, but the
Devata who has occupied the stone idol for a duration of time, who is worshiped. Jagadguru Sri
Abhivnava Vidyatheertha MahaSwamiji, the late Shankaracharya of ‘Sringeri Peetham’ says:

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“We do not worship mere stones. If we did, then, on seeing a stone idol, we would have
addressed it as, ‘O Stone’ and not as ‘O Lord.’ We use idols as aids to worship, realizing that it is
He who resides in them. In the temple deities, the divine presence is installed through the
Kumbhabhishekam performed to consecrate the idols. This is strengthened by the sincerity and
tapas (austerity) of the priests performing the worship, and by the special characteristics of
certain idols. Though without form Ishwara (God) is capable of giving Darshana (appearing in
front of) to His devotees. He indeed does so.”(3) Photo: http://belurmath.org/ The fact that idols
act as an abode, or a body of the deity can also be ascertained by the manner in which they are
made and the philosophy that guides the idol making. The work of art is no different from that of
Yoga. In the Hindu scheme of life, all actions are indeed a Yoga, or a Yajna when they are done
with one pointed concentration and without the hankering of the results. Hence, for a sculptor,
his making of idols for worship itself is a Yoga. When a sculptor is commissioned to make an
idol, he is supposed to prepare himself thoroughly through purification rituals, withdrawal from
mundane routine, and meditate. The sculptor then contemplates on the Dyana mantra (meditation
mantras giving iconographic descriptions of the deities) for an extensive period till the image of
the deity becomes stable and clear in his mind. It is for this reason the Shilpa-Shastra(4) (treatise
on sculpting) says that a sculptor must be well versed with Atharvaveda, treatises of sculpture,
and the Vedic mantras by which the deities are invoked. Shukracharya says: “Let the imager
establish images in temples by meditation on the deities who are the objects of his devotion. For
the successful achievement of this Yoga, the lineaments of the image are described in books to
be dwelt upon in detail. In no other way, not even by direct and immediate vision of the actual
object, is it possible to be so absorbed in contemplation, as thus in the making of images.”(5)
Therefore, a sculptor should not make any idols by looking at other idols. For then, there will not
be any spiritual element in the idol thus made. Instead, the sculptor must become so completely
absorbed in the deity such that he must be pre-occupied with this even during mundane activities
like eating food, going to sleep, etc. By such a practice, a sculptor is not only able to perceive
clearly the image of the Devata in his mind, but he will also perceive the very presence of Devata
all around him. Only an image carved out after such contemplation of God, can truly become
worthy of worship. (6) Thus, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy concludes: “the imager is required,
after emptying his heart of all extraneous interests, to visualize within himself an intelligible
image, to identify himself with therewith, and holding this image as long as is necessary, then
only to proceed to the work of embodiment in stone, metal, or pigment.”(7) These clearly
establish few points: An idol is first and foremost a symbol, a reflection of God who is formless.
An idol is the body or an abode that a particular form of God occupies. An idol itself is prepared
and concentrated, such that it becomes a proper body that can be occupied by the deity.
Therefore, instead of assuming Idol worship as stone worship, a correct understanding is that it is
the worship of a Deity who has temporarily taken the idol as an abode or body. Now, just as
human souls re-incarnate by changing bodies, similarly, the deities can be invoked in a new idol,
once the old ones are degenerated, or broken, or are simply become unfit for worship. This is
clearly witnessed in the Puri festival of Nabakalebara, in which Lord Jagannatha is given a new

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body by installing new idols once every 19 years. Hence, no questions of Hindu Gods being
harmed when an idol is broken, or Gods being insulted when some rationalist urinates on the
idols arises. Such statements and actions only goes to depict not only the crass ignorance of such
people, but also their perverted thinking. Much of the misconception and criticism of Idol
worship has been because of the perception of Idol worship in isolation and the subsequent
branding of them as superstition. But, when idol worship is perceived from the standpoint of the
framework of spirituality and worship, idol worship is just one among the various practices that
can help a person to travel the path towards Moksha. An analysis of certain criticisms that have
been made against Idol worship will be taken up in the next part.

The Idol—A Prop For The Spiritual Neophyte

Idol is a support for the neophyte. It is a prop of his spiritual childhood. A form or image is
necessary for worship in the beginning. It is an external symbol of God for worship. It is a
reminder of God. The material image calls up the mental idea. Steadiness of mind is obtained by
image worship. The worshipper will have to associate the ideas of infinity, omnipotence,
omniscience, purity, perfection, freedom, holiness, truth, omnipresence. It is not possible for all
to fix the mind on the Absolute or the Infinite. A concrete form is necessary for the vast majority
for practising concentration. To behold God everywhere and to practise the presence of God is
not possible for the ordinary man. Idol worship is the easiest form of worship for the modern
man.

A symbol is absolutely indispensable for fixing the mind. The mind wants a prop to lean upon. It
cannot have a conception of the Absolute in the initial stages. Without the help of some external
aid, in the initial stages, the mind cannot be centralised. In the beginning, concentration or
meditation is not possible without a symbol.

EVERYONE AN IDOL-WORSHIPPER

There is no direct reference to worship of idols in the Vedas (HB: There is reference to thinking
image of Bhagwan and doing dhyan which is form of Saanketik Sadhna or Saanketik Moorti
Pujan, idol worship). The Puranas and the Agamas give descriptions of idol-worship both in the
houses and in the temples. Idol-worship is not peculiar to Hinduism. Few newest religions
adopted this great concept: christians worship the cross. They have the image of the cross in their
mind. The Mohammedans keep the image of Kaaba stone when they kneel and do prayers, but
ignorantly deny the same. The people of the whole world, save a few Yogis and Vedantins, are
all worshippers of idols. They keep some image or the other in the mind. [HB: Even calling gods
by names like allah or jesus is connoting image of god in the form of symbol or name. ॐ is the
symbol that is also beginning of Idol worship.

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The mental image also is a form of idol. The difference is not one of kind, but only one of
degree. All worshippers, however intellectual they may be, generate a form in the mind and
make the mind dwell on that image.

Everyone is an idol-worshipper. Pictures, drawing, etc., are only forms of Pratima. A gross mind
needs a concrete symbol as a prop or Alambana; a subtle mind requires an abstract symbol. Even
a Vedantin has the symbol OM for fixing the wandering mind. It is not only the pictures or
images in stone and wood that are idols. Dialectics and leaders also become idols. So, why
condemn idolatry?

A MEDIUM FOR ESTABLISHING COMMUNION WITH GOD

Idols are not the idle fancies of sculptors, but shining channels through which the heart of the
devotee is attracted to and flows towards God. Though the image is worshipped, the devotee
feels the presence of the Bhagwan in it and pours out his devotion unto it. It is the appalling
ignorance of the modern sensual man that clouds his vision and prevents him from seeing
Divinity in lovely and enchanting idols of His form. The very scientific advances of this century
ought to convince you of the glory of idol worship. How are the songsters and orators confined
to a small box-like thing to be called a radio? It is a mere piece of a mechanical lifeless structure
which breaks into a thousand pieces if you throw it away violently; and yet, if you know how to
handle it, you can hear through it, the music that is being played several thousands of miles
away, the discourse that is being delivered in the remotest part of the globe. Even as you can
catch the sound waves of people all over the world through the radio receiving set, it is possible
to commune with the all-pervading Bhagwan through the medium of an idol. The divinity of the
all-pervading ‘God is vibrant in every atom of creation. There is not a speck of space where He
is not. Why do you then say that He is not in the idols?

There are others who would glibly say, “Oh, God is all-pervading formless being. How can He
be confined to this idol?” Are these people ever conscious of His omnipresence? Do they
always see Him and Him alone in everything? No. It is their ego that prevents them from
bowing to the idols of God and with that motive puts this lame excuse forward!

Empty vessels only make much sound. A practical man who does meditation and worship, who
is full of knowledge and real devotion keeps always silence. He influences and teaches others
through silence. He only knows whether a Murti is necessary in the beginning for concentration
or not.

However intellectual one may be, he cannot concentrate without the help of some symbol in the
beginning. An intellectual and learned person, on account of his pride and vanity only says, “I do
not like a Murti. I do not wish to concentrate on a form.” He cannot concentrate on the formless
one. He thinks that people will laugh at him when they come to know that he is meditating on a

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form. He never does any meditation on the formless one. He simply talks and argues and poses.
He wastes his life in unnecessary discussions only. An ounce of his practice is better than tons of
theories. Intellect is a hindrance in the vast majority of intellectual persons. They say that the
existence of Brahman is a guess work, Samadhi is a bluff of the mind and Self-realisation is an
imagination of the Vedantins. Deluded souls! They are steeped in ignorance. They are carried
away by their secular knowledge which is mere husk when compared to the Knowledge of the
Self. There is no hope of salvation for such people. First their wrong Samskaras should be
flushed by good Samskaras through Satsanga. Then only they will realise their mistakes. May the
Bhagwan bestow on them clear understanding and thirsting for real knowledge!

A Symbol of God – Idol Worship Knowing The Presence of Bhagwan

Pratima (idol) is a substitute or symbol. The image in a temple, though it is made of stone, wood
or metal, is precious for a devotee as it bears the mark of his Bhagwan, as it stands for something
which he holds holy and eternal. A flag is only a small piece of painted cloth, but it stands for a
soldier for something that he holds very dear. He is prepared to give up his life in defending his
flag. Similarly the image is very dear to a devotee. It speaks to him in its own language of
devotion. Just as the flag arouses martial valour in the soldier, so also the image arouses devotion
in the devotee. The Bhagwan is superimposed on the image and the image generates divine
thoughts in the worshipper.

A piece of ordinary white paper or coloured paper has no value. You throw it away. But, if there
is the stamp or picture of the King or Emperor on the paper (currency notes), you keep it safe in
your money purse or trunk. Even so, an ordinary piece of stone has no value for you. You throw
it away. But, if you behold the stone Murti of Bhagwan Krishna at Pandharpur or any other
Murti in shrines, you bow your head with folded hands, because there is the stamp of the
Bhagwan on the stone. The devotee superimposes on the stone Murti his own Beloved and all the
attributes of the Bhagwan.

When you worship an image, you do not say, “This image has come from Jaipur. It was brought
by Prabhu Singh. Its weight is 50 lbs. It is made of white marble. It has cost me Rs, 500/-.” You
superimpose all the attributes of the Bhagwan on the image and pray, “O Antaryamin (Inner
Ruler)! You are all-pervading; you are omnipotent, omniscient, all-merciful. You are the source
for everything. You are self-existent. You are Sat-Chit-Ananda. You are eternal, unchanging.
You are the Life of my life, Soul of my soul! Give me light and knowledge! Let me dwell in
Thee for ever.” When your devotion and meditation become intense and deep, you do not see the
stone image. You behold the Bhagwan only, who is chaitanya. Image worship is very necessary
for beginners.

AN INTEGRAL PART OF VIRAT

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For a beginner, Pratima is an absolute necessity. By worshipping an idol, Isvara is pleased. The
Pratima is made up of the five elements. The five elements constitute the body of the Bhagwan.
The idol remains an idol, but the worship goes to the Bhagwan. [HB: Bhagwan is controller of
Five elements. He is beyond and within Five elements. Five elements gave birth to Universe and
planets – every element of this earth. We cannot access materials which are beyond these five
elements, we need five elements (idol) to pray to Bhagwan]. Pandav’s son Arjun is the only and
most fortunate person in this Mahayug (Sat, Treta, Dwapar, Kali) to get the Virat roop darshan of
Shree Krishn.

If you shake hands with a man, he is highly pleased. You have touched only a small part of his
body and yet he is highly pleased. He smiles and welcomes you. Even so, the Bhagwan is highly
pleased when a small portion of His Virat (cosmic) body is worshipped. An idol is a part of the
body of the Bhagwan. The whole world is His Body, Virat Form. The devotion goes to the
Bhagwan. The worshipper superimposes on the image the Bhagwan and all His attributes. He
does Shodasopachara for the idol, the sixteen kinds of paying respects or service to the Bhagwan,
such as Padyam (water for washing the feet), Arghyam, Asana (seat), Snana (bathing), offering
clothes, Achamana (water for sipping), applying sandal paste, offering flowers (Archana),
burning incense, waving of lights and camphor, Maha Naivedyam, etc. The wandering mind is
fixed now in this form of worship. The aspirant gradually feels the nearness of the Bhagwan. He
attains purity of heart and slowly annihilates his egoism.

To the worshipper who believes the symbol, any kind of image is the body of the Bhagwan under
the form of stone, clay, brass, picture, Saligram, etc. Such worship can never be idolatry. All
matter is a manifestation of God. God is present in everything which exists. Everything is an
object of worship, for all is a manifestation of God who is therein worshipped. The very act of
worship implies that the object of worship is superior and conscious. This way of looking at
things must be attained by the devotee. The untutored mind must be trained to view things in the
above manner.

IDOL WORSHIP DEVELOPS DEVOTION

Idol worship makes concentration of mind simpler and easier. You can bring before your mind’s
eye the great Lilas the Bhagwan has played in His particular Avataras in which you view Him.
This is one of the easiest modes of Self-realisation. [HB: It lets you trust Bhagwan completely
without causing distress to fellow humans.]

Just as the picture of a famous warrior evokes heroism in your heart, a look at the picture of God
will elevate your mind to divine heights. Just as the child develops the maternal Bhava (mother-
feeling) of the future caressing, nursing, protecting mother by playing with its imaginary toy-
child made up of rags and suckling the child in an imaginary manner, so also the devotee
develops the feeling of devotion by worshipping the Pratima and concentrating on it.

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REGULAR WORSHIP UNVEILS THE DIVINITY IN THE IDOL

Regular worship with correct recitment of mantras*, Puja and other modes of demonstrating our
inner feeling of recognition of Divinity in the idol unveils the Divinity latent in it. This is truly a
wonder and a miracle. The picture comes to life. The idol speaks. It will answer your questions
and solve your problems. The God in you has the power to awaken the latent Divinity in the idol.
It is like a powerful lens that focuses the sun’s rays on to a bundle of cotton. The lens is not fire
and the cotton is not fire either nor can the sun’s rays, by themselves, burn the cotton. When the
three are brought together in a particular manner, fire is generated and the cotton is burnt. Similar
is the case with the idol, the Sadhaka and the all-pervading Divinity. Puja makes the idol shine
with divine resplendence. God is then enshrined in the idol. From here, He will protect you in a
special manner. The idol will perform miracles. The place where it is installed is at once
transformed into a temple, a Vaikuntha or a Kailasa in reality. Those who live in such a place are
freed from miseries, from diseases, from failures and from Samsara itself. The awakened
Divinity in the idol acts as a guardian blessing all, conferring the highest good on those who bow
to it. : Vedic mantras decode the positive energy which is already around us, mantras are keys to
unleash the power within and around. The mantras are given by Bhagwan himself so that we can
easily chant them and meet Bhagwan].

THE IMAGE, A MASS OF CHAITANYA

The idol is only a symbol of the Divine. A devotee does not behold therein a block of stone or a
mass of metal. It is an emblem of God for him. He visualises the Indwelling Presence in the
Murti or image. All the Saiva Nayanars or saints of South India attained God-realisation
through worship of the Lingam, the image of Bhagwan Siva. For a devotee, the image is a mass
of Chaitanya or consciousness. He draws inspiration from the image. The image guides him. It
talks to him. It assumes human form to help him in a variety of ways. The image of Bhagwan
Siva in the temple of Madurai in South India helped the fuel-cutter and the old woman. The
image in the temple of Tirupati assumed human form and gave witness in the court to help his
devotees. There are marvels and mysteries. Only the devotees understand these. There are
many incidents when Banke Bihari actually helped his devotees.

WHEN IDOLS BECAME ALIVE

For a Bhakta or a sage, there is no such thing as Jada or insentient matter. Everything is
Vasudeva or Chaitanya—Vasudevah Sarvam Iti. The devotee beholds actually the Bhagwan in
the idol. Narsi Mehta was put to the test by a Raja. The Raja said: “O Narsi, if you are a sincere
devotee of Bhagwan Krishna, if as you say the idol is Bhagwan Krishna Himself, let this idol
move.” According to the prayer of Narsi Mehta, the idol moved. The sacred bull Nandi before
Siva’s idol took the food offered by Tulasidas. The Murti played with Mira Bai. It was full of life
and Chaitanya for her.

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You will like: Ghar Wapsi, Revert to Hinduism Needed to Save Indian Hindu

When Appayya Dikshitar went to Tirupati temple in South India, the Vaishnavas refused him
admission. The next morning they found the Vishnu Murti in the temple changed into Siva
Murti. The Mahant was much astonished and startled, asked pardon and prayed to Appayya
Dikshitar to change the Murti again into Vishnu Murti.

Kanaka Das was a great devotee of Bhagwan Krishna in Udipi, in the district of South Kanara in
South India. He was not allowed to enter the temple on account of his low birth [HB: Caste
system invoked by britishers. Native Hindus believed in Varna System]. Kanaka Das went round
the temple and saw a small window at the back of the temple. He seated himself in front of the
window. He was soon lost in singing songs in praise of Bhagwan Krishna. Many people gathered
round him. They were very much attracted by the sweet melody of his music and the depth of his
devotion. Bhagwan Krishna turned round to enable Kanaka Das to get His Darshan. The priests
were struck with wonder. Even today, pilgrims are shown the window and the place where
Kanaka Das sat and sang.

The Murti is the same as the Bhagwan, for it is the vehicle of expression for the Mantra-
Chaitanya which is the Devata. The same attitude should the devotee have in regard to the Murti
in the temple, which he would evince if the Bhagwan would appear before him in person and
speak to him in articulate sound.

Even today, the brilliant eyes of Shri Bankey Bihari will make one unconscious if seen for too
long a stretch. That is the reason that the kapat is closed and Bihari Ji’s darshan is stopped after
every few minutes. During Janmaashtmi , it is done every single minute. Shree Krishn, Bihari Ji
also respond to the Bhakti bhav of those Bhakts who are deeply in love with Shree Krishn, he

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follows them to their homes. Many occasions, Bihari Ji’s idol was not seen in temple and after
some time, he was again seen giving darshan to Bhakts.

VEDANTA AND IDOL WORSHIP

A pseudo-Vedantin feels himself ashamed to bow or prostrate before an idol in the temple. He
feels that his Advaita will evaporate if he prostrates. Study the lives of the reputed Tamil saints,
Appar, Sundarar, Sambandhar, etc. They had the highest Advaitic realisation. They saw
Bhagwan Siva everywhere and yet they visited all temples of Siva, prostrated before the idol and
sang hymns, which are on record now. The sixty-three Nayanar saints practised Chariyai and
Kriyai only and attained God-realisation thereby. They swept the floor of the temple, collected
flowers, made garlands for the Bhagwan and put on lights in the temple. They were illiterate, but
attained the highest realisation. They were practical Yogis and their hearts were saturated with
pure devotion. They were an embodiment of Karma Yoga. All practised the Yoga of Synthesis.
The idol in the temple was all Chaitanya or consciousness for them. It was not a mere block of
stone.

Madhusudana Swami, who had Advaita realisation, who beheld oneness of the Self, who had
Advaitic Bhava, was intensely attached to the form of Bhagwan Krishna with flute in His hands.

Tulasidas realised the all-pervading essence. He had cosmic consciousness. He communed with
the all-pervading, formless Bhagwan. And yet his passion for Bhagwan Rama with bow in His
hand did not vanish. When he had been to Brindavan and saw the Murti of Bhagwan Krishna
with flute in His hands, he said, “I will not bow my head to this form.” At once Bhagwan
Krishna’s form assumed the form of Bhagwan Rama. Then only he bowed his head. Tukaram
also had the same cosmic experience as that of Tulasidas. He sings in his Abhanga, “I see my
Bhagwan all-pervading, just as sweetness pervades the sugar-cane” and yet he always speaks of
his Bhagwan Vittala of Pandharpur with His hands on the hips. Mira also realised her identity
with the all-pervading Krishna and yet she was not tired of repeating again and again, “Mere
Girdhar Nagar”.

From the above facts, we can clearly infer that one can realise God through worship of Murti or
idol, that the worship of the Bhagwan in Saguna form is a great aid for Vedantic realisation also
and for the realisation of the Bhagwan in His all-pervading, formless aspect and that the worship
of the Murti is very essential for the purpose of concentration and meditation in the beginning
and that such a worship is not in any way a hindrance to the attainment of God-consciousness
and those who vehemently attack Murti Puja are groping in extreme darkness and ignorance and
they have no real knowledge of Puja and worship and that they enter into unnecessary, vain
debates and discussions against Murti Puja to show that they are learned persons and that they
have not done any real Sadhana at all. They are persons who have made idle talking and tall talk
as their habit and profession. They have ruined themselves. They have unsettled the minds of
countless persons and ruined them also. The whole world worships symbols and Murtis only in

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some form or the other. The mind is disciplined in the beginning by fixing it on a concrete object
or symbol. When it is rendered steady and subtle, it can be fixed later on on an abstract idea such
as “Aham Brahma Asmi”. When one advances in meditation, the form melts in the formless and
he becomes one with the formless essence. Image worship is not contrary to the view of Vedanta.
It is rather a help.

FROM RITUALISTIC BHAKTI TO PARA BHAKTI

Bhakti is of two kinds, viz., higher Bhakti or Para Bhakti and lower Bhakti or ritualistic Bhakti.
Ritualistic worship is Vaidhi or Gauni Bhakti. It is formal Bhakti. Vaidhi Bhakti is the lower
type of devotion depending on external aids. It is lower Bhakti. The mind becomes purer and
purer. The aspirant gradually develops love for God through ritualistic worship. He who does
ritualistic worship rings bells, adores a Pratika (symbol) or Pratima (image), does Puja, Arati,
etc., with flowers, sandal paste, burns incense and waves light before the image, offers Naivedya
or food for God, etc.

Mukhya Bhakti or Para Bhakti is advanced type of devotion. It is higher Bhakti. It transcends all
convention. A devotee of this type knows no rule. He does not perform any external worship. He
beholds his Bhagwan everywhere, in every object. His heart is saturated with love for God. The
whole world is Brindavan for him. His state is ineffable. He attains the acme of bliss. He radiates
love, purity and joy wherever he goes and inspires all who come in contact with him.

The aspirant who worships the idol in the beginning beholds the Bhagwan everywhere and
develops Para Bhakti. From Vaidhi Bhakti, he passes on to Ragatmika Bhakti or Prema Bhakti.
He beholds the whole world as the Bhagwan. The ideas of good and bad, right and wrong, rogue,
etc., vanish. He sees the Bhagwan in a rogue, dacoit, cobra, scorpion, ant, dog, tree, log of wood,
block of stone, sun, moon, stars, fire, water, earth, etc. His vision or experience baffles
description. Glory to such exalted Bhaktas who are veritable Gods on earth, who live to lift
others from the quagmire of Samsara and save them from the clutches of death!

Hinduism leads the aspirants gradually from material images to mental images and from the
diverse mental images to the one Personal God and from the Personal God to the Impersonal
Absolute or transcendental Nirguna Brahman.

THE GLORY OF GREATEST HINDU PHILOSOPHY

How sublime is Hindu philosophy and Hindu mode of worship! It does not stop or end with the
worship of the idol. The Sadhaka is taken step by step to higher stages of devotion and Samadhi
or communion through the worship of the idol. Though he worships the idol, he has to keep
before his mental eye the all-pervading Bhagwan. He has to feel His Presence in his heart and all
objects also. Even in worshipping a small idol, he has to repeat the Purusha Sukta and to think of
the Virat Purusha with countless heads, countless eyes, countless hands, who extends beyond the
universe and of the Bhagwan or Atman who dwells in the hearts of all beings. The same man

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who burns incense, scented sticks and camphor before the idol says, “The sun does not shine
there nor the moon nor the stars nor the lightning. How then could the little fire shine there? All
shine after Him. His effulgence alone illumines the whole world.” The ways and rules of
worship—Puja Vidhi—and the secrets of worship that are described in the Hindu scriptures are
scientifically accurate and highly rational. It is only ignorant people who have not studied the
scriptures, who have not associated with the devotees and great souls, who vilify worship of
idols or Murtis.

Every other religion lays certain fixed dogmas and attempts to force people to follow them. It has
only one kind of drug to treat several diseases. It gives only one kind of food for all and for all
conditions. It places before the followers only one coat. It must fit Albert, Atkinson, Ahluwallia,
Antony, Abdul Rahman. The Hindus know that the images, crosses and crescents are simply so
many symbols to fix the mind in the beginning for developing concentration, so many concrete
pegs to hang their spiritual ideas and convictions on. The symbol is not necessary for everyone.
It is not compulsory in Hinduism. It is not needed for an advanced Yogi or sage. A symbol is like
the slate which is useful for a boy of the first standard. Those who are not in need of it have no
right to say that it is wrong. If they say that it is wrong, they only betray their ignorance.

CONCLUSION TO GREAT SCIENCE OF HINDU IDOL WORSHIP

There is nothing wrong in worshipping an idol in the beginning. You must superimpose God and
His attributes on the idol. You must think of the Antar-Atma that is hidden in the idol. The
aspirant gradually begins to feel that the Bhagwan he worships is in the idol, in the hearts of all
creatures and in all the names and forms of this universe. He begins to feel His presence
everywhere.

Idolatry is only the beginning of Dharma. Certainly it is not its end. The same Hindu scriptures
which prescribe idol-worship for beginners speak of meditation on the Infinite or the Absolute,
contemplation on the significance of the “Tat Tvam Asi” Mahavakya, for advanced aspirants.

There are different grades of worship. The first is the worship of idols (the easiest of all).
The next is recitation of Mantras and offering of prayers. Mental worship is superior to
worship with flowers. Meditation on the Absolute or the attributeless Nirguna Brahman is
the best of all.

The supreme state is Self-realisation or Brahma-sakshatkara. The second in rank is meditation.

The Yogi practises Sadhana or unceasing meditation on the Supreme Self. The third is the
worship of symbols. The fourth is the performance of rituals and pilgrimages to holy places. The
Sastras and Gurus are like kind mothers. They take hold of the hands of the aspirants, take them
step by step, stage by stage, till they are established in Nirvikalpa Samadhi or super-conscious
state. They prescribe gross forms of Sadhana or spiritual practices for the neophytes or
beginners, with gross mind, and give lessons on abstract meditation for the advanced aspirants
who are endowed with pure, subtle and sharp intellect.

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Each marks a stage of progress. The human soul makes different kinds of attempts to grasp and
realise the Infinite or the Absolute according to his strength, degree of evolution. He soars higher
and higher, gathers more and more strength and eventually merges himself in the Supreme and
attains oneness or identity.

Glory to the Hindu Rishis (and the Hindu scriptures) who take the aspirants from the lower to the
higher form of worship, stage by stage, step by step and ultimately help them to rest in the
attributeless, all-pervading, formless, timeless, spaceless Brahman or the infinite and the
unconditional Brahman of the Upanishads.

Beloved children of the Bhagwan! Shed your ignorant disbelief this moment. Enshrine supreme,
unshakable, living faith in your heart this very moment. Recall to your mind the glorious
examples of Sri Mira, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the South Indian Alwars and
Nayanars. They believed; they reaped the rich spiritual harvests. You, too, can enjoy great peace,
happiness and prosperity here and attain Him here and now if you have this faith in idol-
worshipping.

Though you may perform external worship at regular intervals, let the internal worship of the
Bhagwan in your heart be constant, unbroken. Here worship attains completeness. Life is a
divine worship. May you realise the significance of the universal worship of the Virat in daily
life and performing it, attain the summum bonum of life. May the Bhagwan bless you all!

VISITING A HINDU MANDIR, A DIVINE PLACE OF CONCENTRATION

In the Kali Yuga and in the material world of busy day-to-day life, the temple of the Bhagwan
affords great opportunities for the evolution of man through concentration and devotion. The
precincts of the temple are so sacred and give a peace which no other atmosphere can give. There
is a divine vibration in the entire area. By the constant and regular Puja during the three sessions
of the day, the recitation of the Holy Vedas and chanting of specific Mantras throughout the year,
the auspiciousness of the temple increases everyday and the entire atmosphere elevates the soul
of man to a very great degree.

The shrine in which the Murti of the Supreme Bhagwan is installed is a hallowed place which
exerts a powerful spiritual influence that can transform the minds of persons into a state of higher
purity. The daily worships through prayers, invocations and Abhisheka and Archana, performed
at the temple, endow the whole environment with a holiness and splendour that infuses into all a
feeling of reverence, piety and devotion, whenever they enter its premises. But the sanctity of the
temple should be carefully maintained by observing the prescribed rules usually connected with
the maintenance of places of divine worship. External and internal Saucha are both necessary in
the worship of the Devata in a temple.

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The temple dedicated to the Archavatara of the Bhagwan is a visible representation of the body
of the Virat-Purusha and the rituals of worship in the temple are objective acts expressing the
whole process of spiritual Sadhana. The temple is the microcosmic embodiment of the universe
indwelt by the Antaryamin, Isvara, whose worship we conduct at the sacred temple. The
Bhagwan is invoked by means of the powerful Mantras of the Srutis, Smritis and Tantras and the
Murti in the temple becomes a living manifestation of the force of the Divine, ready to fulfil the
noble aspirations of the devout Archaka.

Archana is the easiest and the safest means of cultivating the love of the Almighty, for it
becomes the link between His transcendent being and the world in which the devotee is placed.
The one special feature of Archana-Bhakti is that it seeks to evoke the finer forms of the
religious consciousness in man through offering to God articles of devotion by means of the
physical forms which are the immediate aspects of the manifestations of God-Being, revealed to
the senses here. Hence Archana is the foundation on which is constructed the grand edifice of
spiritual effort and realisation. It is one among the nine gems of the way in which man aspires to
reach God.

Worship the Bhagwan with intense faith and aspiration. The Bhagwan will surely bestow His
grace upon you all. All are blessed—one who causes the temple to be built, who actually builds
it, who assists in it, who is happy about it, who performs worship in it, who prostrates oneself
before it with faith and adorns the Bhagwan always in one’s heart, with sincerity and love. The
Bhagwan is everywhere and He allows Himself to be adored at particular places on account of
the supreme compassion that He has for all beings.

GLORY OF PRASAD

Prasad is that which gives Peace. During Kirtan, worship, Puja, Havan and Arati, Badam,
Kismis, milk, sweets, fruits are offered to the Bhagwan. After offering them to the Bhagwan,
they are shared between the members of the house or the Bhaktas in a temple. Puja is done by
Bael leaves, flowers, Tulasi, Vibhuti and these are given as Prasad from the Bhagwan. Vibhuti is
the Prasad of Bhagwan Siva. It is to be applied on the forehead. A small portion can be taken in.
Kumkum is the Prasad of Sri Devi or Sakti. It is to be applied at the space between the eyebrows
(Ajna or Bhrumadhya). Tulasi is the Prasad of Bhagwan Vishnu, Rama or Krishna. It is to be
taken in. They are charged with mysterious powers by the chanting of the Mantras during Puja
and Havan.

The mental Bhava of the devotee offering Bhog to the Bhagwan has a very great effect. If an
ardent devotee of the Bhagwan offers anything to the Bhagwan, that Prasad, if taken, would
bring very great change even in the minds of atheists. The Grace of the Bhagwan descends
through Prasad. Go through the life of Narada. You will realise the greatness of the sacred
leavings of the Bhagwan as well as those of advanced Sadhakas and saints.

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Namdev offered rice, etc., to Panduranga Vittala and He ate the food and shared with Namdev as
well. If the food is offered with a yearning heart, sometimes, the Bhagwan takes that food
assuming a physical form. In other cases, the Bhagwan enjoys the subtle essence of the food
offered and the food remains as it is in the shape of Prasad. While feeding Mahatmas and the
poor people, that which is left behind is taken as Prasad. When a sacrifice is performed, the
participants share the Prasad which bestows the blessings of the gods. When Dasaratha
performed Putrakameshti (wishing for son) sacrifice, he got a vessel full of sweetened rice which
he gave to his queens, by taking which they became pregnant. Prasad is the most sacred object
for a devotee. One should consider himself lucky to take the Prasad and there is no restriction of
any kind in taking Prasad. Time and place and the condition in which one is placed—all these do
not affect him in any way. Prasad is all-purifying.

The benefits of Prasad and Charanamrit are beyond description. They have the power to change
entirely the outlook of a man’s life. Prasad and Charanamrit have the power to cure diseases and
even bring back to life dead persons. There have been ever so many instances in the past in this
holy land of ours which bear witness to the potency and efficacy of Prasad. Prasad destroys all
pains and sins. It is an antidote for misery, pain and anxiety. Faith is the important factor in
testing the accuracy of this statement. For faithless persons it brings very little effect.

Those who are brought up in modern education and culture have forgotten all about the glory of
Prasad. Many English-educated persons do not attach any importance to Prasad when they get it
from the Mahatma. This is a serious mistake. Prasad is a great purifier. As they are brought up in
the Western style of living, they have imbibed the spirit of Westerners and forgotten the spirit of
the true children of Indian Rishis of yore. Live for a week in Brindavan or Ayodhya or Benares
or Pandharpur. You will realise the glory and the miraculous effects of Prasad. Many incurable
diseases are cured. Many sincere devotional aspirants get wonderful spiritual experiences from
mere Prasad alone. Prasad is a panacea. Prasad is a spiritual elixir. Prasad is the Grace of the
Bhagwan. Prasad is a cure-all and an ideal ‘pick-me-up.’ Prasad is an embodiment of Sakti.

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Prasad is Divinity in manifestation. Prasad energises, vivifies, invigorates and infuses devotion.
It should be taken with great faith.

Prasad bestows good health, long life, peace and prosperity on all. Glory to Prasad, the bestower
of Peace and Bliss! Glory to the Bhagwan of the Prasad, the giver of immortality and undying
happiness!

Philosophy of Sacred Hindu Symbols

Bells are rung in temples and while doing Puja to shut out the external sounds and to make the
mind inward and concentrated.

Lights are waved before the Deity. This denotes that the Bhagwan is Jyoti Svarupa. He is all-
light. The devotee says, “O Bhagwan! Thou art the self-effulgent Light of the universe. Thou art
the light in the sun, moon and fire. Remove the darkness in me by bestowing your divine Light.
May my intellect be illumined.” This is the significance of waving lights.

Dhoop or scented sticks are burnt before the Deity. The smoke spreads in the whole room. It acts
as a disinfectant. Burning of Dhoop denotes that the Bhagwan is all-pervading, that He fills the
whole universe by His living presence. It is to remind this fact that Dhoop is burnt. The devotee
prays, “O Bhagwan! Let the Vasanas and Samskaras dormant in me vanish like the smoke of this
Dhoop and become ashes. Let me become stainless.”

Burning of camphor denotes that the individual ego melts like the camphor and the Jivatman
becomes one with the supreme Light of lights.

The pasting of sandal reminds the devotee that he should, in his difficulties, be as patient as the
sandal. Sandal emanates sweet odour when it is pasted. So also the devotee should not murmur
when difficulties arise, but on the other hand, remain cheerful and happy and emanates sweetness
and gentleness like the sandal. He should not hate even his enemy. This is another precept we
learn from this. Though the sandalwood is crushed and pasted, it silently wears out emanating
only very sweet odour. One should not wish evil even to his enemy.

SHIV LING – THE DIVINE SYMBOL OF SHIV

The popular belief is that the Siva Lingam represents the phallus or the virile organ, the emblem
of the generative power or principle in nature. This is not only a serious mistake, but a grave
blunder. In the post-Vedic period, the Linga became symbolical of the generative power of
Bhagwan Siva. Linga is the differentiating mark. It is certainly not the s*x mark. You will find in
the Linga Purana:

Pradhanam Prakriti Yadahurlingamuttamam

Gandhavarnarasaiheenam Sabda-sparsadi-varjitam
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The foremost Lingam which is primary and is devoid of smell, colour, taste, hearing, touch,
etc., is spoken of as Prakriti (Nature).

Linga means “Mark” in Sanskrit. It is a symbol which points to an inference. When you see a big
flood in a river, you infer that there have been heavy rains the previous day. When you see
smoke, you infer that there is fire. This vast world of countless forms is a Linga of the
Omnipotent Bhagwan. The Siva Linga is a symbol of Bhagwan Siva. When you look at the
Linga, your mind is at once elevated and you begin to think of the Bhagwan.

Bhagwan Siva is really formless. He has no form of His own and yet all forms are His forms. All
forms are pervaded by Bhagwan Siva. Every form is the form or Linga of Bhagwan Siva.

There is a mysterious power or indescribable Sakti in the Linga to induce concentration of the
mind. Just as the mind is focussed easily in crystal gazing, so also it attains one-pointedness
when it looks at the Lingam. That is the reason why the ancient Rishis of India and the seers
have prescribed the Lingam for being installed in the temples of Bhagwan Siva.

Siva Linga speaks to you in the unmistakable language of silence: “I am one without a second, I
am formless.” Pure, pious souls only can understand this language. A curious, passionate, impure
foreigner of little understanding or intelligence says sarcastically, “Oh! The Hindus worship the
phallus or s*x organ. They are ignorant people. They have no philosophy.” When a foreigner
tries to learn Tamil or Hindustani language, he first tries to pick up some vulgar words. This is
his curiosity nature. Even so, the curious foreigner tries to find out some defects in the worship
of symbol. Linga is only the outward symbol of the formless being Bhagwan Siva who is the
indivisible, all-pervading, eternal, auspicious, ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe,
who is the undying soul seated in the chambers of your heart, who is your Indweller, innermost
Self or Atman, and who is identical with the Supreme Brahman.

Sphatikalinga is also a symbol of Bhagwan Siva. This is prescribed for Aradhana or worship of
Bhagwan Siva. It is made up of quartz. It has no colour of its own but takes on the colour of the
substances which come in contact with it. It represents the Nirguna Brahman or the attributeless
Supreme Self or formless and attributeless Siva.

For a sincere devotee, the Linga is not a block of stone. It is all radiant Tejas or Chaitanya. The
Linga talks to him, makes him shed profuse tears, produces horripilation and melting of heart,
raises him above body-consciousness and helps to commune with the Bhagwan and attain
Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Bhagwan Rama worshipped the Siva Linga at Rameshwar. Ravana, the
learned scholar, worshipped the golden Linga. What a lot of mystic Sakti there should be in the
Linga!

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May you all attain the formless Siva through the worship of the Linga, the symbol of Bhagwan
Siva which helps concentration of mind and which serves as a prop for the mind to lean upon in
the beginning for the neophytes!

FAITH AND IDOL WORSHIP

Puran Chand’s Guru had initiated him into the Narayana Mantra and given him a small Murti
(idol) of Bhagwan Narayana for worship. Puran was regular in his worship and did not omit
repetition of the sacred Mantra, but there was no sign of the idol blessing him; so he went to his
Guru and asked him the reason. The Guru smiled at Puran and said, “Well son, take this idol of
Bhagwan Siva. I shall initiate you into the Siva Mantra. Worship Bhagwan Siva with faith and
devotion. He is considered as Bhole Nath and is easily propitiable; He will bless you soon.”

The next six months saw Puran Chand immersed in Japa and worship of Bhagwan Siva. The idol
of Bhagwan Narayana was placed on a dusty shelf in the puja room. After many months, Puran
Chand once more went to his Guru and complained that his worship of Siva had brought him no
result. He begged him to give him the Murti and Mantra of a Devata that would bless him.

The Guru smiled again; the time for enlightenment had come, yet he felt the disciple would learn
from experience. So he said, “Good son, in this Yuga, Mother Kali is Pratyaksha Devata.
Worship this image of Her and repeat the Navarna Mantra and you will obtain Her Grace.” This
time, Puran Chand had no misgivings whatsoever; he had full faith.

Kali worship commenced; Siva joined company with Narayana on the shelf. With devotion,
Puran was waving incense before the image of Mother Kali when the fumes rose up and reached
the shelf where the other two idols were kept. Puran was enraged. What right had Siva to inhale
the incense intended for Mother Kali? He had refused to be propitiated when he had tirelessly
worshipped Him; it was Mother Kali whom he now worshipped. In great anger he took down the
image of Siva in his hands and began to insert cotton wool in His nose to stop Him from inhaling
the incense. Before he could accomplish his task, however, the idol disappeared and before him
stood the Bhagwan, smiling in all His mercy and compassion. Speechless with wonder and
amazement, Puran prostrated himself before the Bhagwan who told him to ask for any boon as
He was immensely pleased with his devotion.

Puran answered, “My Bhagwan, I am much perplexed. You did not deign to bless me when I
devoutly worshipped You and repeated the Panchakshara Mantra for six months. But You
suddenly chose to reveal yourself to me when I had discarded Your image and given up Your
worship. What is this mystery, O Bhagwan?”

The Bhagwan answered, “My child, there is no mystery to be explained; how could I reveal
Myself when you treated Me as a mere image, as a mere piece of metal worshipped or thrown

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away according to your whim? Today you treated My image as a living presence when you
wanted to plug the nostrils with cotton wool; thus you revealed that you recognised My living
presence in the idol and I could no longer withhold Myself from you.”

Speechless and enlightened, Puran bowed once more and was immersed in His Love. He could
ask for no greater boon, for in His love he found fulfilment.

Idol worship is the greatest asset a common person can have, because it helps in praying
Bhagwan in simplest form. The establishment of conversation between Bhagwan and Bhakt is
done through Idol worship. Mantras, scared chants and communication shortens the distance of
connectivity with Bhagwan with the medium of Idol worship.

Temples have amazing science behind their structure and conception

 The purpose of visiting a temple is to take all the positive energy that gets transferred
from the Earth’s surface to the human body through various mediums
 The copper plate placed beneath the idol absorbs the magnetic waves and radiates it to
the surroundings
Temples, Shrines, Holy places – places of worship have been known by many names but they all
tender to one feeling- Faith. Since time immemorial, men have been arguing about whether the
devotion towards the heaven above is futile or whether it holds some meaning. It’s a never-
ending debate between belief and logic.
This debate is best fought in India, a country known for budding science enthusiasts and age-old
priests/sages, all thriving on the same piece of land. A country with many faiths each with its
own unique face in the form of a shrine. A country with endless structures of age-old stone art
stretched over the landscape, wherever your eyes can see. Having said that, India is also a
country that gave birth to many self-proclaimed atheists in the field of science and technology
(Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, an astrophysicist) and in the field of films (John Abraham, a
movie star).
But what if we told you that temples, structures that symbolize faith or religion, have amazing
science behind their structure and conception. Here are 6 reasons proving how faith and science
can go hand in hand in the Hindu temples.
Structure

Temples in Andhra Pradesh (Representational Image). Image source: Wikimedia Commons

Take into consideration the distribution of magnetic energy from the north and south poles and
you’ll realize that temples are strategically built at the core of this positive energy from these
poles.
‘Garbhagriha’-A name given to the center of a temple is an area where the idol is placed. It is
also the place where earth natural magnetic waves are found to be at their peak. Account these
small nuances when it comes to the structure of the temple and many questions can be answered.
Strategic placement of the idol
Ever wondered why your body feels a whole wave of positive energy when you stand near the
idol? It’s the copper plate placed beneath the idol that absorbs the magnetic waves and radiates it
to the surroundings.

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An idol is a representation of the God above. It’s a physical image that helps you visualize the
divine and hence concentrate. Worshipping the idol helps the devotee move on to the next step
and that’s mental prayers. All together this process helps a person concentrate and hence
strengthen his mind.
Parikrama

The priest tells you to take three rounds of the idol after your mental prayers. This act is known
as parikrama. An idol that’s charged with positive energy radiates its energy to anything in its
vicinity. Therefore your three rounds rejuvenate our mind body and soul as it charges you up
with positive energies.
Temple bells
A temple bell is not made of some ordinary metal; it’s an amalgamation of cadmium, zinc, lead,
copper, nickel, chromium and manganese. The ratio in which they are combined leads it to
produce a distinct sound for about seven seconds this unites the left and ride side of your brain
such that the echo of the sound touches your bodies seven healing chakras. It sends your brain in
a stage of the trace for microseconds and it becomes extremely receptive and aware.

In Hinduism blowing the Conch is associated with the sacred syllable and sound ‘Om’. This, in
turn, is believed to be the sound that which brings in a new hope. With the positive energy
already radiating in the temples, the sound has a more powerful impact.
The purpose of visiting a temple isn’t to offer valuables to the deity; it’s to take all the positive
energy that gets transferred from the Earths surface to the human body through various mediums.
This rejuvenates your senses and hence compels you to spend some tine after offering prayers to
make your visit rewarding.
The idols represent various deities being worshiped and considered personification of the same.
They help people to concentrate upon and assist in prayers and other religious activities.

Whether people may agree or not, idolatry exists in every religion. For Christians it is Cross with
or without Jesus, portrait of Mother Mary, etc; and for Muslims the Holy Mecca and the central
enclosure containing the Holy Stone.

Hinduism believe in Polytheism where they prey to every element that enable the existence of
this Universe. There are 33 Principal Deities (not 33 crore as commonly believed), each
representing one such element including fire, water

Hinduism is a wrong word & Hinduism do not qualify for “ism” as there is neither any imposers
nor any single authority who dictate the religion or activity, like Marxism Leninism etc.

Hindu is a term coined by British in 1868 for adminstrative convinience to call people who are
not Christians Parsis Muslims.

Hindu is not a religion but a way of life and state of mind - Supreme Court of India in 1995.

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Secondly, whatever Murti or Vigraha you see in the World being worshipped by Sanatana
Dharmic faiths or in Vedantic traditions are not translatable from Sanskrit “Vigraha” to Idol. As
Idol may mean p

You can concentrate the rays on paper or any object.. Then the point where the rays converge
gets heated and burn.

Similarly you need an object to concentrate your mind. We know that God is everywhere but an
idol will make it easy for us to concentrate.

Hinduism is not at all strict in its teachings. Nowhere it is told that you need an idol. It is left to
the devotee…He can do it in whatever way he likes. Not all but quite a good percentage of
Hindus offer obeisance to idols. It is not believing in idols per se, it is believing in the concept of
the Isht (personal god) that manifests through the idols. Also except the priestly class, this
offering of obeisance is for a limited time duration (say morning or evening) or when someone
visits a temple.

Without going to the complicate details let us understand this: the latent aim of someone
believing in the Sanatan Dharma is to move from the mundane to the highest purpose of life
across lifetimes. In “50 Great Myths about Religions” by John Morreal and Tamara Sonn. The
authors have done an excellent job in busting various myths about religions and have put all
religions in a positive light. Here is what the book says about idol worship in Hinduism and I
totally agree.

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Puja is worship. The Sanskrit term puja is used in Hinduism to refer to the worship of a deity
through observance of rituals including daily prayer offerings after a bath or as varied as the
following:

 Sandhyopasana: The meditation on God as the light of knowledge and wisdom at dawn
and dusk
 Aarti: Ritual of worship in which light or lamps are offered to the deities amid
devotional songs and prayer chants.
 Homa: The offering of oblations to the deity in a duly consecrated fire
 Jagarana: Keeping vigil at night amidst much devotional singing as a part of spiritual
discipline.
 Upavasa: Ceremonial fasting.
All these rituals for puja are a means to achieve purity of mind and focusing on the divine, which
Hindus believe, can be a fitting stepping stone to knowing the Supreme Being or Brahman.

Why You Need an Image or Idol for a Puja

For the puja, it is important for a devotee to set an idol or icon or a picture or even symbolic holy
object, such as the shivalingam, salagrama, or yantra before them to help them contemplate and
revere god through the image. For most, it is difficult to concentrate and the mind keeps
wavering, so the image can be considered as an actualized form of the ideal and this makes it
easy to focus. According to the concept of ‘Archavatara,’ if the puja is performed with utmost
devotion, during puja god descends and it is the image that houses Almighty.

The Steps of Puja in the Vedic Tradition

1. Dipajvalana: Lighting the lamp and praying to it as the symbol of the deity and requesting it
to burn steadily till the puja is over.
2. Guruvandana: Obeisance to one’s own guru or spiritual teacher.
3. Ganesha Vandana: Prayer to Lord Ganesha or Ganapati for the removal of obstacles to the
puja.
4. Ghantanada: Ringing the bell with appropriate mantras to drive away the evil forces and
welcome the gods. Ringing the bell is also necessary during ceremonial bath of the deity and
offering incense etc.
5. Vedic Recitation: Reciting two Vedic mantras from Rig Veda 10.63.3 and 4.50.6 to steady
the mind.
6. Mantapadhyana: Meditation on the miniature shrine structure, generally made of wood.
7. Asanamantra: Mantra for purification and steadiness of the seat of the deity.
8. Pranayama & Sankalpa: A short breathing exercise to purify your breath, settle and focus
your mind.
9. Purification of Puja Water: Ceremonial purification of the water in the kalasa or water
vessel, to make it fit for use in puja.

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10. Purification of Puja Items: Filling up the sankha, conch, with that water and inviting its
presiding deities such as Surya, Varuna, and Chandra, to reside in it in a subtle form and then
sprinkling that water over all the articles of puja to consecrate them.
11. Sanctifying the Body: Nyasa with the Purusasukta (Rigveda 10.7.90) to invoke the presence
of the deity into the image or idol and offering the upacharas.
12. Offering the Upacharas: There are a number of items to be offered and tasks to be
performed before the Lord as an outpouring of love and devotion for god. These include a
seat for the deity, water, flower, honey, cloth, incense, fruits, betel leaf, camphor, etc.

Simple Steps of a Traditional Hindu Worship:

In the Panchayatana Puja, i.e., puja to the five deities – Shiva, Devi, Vishnu, Ganesha, and
Surya, one’s own family deity should be kept in the center and the other four around it in the
prescribed order.

1. Bathing: Pouring water for bathing the idol, is to be done with gosrnga or the horn of a
cow, for the Shiva lingam; and with sankha or conch, for Vishnu or salagrama shila.
2. Clothing & Flower Decoration: While offering cloth in puja, different types of cloth are
offered to different deities as is stated in scriptural injunctions. In the daily puja, flowers
can be offered instead of cloth.
3. Incense & Lamp: Dhupa or incense is offered to the feet and deepa or light is held
before the face of the deity. During arati, the deepa is waved in small arcs before the
deity’s face and then before the whole image.
4. Circumbulation: Pradakshina is done three times, slowly in the clockwise direction,
with hands in namaskara posture.
5. Prostration: Then is the shastangapranama or prostration. The devotee lies down
straight with his face facing the floor and hands stretched in namaskara above his head in
the direction of the deity.
6. Distribution of Prasada: Last step is the Tirtha and Prasada, partaking of the
consecrated water and food offering of the puja by all who have been a part of the puja or
witnessed it.

The Hindu scriptures consider these rituals as the kindergarten of faith. When understood
properly and performed meticulously, they lead to inner purity and concentration. When this
concentration deepens, these external rituals drop off by themselves and the devotee can perform
internal worship or manasapuja. Until then these rituals help a devotee on his path of worship.

Let us take the instance of the Taj Mahal (Agra). While the Taj Mahal represents love and
romance and the aesthetic taste of the culture, it also represents the desperate exploitation of
labour, the appropriation of resources and the inequity prevalent in that culture. Architecture here
simultaneously describes love and tyranny. We could perhaps think of a number of cases of such
contradictory representations: the Babri Masjid of Ayodhya could be read as an account of
Indian Heritage or a symbol of Hindu hatred, the Capital Complex in Chandigarh, as a sign of
democratic modernism or an indication of western hegemony. Similarly the National Crafts

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Museum of New Delhi could be seen as a representation or assertion of Indian identity or the
detachment or objectification of the Indian Folk Arts through the formal museum format;
a chawl in Mumbai could represent a productive energy centre of the city or the abusive living
condition of the labour (not housing but warehousing people), a slum as a celebration of
entrepreneurship or urban decay. All these examples seem to suggest that each symbol can
simultaneously denote not only different but contradicting meanings.

On the other hand we could also identify how various contradictory symbols suggest similar
meanings: the Hiranandani Complex (Mumbai) malls with Greek columns and pediments and
the high-tech glass and steel shopping centre of Gurgaon near Delhi, both suggest the existence
and growth of the same consumer middle class. The new Jain temples in Mumbai that employ
traditional materials and processes, the Bahai Temple in Delhi designed as a high-tech shell
structure and the Radha Parthasarathi Temple in New Delhi, experimenting with reinforced
concrete, all suggest a kind of religious fundamentalism that supports cutting edge and expensive
building processes. Similarly, the legislative assembly of Bangalore with its traditional and
classical symbols, the assembly of Mumbai with an imposing modern form and the assembly of
Bhopal that borrows symbols from ancient history, all represent the same seat of power, that of
the state authority.

To complicate things further, it is extremely difficult to find any relations between formal
abstractions and identity. For example a monumental scale does not necessarily indicate and
impose power. The Red Fort (Delhi) in all its might today is one of the most accessible places;
the pristine arcades of the Fort area in Mumbai today harbour a large informal industry. These
places no longer represent an Empire. They no longer exert power (like Bataille’s monuments)
or are symbols of colonization – their symbolism has been inverted, converted and internalized.
From these examples we could possibly conclude that the relationship between a symbol and
identity is a construction of the architectural theorist and hence it is misleading to discuss the
issue of identity solely through the discourse of the symbol.
1.2. The Idea of the Local in architecture
Our literature review shows that the term ‘Local’ is the second most important idea through
which the issue of identity is discussed. Here all concerns seem to hinge around and oscillate
between the need to assert the local and a desire to embrace the extra-local (international, global,
western etc.). “The search for roots” and “looking ahead in time” are the two respective positions
that get articulated through this concern. Often buildings are conveniently bracketed into themes
like “nationalist”, “regionalist” etc. to very clearly distinguish from the other “internationalist” or
“global” ones. Beyond both these positions, is another position that aims at “looking at real
problems, rather then self-consciously trying to find identity as an end in itself” (Correa, 1983).
This position attempts to locate the local in specific issues such as climate, behaviour etc. rather
than leaning on oversimplifications of history and progress. In discussions that focus on the
binary understanding of nationalist/internationalist or regional/global, this new category viz.
“Critical regionalism” (Frampton,1985) seeks “contextual inspiration” while simultaneously
celebrating the “progressive modern”.

Fredrick Jameson’s (1994) criticism of Frampton’s “Critical Regionalism” begins to articulate

the perceived difference in the various positions on the local, where he suggests that the search
for the local (whether in history, progress or climate) itself may be a product of the global

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multinational capitalism. Jameson tries to suggest that all these positions are actually the
functions of the market and in that sense not too different at all.

Let us now examine the power of architecture to produce a sense of local, if any. Here the cases
dealing with “constructing the nation” through architectural explorations, become particularly
important. The three capital cities of New Delhi, Chandigarh and Bangalore are invariably cited
as instances of the state’s attempts at manufacturing a sense of authority (Lang, Desai and Desai,
1997), a sense of modernity (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997; Bhat and Scriver, 1990 Curtis, 1985;
Kalia, 1987) and a sense of tradition (Lang, 2002, Bahga, Bahga and Bahga, 1993) respectively
amongst its subjects. Revisiting these sites, one fails to observe any traces of ‘authority’,
‘modernity’ and ‘tradition’ in the public realm. On the contrary exactly opposite accounts are
available. While New Delhi is known for the misbehaviour and non-performance of the public
service sector, Chandigarh still remains a feudal city (Correa, 1987) of Babus[1] without public
transportation and Bangalore on the other hand looks like the most progressive city
experimenting with Public Private Partnerships and being recognised as India’s Silicon Valley.
Architecture here seems too meagre a phenomenon to influence the manner in which nationalism
is imagined, experienced and executed. On the other hand, Eric Hobsbawm (1990) theoretically
articulates how state impositions cannot be considered as identity at all:
“First, official ideologies of states and movements are not guides to what is in the minds of even
the most loyal citizens or supporters. Second, and more specifically, we cannot assume that for
most people national identification – when it exists – excludes or is always or ever superior to,
the remainder of the set of identifications, which constitute the social being. In fact, it is always
combined with identifications of another kind, even when it is felt to be superior to them.
Thirdly, national identification and what it is believed to imply, can change and shift in time,
even in the course of quite short periods. In my judgment this is the area of national studies in
which, thinking and research are most urgently needed today”. (Hobsbawm, 1990)
Several post-colonial theories on the sub-national (including people from various diverse regions
within the same nation), the subaltern (including people who are generally classified as the
minority groups determined through race, religion, caste, class etc) and the trans-national
(including people belonging to a certain nationality, but living in other countries) identities
challenge the grand unifying concept whereby a nation defines the identity of its people. But
more importantly these theories situate the identity issue in the political realm rather than in the
aesthetics.

Let us further consider the attempts to claim an overtly local identity through the examples of
some institutions. We could consider three cases: the National Crafts Museum in New Delhi,
the Jodhpur University Complex and the Centre for Development Studies in Tiruanathapuram.
All three institutions utilise local processes and materials to develop their architecture. Moreover,
they also attempt to recreate physical scales, symbols and spaces that one would experience in
the Indian village or a pre-colonial town. But the question that still remains is whether this
process of engaging images to represent the past of the locale makes these institutions more local
than the others. The first contention, as we understand, is that there has been never a museum, a
university and an international institute in an Indian village. The contexts of the village never
produced such a programme. Such programmes seem to be a product of an extremely centralised
state aspiring to develop institutions to represent its concerns. Delving deeper into the production
of these buildings, we find that these were all state projects that were initiated during the years of

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political emergency[2] Nehru’s Modern[3] project was being challenged and a quest for regional
identities was developing (Chatterjee, 1997). This was also the time when a number of regional
parties in India developed after the intense centralisation imposed by Indira Gandhi (Chatterjee,
1997) – all asserting regional identities and in the process building and reinforcing localized
constituencies. In such a political environment, then it is obvious that the state would support
projects that asserted a high degree of regionalism. In the above examples, architecture uses
extreme symbolism to execute such visions of the state. However, inspite of their claims of a
search for a regional identity, the National Crafts Museum remains as much a museum
objectifying the village cultures, the Jodhpur University also reflects its education mandate and
purpose like any other university in India and the Centre for Development Studies undertakes the
best political and cultural studies on par with any International Institute. The question then is for
whom is the regional identity created? Or what effects are expected (both within and outside the
profession of architects) after such attempts are made?
We could identify several writings that suggest attempts to create a nationalist or a regionalist
identity (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997; Bhat and Scriver, 1990; Curtis, 1985; Lang, 2002). But to
find writings that undertake the task of examining whether the respective buildings actually
manifest any notion of identity is extremely rare! While the discourse of the local against global
has been a favourite amongst architectural theorists, the paper argues that these theoretical
explorations remain far from being adequate in representing the constituencies central to these
theoretical writings. The exact relation between architecture and identity remains undiscovered.
The power of architecture to represent the ‘local’ requires a thorough re-examining.

2. LOCATING THE NOTION OF IDENTITY

The arguments in the earlier section question the relationship between architecture and identity.
Perhaps a more thorough investigation of the concept of “identity” is crucial in order, to establish
such a link. The complexity and ambiguity of the term “identity” can be clarified through the
question: “what is one’s/your/my/our/its/their identity? Often burdened adjectives like Brahmin,
rich, Indian, Punjabi, male, NRI[4], urban, global etc. are used to answer this. Sometimes even
more opaque adjectives like traditional, folk, contemporary, progressive, orthodox, classical etc
summarise the answer. The problems with these adjectives are that they themselves are
summations for a complex cultural subjectivity, which might have several layers of contradicting
description. For example, the term Brahmin could be described as the priest community, the
Indian upper caste, the knowledge bearing community, the enlightened community, the power
holders, the exploitative feudal lords etc. The rendering of the particular description depends
upon the intentions of the describer. Hence the adjective itself does not have a clear definition.
The problem of deciphering identity becomes more acute when more than one such adjective is
used to describe identity. In fact, asking such questions or answering the question in such
adjectives suggests a very essentialist understanding of the concept which does not grasp the
complexity and the process crucial to the production of identities (Hall, 1996).
In order to understand the issue of identity in its complexity one would also have to make a few
theoretical clarifications on the question of identity. The first one deals with the issue of it being
an imagined concept. Benedict Anderson (1985) suggests: “Communities are to be distinguished,
not by their falsity/genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined”. The imagination of
identity becomes the backbone for the making of the community itself. “Perhaps instead of
thinking of identity as an already accomplished fact, which the new cultural practices then
represent, we should think, instead, of identity as a “production” which is never complete,

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always in process, and always constituted within, not outside, representation” (Hall, 1998). Here
we embark on the second theoretical clarification of identity being an evolving process rather
than a fixed entity. Thus, it is evident that identities are not static or predefined but “infinitely
malleable” (Woodward, 1997). Echoing this notion, and enlarging it further is Appudarai’s
(1996) thesis of the ‘production of locality’:
“I want to unsettle the idea of the local as somehow given, and draw attention to the fact that any
form of local social life requires agency, purpose, vision, design. The local is as much a process
and a project as anything else”.

Lastly one needs to ask why we are asking this question at all. A. G. K. Menon (1989) suspects
that the need to assert a local identity is related to the recent political history in India
characterised by “the rise of cultural fundamentalism and communalism” (Menon 1989). So also
in the context of this research project and questions raised in its brief[5] (where five post-
colonial contexts are under study, four of which representing the third-world), the issue of the
local versus the global become a central theme. The most important question seems to be: How
do countries from the other (non-west) contexts represent their identities? And all of this is to be
discussed in a platform created in the west. We aim at foregrounding the whole issue of identity
being an entity for global consumption just as it could be a vehicle for fundamentalist
construction of nationhood. Homi Bhabha (1994) summarises the complexity of the concept:
“Each time the encounter with identity occurs at the point which something exceeds the frame of
the image, it eludes the eye, evacuates the self as a site of identity and autonomy and – most
important- leaves a resistant trace, a stain of the subject, a sign of resistance. We are no longer
confronted with an ontological problem of being but with a discursive strategy of the moment of
interrogation, a moment in which the demand for identification becomes, primarily, a response to
other questions of signification and desire, culture and politics.” (Bhabha, 1994)
The above theoretical articulations allow us to relocate the notion of identity beyond the
discourses of ‘symbol’ and the ‘local’ into a larger cultural space. Henry Lefebvre’s (1991)
views on the “production” of space are of utmost relevance here to describe the cultural space.
He sees different forms of cultural construction as central to the production of space – principally
in terms of class, but also gender, ethnicity, sexuality, family relations and age. He suggests:
“space as a historical production, at once the medium and outcome of social being. It is not a
theatre or a setting but a social production, a concrete abstraction, simultaneously mental and
material, work and product – such that social relations have no real existence except in and
through space” (Lefebvre, 1991). The paper argues that – it is in such a cultural space that
identity is imagined, nurtured as a process, and values are associated to it. Identity is further used
to manipulate such a space. Identity, being produced by a culture space, becomes an agent to
reproduce it.

3. THE IDEA OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

The earlier section locates the notion of identity in a larger realm of the cultural space. In this
section we would explore the idea of the cultural space to articulate a framework for analysis of
architecture to deal with the identity issue.
One of the first deconstructions required for such an analysis is regarding the position of “urban
professionals such as planners and architects who believe themselves to be democratic
negotiators, community advocates, neutral social scientists, exponents of the beautiful and
masterful shapers of space” (Borden, Rendell, Kerr and Pivaro, 2002). However they seem to act

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only as part of a much broader cultural space, which is governed by “deeper systems of power,
economics and signification” (Borden, Rendell, Kerr and Pivaro, 2002). And in such larger and
deeper systems, architecture and architects remain too feeble to create or manipulate identity. To
construct an understanding of identity, perhaps there is a need to broaden the perspective from
looking at architects and architectural form to a larger cultural landscape.
To develop the idea of the cultural landscape, Edward Soja’s formulations are significant. He
articulates a critique of the architectural discipline’s vision of the city as a “collection of separate
cells with built environment compacted together to form an urban mass” (Soja, 2002). His
critique exhorts the architectural community to understand “a radically different large scale
spatial or regional vision of the city as an expansive urban system of movement and flows of
goods being produced and people living not just in built environments but in constructed
geographies characterized by different patterns of income, unemployment, education levels,
ethnic and racial cultures, housing and job densities etc.” (Soja, 2002) Soja advises architects to
“think and work at the regional scale because it provides a very important entry point into the
heart of what has been reshaping our cities” (Soja, 2002). This, in Soja’s words, will stir the
architect away from “wild gropings into vague new concepts that may sound flashy and
appealing but don’t necessarily lead us anywhere” (Soja 2002). It is the notion of the “regional”
in Soja’s writing that we adapt here towards formulating the idea of the cultural landscape which
allows us not only a much broader investigations into the various contexts of architectural
intervention, but also elopes from the restrictions and connotations of the terms –
space, region and the city.
The first formulation towards constructing the new framework using the idea of cultural
landscape is to shift the analysis of architecture from a focus on buildings to a reading of
landscapes. To illustrate this shift in the analysis of architecture, let us consider the case of
housing development in Mumbai during early twentieth century. We find a number of accounts
(Alff, 1991, Dalvi, 2000, Iyer, 2000) describing these developments as Art Deco explorations
and a birth of Modern Bombay. These accounts elaborately document certain buildings that
embody these Art Deco characteristics. It is through such an identification of the Art Deco, the
idea the “Modern” identity is constructed (Alff, 1991, Dalvi, 2000). The reading of the larger
landscape however would lead to the construction of a completely different scenario. The
development of housing in the 1920’s was undertaken by the city administration, which brought
two new concepts to India: the apartment type and the garden township. An investigation into
history indicates that during the 1920’s the status of the city was shifting from being a market
place and an industrial centre towards becoming an administrative and financial capital for the
region where the English educated Indian bureaucrats (Babus) were demanding a European
lifestyle. It was for this group, that the apartment type and garden townships were built. If we
were to further describe the landscape of these townships, we find a number of slum quarters
developing on the edges of these settlements to serve the new apartments. The continuing
feudalism is evident when we find at least one maidservant in each of the houses. Thus through
this reading, the landscape is not modern as the building centric view seems to suggest – rather it
is unequally modern! The case of early twentieth century housing in Mumbai effectively shows
how when we shift the framework from buildings to landscape, the notion of describing identity
through the adjective of “Modern” collapses and it is displaced by a new construction of Bombay
during the 1920’s – that which harboured and supported indigenous feudal and thus not
“Modern” as we would conventionally understand the term.

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The second formulation in developing the new framework is a shift from focusing on forms to
understanding of types. Aldo Rossi (1984) employed the notion of type to understand landscapes
(Rossi was referring specifically to urban landscapes). The conception of type is useful not only
as a “repetitive typical” (Rossi, 1984) that constructs and (hence) represents the landscape, but
also as a “typology” that informs substantially the behavioural pattern that gets imposed by the
type. This subsequently elaborates the contexts of the architectural production and the issue of
identity. The useful examples here would be the development of large institutions in India during
British colonisation like the Victoria and Albert Museum (Calcutta), the Municipal Corporation
Building (Bombay), the Muir College (Allahabad), the High Court Building (Bombay) etc. These
buildings are often described through elaborate documentation and analysis of their elements and
forms (Tillotson, 1989). Further, genealogies of these forms are traced and terms like Indo-
Saracenic, Gothic Revival and Vernacular Architecture are manufactured to facilitate their
descriptions and origins. This then becomes the basis to describe the newly forming unique
“Indian” identity that attempts to localise traditional Indian or European forms to create its own
distinct architecture. But if we shift the framework from looking at forms to looking at types, a
very different picture of these institutions emerges. The type of institutions during the colonial
period speaks specifically of a fundamentally different kind of organisation in education,
governance, justice etc. The elaborate arcades of the courts and the educational institutions, the
large gathering space within the museum, the clearly demarcated bureaucratic capsules in the
administration buildings indicate a distinct shift in the form of the government that wanted a
change in the power distribution. The idea of the Public Space was getting formed through these
building types. One clearly notes the immense pressure the colonial government would have
been under from groups demanding political freedom. These were types, perhaps introduced to
legitimise the colonial rule.
The case of institutions that were created after independence like the Gandhi Smarakh
Ashram (Ahmedabad), Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), Jodhpur University (Jodhpur)
etc would also be illustrative to describe the shift from form to type. Accounts of these
institutions largely speak about the negotiation of the “Indian outdoor space” and “modern form”
for creation of a “Modern Indian” identity (Bhat and Scriver, 1990, Bahga, Bahga and Bahga,
1993, Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997). The shift in the analysis from form to type would however
focus on the campus type built for a completely new set of programmes and sponsored by the
state. Here again a new type is developed for a context of a new nation with very clear state
intentions towards developing generous campus environments dedicated for education and
research. Nothing specifically is Indian (as there was never any context for such institutions in
India earlier) except for the symbolism. The state obviously is at the centre of power here aiming
to manipulate its citizens for the projection and representation of a stronger nation. We can also
see how the state is forced to share this power and form a different opinion regarding itself.
The type-based analysis allows to distinctively move away from reductionist notions of identity
that are explained through adjectives of “Colonial” or “Indian”. It is now able to specifically
focus on the changes in behavioural pattern that the type enforces, like the public access to
government in the case of colonial institutions and the generous education environment in the
institutions built after independence. And through the understanding of this shift in the
behavioural pattern we could throw some light on the complex identity issue.
The third formulation in the development of the framework takes off from our earlier section:
“Myth of the Local” where the geographic region becomes the most important basis to establish
the local. The notions of Rajasthani architecture or Gujarati architecture or even Indian

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architecture are formed on the ideas of the locale that get generated along geographic regions. In
the assertion of identity, architecture seldom is able to represent a geographic region, but rather
more accurately represents a cultural community, which might get identified due to a sharing of
common social, political or economical backgrounds. Leo van den Berg’s (1987)
conceptualisation of the urban landscapes as a function of spatial behaviour of its actors becomes
central to this argument. Many theorists have significantly contributed to this conceptualisation
of landscapes as a function of its actors (Latour, 1999 and Law, 1999 Bunschoten, 2001).
The earlier example of Bombay’s housing type in early twentieth century clearly indicates that
the development of this type had nothing to do with the geography of Mumbai, but actually was
the function of the new economic community of Babus. Similarly the cases of institutions in
colonial and independent India inform us on the changing role of the state and the power
redistribution amongst the citizens rather than the specific geographic locations where the
institutions are built. The analytical shift of associating an architectural product from a
geographic region to cultural actors could be best demonstrated with comparing the two works of
the same architect: National Crafts Museum (New Delhi) and Bharat Bhavan (Bhopal). Both of
these were state projects and were designed around the same time with a similar programme for a
museum. The two projects however have a distinctly different expression: while National Crafts
Museum has an overt display of the Indian Folk objects quoted for their “Indian identity” (Khan,
1984), Bharat Bhavan is an example of the campus type well carved in the contours of the
landscape without any distinct elements of traditional Indian architecture, but with ample spaces
for discussions, experimental arts and research. When we investigate the specific actors involved
in the project, we find that the two projects were influenced by two different actors: Jyotindra
Jain and Jagdish Swaminathan respectively. Very clearly, the intentions of the two actors are
seen in these projects where, Jain advocates the display of traditional Indian Art as museum
objects and Swaminathan remains preoccupied with providing spaces for all kinds of artists in a
museum space. The actor analysis aims at understanding the architectural production as a
function of the interests of the various actors involved. The issue of identity could be filtered
through such an understanding. While Jain’s National Arts and Crafts Museum clearly aims at
forcing an Indian Identity on its people through high objectification of the Indian folk,
Swaminathan’s Bharat Bhavan seeks to provide spaces for legitimising Indian Art Practices as
contemporary art.

REFERENCES

ARCHITECTURE & CONTEMPORARY INDIAN IDENTITY-Rupali Gupte, Rahul Mehrotra

and Prasad Shetty, December 2004https://bardstudio.in/architecture-and-contemporary-
indian-identity/

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 CHAPTER X
The Navel in Hinduism
Vishnu- The Protector/ Preserver

“Om Kleem Krishnaya Govindaya Gopeejana Vallabhaya Paraya Param Purushaya

Paramatmane Para Karmamantra Yantraousha Dhasthra Shastrani Samhara Samhara Mruthyor
Mochaya Mochaya Om Namo Bhagavathe Mahasudarshanaya Deepthre Jwalapareethaya
Sarvadigshobhanakaraya Brahmane Para Jyothishe Hum Pahd Swaha” – Maha Sudarshana
Mantra
“O Lord Krishna, beloved of Prakriti and all devotees, O Supreme Soul of the Universe, O
Universal Self, Please save me from all machinations of enemies in the form of occult blocks,
from all evil acts, Also from death O supremely Effulgent Maha Sudarsana which shineth all the
eight directions, the Ashta Digs, O Glorious Light, Salutations to thee!”

श्रीराम ने 10 बाण रावण के त्तसरों पर, 20 बाण िाथों पर और 1 बाण नात्ति पर मारा था
Sri Ram was not able to kill Ravan when He cut off his head. It seemed to grow again and again.
Then Vibhishana, the brother of Ravana who was on the side of SriRama is reported to have told
SriRama the secret to Ravan’s life – the nectar (amrit) held in the navel (naabhi) of Ravan.
Finally the Raam-baan (arrow) was directed to Ravan’s navel & it was a fatal hit. His life source
dried up and he attained Mukti from this life.

Brahma is believed to be born from the Kamal, (lotus) springing from Vishnu’s Navi (navel) as
he was laying on the great serpent in the milky ocean. Hence, he is also known
as Nabhija (navel born) and Kanja (water born), according to Hindu doctrine. Growing from the

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lotus of Narayana, Brahma is the name which creates the realm of the universe. He is a symbol
of celestials and divine beings of all kinds of nature.

Navel is symbolised to be the cause of creation and Brahma is born in the Lotus. It is also
believed to be a symbolic representation of the big bang, i.e. sprouting of a lotus from a single
point (navel). Brahma who is the creator of all beings according to the Hindu texts, has a life
span of 100 years (100 Brahma years). According to the Hindu units of time, time is cyclic and it
repeats itself for ever . Various time units are used in our religious. If one reads the first chapter
of Manu Smriti one would get the answer. Narayana is a primadoral unisexual being who
conceived Lord Brahma, no one except for Lord Brahma has seen that form. Then when after the
end of Daksha Yagna when Rishi Narayana the grandson of Brahma, son of Dharma, the
supreme being in flesh (bestowed the name Narayana by our great grandfather Lord Brahma; as
he was able to remember his own grandson was the one that originally conceived him out his
semen (sea of salt))holds up the Universe from Pasupatha at the end of Yagnas destruction (he
was called Mundakesa as his hai...

A very significant question . This picture of brahma sprouting from Vishnu describes that how
the same brahma takes 84 births compassing from 1st birth of krishna to the Last birth as
Brahma.This one soul travels 84 births in different costumes (body ). People rarely know that
krishna in his adulthood get married with Radha nd their combined form is known as Vishnu so
Vishnu has four hands means two hands for each. New creation of mankind starts with Krishna
/Vishnu ends with Brahma.Picture in question shows that it is the same soul who transforms
from Brahma to Vishnu and vice versa.

Brahma originating from the navel of Vishnu is a Vedic meditation concept.The tones of all the
muscles of the body can synchronize, equalize and unify. In Hinduism the unified muscle is
called Purusha. When a gradient of muscle tone is created in Purusha from head and feet to the
level of the navel then Purusha will be controllable at the level of the navel. Brahma symbolizes
this controllable force.Thus, Brahma symbolizes human creative force and he is known as the
Creator.

There is no hidden meaning. Gods of trinity have equal significance and are not greater than one
another. They are all timeless forms of supreme consciousness, and so if Brahma has sprouted
from Vishnu's navel, Vishnu is residing in Brahma's swadhistanam indefinitely in a loop
irrespective of time.

In the Jain History, King Nabhi or Nabhi Rai was the 14th or the last Kulakara of avasarpini (the
descending half of the cosmic time cycle in Jainism and the one in which the world is said to be
at present). He taught the men how to cut the nabhi (navel chords). He was the father
of Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara (founder of Jainism) of present avasarpini.

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According to Jain literature, before India was called "Bhāratavarṣa", it was known
as Nābhivarṣa (Sanskrit: नावभिर्द , lit. land of Nabhi). Bharata was a son of the
first tirthankara and founder of Jainism, Rishabhanatha. Before the Country was named after
Bharata, it was known as Nābhivarṣa after the name of king Nabhi. King Nabhi was Bharata's
grandfather and Rishabhanatha's father. According to Jain text Ādi purāṇa, Nabhirāja lived for
1 crore purva and his height was Marudevi, queen of king Nabhi, saw the 16 auspicious dreams.
When she shared her dreams with the king, he explained that she will give birth to
a tirthankara. She then gave birth to Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara of present avasarpini.
According to Jain text Ādi purāṇa, Nabhirāja lived for 1 crore purva and his height was
525 dhanusha (long bows).Nabhi is depicted as one of the Manus in Bhagavata Purana.

Visnu’s Nevel: As per our Puranas, the stalk of the lotus flower emerges from the navel of Lord
Vishnu . It is just NOT a simple flower –but an amazing allegory– the lotus “seed-pod”, which is
symbolically equivalent to the golden Mount Meru, the axis-mundi of the universe.Lotus is the
symbol of Hinduism, as a lotus with a supple long stalk emanated from the navel of Lord
Vishnu.Mount Meru is the abode of the gods and on top of Meru are present the palaces of
Brahma and the protectors of the eight directions. The yugas during the approach to
Vishnunabhi are ‘ascending’ yugas; those during the retreat from Brahma sits on a lotus which
stems out of Vishnu’s nabhi or navel.The samhita of Manu takes us from a pinnacle of light to
the ultimate end-point of the process—the darkness of Kali Yuga. The 24 petals is
representative of the 24,000-year period of the Vedic Yuga cycle.

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The Sun itself orbits around the galactic center at a radius of about 8,500 parsecs and takes over
200 million years to make one full orbit. This the adjustment Varaha boar ( Vishnu ) made as
the Milankovitch Cycle of 25,765 years that is related to the precession of earth’s axis.
Manu Samhita says :
chatvaaryahu sahsrani varshanaantu kritam yugam
tasya tavchhati sandhya sandhyanshrshch tathavidhah
itreshu sasandhyeshu sasandhyaansheshu ch trishu
ekapayen vartante sahsrani shatani ch
yadetat parisankhyaatmadadev chaturyugam
aetad dwadash-sahstram devaanaam yugmuchyate
daivikanaam yuggnaantu sahastram prisankhyayaa
braahmaikamahgyeyam taatati raatriraiv ch

The ancient seers of the Vedic culture referred to the Galactic Center as Vishnunabhi, or the
navel of Vishnu. Brahma (Ultimate Creator) sits on a lotus,the symbol of divine energy and
divine grace. The lotus grows from the navel of Vishnu, who is the sleeping god, whose dream is
the universe. . . .
Brahma opens his eyes ( EXHALES )and a world comes into being. . . Brahma closes his eyes (
INHALES ) , and a world goes out of being. Lord Vishnu is said to rest in the coils of Ananta,
the great serpent of Infinity, while he waits for the universe to recreate itself. You cant have a big

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bang out of nothing—rather it is inhalation and exhalation. How the cosmos is created is
mentioned in the verses of Nasadiya Sukta.

While the West was still thinking, perhaps, of 6,000 years old universe – India was already
envisioning ages and eons and galaxies as numerous as the sands of the Ganges. The Universe
so vast that modern astronomy slips into its folds without a ripple.”
Manu indicates a period of 24,000 years — clearly a reference to precession — consists of a
series of four yugas or ages, each shorter and spiritually darker than the last.

Western astrology takes the tropical approach, whereas Hindu astrology takes the ACCURATE
sidereal one. This results in the originally unified zodiacal coordinate system drifting apart
gradually, with a clockwise (westward) precession of 1.4 degrees per century.
For the tropical zodiac used in Western astronomy and astrology, this means that the tropical
sign of Aries currently lies somewhere within the constellation Pisces (“Age of Pisces”). Most
perceptive modern Western astrologers, have advocated abandoning the tropical system in favour
of a sidereal one.
This is what happens when you steal without understanding the concepts.
Vedic Hindu astronomy uses sidereal time which takes into account the precession of the
equinoxes—though the white man tries to ridicule us for NOT knowing this— and that too after
immorally after copying from us.

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The earth revolves around the sun in a ELLIPTICAL orbit — and at the same time the earth
wobbles on its own axis — like a slowed down top, where it takes 25765 years for a full round
wobble ..
Malayalam Month ( sidereal ) / English Months
Chingam / 16 August -15 September
Kanni / 16 September -15 October
Thulam / 16 October -15 November
Vrischikam/ 16 November -15 December
Dhanu / 16 December -14 January
Makaram/ 15 January –14 February
Kumbham/ 15 February -14 March
Meenam/ 15 March -14 April
Medam/ 15 April -15 May
Edavam/ 16 May -15 June
Midhunam/ 16 June -15 July
Karkhidakam/ 16 July -15 August
On the day, the Sun leaves Meenam Rasi and enters Meda Rasi, it is Vishu Sankraman and
Malayalam festival Vishu is celebrated the next day. The first day for Medam is the
unchangeable day of Vishu, whereas other festivals are determined according to the lunar
asterisms on which they fall.
Tropical Zodiac/ English Months
Aries/ 21 March –20 April
Taurus/ 21 April –21 May
Gemini / 22 May – 21 June
Cancer/ 22 June –22 July
Leo / 23 July – 22 August

Virgo / 23 August –23 September

Libra / 24 September – 23 October

Scorpio/ 24 October –22 November

Sagittarius/ 23 November –21 December

Capricorn/ 22 December –20 January

Aquarius / 21 January –19 February

Pisces / 20 February –20 March

Mind you ,all these fancy English ( Greeko ) names are all STOLEN from the ancient Hindu
calendar. All their constellations names too are stolen.

Just a few examples:

Tulam is Libra ( balance ).

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Chingam or Simham is Leo ( lion )

Kanni or kanya is Virgo ( virgin girl )

Meenam is Pisces ( fish )

Kumbam is Aquarius ( water pot ).

Midhunam is Gemini ( couple )

The precession of the equinoxes of the Earth is a motion that causes the axis of the Earth’s
rotation to remain FIXED at an angle of 23.4 degrees, however, it rotates along a great circle
with a period of 25765 years.The result is that the two points where the equator of the Earth
intersect the ecliptic plane, the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, precess westward along the
ecliptic by 360 degrees per 25,765 years or 50.26 seconds of arc per year.This is also equal to
0.125 seconds of arc per day or 0.008 seconds of time, so that each day the synchronization
between sidereal and solar time slips a bit.

THE VERNAL EQUINOX AS A RESULT OF PRECESSION MOVES 50.26 ARC SECONDS

WESTWARDS EVERY YEAR RELATIVE TO THE STARS.

THE EARTH TAKES 20 MINUTES TO REVOLVE THOUGH AN ARC OF 50.26 SECONDS

IN ITS ORBIT, SO THE TROPICAL YEAR ( YEAR OF SEASONS ) IS 20 MINUTES
SHORTER THAN THE SIDERIAL YEAR.

1. A cycle of four yugas takes 25765 years ( instead of 4,230,000 ).

2. Precession of the earth is approx. 50.26 seconds every year.. .( 1 degree is 60 minutes and
1minute is 60 seconds )
3. The 25765 years is divided into 4 yugas in a ratio of 4:3:2:1. ( satya/ treta/ dwapara/ kali )
.
4. Dharma walks on four feet in Krutha/Satya Yuga, on 3 feet in Tretha Yuga, on two feet
in Dwapara Yuga and one foot in Kaliyuga- this is an allegory.
5. The yugas during the approach to Vishnunabhi are ‘ascending’ yugas; those during the
retreat from Vishnunabhi ‘descending’ yugas.
6. The Hindu Puranas describe a number of cycles within cycles, with and cycle measured
in different types of units .
7. A cycle of four yugas takes 25765 years , instead of 4,230000.
8. Sanatana dharma came under the code of Saraswati river vedic influence by 9500
BC. At this time the whole of the white mans’s world was under 1 kilometer of hard
ice– and India ruled the whole world.

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The first point of Pisces is the place where the equinoxial cuts the ecliptic. 0n 2286 BC the
zodiac of taurius ( indian rishabham / aldebaran )) is over– it existed only from 4435 BC to 2286
BC — the age from 2286 BC is aries, ( indian medam / hamal )) the ram till 137 BC . From 137
BC to 2012 AD it is the age of pisces( indian eenam ) .

From 2012 AD it is aquarius ( indian kumbam )– a new age, new sunrise at spring equinox —
precession of the equinoxes.

360 degrees = 360*60 minutes = 360*60*60 seconds of arc = 1296000 seconds of arc.

1296000 seconds of arc/50.26 seconds of arc/year = 25785.91 years. It takes 25785.91 years for
1 full circle – ‘ for Revati to ‘return”

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Morally. The Maharishis felt that the DNA would be degraded and pineal glands atrophied.

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Here are the 27 nakshatras

Malayalam name
# Sanskrit മലയാളം Western star name

Aśvinī Ashvati
1 अविनी അശ്വതി β and γ Arietis

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 Bharaṇī Bharaṇi
2 भरणी ഭരണി 35, 39, and 41 Arietis

Kṛttikā Kārttika
3 कृवत्तका കാർത്തിക Pleiades

Rohiṇī Rōhiṇi
4 रोवहणी രരാഹിണി Aldebaran

Mṛgaśiras Makayiram
5 म्रृगर्शीर्ाद മകയിരം λ, φ Orionis

Ātira or Tiruvātira
Ārdrā ആതിര
6 आद्रा (തിരുവാതിര) Betelgeuse

Punarvasu Puṇartam
7 पुनिदसु പുണർതം Castor and Pollux

Puṣya Pūyam
8 पुष्य പൂയം γ, δ and θ Cancri

Aśleṣā Āyilyam
9 आश्ळे र्ा / आश्लेर्ा ആയില്യം δ, ε, η, ρ, and σ Hydrae

Maghā Makam
10 मघा മകം Regulus

Pūrva or Pūrva
Phalguṇī Pūram
11 पूिद फाल्गुनी പൂരം δ and θ Leonis

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 Uttara or Uttara
Phalguṇī Utram
12 उत्तर फाल्गुनी ഉത്തം Denebola

Hasta Attam
13 हस्त അത്തം α, β, γ, δ and ε Corvi

Citrā Chittira (Chitra)

14 वित्रा14 ചിത്തിര (ചിത്ത) Spica

Svāti Chōti
15 स्वावत രചാതി Arcturus

Viśākha Vishākham
16 विर्शाखा വിശ്ാഖം α, β, γ and ι Librae

Anurādhā Anizham
17 अनुरािा അനിഴം β, δ and π Scorpionis

Jyeṣṭha Kēṭṭa (Trikkēṭṭa)

18 ज्येष्ठा രകട്ട (തൃരേട്ട) α, σ, and τ Scorpionis

Mūla Mūlam ε, ζ, η, θ,
19 मूल/मूळ മൂല്ം ι, κ, λ, μ and ν Scorpionis

Pūrvāṣāḍha Pūrāṭam
20 पूिाद र्ाढा പൂരാടം δ and ε Sagittarii

Uttarāṣāḍha Utrāṭam
21 उत्तरार्ाढा ഉത്താടം ζ and σ Sagittarii

Tiruvōnam
22 α, β and γ Aquilae
Śravaṇa ഓണം

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 श्रिण (തിരുരവാണം)

Śraviṣṭhā or Dhaniṣṭha Aviṭṭam

23 श्रविष्ठा or िवनष्ठा അവിട്ടം α to δ Delphinus

Śatabhiṣak or
Śatatārakā Chatayam
24 र्शतवभर्क् / र्शततारका ചതയം γ Aquarii

Pūrva Bhādrapadā Pūruruṭṭāti

25 पूिदभाद्रपदा / पूिदप्रोष्ठपदा പൂരുരുട്ടാതി α and β Pegasi

Uttara Bhādrapadā
उत्तरभाद्रपदा / Uttṛṭṭāti
26 उत्तरप्रोष्ठपदा ഉത്തട്ടാതി γ Pegasi and α Andromedae

Revatī Rēvati
27 रे िती രരവതി ζ Piscium

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Have you heard about star of “David”- That is a copy of below Hinduism science.The Jews are
proud of their 6 pointed star, the Nazis are proud of their Swastika symbol.Let me tell them–
both are ancient Hindus symbols.The Star of David is the ancient Hindu symbol of Shiva
merging with Shakti.The Swastika symbol is found on the palm of Lord Ganesha the son of Lord
Shiva.

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SOUNDARYA LAHARI BY ADI SHANKARACHARYA 2000 BC

The nutation of earth ( nodding motion– flower type ) happens because of gravitational
attraction of other bodies that cause the precession of the equinoxes to vary over time so that the
speed of precession is not constant.

The Lotus moving in a circle on its supple stalk represents PRECESSION of planet earth.

LORD BRAHMA - HINDU GOD OF CREATION:The Birth of Brahma from the Naval of
Vishnu

According to the Puranas, Brahma is a self-born from a lotus flower which grew from the navel
of Vishnu at the beginning of the universe. Thus comes one of his names Nabhija (born from the
navel). Another legend says that Brahma was born in water. In this he deposited a seed that later
became the golden egg. From the golden egg, Brahma, the creator was born, as Hiranyagarbha.
The remaining materials of this golden egg expanded into the Brahm-anda or Universe.

Being born in water, Brahma is also called Kanja (born in water). Brahma is said also to be the
son of the Supreme Being, Brahman and the female energy known as Prakrti or Maya.

The Great Hindu Trinity: The Trimurti-Shiva, Brahma & Vishnu

Brahma is traditionally depicted with four heads, four faces and four arms. With each head he
continually recites one of the four Vedas. He is often depicted with a white beard, indicating the
near eternal nature of his existence. He is shown as having four arms, with none holding a
weapon, unlike most other Hindu Gods. One of his hands is shown holding a scepter in the form
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of a spoon, which is associated with the pouring of holy ghee or oil into a sacrificial pyre -
indicating the fact that Brahma is the lord of sacrifices. Another of his hands holds a water-pot
(sometimes depicted as a coconut shell containing water). The significance of the water is that it
is the initial, all-encompassing ether in which the first element of creation evolved. Brahma also
holds a string of malas that he uses to keep track of the Universe's time. He also is shown
holding the Vedas, and sometimes, a lotus flower.

Another story in connection with Brahma's four heads is that when Brahma was creating the
universe, he made a female deity known as Shatarupa (one with a hundred beautiful forms).
Brahma became immediately infatuated. Shatarupa moved in various directions to avoid the gaze
of Brahma. But wherever she went, Brahma developed a head. Thus, Brahma developed five
heads, one on each side and one above the others.

In order to control Brahma, Shiva cut off the top head. Also, Shiva felt that Shatarupa was
Brahma's daughter/son, being created by him. Therefore, Shiva determined, it was wrong for
Brahma to become obsessed with her. He directed that there be no proper worship in India for
the "unholy" Brahma. Thus, only Vishnu and Shiva continue to be worshipped, while Brahma is
almost totally ignored. Ever since the incident, Brahma has been reciting the four Vedas in his
attempt at repentance.

The Bhagavata Purana includes a story wherein the Brahma of our universe is called
by Krishna to meet with the Brahmas of other worlds, some of which have many more than four
heads, counting into the many thousands in some instances for Brahma's in control of universes
much larger than our own.

Brahma's vehicle is a divine Swan. This divine bird is bestowed with a virtue called Neera-
Ksheera Viveka or the ability to sep, this virtue indicates that one should learn to separate the
good from the evil, then accept that which is valuable and discard that which is worthless or evil.

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 Depiction of Sri Padmanabha (Lord Vishnu)

Based on the description in scriptures, idols and paintings of different Gods and Goddesses were
developed and portrayed by our ancestors.

The painter portrayed Lord Vishnu like this - there is a sheer sagar (ocean of milk) with a bed of
snakes, on which Maha Vishnu, the lord, rests.

Sheer sagar is the blissful mind, the mind in which waves of contentment arise.

The snake represents an awakened state of mind, kundalini shakti, that is within us.

The consciousness rests in the blissful and awakened state of mind.

There are three layers to it.The ocean of milk means that the environment is very balanced. Only
when the environment is favorable can samadhi (deep meditation) happen. Even for the
discussion of scriptures or to sit and think peacefully, one needs to be assured that the
atmosphere is free from trouble. If there is a flood or earthquake around, then no one would read
scriptures or talk of research and knowledge. Thus the ocean of milk represents a favorable
environment. Until the depth of knowledge is experienced, it remains on the surface. No matter
how many Vedantas one reads, it is important to have a favorable environment.

When the kundalini shakti rises, the chaitanya shakti that lies within us, the infinite and eternal
reigns. From the stomach of that infinite power, a lotus comes out effortlessly, from which
Brahma appeared. Thus the creative power rose from there.

A blissful consciousness gives rise to creative power. The greatest of scientists came up with
new inventions, only when they were in rest. It is extremely vital for researchers and those who
experiment to have a favorable environment, one without noise and chaos. You cannot ask
someone to do an invention in two days. Invention is not bound to time and cannot take place in
an unfavorable environment.

Blue colour body

It means that the body is transparent as if it was not there. Even Krishna, Shiva, Rama are
depicted in blue. That doesn’t concern the physical body but inside is infinity. Whatever is
infinity is represented by blue: sky is blue, ocean is blue, the great, the big, enormous depth and
that bliss, that being- the soul.

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Padmanabha

In Sanskrit,
Padma = Lotus
Nabhi = Navel

Padmanabha means whose navel is the size of lotus. Lord Vishnu is known as Sri Padmanabha.

The navel is also called the second brain. There are two brains in our body. One is the head and
the other, the navel. It is called the solar plexus. The work that brain does is supported by the
solar plexus. Half of the work is done by it. That is why when the stomach is upset, mostly there
is chaos in the mind, there are a lot of thoughts in the mind.

So it is said, those who practice yoga sadhana have a blossomed solar plexus. Those who don't
practice yoga sadhana have a solar plexus smaller in size like that of an amlakundalini shakti is
fully, it is even bigger than an orange – it is like a blossomed lotus. (Indian Gooseberry). The
solar plexus grows to the size of an orange for those who do yoga sadhana and meditation.

Lord Vishnu is depicted lying down, and a lotus comes out of his navel, followed by
Brahma. Creation came later, first the strength to nurture was born. (In Hindu philosophy,
Vishnu is considered to be the sustainer of the universe and Brahma is considered as the creator
of the universe).

Many people believe that God is tired after working. No, no! For God, creation is effortless. Like
for a housewife, making tea is effortless – she can talk, sing and still make the tea.

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 CHAPTER XI
GAURI or MAHALAXMI PUJA RITUALS

Raja Ravi Varma's Gaja Lakshmi

Gauri Puja
The Gauri Pujan takes place during the Ganeshotsav festival in Maharashtra. Many devotees,
who bring home an idol of Bappa, also perform the Gauri Puja by installing two identical statues
of the Goddess. However, only families that have been traditionally doing this puja do it and not
all those devotees, who worship Ganesha. This Puja takes place after the Gauri avahana on the
previous day and concludes with the Visarjan on the next day.
This year, the Jyeshtha Gauri Puja Muhurat begins at 6:01 AM and ends at 6:37 PM.

Before we go to the Mahalxmi Puja of Maharashtrians let us study the divine thought behind it.
In Hinduism, Lakshmi is the Goddess who leads to one's goal, or lakshya (hence her name),
and was first mentioned in the Śrī Sūkta of the Rigveda. She is both the wife and divine energy
(shakti) of Vishnu, one of the principal deities of Hinduism and the Supreme Being in
the Vaishnava tradition. She is often depicted with Saraswati and Parvati as forming the holy
trinity (Tridevi). For mankind, 8 types of goals (lakshmi) are necessary according to Hinduism:

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spiritual enlightenment, food, knowledge, resources, progeny, abundance, patience, and success.
Hence there are Ashta Lakshmis ('Eight Lakshmis'): Aadi ('primeval'), Dhaanya ('grain'), Vidya
('knowledge'), Dhana ('money'), Santaana ('progeny'), Gaja ('elephant'), Dhairya ('courage'), and
Vijaya ('victorious') Lakshmi. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the
recognition and reverence for Lakshmi existing by the 1st millennium BCE. Lakshmi's
iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia,
estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals
of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor.

Lakshmi in Sanskrit is derived from the root word lakṣ and lakṣa , meaning 'to perceive,
observe, know, understand' and 'goal, aim, objective', respectively. These roots give Lakshmi the
symbolism: know and understand your goal. A related term is lakṣaṇa, which means 'sign, target,
aim, symbol, attribute, quality, lucky mark, auspicious opportunity'.

Lakshmi

Goddess of Good Fortune, Wealth, Fertility, Prosperity and Jo. Member of Tridevi

Other names

Sri, Nārāyini, Bhudevi, Nila Devi, Vaishnavi, Kamala, Hemamayi,

Padmaja, Padmavathi, Ramā, Vedavati, Tulsi, Vishnupatni, Vārāhi, Krushnayi,
Dharitri, Vaikuntha Vasini

Devanagari-लक्ष्मी

Affiliation-Devi, Tridevi, Ashta Lakshmi

Abode-Vaikuntha or Vishnuloka

Mantra-।।ॐ श्रीं वश्रयें नमोः ।।

Symbols-Padma, gold, coins, elephants, etc.

Mount-White owl and Elephant

Festivals-Diwali (Lakshmi Puja), Sharad Purnima, Varalakshmi Vratam

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 Personal information

Siblings-Alakshmi

Consort-Vishnu

Children-Kamadeva (according to some texts) Narakasura and 18 others (as Bhūmi)

Lakshmi Pooja , is a Hindu religious festival that falls on Amavasya (new moon day) of
Krishna Paksha (Dark fortnight) in the Vikram Samvat Hindu calendar month of Ashwin, on the
third day of Deepawali and is considered as the main festive day of Deepawali.

According to legend, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and lord Vishnu's wife, visits her devotees
and bestows gifts and blessings upon each of them. To welcome the Goddess, devotees clean
their houses, decorate them with finery and lights, and prepare sweet treats and delicacies as
offerings. Devotees believe the happier Lakshmi is with the visit, the more she blesses the family
with health and wealth. In Bengal Lokkhi Pujo or Laxmi puja is performed on Sharada Purnima
day ,the full moon day following Vijaya Dashami. This puja is also known as Kojagori Lokkhi
pujo. Women worship Maa Laxmi in the evening after cleaning their house and decorating the
floor of their houses with alpona. Diwali Puja Vidhi: Step-by-step guide to perfectly
perform Lakshmi puja at home

However the Goddess is worshipped in August month amid ten-day Ganesh festival, three
days of Mahalaxmi puja are the most looked forward to, at least in this part of the state. What
adds grace to this ritual are the sentiments behind it. Though the scriptures have no mention of
Mahalaxmi puja, these nakshatra-based celebrations are held with utmost care and piety.
Anuradha nakshatra in the month of Bhadrapad marks the arrival of the goddess Laxmi, the puja
and mahanaivaidya are held during the Jyeshtha nakshatra and visarjan in the Mul nakshatra on
three consecutive days.The festival has a bigger social dimension than a religious one and thus it
is not restricted to any particular caste.

The scale of celebrations in Vidarbha is much larger than in Konkan or western parts of
Maharashtra where it is celebrated as Khadya cha Mahalaxmi. This itself marks the difference in
grandeur as in Konkan the practice is to collect stones from the river bed and bring them into the
house where they are kept at the altar and worshipped for three days. The prasad too is a simple
ghawan ghatala, a preparation made from rice flour, sugar and coconut.But in Vidarbha the
celebrations boast of lineage, tradition and scale.

Households here welcome goddess Kanishta and Jyeshtha Gauri along with their children as one
would welcome a daughter on a visit to her maiden home. "Religious celebrations are done with
care but if you add this dimension of treating the goddess like your daughter then the levels of
excitement rise," says Gauri Chandrayan, a state government employee in whose home four

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generations ofwomen, 80 years to two years of age, collectively prepare for the festivities.
"There are no restrictions of caste in these celebrations. In fact, we worship and feed a Brahmin
woman and one of other caste during these festivities," says Gauri.If festivals are all about
feasting then this one is quintessential. The elaborate meal served to nearly 100 people and the
fulora or snacks items prepared specially as an offering to the goddess are all done with care and
effort. "Distribution of prasad has always been the social angle of a religious ritual. Family
andfriendsbeing fed after a puja and women coming for haldi kumkum are social gatherings,"
saysNutanChandrayan, a young housewife who is part of the large scale celebrations that take
place at her in-laws place.

The ever-increasing scale is also getting irksome for many.Sunanda Deosarkar, a homemaker
whose family observes an elaborate Mahalaxmi puja, says the focus has now shifted to social
rather than religious. "We now see rank outsiders coming in and asking us if they could have
darshan," she says with bewilderment. Mahalaxmi puja is usually restricted to family members
when all members of the clan come together to prepare and partake the prasad. "But now the
trend is to invite friends and neighbours too. That's the reason why caterers and pandits are
engaged to prepare food and fulora," she adds.Having the last word on the changing times,
woman priest Jayshree Khandekar says, "Mahalaxmi prasad is actually ambil made of jowari.
This is so that the poorest of poor can also welcome the goddess. The festivities also involve
only members of the clan. Today everybody wants to flaunt their prosperity. So the number of
invitees and the scale of feast have grown."

In India
Lakshmi is believed to roam the earth on the night of Lakshmi Pooja. On the evening of Lakshmi
Pooja, people open their doors and windows to welcome Lakshmi, and place diya lights on their
windowsills and balcony ledges to invite her in.
People wear new clothes or their best outfits as the evening approaches. Then diyas are lit, pujas
are offered to Lakshmi, and to one or more additional deities depending on the region of India;
typically Ganesha, Saraswati, and Kubera. Lakshmi symbolises wealth and prosperity, and her
blessings are invoked for a good year ahead.
On this day, the mothers, who work hard all year, are recognized by the family. Mothers are seen
to embody a part of Lakshmi, the good fortune and prosperity of the household.[4] Small
earthenware lamps filled with oil are lighted and placed in rows by some Hindus along the
parapets of temples and houses. Some set diyas adrift on rivers and streams. Important
relationships and friendships are also recognized during the day, by visiting relatives and friends,
exchanging gifts and sweets.
It is popularly believed that Lakshmi likes cleanliness and will visit the cleanest house first.
Hence, the broom is worshiped with offerings of haldi (turmeric) and sindoor (vermilion) on this
day. Lakshmi Puja consists of a combined puja of five deities: Ganesha is worshiped at the
beginning of every auspicious act as Vighneshvara; goddess Lakshmi is worshiped in her three
forms; Mahalakshmi the goddess of wealth and money, Mahasaraswati the goddess of books and
learning, and Mahakali. Kubera the treasurer of the gods is also worshiped.
The most auspicious time for the puja is decided when “amavasya tithi” prevails during “pradosh
kaal” or the evening time. On this day, the sun enters its second course and passes the
constellation Libra, which is represented by the balance or scale. Hence, the sign of Libra is
believed to suggest the balancing and closing of account books.

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After the puja, people go outside and celebrate by lighting up fireworks. The children
enjoy sparklers and variety of small fireworks, while adults enjoy playing with ground chakra,
Vishnu chakra, flowerpots (anaar), sutli bomb, chocolate bomb, rockets and bigger fireworks.
The fireworks signify celebration of Diwali as well a way to chase away evil spirits. After
fireworks, people head back to a family feast, conversations and mithai (sweets, desserts). People
also perform vaibhava Lakshmi vrat for only one day it is believed that doing vrat on Diwali
gives the blessings of vrat doing it for 21 times. Vaibhavalakshmi Vrat (Pious Observance &
Worship of Laxmi) is also celebrated in many parts of India in the month of Margashirsha (ninth
month of Hindu Calendar) every Friday. Vaibhav means “Prosperity and Wealth” and hence
Goddess Vaibhavalakshmi is believed to protect the devotees from misfortunes and grant them
grace, happiness, wealth and prosperity.

Vaibhavalakshmi Poojan (Worship) is held at Juinagar, Maharashtra, India by Sadguru Shree

Aniruddha Upasana Trust (Mumbai, India) every year with great enthusiasm. Thousands of
devotees participate in this poojan and carry out the rituals with discipline and in harmony.

Puja Procedure
Before beginning the puja, Hindus consider it important to cleanse and purify the space where
the Puja is being carried out. For this, “Guggal” or Loban (Benzoin) is lighted using either coal
or dried pan cakes made of cowdung. Its incense armotic fumes are considered to purify the
atmosphere. However instead, Readmade Dhoop Cones brought from market are also used.
Once the place is smoked and cleansed, the puja begins by laying down a piece of new cloth on a
raised platform. Handfuls of grains are sprayed in the center of the cloth and a kalasha made of
gold, silver, or copper is placed on top. Three-quarters of the kalasha is filled with water and
betel nut, a flower, a coin, and a few rice grains are added to it. Five kinds of leaves are arranged
(if a specified species is not available, leaves from a mango tree are used) and a small dish filled
with rice grains is placed on the kalasha. A lotus is drawn over the rice grains with turmeric
powder and the idol of Goddess Lakshmi is placed over the top of the kalasha, and coins are
placed around it.

The idol of Lord Ganesha is placed in front of the kalasha, on the right hand side pointing
towards the south-west. Ink and business account books of the worshippers are kept on the
platform. Specially blended oils made for puja are used with its ingredients varying, depending
on the deity it's being offered to. A “Panchmukhi Diya” (Five faced lamp) accommodating 5
wicks are lit for this purpose. A special lamp is then lit in front of Lord Ganesha.
The puja begins by offering turmeric, kumkuma and flowers to the Goddess Lakshmi. Then
haldi, kumkum, and flowers are offered to the water, later used for the puja. The river
goddess Saraswati is invoked to become part of that water. Goddess Lakshmi is worshiped and
invoked by reciting Vedic mantras, hymns and prayers addressed to her. Her idol is placed in a
plate and is bathed with panchamrita (a mixture of milk, curd, ghee or clarified butter, honey,
and sugar) and then with water containing a gold ornament or a pearl. Her idol is cleaned and
placed back on the kalasha. A special lamp is then lit in front of Goddess Lakshmi.
Offerings of sandal paste, saffron paste, garland of cotton beads or flowers, ittar (perfume),
turmeric, kumkum, abir, and gulal are then made to the Goddess Lakshmi. Flowers and garlands,
such as Lotus, Marigold, Rose, Chrysanthemum and leaves of Bael (wood apple tree) are also

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offered. An incense stick is lit and dhoop is given to her. An offering of sweets, coconut, fruits,
and tambul is made later. Puffed rice and batasha (varieties of Indian sweets) are placed near the
idol. Puffed rice, batasha, coriander seeds, and cumin seeds are poured or offered to her idol.
In villages, a pot made of bamboo-canes measuring the paddy known as Nana' is filled up to the
brink with freshly harvest paddy. Rice and lentils are also kept with the paddy. The `Mana' is the
symbol of Mahalakshmi. Adoration of the Goddess is done by offering fruits, coconut, banana,
doob-grass, amla, curd, turmeric, flowers, incense etc. It is customary to read out the holy book,
the Eulogy, “Lakshmi Puran” while performing the pooja.
A Swastika symbol is also then drawn on the safe or vault in which the devotee keeps their
valuables and it is worshiped as a symbol of Lord Kubera.
Towards the end of the ritual, Aarti is performed which is dedicated to Goddess Lakshmi. The
Aarti is accompanied by a small bell and is performed in a silent and sublime atmosphere. In
Hindu religion, Lakshmi emerged from the churning of the primordial ocean (Samudra
manthan), choosing Vishnu as her eternal consort.[4] As mentioned in Vishnu Purana, when
Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended
as Sita, Rukmini, and Satyabama. Lakshmi is also known by the honorific Shri, as she is
endowed with six auspicious qualities (guṇas). She represents the material world of the earthly
realm as the mother goddess, referred to as Prithvi Mata; she is also known by her twin identities
as Bhudevi and Sridevi, and in another form, as Nila Devi.

In Bengali Hindu culture, Lakshmi is considered as the daughter of Durga. She is also an
important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples. Additionally, in Buddhism, she has been
viewed as a Goddess of abundance and fortune, and is represented on the oldest
surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal, and Southeast
Asia, Lakshmi Goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics and attributes of the Hindu
Goddess, with minor iconographic differences. Lakshmi is depicted in Indian art as an elegantly
dressed, prosperity-showering golden-coloured woman with an owl as her vehicle, signifying the
importance of economic activity in maintenance of life, her ability to move, work and prevail in
confusing darkness. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a lotus pedestal, while holding a
lotus in her hand, symbolizing fortune, self-knowledge, and spiritual liberation. Her iconography
shows her with four hands, which represent the four aspects of human life important to Hindu
culture: dharma, kāma, artha, and moksha.

In Hindu text

A painting of Lakshmi on the inner walls of the Tanjore Big temple.

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Lakshmi (Lakṣmī) is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in
ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, in which the name is used to
mean 'kindred mark, sign of auspicious fortune'.

भद्रै र्ां लक्ष्मीवनदवहतावि िावि "an auspicious fortune is attached to their words"
bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmīrnihitādhi vāci

—Rig Veda, x.71.2

In Atharva Veda, transcribed about 1000 BCE, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with
plural manifestations. Book 7, Chapter 115 of Atharva Veda describes the plurality, asserting
that a hundred Lakshmis are born with the body of a mortal at birth, some
good, punya ('virtuous') and auspicious, while others bad, paapi ('evil') and unfortunate. The
good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. The concept and spirit of Lakshmi and her
association with fortune and the good is significant enough that Atharva Veda mentions it in
multiple books: for example, in Book 12, Chapter 5 as punya Lakshmi. In some chapters of
Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, an auspicious sign, good luck, good fortune,
prosperity, success and happiness.

Later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as
wife of Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be
composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in
ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges
from Prajapati, after his intense meditation on creation of life and nature of universe. Sri is
described as a resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy and
powers. The gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The
gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents and
gifts. Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek
her gifts without violence. The gods then approach Lakshmi, deity Agni gets food, Soma gets
kingly authority, Varuna gets imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets
force, Brihaspati gets priestly authority, Savitri acquires dominion, Pushan gets
splendour, Saraswati takes nourishment and Tvashtri gets forms. The hymns of Shatapatha
Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents
and powers.

According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water
on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as wife of Dharma,
mother of Kāma, sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine
Shaktis of Viṣṇu, a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharatasrama and
as Sita, wife of Rama.

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In the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches,
happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendor. In another Hindu legend, about the creation of
universe as described in Ramayana Lakshmi springs with other precious things from the foam of
the ocean of milk when it is churned by the gods and demons for the recovery of Amṛta. She
appeared with a lotus in her hand and so she is also called Padmā.

Bas relief of GajaLakshmi at the Buddhist Sanchi Stupa, Stupa I, North gateway, Satavahana
dynasty sculpture, 1st century CE.

Lakshmi is a member of the Tridevi, the triad of great Goddesses. She represents the Rajas guna,
and the Iccha-shakti.

The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is
derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective. Her four
arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in
Hinduism: dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of
life), kama (pursuit of love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge,
liberation).

In Lakshmi's iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a
lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian
traditions. It symbolises knowledge, self-realisation, and liberation in Vedic context, and
represents reality, consciousness and karma ('work, deed') in the Tantra (Sahasrara) context. The
lotus, a flower that blooms in clean or dirty water, also symbolises purity regardless of the good
or bad circumstances in which it grows. It is a reminder that good and prosperity can bloom and
not be affected by evil in one's surrounding.

Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is very often shown with one or two elephants, known
as Gajalakshmi, and occasionally with an owl. Elephants symbolise work, activity and strength,
as well as water, rain and fertility for abundant prosperity. The owl signifies the patient striving
to observe, see and discover knowledge particularly when surrounded by darkness. As a bird
reputedly blinded by daylight, the owl also serves as a symbolic reminder to refrain from
blindness and greed after knowledge and wealth has been acquired.

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Manuscript painting of Gaja-Lakshmi, ca 1780 AD.// Gaja Lakshmi, Cambodia, ca. 944-
968

In some representations, wealth either symbolically pours out from one of her hands or she
simply holds a jar of money. This symbolism has a dual meaning: wealth manifested through
Lakshmi means both materials as well as spiritual wealth. Her face and open hands are in a
mudra that signifies compassion, giving or dāna ('charity').

Lakshmi typically wears a red dress embroidered with golden threads, symbolizes fortune and
wealth. She, goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often represented with her husband Vishnu, the
god who maintains human life filled with justice and peace. This symbolism implies wealth and
prosperity is coupled with maintenance of life, justice, and peace.

In Japan, where Lakshmi is known as Kisshōten, she is commonly depicted with the Nyoihōju
gem in her hand.

Nomenclature:

Lakshmi has numerous names and numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite her
various names:

 Padmā: She of the lotus (she who is mounted upon or dwelling in a lotus)
 Kamalā or Kamalatmika: She of the lotus
 Padmapriyā: Lotus-lover
 Padmamālādhāra Devī: Goddess bearing a garland of lotuses
 Padmamukhī: Lotus-faced (she whose face is as like as a lotus)
 Padmākṣī: Lotus-eyed (she whose eyes are as beautiful as a lotus)
 Padmahasta: Lotus-hand (she whose hand is holding [a] lotus[es])
 Padmasundarī: She who is as beautiful as a lotus
 Sri: Radiance, eminence, splendor, wealth
 Śrījā: Jatika of Sri
 Viṣṇupriyā: Lover of Vishnu (she who is the beloved of Vishnu)
 Ulūkavāhinī: Owl-mounted (she who is riding an owl)
 Nandika: The one who gives pleasure, vessel made up of clay and Vishnupriya (she who is
the beloved of Vishnu)

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Her other names include:[37] Aishwarya, Akhila, Anagha, Anumati, Apara, Aruna, Atibha,
Avashya, Bala, Bhargavi, Bhudevi, Chakrika, Chanchala, Devi, Haripriya, Indira, Jalaja,
Jambhavati, Janamodini, Jyoti, Jyotsna, Kalyani, Kamalika, Ketki, Kriyalakshmi, Kuhu, Lalima,
Madhavi, Madhu, Malti, Manushri, Nandika, Nandini, Nila Devi, Nimeshika, Parama, Prachi,
Purnima, Ramaa, Rukmini, Samruddhi, Satyabhama, Shreeya, Sita, Smriti, Sridevi, Sujata,
Swarna Kamala, Taruni, Tilottama, Tulasi, Vaishnavi, Vasuda, Vedavati, Vidya, and Viroopa.

Upanishads

Shakta Upanishads are dedicated to the Trinity (Tridevi) of goddesses—

Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati. Saubhagyalakshmi Upanishad describes the qualities,
characteristics and powers of Lakshmi. In the second part of the Upanishad, the emphasis shifts
to the use of yoga and transcendence from material craving in order to achieve spiritual
knowledge and self-realisation, the true wealth. Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad synonymously
uses Sri to describe Lakshmi.

Stotram and sutras

Numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite hymns dedicated to Lakshmi. She is a
major goddess in Puranas and Itihasa of Hinduism. In ancient scriptures of India, all women are
declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. For example

Every woman is an embodiment of you.

You exist as little girls in their childhood,
As young women in their youth
And as elderly women in their old age.

— Sri Kamala Stotram

Every woman is an emanation of you.

— Sri Daivakrta Laksmi Stotram

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Hindu Goddess Lakshmi

Ancient prayers dedicated to Lakshmi seek both material and spiritual wealth in prayers.[37]

Through illusion,
A person can become disconnected,
From his higher self,
Wandering about from place to place,
Bereft of clear thought,
Lost in destructive behaviour.
It matters not how much truth,
May shine forth in the world,
Illuminating the entire creation,
For one cannot acquire wisdom,
Unless it is experienced,
Through the opening on the heart....

Puranas

Lakshmi features prominently in Puranas of Hinduism. Vishnu Purana, in particular, dedicates

many sections to her and also refers to her.Sri, loyal to Vishnu, is the mother of the world.
Vishnu is the meaning, Sri is the speech. She is the conduct, he the behavior. Vishnu is
knowledge, she the insight. He is dharma, she the virtuous action. She is the earth, he earth's
upholder. She is contentment, he the satisfaction. She wishes, he is the desire. Sri is the sky,

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Vishnu the Self of everything. He is the moon, she the light of moon. He is the ocean, she is the
shore.

Subhasita, Genomic and Didactic Literature

Lakshmi, along with Parvati and Saraswati, is a subject of extensive Subhashita, genomic and
didactic literature of India.[43] Composed in the 1st millennium BC through the 16th century AD,
they are short poems, proverbs, couplets, or aphorisms in Sanskrit written in a precise meter.
They sometimes take the form of dialogue between Lakshmi and Vishnu or highlight the
spiritual message in Vedas and ethical maxims from Hindu Epics through Lakshmi.[43] An
example Subhashita is Puranartha Samgraha, compiled by Vekataraya in South India, where
Lakshmi and Vishnu discuss niti ('right, moral conduct') and rajaniti ('statesmanship' or 'right
governance')—covering in 30 chapters and ethical and moral questions about personal, social
and political life.

Vishnu resting on the ocean accompanied by Lakshmi/ A manuscript depicting Samudra

Manthan, with Lakshmi emerging with the lotus in her hands. Diwali celebrations
include puja (prayers) to Lakshmi and Ganesha. Lakshmi is of the Vaishnavism tradition,
while Ganesha of the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism.

Devi Lakshmi is worshipped as:

 Ambabai in the Kolhapur Shakti peetha,

 Mookambika in Kollur (Karnataka),
 Bhagavathi in Chottanikkara Temple (Kerala),
 Sri Kanaka Maha Lakshmi in Vishakhapatnam.

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In eastern India, Lakshmi is seen as a Devi. Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati are typically
conceptualised as distinct in most of India, but in states such as West Bengal and Odisha, they
are regionally believed to be forms of Durga.

Lakshmi is seen in two forms, Bhudevi and Sridevi, both at the sides of Sri Venkateshwara or
Vishnu. Bhudevi is the representation and totality of the material world or energy, called
the Apara Prakriti, or Mother Earth; Sridevi is the spiritual world or energy called the Prakriti.

Inside temples, Lakshmi is often shown together with Krishna. In certain parts of India, Lakshmi
plays a special role as the mediator between her husband Vishnu and his worldly devotees. When
asking Vishnu for grace or forgiveness, the devotees often approach Him through the
intermediary presence of Lakshmi. She is also the personification of spiritual
fulfillment. Lakshmi embodies the spiritual world, also known as Vaikunta, the abode of
Lakshmi-Narayana or what would be considered heaven in Vaishnavism. Lakshmi is the
embodiment of the creative energy of Vishnu, and primordial Prakriti who creates the
universe.[49]

In South India, she is also worshipped as Andal, an incarnation of Lakshmi.

Secondary manifestations

Ashta Lakshmi is a group of eight secondary manifestations of Lakshmi. The Ashta Lakshmi
preside over eight sources of wealth and thus represent the eight powers of Shri Lakshmi.
Temples dedicated to Ashta Lakshmi are found in Tamil Nadu, such as Ashtalakshmi Kovil near
Chennai and in many other states of India.

Ashta Lakshmi

Adi Lakshmi The First manifestation of Lakshmi

Dhanya Lakshmi Granary Wealth

Veera Lakshmi Wealth of Courage

Gaja Lakshmi Elephants spraying water, wealth of fertility, rains and food.[52]

Santana Lakshmi Wealth of Continuity, Progeny

Vidya Lakshmi Wealth of Knowledge and Wisdom

Vijaya Lakshmi Wealth of Victory

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Dhana / Aishwarya Lakshmi Wealth of prosperity and fortune

Other secondary representations of the goddess include Lakshmi manifesting in three forms: Sri
Devi, Bhudevi and Nila Devi. This threefold goddess can be found, for example, in Sri Bhu
Neela Sahita Temple near Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh, and in Adinath Swami Temple in
Tamil Nadu.

In Nepal, Mahalakshmi is shown with 18 hands, each holding a sacred emblem, expressing a
sacred gesture, or forming a mudra (lotus, pot, mudra of blessing, book, rosary, bell, shield, bow,
arrow, sword, trident, mudra of admonition, noose, skull cap and kettledrum.)[54] In this
representation, Mahalakshmi manifests as a kind, compassionate, tranquil deity sitting not on a
lotus, but on a lion.

Jain tradition

Gaja Lakshmi at Shravanabelagola Temple, Karnataka.

Some Jain temples also depict Sri Lakshmi as a goddess of artha ('wealth') and kama ('pleasure').
For example, she is exhibited with Vishnu in Parshvanatha Jain Temple at the Khajuraho
Monuments of Madhya Pradesh, where she is shown pressed against Vishnu's chest, while
Vishnu cups a breast in his palm. The presence of Vishnu-Lakshmi iconography in a Jain temple
built near the Hindu temples of Khajuraho, suggests the sharing and acceptance of Lakshmi
across a spectrum of Indian religions.[55] This commonality is reflected in the praise of Lakshmi
found in the Jain text Kalpa Sūtra.

Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism. Amrita, the
divine nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning Kshirasagar ('Ocean of
Milk'). The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshirasagar with
Mount Mandhara. The samudra manthan commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras
on the other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise and a mountain was placed on the tortoise
as a churning pole. Vasuki, the great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the
mountain and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the

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churning. Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be
daughter of the sea god since she emerged from the sea.

In Garuda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana, Lakshmi is said to have been born as
daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyati and was named Bhargavi. According to
Vishnu Purana, the universe was created when the devas and asuras churn the cosmic
Kshirasagar. Lakshmi came out of the ocean bearing lotus, along with divine
cow Kamadhenu, Varuni, Parijat tree, Apsaras, Chandra (the moon),
and Dhanvantari with Amrita ('nectar of immortality'). When she appeared, she had a choice to
go to Devas or Asuras. She chose Devas' side and among thirty deities, she chose to be with
Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated.

Gaja Lakshmi Puja is another autumn festival celebrated on Sharad Purnima in many parts of
India on the full-moon day in the month of Ashvin (October).[21] Sharad Purnima, also called
Kojaagari Purnima or Kuanr Purnima, is a harvest festival marking the end of monsoon season.
There is a traditional celebration of the moon called the Kaumudi celebration, Kaumudi meaning
moonlight.[65] On Sharad Purnima night, goddess Lakshmi is thanked and worshipped for the
harvests. Vaibhav Lakshmi Vrata is observed on Friday for prosperity.

Countless hymns, prayers, shlokas, stotra, songs, and legends dedicated to Mahalakshmi are
recited during the ritual worship of Lakshmi. These include:

 Sri Lalitha Sahasranamam,

 Sri Mahalakshmi Ashtakam,
 Sri Lakshmi Sahasaranama Stotra (by Sanath kumara),
 Sri Stuti (by Sri Vedantha Desikar),
 Sri Lakshmi Stuti (by Indra),
 Sri Kanakadhāra Stotram (by Sri Adi Shankara),
 Sri Chatussloki (by Sri Yamunacharya),
 Narayani Stuti,
 Devi Mahatmyam Middle episode,
 Argala Stotra,
 Sri Lakshmi Sloka (by Bhagavan Sri Hari Swamiji), and
 Sri Sukta, which is contained in the Vedas and includes Lakshmi Gayatri Mantra ("Om Shree
Mahalakshmyai ca vidmahe Vishnu patnyai ca dheemahi tanno Lakshmi prachodayat Om").
Archeology:

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Greek-influenced statue of Gaja Lakshmi, holding lotus and cornucopia, flanked by two
elephants and two lions. From Kashmir, 6th century AD.

A representation of the goddess as Gaja Lakshmi or Lakshmi flanked by two elephants spraying
her with water, is one of the most frequently found in archaeological sites. An ancient sculpture
of Gaja Lakshmi (from Sonkh site at Mathura) dates to the pre-Kushan
Empire era.[17] Atranjikhera site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with
images of Lakshmi dating to 2nd century BCE. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi
terracotta figurines from the 1st millennium BCE include Vaisali, Sravasti, Kausambi, Campa,
and Candraketugadh.

The goddess Lakshmi is frequently found in ancient coins of various Hindu kingdoms from
Afghanistan to India. Gaja Lakshmi has been found on coins of Scytho-Parthian kings Azes
II and Azilises; she also appears on Shunga Empire king Jyesthamitra era coins, both dating to
1st millennium BCE. Coins from 1st through 4th century CE found in various locations in India
such as Ayodhya, Mathura, Ujjain, Sanchi, Bodh Gaya, Kanauj, all feature
Lakshmi.[68] Similarly, ancient Greco-Indian gems and seals with images of Lakshmi have been
found, estimated to be from 1st millennium BCE.

A 1400-year-old rare granite sculpture of Lakshmi has been recovered at the Waghama village
along Jehlum in Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir.

The Pompeii Lakshmi, a statuette supposedly thought to be of Lakshmi found in Pompeii, Italy,
dates to before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE.

China

In China, Lakshmi's name is written as Lāhākxīmǐ 'competed-gain hope rice').

Japan

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The Japanese goddess of fortune and prosperity, Kishijoten Auspicious Heavens'), corresponds
to Lakshmi.[72] Kishijoten is considered the sister of Bishamon , also known as Tamon or
Bishamon-ten), who protects human life, fights evil, and brings good fortune. In ancient and
medieval Japan, Kishijoten was the goddess worshiped for luck and prosperity, particularly on
behalf of children. Kishijoten was also the guardian goddess of Geishas.

While Bishamon and Kishijoten are found in ancient Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature,
their roots have been traced to deities in Hinduism.[72]

Tibet and Nepal

In Tibetan Buddhism, Lakshmi is an important deity, especially in the Gelug School. She has
both peaceful and wrathful forms; the latter form is known as Palden Lhamo, Shri Devi Dudsol
Dokam, or Kamadhatvishvari, and is the principal female protector of (Gelug) Tibetan Buddhism
and of Lhasa, Tibet.

Goddess Vasudhara in Tibetan and Nepalese culture is closely analogous to goddess Lakshmi as
well.

Bali (Indonesia)

Goddess Lakshmi is closely linked to Dewi Sri, who is worshipped in Bali as the goddess of
fertility and agriculture.

This day ‘Laxmi-panchayatan’ enters the Universe. Shri Vishnu, Shri Indra, Shri Kuber, Shri
Gajendra and Shri Laxmi are elements of this ‘panchayatan’ (a group of five). The tasks of these
elements are:

Vishnu : Happiness (happiness and satisfaction)

Indra : Opulence (satisfaction due to wealth)

Kuber : Wealth (one who gives away wealth)

Gajendra : Carries the wealth

Lakshmi : Divine Energy (Shakti) which provides energy to all the above activities.

Importance of Lakshmi Puja

A. Destruction of negative energies: On this particular day, Goddess Lakshmi’s destroyer

(marak) form is active, since it is the new moon day. The spiritual emotion of the person doing

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Lakshmi puja activates Goddess Lakshmi’s marak form and destroys the negative frequencies in
the environment.

B. Arrival of other Gods (Devtas): Lord Indra and other male deities also get drawn to the
place of ritualistic worship and follow Goddess Lakshmi. Thus happiness, opulence, prosperity,
stability and wealth is maintained in the premise (Vastu) by worshiping the 5 elements or Deities

– A scholar [through the medium of Pujya (Mrs.) Anjali Gadgil (18/5/05, 10.40 am)]

Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Diwali, the festival of lights. It is celebrated in autumn,
typically October or November every year. The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light
over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil and hope over despair.[61]

Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate and decorate their homes and offices.[62] On Diwali
night, Hindus dress up in new clothes or their best outfits, light up diyas (lamps and candles)
inside and outside their home, and participate in family puja (prayers) typically to Lakshmi.
After puja, fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai (sweets), and an exchange of
gifts between family members and close friends. Diwali also marks a major shopping period,
since Lakshmi connotes auspiciousness, wealth and prosperity. This festival dedicated to
Lakshmi is considered by Hindus to be one of the most important and joyous festivals of the
year.

On the day of Diwali, Lakshmi puja is performed at every Hindu household of the
country. Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth. The Lakshmi puja is performed in the evening
to invite Goddess Lakshmi at home. People pray and wish for peace, wealth and
prosperity in their and their family members life.
In case you want to perform Diwali puja / Lakshmi puja at home this year and don't know
the steps, check the guide provided below.

Diwali Puja Vidhi: Step-by-Step guide

Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 1: Purify your home

Diwali cleaning is very important. Clean every corner of your house. After cleaning,
sprinkle Gangajal (holy water from river Ganga) to purify the surrounding.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 2: Set up puja platform
In your puja room/living room, spread a red cotton cloth on a table/s tool and keep a
handful of grains in the center.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 3: Place a kalash
Place the kalash (silver/bronze pot) in the middle of grains. Fill the kalash with 75% of
water and put one supari (betel nut), one marigold flower, a coin and some r ice grains.
Place 5 mango leaves on the kalash in a circular design.

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Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 4: Place idol of Lakshmi and Ganesha for puja
Place the idol of Goddess Lakshmi in the centre and idol of Lord Ganesha on the right
side (South-West direction) of the kalash. Take a small thali and make a small flat
mountain of rice grains, draw a lotus flower with haldi, put some coins and place it in
front of the idol.

Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 5: Place accounts books/wealth related items

Now place your business/accountancy book and other wealth/business related items in
front of the idol.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 6: Apply tilak and light diya
Now apply tilak to Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesh and light diyas. Apply tilak to
kalash also.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 7: Offer flowers
Now offer flowers to Lord Ganesh and Lakshmi. Keep some flower in your palm for
prayer.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 8: Recite Puja Mantra
Place flower in your palm and join your hands in prayer mode, close your eyes and recite
Diwali puja mantra. After prayer, offer the flower kept in your palm to Ganesha and
Lakshmi.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 9: Offer water
Take a Lakshmi idol and bathe it with water followed by panchamrita. Bathe it again with
water, wipe with a clean cloth and place it back on the Kalash.
Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 10: Offer mala (garland)

Put haldi, kumkum and rice to the idol. Place the garland around the neck of the Goddess.
Burn agarbatti and shoop in front of the idol.

Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 11: Offer fruits and sweets

Take coconut, supari, paan leaf and offer it to the goddess. Offer fruit and sweets to the
goddess. Put some flowers and coins in front of the idol.

Diwali Puja Vidhi Step 12: Perform Lakshmi Aarti

Take a diya in a thali, puja bell and perform the Lakshmi aarti.

How to do Lakshmi puja ?

Jyeshtha Gauri Puja 2020: Date, time and significance of Gauri Ganpati, Mahalaxmi puja during
Ganesh Chaturthi festival. New Delhi: The auspicious occasion of Ganesh Chaturthi was
celebrated on August 22, 2020 - Saturday. In Maharashtra, it is one of the major festivals and
continues for 10 long days

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Worship of Goddess Lakshmi (Lakshmi puja)

1. At the break of dawn, one should have an auspicious bath, and then worship the Deities.

2. In the afternoon, a rite for the departed souls (parvanshraddha) and an offering of meals
to Brahmaṇs (Brahmaṇbhojan) is done.

3. In the evening, in a decorated area, Goddess Lakshmi, Deity Vishnu, other Deities and
Deity Kuber are worshipped. A legend says that on this day Deity Vishnu along with

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Goddess Lakshmi liberated all the Deities from Bali’s prison and thereafter they all slept in the
ocean. To represent that, everyone should enjoy themselves at home and light lamps everywhere.

When ritualistically worshipping Goddess Lakshmi (Lakshmi puja), an idol of Lakshmi should
be installed on a seat on which either an octapetalled lotus or a swastik is drawn with consecrated
rice (akshata). Next to Her, an idol of Deity Kuber is placed on a pot (kalash). Then all these
Deities including Lakshmi are offered a Naivedya (Holy food item), a mixture of coagulated
cow’s milk (khava), sugar, cardamom and cloves. Then items like coriander, jaggery, corn
obtained from parched, uncleaned rice, sugar candies (battase), etc. are offered to
Goddess Lakshmi and then distributed to well-wishers and friends. Holding a bundle in the hand
guidance is offered to ancestors. Brahmaṇs and the hungry are offered meals. One stays awake in
the night.

The Puraṇa narrates that on the new moon night of Ashwin the Goddess Lakshmi goes
everywhere in search of an ideal home. Though undoubtedly cleanliness, beauty and excellence
attract Her yet She loves to live in a home inhabited by men who are faithful, dutiful, merciful,
righteous, have control over passions and are devotees of God, and women who are virtuous and
chaste.’

Ritualistic worship of Deity Kuber

Just as the Deities Lakshmi and Deity Indra are worshipped on the religious festival of Kojagari,
Goddess Lakshmi and Deity Kuberare worshipped on this new moon day. Lakshmi is the Deity
of wealth but Deity Kuber is the treasurer. Several people possess the art of earning money but
do not know how to save it. However saving money and spending it appropriately is far more
important than earning it. Since most people do not know how to spend money, their spending is
unwarranted and ultimately, they become bankrupt.

Kuber is the Deity who teaches the art of saving money as He Himself is the treasurer.
Therefore, in this ritual the worship of Goddess Lakshmi and Deity Kuber has been
recommended. Though all people celebrate this festival, the business community in particular
does so with great enthusiasm and splendour.

Coriander seeds and parched corn from parched, uncleaned rice are offered in this ritual of
worship, the reason for this being that coriander seeds (dhane) denote wealth and parched corn
represents prosperity. If a few grains of parched, uncleaned rice are roasted one gets a handful of
parched corn. Since one aspires to acquire the prosperity of Deity Lakshmi, parched corn is
offered symbolically.

Driving off poverty (Alakshmi)

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 Development of virtues gains importance only if in the process defects are overcome. Just as
one makes efforts to acquire wealth (Lakshmi), poverty (alakshmi) should also be destroyed. To
signify that, on this day a new broom is bought. It is called Lakshmi. At midnight one should
sweep the house with that broom, accumulate the garbage in a dust pan and throw it out. This is
called ‘driving off’ of alakshmi (garbage – poverty). Sweeping the house and throwing the
garbage out at night is forbidden on other days. When removing the garbage alakshmi is driven
out even by sound created by striking a sifting pan and an earthen vessel covered with a hide.

The act of driving out alakshmi on the day of Lakshmi pujan

Goddess Lakshmī means wealth, prosperity while alakshmi means poverty, misfortune.
Development of virtues gains importance only if one overcomes defects. Just as one makes
efforts to acquire wealth (Lakshmi), poverty (alakshmi) should also be destroyed. On the third
day of Diwāli, in the evening, Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped and this is called
as Lakshmipujan. At midnight, the act of driving out alakshmi is done as given below –

1. A new broom is bought for this act and it is considered as ‘Lakshmi’.

2. It is ritualistically worshipped at midnight and then, the entire house is swept using the new
broom.

3. The rubbish is collected in the dustpan and it is taken out of house. It is recommended to take
it out through the backdoor; however, if there is only one door, then one can take it out from that
door.

4. Throw away the rubbish as far as possible. One can throw it in the rubbish bins kept on the
roads / footpath. If this is difficult, one can throw it in the rubbish bin outside house or
apartment.

5. At the end, express gratitude to Goddess Lakshmi and from next day onwards, start using the
new broom daily for sweeping the floor.

a. On any other days, sweeping and throwing out the rubbish at night is not recommended.

b. If one lives in a fully carpeted house, they can buy new broom and sweep over the carpet and
follow as given in point 3 and 4 above.

Spiritual effect of the act of driving out Alakshmi

1. Rubbish represents alakshmi. At midnight, the subtle components Raja and Tama are
maximum.

2. The rubbish being Raja-Rama predominant, the Raja-Tama components in the atmosphere are
drawn towards it.

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3. When the rubbish is collected in dustpan and thrown out of the house, the Raja-
Tama components too are thrown out of the house. Due to this, the subtle components Sattva are
attracted in the house, and the house becomes sāttvik.

4. Earlier in the evening, due to performing the Lakshmipujan, the Chaitanya (Divine
Consciousness) spreads in the house.

5. In Purāna, it is said that at midnight, Goddess Lakshmi searches for an ideal house. No doubt
the cleanliness and beauty draws Her attention; however, She chooses to live in a house in which
faithful, dutiful, merciful, righteous men live, who have control over passions and are devotees
of God, and women who are virtuous and chaste.

All clothes and

jewellery of the two idols is gathered. A table is prepared to accommodate 2 idols

Two structural bases made of tin are filled-one with rice grains and other with wheat

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Clothing is put on followed by jewellery etc

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Rice and Wheat symbolizing Agricultural affiliatios of the Goddess Play a role
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302
Making a din to warn of the coming of the Kaxmi Goddess in the House

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Fixing the idols

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 CHAPTER XII
Who are the children of Vishnu and Lakshmi?
The Personalities of Vishnu and Lakshmi are so far beyond the gross and limited understanding
of materialistic people, and there is so much garbage circulating under the garb of “Hinduism”,
that we are forced to consider such a question as sincere.
Vishnu is not an ordinary man and has no limited concept of “family”.
Even an ordinary human being who has attained a good level of spiritual knowledge, and even
more so, a human being who has attained moksha, has given up the limited concept of “family”,
and sees the entire universe and all beings as his family.
Vishnu and all avataras do not have a material body and do not generate children like ordinary
human beings do. Even the lower category of Devas on the Svarga planets have children through
a system that is very different from the human beings’, as their progeny is born already FULLY
GROWN, as we can see from many stories in Puranas.
True, Vishnu and Lakshmi descend periodically as lila avataras, but then they are not called
“Vishnu” and “Lakshmi” any more, but they are referred to with the specific name of that
manifestation, so the sons of Krishna or Rama cannot be categorised under the scope of your
question.
Again, it is true that sometimes shastra use a “flowery language” when referring to progeny of
Devas, to indicate the secondary manifestations of a primary manifestation. Thus we have
Brahma who appears from the lotus growing from the navel of Garbhodakasayi Vishnu - but is
that “a child of Vishnu and Lakshmi”? Certainly not.
Similarly, in shastra and commentaries, lists of QUALITIES can sometimes be presented as
“offspring” of an archetypal principle of the universe that is called Deva or Devi. But that has
nothing to do with ordinary family life. es Vishnu and lakshmi jee had childrens ,Though in most
Avtaars Vishnu and laskmi have kids ,Specially in haygreevas Avtaar ,Lakshmi jee Worshipped
Sada Shiva to have children with Hayagreeva..From them Haehai vansh came in to exisetence
.Apart from others famous sons of Laksmi jee are Kardam ,Prajabhoot and Chikleet.

As per Agam and Scriptures Kaamdev is also son of Lakshmi and Vishnu.They have also
adopted Prahalaad and Dhruva as there sones too.

Notably you wont find children of any other gods because the central Goddess Parvati cursed all
gods to never have offsprings because these gods disturbed Shiva and her for there selfishness
and impatience.

Thats why all gods offsprings or Avtaars children are not worship worthy but sons and daughters
of MAHADEV are considered not only gods but Parbramha as per Vedas and worshipped
heavily in Sanatana Without propitiating Ganpati, Guaree & kartik none Yagya Pooja

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,Anushthaan ,Sadhna ,Mantra Jaap Yog Siddhi ,Tapas or any spiritual activity would render
fruitless ,By worshipping them at first before all gods ,all tasks are accomplished successfully.

No known sons of Vishnu born in Lakshmi. Vishnu had a son born to Bhoomi Devi who
conceived while Varaha recovered her from Hiranyaksha in the 6th Manuantar. Satyabhama
killed narakasura that the day celebrated as Diwali. Vishnu perhaps did not have destined to have
any Celestial children rather than amsa (Sasta is amsa of trinity Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva).

Lakshmi arose from churing of milk ocean later on. Incarnation of Rama onwards had children in
Lakshmi who took birth as Sita, Rugmini, Kalki and Padma would have two sons Jay and Vijay
as someone stated in Quora. Unsure whether anyone apart from gatekeepers Jaya Vijaya involve
as children of incarnation Kalki.

My perception:

Maintainer of Universe mortugages Earth (Land) for Capital (Lakshmi) as Economics linked as
the thing to be done cleaved to Divination. Money never multiply, but value changes according
to purchase capacity, hence no progenies. Lakshmi is consort and not spouse, whereas, Earth is
where the fertility lies. The average seed yield per plant ranged from 0.3 to 10.0 g with an
average of 3.2 g. Seed weight of 1000 grains may vary 30–60 grams, whereby a seed weighs that
much milligrams. 50 mg paddy yields 5–10 g crop on an average 100–200 times. Sawing 20 kg
of paddy per acre may yield 3 tons of paddy. Basmati yield may be almost half.

2 kg Gingelly, mustard etc yield 1.5–2 tons per hectare means around 1000 grains per seed. You
saw seeds and mint 4–1000 times the harvest depending the material. Whereas, money multiplies
through investment in lending, manufacture etc. Both have their own respective risk.

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Though in most Avtaars Vishnu and Lakshmi have kids, Specially in haygreevas Avtaar ,
Lakshmi Worshipped Sada Shiva to have children with Hayagreeva. From them Haehai vansh
came in to existence. Apart from others famous sons of Laksmi jee are Kardam , Prajabhoot and
Chikleet. Meanwhile as per Agam and Scriptures Kaamdev is also son of Lakshmi and Vishnu.
They have also adopted Prahalaad and Dhruva as there sons too.

Notably you won't find children of any other gods because the central Goddess Parvati cursed all
gods to never have offspring's because these gods disturbed Shiva and her for their selfishness
and impatience.

That's why all gods offspring's or Avtaars children are not worship worthy but sons and
daughters of Mahadev are considered not only gods but Parabramha as per Vedas and worshiped
heavily in Sanatana Without propitiating Ganpati, Guaree & kartik none Yagya Pooja
,Anushthaan ,Sadhna ,Mantra Jaap Yog Siddhi ,Tapas or any spiritual activity would render
fruitless. By worshiping them at first before all gods ,all tasks are accomplished successfully.

Most of us are aware of the children of Shiva and Parvati ⇒ Kartikeya, Ganesh and many others.

I have never come across the children of Vishnu and Lakshmi.

Lastly, I am aware of the avatars of Vishnu and Lakshmi who had children, e.g.

 Ram―Sita ⇒ Lava & Kusha

 Krishna―Rukmani ⇒ Pradyumna
Who are the children of Vishnu and Lakshmi? Can anyone enlighten me with this knowledge?

Becoming the consorts of Subrahmanya, went to Sanavana Poigai and commenced austere
penance to fulfil their desires. Pleased with their prayer and worship, Lord Subrahmanya
appeared before them and told Amritavalli: "You will be brought up by Indra as his daughter and
I shall marry you in due course.
"Her younger sister Sundaravalli was also graced with a similar blessing. She was born to Sage
Sivamuni and brought up by Nambi, the headman of hunters. Amritavalli took the form of a
female child and went to Mount Meru the abode of Indra, and told him: "I am the daughter of
Mahavishnu and the responsibility of looking after me has been entrusted to you.' On hearing
this, Indra became very happy and directed Airavatam, his white elephant, to take care of the
child.

3)Kamadeva.Kama,or Manmatha,is said to be the son of both Vishnu and

Lakshmi.Furthermore,he incarnated as Prayudma,the son of Krishna and Rukmini.

4)The eighteen sons of Lakshmi.It is believed that Devi Lakshmi herself is blessed with eighteen
sons. The devotees chant following names on every Friday to please and to get blessings of
Goddess Lakshmi.

As per the BrahmAnda PurAna, Lord Vishnu and Lakshmi Devi have two sons called Bala
(strength) and UtsAha (enthusiasm, energy).

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The relevant verses are given below:
Bhrigoh khyAtirvijajnehatha iswarau sukhadukkhayoh | SubhAsubhapradAtarau sarva prAna
VrtAviha || Devau dhAtA vidhAtArau manvantara vichArinau | TayorjyeshthA tu bhagini devi
srir loka bhAvini || SA tu nArAyanam devam pati mAsAdya shobhanam | NArAyanatmajau
sAddvi valotsAhou vyajAyat ||
...........
Bhrigu and his wife KhyAti gave birth to two sons named DhAtA and VidhAta and a daughter
named Sri or Lakshmi. Lakshmi obtained as her husband NArAyana and thereafter gave birth to
two sons called Bala (strength) and UtsAha (enthusiasm).
BrahmAnda PurAna 29| 1-3.
I came to know of some sons of Lord Vishnu but they were not with Goddess Lakshmi but with
some other women. According to Chapter 22, verse 47 of ShataRudraSamhita in the Shiva
Purana, Lord Vishnu had begot sons with some damsels (apsaras) born after the Samudra
Manthan. These sons created a lot of havoc on earth and in heaven causing misery to all,
therefore on request of Gods, Lord Shiva later killed them all by taking an incarnation of a bull.
Here is the extract from the ShataRudraSamhita:

Shiva Purana has a lot of interpolations and as far as I know, no other Hindu scripture remotely
mentions any of the information in this story. Maha Lakshmi's sons are Kardama, Chiklita and
Apa (water). There may be more, but I am not sure. Maha Lakshmi's father by adoption is Sage
Brighu (not Kardama). That is why she is called "Brighu nandanaya".
There are no progeny born to Vishnu and Lakshmi.
Vishnu and Bhudevi had a son, Naraka (asura). Naraka was born when Vishnu took Narasimha
avatar. Because of his rakshasa qualities he was cursed by sage Vashistha and was killed by
Krishna (another avatar of Vishnu). Father killed the son - there is no nepotism when it comes to
protecting Dharma.
Brahma is not a son of Vishnu. Yes, he appeared in the lotus that grew out of Vishnu's navel. But
Vishnu was not aware of it nor did he try to create Brahma. Afterwards Rudra appears and
teaches both Vishnu and Brahma that, he came from the same entity that created the Universe,

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Vishnu and Brahma. That formless supreme is NARAYANA. These three and Shakti are the
physical manifestations of that Supreme God, JUST AS THE WAY YOU AND I ARE. Their
role is to run the universe with different responsibilities given to each - Brahma (creator of things
-tehnologist), Vishnu (jagat Prabhu) Shiva (jagat Guru), and Shakti (the power without which no
God or humanbeing can live or sustain). Our role is to be actors in the great drama of Narayana
and the manifested Gods.

Brahma is the son of Vishnu, of course, he is not a birth son of Lakshmi. In Wiki as well it is
mentioned that "According to Shri Madha Bhagawata Mahapurana, Brahmā was born through
Vishnu's navel..."
Kamadeva (Manmadha/ Madana etc.) is also said to be a son of Vishnu and Lakshmi
Vishnu has two sons the elder one being kamadeva (god of love and beauty ) and another
celestial son. He also has daughters who were married to lord kartikeya (god of war and son of
shiva). Kamadeva and his celestal brother graced the earth with their presence as kush (form of
lord kamadeva ) and lav (celestial son of vishnu) and also as pradyumna (kamadeva) and charu
(celestial son)

िगवती लक्ष्मी के 18 पुत्र वगग किे गए िैं। इनके नामों का प्रत्तत र्शुक्रिार जप करने से मनोवांत्तित धन
की प्राप्ति िोती िै।
-ॐ दे वसखाय नम:
-ॐ त्तिक्लीताय नम:
-ॐ आनन्दाय नम:
-ॐ कदग माय नम:
-ॐ श्रीप्रदाय नम:
-ॐ जातवेदाय नम:
-ॐ अनुरागाय नम:
-ॐ सम्वादाय नम:
-ॐ त्तवजयाय नम:
- ॐ वल्लिाय नम:
-ॐ मदाय नम:
-ॐ िषागय नम:
-ॐ बलाय नम:
-ॐ तेजसे नम:
-ॐ दमकाय नम:
-ॐ सत्तललाय नम:
-ॐ गुग्गुलाय नम:
- ॐ कुरूण्टकाय नम:।

The Personalities of Vishnu and Lakshmi are so far beyond the gross and limited understanding
of materialistic people, and there is so much garbage circulating under the garb of “Hinduism”,
that we are forced to consider such a question as sincere.

314
Vishnu is not an ordinary man and has no limited concept of “family”.
Even an ordinary human being who has attained a good level of spiritual knowledge, and even
more so, a human being who has attained moksha, has given up the limited concept of “family”,
and sees the entire universe and all beings as his family.
Vishnu and all avataras do not ha

Highly experienced & honest Vedic Bramhin,have learned all Vedas,Tantra & Agamas
Answered December 3, 2016
Yes Vishnu and lakshmi had childrens ,Though in most Avtaars Vishnu and laskmi have kids
,Specially in haygreevas Avtaar ,Lakshmi jee Worshipped Sada Shiva to have children with
Hayagreeva..From them Haehai vansh came in to exisetence .Apart from others famous sons of
Laksmi jee are Kardam ,Prajabhoot and Chikleet.As per Agam and Scriptures Kaamdev is also
son of Lakshmi and Vishnu.They have also adopted Prahalaad and Dhruva as there sones too.
Notably you wont find children of any other gods because the central Goddess Parvati cursed all
gods to never have offsprings.

Why is the goddess Lakshmi always seen sitting next to Lord Vishnu's feet whereas other
goddesses do not? Also, what message does it give to society about women's status in Hinduism?

How did Goddess Lakshmi originate and marry Lord Vishnu? Was there any story?

No known sons of Vishnu born in Lakshmi. Vishnu had a son born to Bhoomi Devi who
conceived while Varaha recovered her from Hiranyaksha in the 6th Manuantar. Satyabhama
killed narakasura that the day celebrated as Diwali. Vishnu perhaps did not have destined to have
any Celestial children rather than amsa (Sasta is amsa of trinity Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva).
Lakshmi arose from churing of milk ocean later on. Incarnation of Rama onwards had children in
Lakshmi who took birth as Sita, Rugmini, Kalki and Padma would have two sons Jay and Vijay

In Bali, even Viṣṇu's son is better known than his own father (for foreign tourists). This is
because he always appears at the welcome door (especially in the temple) as the glory face. We
call him Bhoma.

315
According to our local wisdom text, namely Kekawin Bhomântaka, Bhauma or also known as
Narakāsura was the son of the divine couple Lakṣmī-Nārāyaṇa.

More precisely according to Viṣṇu Mahāpurāṇa (5:29:23-24), Bhaumāsura was born when Viṣṇu
took the form of a wild boar (Varāha) with Lakṣmī in Her expansion as Devī Vasundharā
(Bhūmi). Same like those Purāṇas literature version and our local wisdom,

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  Lakshmi Narayana: Although, according to Sri Sukta and Srimad Bhagwad Gita (and
Vishnu Sahasranama); the divine couple treats entire world as its offspring

 Children: Nevertheless, mythology believes that Goddess Lakshmi has 18 sons namely
Devsakha, Chiklitha, Bala, Tej, Kandarpa, Gugullu, Anand, Sripad, Madh, Harsha,
Vallabh, Damak, Anurag,Samwad, Jathved, Vijay,Salil and Kuruntak

 Note: In Rama avatara; Lakshmi Narayana ji had two sons and in Krishna avatara;
Lord Hari had eighty sons with his eight Pata-ranis (main queens)
Footnotes
[1] Sons of Goddess Lakshmi | Children of Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Vishnu
[2] The 80 Sons of lord Krishna and Their Names- Krishna Facts
It is believed that Devasena & Valli, consorts of Lord Subramanya (Skanda / Muruga) were born
as daughters of the Lord Vishnu in their previous birth and they were known as Amritavalli and
Sundaravalli respectively. Both of them were born to Lord Vishnu from his eyes. Hence, Lord
Subramanya is also known as Maayon-Maruga / Maal-Maruga. In Tamil Maayon or Maal
means Thirumaal (Lord Vishnu). Maruga means son-in-law for Lord Vishnu or son of sister
(Parvati).

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 CHAPTER XII
Significance And Puja Vidhi Of Worshipping
Lord Kuber
Diwali is an important Hindu festival that is observed in the Hindu month of Kartik. This year
the festival will be observed on 14 November 2020. The festival is dedicated to Goddess
Lakshmi, Lord Ganesha and Kuber, though it was first observed to celebrate the return of Lord
Rama, Goddess Sita and Lakshman from their 14 years of exile. People observe this day to
express their gratitude to Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesha for blessing their devotees with
prosperity, fortune and wealth.

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 But do you know that Lord Kuber, the God of wealth is also worshipped on this day? Yes,
people worship Lord Kuber along with Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesha on this day. If you
are wondering why people worship Lord Kuber on Diwali, then scroll down the article to read
more.
Why Lord Kuber Is Worshipped During Diwali
Lord Kuber is worshipped on Amavasya tithi. Since Diwali is celebrated on the Amavasya tithi
of Kartik Maas, he is worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi during the Lakshmi Puja.
It is a ritual to worship Lord Kuber alongside Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Ganesha on all five
days of Diwali.

Significance Of Worshipping Lord Kuber

 Lord Kuber, who is believed to be God's treasurer and in-charge of their wealth, blesses people
with prosperity and wealth.
 He is usually seen as a dwarf with an enlarged stomach, wearing various kinds of precious
ornaments and valuable clothes.
 It is believed that those who worship Lord Kuber on Diwali gain wealth and the ability to fulfill
their materialistic desires and wishes.
 People who are facing financial issues and are having a tough time retaining their ancestral
property should worship Lord Kuber during Diwali.
 Lord Kuber also allows one the opportunities to expand their wealth, fortune and prosperity.

Puja Vidhi For Worshipping Lord Kuber

 For worshipping Lord Kuber, first place the idol of the deity on a clean platform.
 Now place the idol of Goddess Lakshmi on the same platform.
 Place your tijori or jewelry box or money box in front of the deities and make a Swastika symbol
on them.
 Now meditate and remember both Lord Kuber and Goddess Lakshmi by chanting the mantras.
 Invoke the deities by chanting the mantras for the same. While you are invoking the deities make
sure your hands are in the same mudra i.e., your both should be folded and your thumbs should
be inwards.
 Once you have invoked the deities, offer them five flowers. You can keep the flowers on the
jewellery box or the chest.
 Now offer akshat, Chandan, roli, dhoop and deep to the deities.
 Also, offer the Bhog item.
 Now perform the aarti and then fold your hands and seek blessings from the deities.
 After this, you can distribute the bhog as prasad among children, elderly, poor and needy people.

Kuberan, is the Lord of Wealth and the god-king of the semi-divine Yakshasin Hindu
culture.[1] He is regarded as the regent of the North (Dik-pala), and a protector of the world
(Lokapala). His many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species and the
owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with
jewels, and carrying a money-pot and a club.
Originally described as the chief of evil spirits in Vedic-era texts, Kubera acquired the status of
a Deva (god) only in the Puranas and the Hindu epics. The scriptures describe that Kubera once
ruled Lanka, but was overthrown by his demon half-brother Ravana, later settling in the city

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of Alaka in the Himalayas. Descriptions of the "glory" and "splendours" of Kubera's city are
found in many scriptures.
Kubera has also been assimilated into the Buddhist and Jain pantheons. In Buddhism, he is
known as Vaisravana, the patronymic used of the Hindu Kubera and is also equated
with Pañcika, while in Jainism, he is known as Sarvanubhuti.

A bronze Matrika goddess group along with Ganesha (left) and Kubera (right) currently at
the British Museum. Originally from Eastern India, it was dedicated in 43rd year of reign
of Mahipala I (c. 1043 AD).

Kubera is often depicted as a dwarf, with complexion of lotus leaves and a big belly. He is
described as having three legs, only eight teeth, one eye, and being adorned with jewels. He is
sometimes depicted riding a man. The description of deformities like the broken teeth, three legs,
three heads and four arms appear only in the later Puranic texts.[4] Kubera holds a mace,
a pomegranate or a money bag in his hand.[2] He may also carry a sheaf of jewels or
a mongoose with him. In Tibet, the mongoose is considered a symbol of Kubera's victory
over Nāgas—the guardians of treasures. Kubera is usually depicted with a mongoose in Buddhist
iconography.

In the Vishnudharmottara Purana, Kubera is described as the embodiment of

both Artha ("wealth, prosperity, glory") and Arthashastras, the treatises related to it—and his
iconography mirrors it. Kubera's complexion is described as that of lotus leaves. He rides a
man—the state personified, adorned in golden clothes and ornaments, symbolizing his wealth.
His left eye is yellow. He wears an armour and a necklace down to his large belly.
The Vishnudharmottara Purana further describes his face to be inclined to the left, sporting a
beard and mustache, and with two small tusks protruding from the ends of his mouth,
representing his powers to punish and to bestow favours. His wife Riddhi, representing the
journey of life, is seated on his left lap, with her left hand on the back of Kubera and the right

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holding a ratna-patra (jewel-pot). Kubera should be four-armed, holding a gada (mace: symbol
of dandaniti—administration of justice) and a shakti (power) in his left pair, and standards
bearing a lion—representing Artha and a shibika (a club, the weapon of Kubera).
The nidhi treasures Padma and Shankha stand beside him in human form, with their heads
emerging from a lotus and a conch respectively.
The Agni Purana states that Kubera should be installed in temples as seated on a goat, and with a
club in his hand.[7] Kubera's image is prescribed to be that of gold, with multi-coloured
attributes.[8] In some sources, especially in Jain depictions, Kubera is depicted as a drunkard,
signified by the "nectar vessel" in his hand.
The exact origins of the name Kubera are unknown"Kubera" or "Kuvera" (कुिेर) as spelt in later
Sanskrit, means "deformed or monstrous" or "ill-shaped one"; indicating his deformities.
Another theory suggests that Kubera may be derived from the verb root kumba, meaning to
conceal. Kuvera is also split as ku (earth), and vira (hero).
As the son of Vishrava ("Fame"), Kubera is called Vaisravana (in the Pali language, Vessavana)
and as the son of Ilavila, Ailavila. Vaisravana is sometimes translated as the "Son of
Fame".The Sutta Nitapa commentary says that Vaisravana is derived from a name of Kubera's
kingdom, Visana.[11] Once, Kubera looked at Shiva and his wife Parvati with jealousy, so he lost
one of his eyes. Parvati also turned this deformed eye yellow. So, Kubera gained the
name Ekaksipingala ("one who has one yellow eye"). He is also called Bhutesha ("Lord of
spirits") like Shiva. Kubera usually is drawn by spirits or men (nara), so is called Nara-vahana,
one whose vahana (mount) is nara. Hopkins interprets naras as being water-spirits, although
Mani translates nara as men. Kubera also rides the elephant called Sarvabhauma as a loka-
pala. His garden is named Chaitrarath.
Kubera also enjoys the titles "king of the whole world", "king of kings" (Rajaraja), "Lord of
wealth" (Dhanadhipati) and "giver of wealth" (Dhanada). His titles are sometimes related to his
subjects: "king of Yakshas" (Yaksharajan), "Lord of Rakshasas" (Rakshasadhipati), "Lord
of Guhyakas" (Guhyakadhipa), "king of Kinnaras"(Kinnararaja), "king of animals resembling
men" (Mayuraja), and "king of men" (Nararaja). Kubera is also called Guhyadhipa ("Lord of
the hidden"). The Atharvaveda calls him the "god of hiding".

Early descriptions and parentage

In the Atharvaveda—where he first appears—and the Shatapatha Brahmana, Kubera is the chief
of evil spirits or spirits of darkness, and son of Vaishravana. [10][15] The Shatapatha
Brahmana calls him the Lord of thieves and criminals.[16] In the Manusmriti, he becomes a
respectable Loka-pala ("world protector") and the patron of merchants.[11] In the
epic Mahabharata, Kubera is described as the son of Prajapati Pulastya and his wife Idavida and
the brother of sage Vishrava. Kubera is described as born from a cow. However, from
the Puranas, he is described as the grandson of Pulastya and the son of Vishrava and his
wife Ilavida (or Ilivila or Devavarnini), daughter of the sage Bharadvaja or Trinabindu.
By this time, though still described as an asura, Kubera is offered prayers at the end of all ritual
sacrifices. His titles, such as "best of kings" and "Lord of kings" (Harivamsa indicate that Kubera
is made "Lord of kings"), in contrast to the god-king of heaven, Indra, whose title of "best of
gods" led to the later belief that Kubera was a man. The early
texts Gautama Dharmashastra and Apastamba describe him as a man. Only the Grihyasutras of
Shankhayana and Hiranyakesin call him a god, and suggest offerings of meat, sesame seeds and
flowers to him.

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Puranic and epic descriptions: Godhood acquired

The Puranas and the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana grant Kubera unquestioned
godhood. Kubera also acquired the status of the "Lord of riches" and the wealthiest Deva. He
also becomes a Loka-pala ("world protector") and guardian (dik-pala) of the North direction,
although he is also sometimes associated with the East. Kubera's status as a Loka-pala and a dik-
pala is assured in the Ramayana, but in the Mahabharata, some lists do not include Kubera.
Thus, Kubera is considered a later addition to the original list of Loka-palas, where the
gods Agni or Soma appear in his place. This status, the Ramayana records, was granted to
Kubera by Brahma—the creator-god and father of Pulastya—as a reward for his severe penance.
Brahma also conferred upon Kubera the riches of the world (Nidhis), "equality with gods", and
the Pushpaka Vimana, a flying chariot. Kubera then ruled in the golden city of Lanka, identified
with modern-day Sri Lanka. The Mahabharata says that Brahma conferred upon Kubera the
lordship of wealth, friendship with Shiva, godhood, status as a world-protector, a son
called Nalakubera/Nalakubara, the Pushpaka Vimana and the lordship of
[12]
the Nairrata demons.
Both the Puranas and the Ramayana feature the half-blood siblings of Kubera. Vishrava,
Kubera's father, also married the Rakshasa (demon) princess Kaikesi, who mothered
four Rakshasa children: Ravana, the chief antagonist of the
Ramayana, Kumbhakarna, Vibhishana and Soorpanaka. The Mahabharata regards Vishrava as
the brother of Kubera, so Kubera is described as the uncle of Ravana and his siblings. It records
that when Kubera approached Brahma for the favour of superseding his father Pulastya, Pulastya
created Vishrava. To seek the favour of Vishrava, Kubera sent three women to him, by whom
Vishrava begot his demon children. Ravana, after acquiring a boon of Brahma, drove Kubera
away from Lanka and seized his Pushpaka Vimana, which was returned to Kubera after Ravana's
death. Kubera then settled on Gandhamandana mountain, near Mount Kailash – the abode of the
god Shiva—in the Himalayas. Sometimes, Kailash itself is called Kubera's residence. His city is
usually called Alaka or Alaka-puri ("curl-city"), but
also Prabha ("splendour"), Vasudhara ("bejeweled") and Vasu-sthali ("abode of
treasures"). There, Kubera had a grove called Caitraratha, where the leaves were jewels and the
fruits were girls of heaven. There is also a charming lake called Nalini in the grove.[12][19] Kubera
is often described as a friend of Shiva in the epics. The Padma Purana says that Kubera prayed to
Shiva for many years, and Shiva granted him the kingship of Yakshas.
A description of Kubera's magnificent court appears in the Mahabharata as well as
the Meghaduta. Here, Gandharvas and Apsaras entertain Kubera. Shiva and his
wife Parvati often frequent Kubera's court, which is attended by semi-divine beings like
the Vidyadharas; Kimpurushas; Rakshasas; Pishachas; as well as Padma and Shankha;
personified treasures (nidhi); and Manibhadra, Kubera's chief attendant and chief of his army.
Like every world-protector, Kubera has seven seers of the North in residence. Alaka is recorded
to be plundered by Ravana once, and attacked by
the Pandava prince, Bhima once. Kubera's Nairrata army is described to have defeated king
Mucukunda, who then defeated them by the advice of his guru Vashishta. Shukra, the preceptor
of the asuras, is also recorded to have defeated Kubera and stolen his wealth.[4][7] Another major
tale in the scriptures records how Kubera entertained the sage Ashtavakra in his palace.
Kubera is the treasurer of the gods and overlord of the semi-divine Yakshas,
the Guhyakas, Kinnaras and Gandharvas, who act as his assistants and protectors of the jewels of

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the earth, as well as guardians of his city. Kubera is also the guardian of travelers and the giver
of wealth to individuals, who please him. The Rakshasas also serve Kubera, however, some
cannibalistic Rakshasas are described to have sided with Ravana in the battle against Kubera.
Kubera also developed as minor marriage-divinity. He is invoked with Shiva at weddings and is
described as Kameshvara ("Lord of Kama – pleasure, desire etc."). He is associated with fertility
of the aquatic type.
The Puranas and the Mahabharata record that Kubera married Bhadra ("auspicious"), or
Kauberi ("wife of Kubera"), daughter of the demon Mura. She is also called Yakshi – a female
Yaksha and Charvi ("splendour"). They had three sons: Nalakubara ("Reed-
axle"), Manigriva ("Bejewled-neck") or Varna-kavi ("Colourful poet"), and Mayuraja ("king of
animals resembling men"); and a daughter called Minakshi ("fish-eyed"). The Mahabharata calls
his wife Riddhi ("prosperity") and Nalakubara his son.
Worship: As the treasurer of the riches of the world, Kubera is prescribed to be worshipped.
Kubera also credited money to the god Venkateshwara (a form of the god Vishnu) for his
marriage with Padmavati. In remembrance of this, the reason devotees go to Tirupati to donate
money in Venkateshwara's Hundi ("Donation pot"), is so that he can pay it back to Kubera.
While Kubera still enjoys prayers as the god of wealth, his role is largely taken by the god of
wisdom, fortune and obstacle-removal, Ganesha, with whom he is generally associated.
Kubera is recognized outside India and Hinduism as well. Kubera is a popular figure in Buddhist
as well as Jain mythology.[3] The Orientalist Dr. Nagendra Kumar Singh remarked that,
"Every Indian religion has a Kubera after the Hindu prototype"

In Buddhism
Jambhala (also known as Dzambhala, Dzambala, Zambala or Jambala) is the God of Wealth
and appropriately a member of the Jewel Family (see Ratnasambhava). He is sometimes equated
with the Hindu deity Kubera. Jambhala is also believed to be an emanation
of Avalokitesvara or Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. There are five different wealth
Jambhalas; each has his own practice and mantra to help eliminate poverty and create financial
stability.[1]
Gyalten Sogdzin Rinpoche said that Jambhala is the protector of all Lineages and of all sentient
beings from all sickness and difficulties. Jambhala is a Bodhisattva of material and spiritual
wealth as well as many other things, especially of granting financial stability.
”Because in this world, there are all kinds of wrathful and negative emotions or bad
spirits, and sometimes they will harm you and other sentient beings, Dzambhala must
take on such a wrathful and powerful form to protect us from these harmful spirits and
negative karma. Especially, Dzambhala helps us minimize or decrease all misfortunes
and obstacles and helps us increase all good fortune and happiness.”[2]

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Bronze statuette of Jambhala, Pala Empire, 11th century A.D.
“Dzam” means “Deity or gathering”. “Bhah” means “gold or wealth”. “La” means “to
honor”. “Dzambhala” means “Precious Golden Deity, who gathers or brings the wealth of
spirituality or Dharma and material security or accomplishment to our lives”.[

The five Jambhalas are the manifestations of the compassion of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to
guide sentient beings along the path to enlightenment. They have the essence of generosity
and represent the activities of increasing benefit. Their aspirations are to help the poor and
those suffering from ill-fortune

Green Jambhala
Green Jambhala is the chief of the five Jambhalas and is the manifestation of Buddha
Amoghasiddhi, depicted standing upon a corpse and holding a mongoose in his left hand and
a Kapala in his right hand.
He is usually shown with his consort and carrying a jewel producing mongoose in his left
hand.[4] Green Jambhala has bluish green colored body. He sits in the vajra position
with Dakini in front of him. His right leg is panhandle with right foot is above a snail and
lotus flower, while his left leg is kinked. On his left hand is an animal called Nehulay
(mongoose) which spue out jewels from its mouth, his right hand holding Norbu.
The Dakini holding lotus flower in her hand. The Mantra of Green Jambhala is:[5]
Om Karma Jambhala Ah Svaha
White Jambhala
White Jambhala (or Dzambhala Gapee in Tibetan) is the compassionate manifestation
of the Bodhisattva Chenrezig (Guan Yin). He can remove the suffering of poverty and
sickness, purify non-virtuous karma and karmic obstacles, avert disaster and sickness,
and evolve bodhicitta mind.
The Tibetan legend said that a revered high lama, Atisha, was walking alone when he
found a man starving and near death. After looking around and unable to find food for

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the old man, he cut flesh from his own body and offered it to the starving man. But the
man refused to eat of his flesh. Being depressed and not knowing how else to help the
man nearing death, Lama Atisha sat down next to him. At that point there was a blinding
bright white light and before Atisha appeared Chenrezig of Compassion. He told Lama
Atisha that he was going to manifest himself as the God of Wealth, Jambhala, and assure
that those in poverty would suffer no longer.
As the manifestation of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, White Jambhala was born from his
right eye. He sits on a snow lion, although some artists depict him sitting on a dragon,
and a mongoose in his left hand spits out precious diamonds and ornaments.[1] White
Jambhala has white colored body. He also holding a Wealth Banner in his left arm and a
gold sword in his right. The Mantra of White Jambhala is.

Om Padma Krodha Arya Jambhala Hridaya Hum Phat

When cultivating the "Dragon-ridding White Jambhala Practice", the practitioners
can also pray that he will lead them to hidden treasures. In the olden days, Tibetan
Tantric masters placed their precious teachings in caves. These teachings were sealed
in the four elements of "earth, water, fire and wind". One needs to employ very
special methods to retrieve these Dharma treasures. One must also know the location
of the caves where these ancestry masters had practiced in seclusion. The
practitioners may pray to the "Dragon-ridding White Jambhala" so that he will bring
them to these caves where the treasures were hidden.

Yellow

Partly gilded Tibetan bronze statue of Vaisravana Jambhala sitting on a snow lion
and holding a mongoose in his left hand. 18th century
See also: Vaisravana and Ratnasambhava
The Yellow Jambhala is considered the most popular and powerful of the Wealth
Gods.[6] He is the emanation of Buddha Ratnasambhava. He can remove poverty
within the six realms, increasing virtues, life span and wisdom.
He is also said to be an emanation of Vaisravana, one of the "Four Great World-
protecting Heavenly Kings". He is the guardian of light in Buddhism, a great
charitable deity who grants fortune and protection. Lord Vaisravana lives in the
northern region under the Four Heavens, at the northern crystal palace on the fourth
level of Mount Sumeru. His servants are either yaksas or bhaisajya-yaksas.
According to the commentary on Lotus Sutra, this heavenly king is extremely
knowledgeable as his perpetual protection of the Buddhas has enabled him to receive
many teachings.

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 Yellow Jambhala has yellow colored body, he sits in the vajra position with his right
leg is panhandle, his right foot is above a snail and lotus flower, and his left leg is
kinked. He has one face and two arms. His left hand holding
a mongoose named Nehulay which spews forth precious jewels from its mouth,
while his right hand holding gems shaped fruit and leaf of lotus. An ordinary image
of Lord Vaisravana is one that holds a precious pagoda in the left, which pours out
various treasures. In Tibetan Tantric images, the precious pagoda is replaced by the
treasure-emitting mongoose. Yellow Jambhala sits on a lotus, sun disk and moon
disk. His mantra is:
Om Jambhala Jalendraye Svaha
Red Jambhala

Ganapati, Maha Rakta

Red Jambhala is depicted practising together with his consort, the heavenly
mother of wealth that is in charge of wealth in the human realm. In ancient times,
this deity was practiced mainly by kings and royalty. His practice is most
suitable to people in high power, or to pray for high power, for it can attract
people, wealth and fame. One will enjoy wealth in abundance and shall be well
respected and supported by people.[3] There is also the Red Jambhala
magnetizing method that can bless the practitioner with marital bliss and a
harmonious family.
Red Jambhala is the manifisation of Vajrasattva. He has two faces and four arms
and holds a treasury mongoose on his left hand. His Tibetan name is Dzambhala
Mapo.[1] Red Jambhala has a red colored body, sits in the vajra position
with Dakini in front of him. His right leg is panhandle with right foot is above a
snail and lotus flower, his left leg is bent. He is holding an animal known
as Nehulay (mongoose) in his left hand, his right hand holding Khorlo (Cakra),

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 the Dakini holding Kapala containing Nectar in her left hand and Norbu
Mebar in her right hand. The Mantra of Red Jambhala is.
Om Jambhala Jalendraye Dhanam Medehi Hrih Dakini Jambhala Sambhara Svaha
Some people believe he is the Hindu God of Wealth Ganesha,[4] the Red
Ganapatiand has the head of an elephant. After the rise of Tantric
Buddhism, Ganesa became a Tantric wealth deity and is known as the "Lord
of Provisions in Tibetan Tantrism". According to legend, Red Jambhala was
in charge of the heavenly treasury that belonged to Lord Mahesvara’s son.
Due to his extreme compassion, Red Jambhala had unfailingly answered the
prayers of many worshippers. Enraged by Red Jambhala’s indiscriminate
charity to both the good and evil, Dharma guardian Mahakala decapitated
him. It was only after the wealth deity repents that Mahakala plants an
elephant’s head on his neck and receives him as a retainer.
Black Jambhala
The Black Jambhala is also known as the Hindu God of
Wealth, Kubera.[6] Originated in ancient India, he manifested from the waters
of the river and gave the transmission of generating wealth to a king whose
kingdom was undergoing extreme financial difficulties during that time. He
also benefits the poor and those in solitary retreat that have a virtuous
mind.[3]
Popularized by Shakyasribhadra, holding a skullcup and mongoose, naked
and wrathful in a standing posture. He is the God of Wealth in Tibetan
buddhism. With august guise he treads on the back of yellow rich man.
Jambhala, Black (Tibetan: dzam bha la, nag po), a wealth deity popularized
in Tibet by Bari Lotsawa (b.1040) and the Kashmiri
teacher Shakyashri Bhadra.
" ... the Lord Jambhala, with a body black in colour, having the appearance
of a dwarf, naked, sexually aroused, pot-bellied, with pierced ears, three
bulging bloodshot eyes, brown hair flowing upwards and bared fangs, in a
standing position, the right leg bent, and the left straight. He has one head
and two arms. The right hand holds the top of a skull in front of his chest as a
blood container, and the left hand holds a mongoose expelling wish fulfilling
jewels. On his head is a crown of five skulls in the shape of the five-Buddha
crown; around his neck is a string of 50 pray beads made of human skulls,
with five-color snakes as bracelets on hands, feet and neck. He shows anger
on his face, standing with his right leg bent, his left leg extended, the right
leg is extended pressing upon the head of the yellow Lord of Wealth,
adorned with various gold ornaments, lying face down beneath Black
Jambhala's feet." (Ngorchen Konchog Lhundrup, 1497-1557).
He is the manifestation of Amoghasiddhi Buddha by the request of Buddha
Shakyamuni to turn the wheel of Dharma to benefit sentient beings who are
suffering from poverty. He will enable all endeavors to be perfectly
accomplished and purify all bad luck and obstacles, prevent theft, bad debts
and loss of wealth. Jambhala has a black colored body. He is depicted in a
standing position over a human body, symbolizes to subdue human’s ego and
eliminate human’s greed. His right hand holding Gems Pot and his left hand

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 holding an animal named Nehulay (mongoose) which spue out jewels from
its mouth. Black Jambhala also wears a snake necklace on his body. The
Mantra of Black Jambhala is:
Om Jambhala Jalendraye Bashu Dharini Svaha and
""Om Indzali Mu Kam Dzamali Soha""
In Tantrism, Jambhala practice is an expedient and worldly cultivation-method. Tantric
cultivation is divided into “Generation Stage” and “Completion Stage”; Generation Stage is the
foundation while Completion Stage consists of practices pertaining to the holy truth and the
transcendental methods. Jambhala practice is a fundamental cultivation-method.[7]
The basis of five Jambhalas practices is Bodhicitta. Practitioners should generate the
altruistic intention of compassion (Bodhicitta), and practice generosity. The practice can remove
poverty within the six realms and increase one's merits, wisdom and lifespan. All their material
and spiritual needs will be met.[3]
The puja of five Jambhalas summons immense positive wealth energies upon the participants.
The Buddhists believe that wealth results from one's past actions, but this puja itself also plays a
significant role in changing the course of one's financial situation. Gaden Shartse said:[3]
“With a sincere motivation to accumulate merit, purify our negative karma, as well as
make prayers for all sentient beings to be freed from all poverty and all sufferings,
without doubt - one will certainly receive the vast blessings and protection of the wealth
deities.”
Some people claim that cultivating the Jambhala practice will increase one's greed. Although the
spiritual practitioner has the desire to gain great fortune, his body, mind and speech are
nonetheless gradually purified in the process of practicing the Tantric method.[7]
Reciting mantras
Chanting the mantra of every Jambhala is believed to be more beneficial if the chanter has
received oral transmissions from a teacher who holds the teaching Lineage
Pouring water over statues
The legend said that while Gautama Buddha was teaching the Maha Prajna-Paramita Sutra, the
jealous Devadatta threw rocks at the Buddha. But instead, the rocks hit White and Yellow
Jambhalas on their heads and hit Black Jambhala on the stomach. Buddha then came over to
Jambhala and blessed him; from his hand came a white, nectar-like substance of wisdom and
compassion and love, and touched Jambhala's head. Jambhala felt very blissful, happy, calm, and
cleaned his impurities and obstructions, and his wounds. Jambhala immediately bowed down to
Buddha and thanked him
Sakyamuni Buddha said to him, “As I have healed you and I poured this holy nectar onto you, in
the future any one of my students or student’s students who invokes your power and pours water
onto your head - bestow on them wealth, give them the two types of wealth, material wealth and
spiritual wealth, more importantly spiritual wealth.” After that, Jambhala folded his hands and
said, “I will do as you have said and I promise that I will do that.
That story has become the basis for the practitioners of Jambhala Puja to pour water over their
statues or to place their statues under the falling water of six-step waterfalls.
iśravaṇa (Sanskrit) or Vessavaṇa (Pali; Tibetan: རྣམ་ཐོས་སྲས་, Lhasa dialect: [Namtösé], simplified
Chinese: 多闻天王; traditional Chinese: 多聞天王; pinyin: Duōwén Tiānwáng, Bishamonten (毘
沙門天)), is one of the Four Heavenly Kings, and is considered an important figure in Japanese
Buddhism.

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The name Vaiśravaṇa is a vṛddhi derivative (used, e.g., for patronymics) of the Sanskrit proper
name Viśravaṇa from the root vi-śru "hear distinctly", (passive) "become famous. The
name Vaiśravaṇa is derived from the Sanskrit viśravaṇa which means "son of Vishrava", a usual
epithet of the Hindu god Kubera. Vaiśravaṇa is also known as Kubera and Jambhala in Sanskrit
and Kuvera in Pāli
Other names include:
 traditional Chinese: 多聞天; simplified Chinese: 多闻天; pinyin: Duōwén
Tiān; Korean: 다문천; Vietnamese: Đa văn Thiên, a calque of Sanskrit Vaiśravaṇa
 Chinese: 毘沙門天; pinyin: Píshāmén
Tiān; Japanese: Bishamonten; Korean: 비사문천; Vietnamese: Tỳ Sa Môn Thiên. This was a
loanword from Vaiśravaṇa into Middle Chinese with the addition of the word "heaven, god"
 Tibetan: རྣམ་ཐོས་སྲས, Wylie: rnam thos sras, THL Namthöse, "Prince All-Hearing", a calque of
Sanskrit Vaiśravaṇa
 Mongolian: Баян Намсрай bajn namsrɛ is a loan from Tibetan thos sras, a short form of
Tibetan rnam thos sras with the addition of an honorific
 Thai: ท ้าวกุเวร Thao Kuwen or ท ้าวเวสสุวรรณ Thao Wetsuwan is an honorific plus the
modern pronunciation of Pali Vessavaṇa.

The character of Vaiśravaṇa is founded upon the Hindu deity Kubera, but although the
Buddhist and Hindu deities share some characteristics and epithets, each of them has different
functions and associated myths. Although brought into East Asia as a Buddhist
deity, Vaiśravaṇa has become a character in folk religion and has acquired an identity that is
partially independent of the Buddhist tradition (cf. the similar treatment of Guanyin and Yama).
Vaiśravaṇa is the guardian of the northern direction, and his home is in the northern quadrant of
the topmost tier of the lower half of Sumeru. He is the leader of all the yakṣas who dwell on the
Sumeru's slopes.

He is often portrayed with a yellow face. He carries an umbrella or parasol (chatra) as a symbol
of his sovereignty. He is also sometimes displayed with a mongoose, often shown ejecting jewels
from its mouth. The mongoose is the enemy of the snake, a symbol of greed or hatred; the
ejection of jewels represents generosity.

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Vaiśravaṇa as the Seal of Udon Thani Province, Thailand Statue of Vaiśravaṇa as the guardian at
the royal crematorium of King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, 2017.

In the Pāli Canon of Theravāda Buddhism, Vaiśravaṇa is called Vessavaṇa. Vessavaṇa is one of
the Cāturmahārājika deva or "Four Great Heavenly Kings", each of whom rules over a specific
direction. Vessavaṇa's realm is the northern quadrant of the world, including the land
of Uttarakuru. According to some suttas, he takes his name from a region there called Visāṇa; he
also has a city there called Ālakamandā which is a byword for wealth. Vessavaṇa governs
the yakshas – beings with a nature between 'fairy' and 'ogre'.
Vessavaṇa's wife is named Bhuñjatī, and he has five daughters, Latā, Sajjā, Pavarā, Acchimatī,
and Sutā. He has a nephew called Puṇṇaka, a yakkha, husband of the nāga woman Irandatī. He
has a chariot called Nārīvāhana. He is called gadāvudha (Sanskrit: gadāyudha) "armed with a
club", but he only used it before he became a follower of the Buddha.
Vessavaṇa has the name "Kuvera" from a name he had from a past life as a rich Brahmin mill-
owner from Sri Lanka, who gave all the produce of one of his seven mills to charity, and
provided alms to the needy for 20,000 years. He was reborn in the Cātummahārājikā heaven as a
result of this good karma.
As with all the Buddhist deities, Vessavaṇa is properly the name of an office (filled for life)
rather than a permanent individual. Each Vessavaṇa is mortal, and when he dies, he will be
replaced by a new Vessavaṇa. Like other beings of the Cātummahārājika world, his lifespan is
90,000 years (other sources say nine million years). Vessavaṇa has the authority to grant the
yakkhas particular areas (e.g., a lake) to protect, and these are usually assigned at the beginning
of a Vessavaṇa's reign.
When Gautama Buddha was born, Vessavaṇa became his follower, and eventually attained the
stage of sotāpanna, one who has only seven more lives before enlightenment. He often brought
the Buddha and his followers messages from the gods and other humans, and protected them. He
presented to the Buddha the Āṭānāṭā verses, which Buddhists meditating in the forest could use
to ward off the attacks of wild yakkhas or other supernatural beings who do not have faith in the
Buddha. These verses are an early form of paritta chanting.
Bimbisāra, King of Magadha, after his death was reborn as a yakkha called Janavasabha in the
retinue of Vessavaṇa.
In the early years of Buddhism, Vessavaṇa was worshipped at trees dedicated to him as shrines.
Some people appealed to him to grant them children.
In Japan:

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Tamonten statue at Tōdai-ji, Nara /Partly gilded Tibetan bronze statue of Vaisravana (Jambhala)
sitting on a snow lion and holding a mongoose in his left hand. 18th century

In Japan, Bishamonten (毘沙門天), or just Bishamon (毘沙門) is thought of as an armor-clad

god of war or warriors and a punisher of evildoers. Bishamon is portrayed holding a spear in one
hand and a small pagoda in the other hand, the latter symbolizing the divine treasure house,
whose contents he both guards and gives away. In Japanese folklore, he is one of the Seven
Lucky Gods.
Bishamon is also called Tamonten (多聞天 lit. "listening to many teachings") because he is seen
as the guardian of the places where the Buddha preaches. He is believed to live halfway
down Mount Sumeru. He is also associated with Hachiman. Especially in the Shingon
tradition that gives some place and worth to this hybrid character of Bishamon although most
Mahayana temples have Bishamon and his counterpart as guardians at the entrance gate.
In Tibet, Vaiśravaṇa is considered a lokapāla or dharmapāla in the retinue of Ratnasambhava.
He is also known as the King of the North. As guardian of the north, he is often depicted on
temple murals outside the main door. He is also thought of as a god of wealth. As
such, Vaiśravaṇa is sometimes portrayed carrying a citron, the fruit of the jambhara tree, a pun
on another name of his, Jambhala. The fruit helps distinguish him iconically from depictions
of Kuvera. He is sometimes represented as corpulent and covered with jewels. When shown
seated, his right foot is generally pendant and supported by a lotus-flower on which is a conch
shell. His mount is a snow lion. Tibetan Buddhists consider Jambhala's sentiment regarding
wealth to be providing freedom by way of bestowing prosperity, so that one may focus on the
path or spirituality rather than on the materiality and temporality of that wealth.
In Thailand, he resolves the dispute that arose in the legend of Nang Ai and Phadaeng.
Jambhala, the Buddhist Kubera, depicted similar to Kubera
the king of the yakshas (nature spirits) and the god of wealth. He is associated with the earth,
mountains, all treasures such as minerals and jewels that lie underground, and riches in general.
According to most accounts, he first lived in Lanka (Sri Lanka), but his palace was taken away

331
from him by his half brother, Ravana, and he now resides in a beautiful mountain residence near
the god Shiva’s home on Mount Kailasa, where he is attended by all manner of demigods.
Subject: Kubera - I Am Not Kubera !
Kubera - I Am Not Kubera! Confused Visual Subjects

Is there a god named Kubera? Who is the God Kubera in Tantric

Buddhism and why are so many deities, so quickly and commonly,
identified as Kubera?

The sculpture on the right is not Kubera - it is Vaishravana Riding a

Lion!

Kubera is a name for a God of Wealth in Indian Buddhist literature.

He is also closely associated with Vaishravana, the God of the North,
who inhabits the Northern slopes of Mount Sumeru in Pali and
Sanskrit Mahayana literature.
Unfortunately, almost all figures identified as Kubera
in Tibetan and Himalayan art are not accurate. The name Kubera has
come to be used as a category of deity, a designation for all deities
that have a certain appearance but have not necessarily been precisely identified. How the word
Kubera is being used in the West actually has a more proper designation and definition in
Tibetan Art. That designation is King Appearance which is one of the traditional figurative forms
in Tibetan art. It is also prominent in the modern system of the Eleven Figurative Forms.

The name Kubera is not found as the name of a prominent figure or deity in the Tantric
literature. He can however be found as a minor or secondary figure in some mandalas.

The deities that are commonly misidentified as Kubera are:

- Vaishravana
- Jambhala
- Aparajita
- Twelve Yaksha Generals of the Medicine Buddha Mandala
- Others...

The figure most commonly misidentified is Vaishravana

Riding a Lion, or in a more simplified form without armor
and possibly without the lion. In Mahayana literature
Vaishravana and Kubera are names that are found together
and used as synonyms for the King of the Northern Direction,
one of the Four Guardian Kings, and yes there is a close
relationship - in the Mahayana Sutras.

Jambhala in his yellow coloured form is also commonly

misidentified. In the Tantric literature Jambhala originates

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from very different texts and origin narratives than the Vaishravana that was just discussed.
Jambhala certainly has the plump torso, crown and similar ornaments. He also holds a mongoose
in the left hand. This single attribute of the mongoose in the left hand is often reason enough to
misidentify any figure, sculpture or painting, as Kubera, if it is the only characteristic which is
looked for in basing an identification.

Jambhala has a number of different forms beginning with the basic yellow and then white, green,
red and black. Not all of the forms of Jambhala are mistaken for Kubera - only the forms that
have the King Appearance which is a standard model for wealth deities - is he consistently
misidentified.

Aparajita is a figure that is common to early paintings from the 12th to 14th century. Aparajita
shares the King Appearance with the two figures of Vaishravana and Jambhala. In early
paintings he is not always easy to identify by name and because of that he can easily be included
under the broad identification of Kubera. In the more recent centuries he has taken on the more
standard look of a wealth deity following the King Appearance in iconography.

The Twelve Yaksha Kings are represented in painting only in conjunction with the Medicine
Buddha and the presentation of all fifty-one deities of the mandala. They never appear as
individual figures, or worshiped with a separate liturgy or practices. The compliment of deities
can appear in a singled painted composition or each of the fifty-one figures can be individually
painted in a separate composition and then fastened together at the top and hung as a set of
paintings. As sculpture, each of the fifty-one is created individually.

The Twelve Yaksha generals all have a similar, almost

identical, appearance. With sculptural representations the only
differences between them are in the single attribute held in the
right hand. Otherwise, their general appearance, crown,
ornaments, dress and sitting postures are the same. The most
identifiable common characteristic is a mongoose held in the
left hand of all twelve Generals. This mongoose is a shared
attribute with many other wealth deities such as the common
forms of Vaishravana and Jambhala, along with the Eight
Horsemen of the Vaishravana Riding a Lion group of deities.

Kubera as a Minor Retinue Figure in Tantric Art: Kubera

can be found in Tantric art in a number of different roles. In the
Vaishravana Riding a Lion liturgy and iconography there is
a retinue of Eight Horsemen. One of these horsemen is named
Kubera. In the eight and sixteen deity mandalas of Yellow
Jambhala and Yellow Vasudhara, a goddess of wealth, Kubera can again be found as a retinue
figure. In the Yoga Tantras such as the Dharmadhatu Vagishvara, from the Namasangiti Tantra,
Kubera is again found among the Indian worldly gods in the outer circle. Vaishravana as an
Indian worldly god is also found in this same outer mandala circle. If Vaishravana and Kubera
were always the same individual then certainly he would most likely not appear twice in the
same mandala, and in the same outer ring, both in close proximity to each other.

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Who is Kubera?

1. Kubera is a character from the Pali and Sanskrit Mahayana Sutras.

2. Kubera is a name that is used as a synonym in some Mahayana literature (Sanskrit, Prakrit) for
Vaishravana, the Guardian King of the North.

3. Kubera is the name of a minor retinue figure that appears in many different mandalas of the
Kriya and Yoga Classes.

Kubera is the Buddhist Vaiśravaṇa or Jambhala, and the Japanese Bishamon. The Buddhist
Vaisravana, like the Hindu Kubera, is the regent of the North, a Loka-pala and the Lord of
Yakshas. He is one of the Four Heavenly Kings, each associated with a cardinal direction.[24] In
Buddhist legends, Kubera is also equated with Pañcika, whose wife Hariti is the symbol of
abundance.[25] The iconography of Kubera and Pancika is so similar that in certain cases, A.
Getty comments, it is extremely difficult to distinguish between Pancika and Kubera.[5] The
Japanese Bishamon, also known as Tamon-Ten,[26] is one of the Jūni-Ten (十二天), a group of
12 Hindu deities adopted in Buddhism as guardian deities (deva or ten) who are found in or
around Buddhist shrines. The Juni-Ten group of twelve deities were created by adding four
deities to the older grouping of Happou-Ten, the eight guardians of the directions. Bishamon
rules over the north, like his Hindu counterpart Kubera.
In Jainism, Kubera is the attendant Yaksha of the 19th Tirthankar Mallinath.[23] He is usually
called Sarvanubhuti or Sarvahna, and may be depicted with four faces, rainbow colours and
eight arms. The Digambara sect of Jainism gives him six weapons and three heads; while
the Svetambaras portray him with four to six arms, numerous choices of weapons, though his
attributes, the money bag and citron fruit are consistent. He may ride a man or an elephant. He is
related to the Buddhist Jambhala rather than the Hindu Kubera.
She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, love, beauty,Māyā, joy and prosperity. She is both the wife
and divine energy (shakti) of Vishnu, one of the principal deities of Hinduism and the Supreme
Being in the Vaishnava tradition.
She is often depicted with Saraswati andParvati as forming the holy trinity (Tridevi). For
mankind, 8 types of goals (lakshmi) are necessary according to Hinduism: spiritual
enlightenment, food, knowledge, resources, progeny, abundance, patience, and success. Hence
there are Ashta Lakshmis ('Eight Lakshmis'): Aadi ('primeval'), Dhaanya ('grain'), Vidya
('knowledge'), Dhana ('money'), Santaana ('progeny'), Gaja ('elephant'), Dhairya ('courage'), and
Vijaya ('victorious') Lakshmi.
Kubera (Sanskrit: कुबेर) also known as Kuvera,Kuber or Kuberan, is the Lord of Wealth and
the god-king of the semi-divine Yakshas inHindu culture.
He is regarded as the regent of the North (Dik-pala), and a protector of the world (Lokapala). His
many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species and the owner of the
treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, and
carrying a money-pot and a club.
Kubera
God of Wealth

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In Hinduism, Lakshmi : Lakṣhmī; or Lakṣmī) is the goddess who leads to one's goal,
or lakshya(hence her name), and was first mentioned in the Śrī Sūkta of the Rigveda.
Lakshmi
 Goddess of Fortune, Wealth, Love, Prosperity, Joy, Beauty, Fertility andMaya Member
of TrideviKubera is the king of the Yakshas who rules from the city if Alkapuri at the
foot of Mount Kailasa. He is the son of Rishi Vishravas. He is the half brother of
Ravana. He was once the owner of the southern Golden city of Lanka and of the
famous Pushpak Vimana, but these were wrested from him by Ravana. Kubera is
offered worship as the God of Money.

 Devi Lakshmi on the other hand is the Godess of Material prosperity and
Wealth. This includes not only money but also cattle, harvest , land, gold , children,
mansions and riches. She is associated with all things that make us feel fortunate
materially.

 Another difference one may note is that Kubera is usually associated with Lord Shiva
while Devi Lakshmi is associated with Lord Vishnu (her husband).

 Kubera is associated with the pride that brings from being wealthy. He is depicted as a
fat dwarfish man who rides a mechanical vehicle.

 Devi Lakshmi represents the transient nature of fortune. She is usually shown as a
young woman bedecked like a bride. She is also said to be capricious by nature.

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In Jainism

Yaksha Sarvahna from Karnataka, India, c. 900, Norton Simon Museum

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The epic saga of Lord Kuber: From thief to a demi -god

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The notorious Kubera is the keeper of the wealth. A blessing by Lord shiva that
granted him the supremacy of being called as the “God of Wealth” in spite of
intending to steal his temple. We all are aware of the fact that people worship
Lord Kubera and Goddess Lakshmi and it is deemed auspicious.
A big misconception in Indian mythology is that Lakshmi is the “Goddess of
wealth”. “Kuber” on the other hand is actually the one wh o is the God of wealth
while Lakshmi is the “Goddess of Fortune”. As fortune is usually associated with
wealth, the misbelief has risen.Here is the intriguing tale of rags to riches(if we
may say so) or thief to a demi -god.
Story of Lord Kubera
As written in Shiva Puran, millions of years ago, there lived a poor man named
Gunnidhi. He had no money to even buy himself food. Some days, he starved
himself to sleep, others he’d rely on the theft.
One night, he entered a Shiva temple with the intent to steal so me food. But he
was baffled to see all the precious jewels, gold, and valuable things. Suddenly
there was a gleam in his eyes and chills down his spine. But like a
classic Bollywood film, the diyas inside the temple went off and darkness
overspread in the blink of an eye. Gunnidhi tried to light the Diya for light
multiple times, but every time the wind would blow it off.
This continued for a while. Finally, he took his shirt off and lit fire to it and made
it through. Lord Shiva was impressed with his consistency and the fact that he
brought to light in the middle of the darkness. Therefore, he blessed him to be the
God of Wealth in his next birth and bringing to us the top -notch example of how
easily Lord Shiva gets pleased by his devotees.
ll about Lord Kubera
In his next birth, Lord Kubera belonged to the roots of Lord Brahma’s family. He
was born as the son of Vishrava and Illavida. Vishrava also married to the demon
princess Kaikesi, who then bore four children: Ravana, Kumbhkarna, Vibhishana,
and Surpanakha. Legends say that he first lived in Sri Lanka, but his palace was
seized from him, by his half brother, Ravana. He also took away Kubera’s magic
vehicle Pushpaka Viman and banished him from Lanka.

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Lord Kubera, is said to have performed austerities for 1000s of years. In reward
for which the boon from his last life came into effect, bringing to him immortality
and making him the god of Wealth & guardian of all treasures of Earth.
Thereafter, Vishvakarma, the divine engineer of the universe built him a new
domicile called “Alaka”. He resided in a beautiful mountain residence near Lord
Shiva’s abode on Mount Kailash.
In Hindu culture, as we consider Lord Kuber as the god of wealth, likewise
according to Feng Shui, the Laughing Buddha is considered to bring auspicious
energy, wealth and joyful blessings if it is placed anywhere in the house. Click
here to read about Feng Shui secrets to attract wealth and peace.
Lord Kuber auspicious Puja to attract wealth

On the occasion of Dhanteras, Kuber pooja is performed with the intention of

gaining legitimate wealth and richness. Those who are involved in business and
seek growth or are facing financial issues or crises must perform the pooja to
attain prosperity, wealth and happiness. Kuber Puja is done only once in a year
and for this Pooja, Dhanteras is the most auspicious day. Book your Dhanteras
Kuber Puja Now!
9 avatar of Lord Kuber which brings Good Luck
1. Ugra Kuber– for removing the enemies, wealth and protection from life.
2. Pushpa Kuber– helps in making love relations an d marriage
3. Chandra Kuber– for money and to get blessed with a child
4. Peet Kuber– helps in money related matter and get blessed in married life
or helps avoid the delays in marriage
5. Hans Kuber– helps in solving litigation related matters and financial issues
6. Raag Kuber– for growth in cultural activities, music, and education
7. Amrit Kuber– for health, money and to get rid of any disease
8. Praan Kuber– to get rid of debt and removing financial obligations
9. Dhan Kuber– He is the biggest among the rest avatars of the lord Kuber.
This Kuber fulfills anyone wishes of the native but according to their karma
Lord Kuber Mantra, and the best day to worship Lord Kuber
Dhanteras has deemed to be the most important festival dedicated to Lord Kuber.
Devotees perform Kuber Lakshmi puja and buy gold on this auspicious day.
Kuber Mantra:

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If you chant this mantra for genuine purposes and with a full heart, Lord Kuber
shall shower all the blessings to fulfill yo ur desires and free you from debts or
finance-related crisis.

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 CHAPTER XIII

DIWALI
Diwali (English: /dɪˈwɑːliː/; Deepavali (IAST: dīpāvali) or Divali) is a festival of lights and one
of the major festival celebrated mainly by Hindus, Jains and Sikhs. The festival usually lasts five
days and celebrated during the Hindu Lunisolar month Kartika (between mid-October and mid-
November). One of the most popular festivals of Hinduism, Diwali symbolizes the spiritual
"victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance The festival is
widely associated with Lakshmi, goddess of prosperity, with many other regional traditions
connecting the holiday
to Sita and Rama, Vishnu, Krishna, Yama, Yami, Durga, Kali, Hanuman, Ganesha, Kubera, Dha
nvantari, or Vishvakarman. Furthermore, it is, in some regions, a celebration of the day
Lord Rama returned to his kingdom Ayodhya with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana after
defeating Ravana in Lanka and serving 14 years of exile.
In the lead-up to Diwali, celebrants will prepare by cleaning, renovating, and decorating their
homes and workplaces with diyas (oil lamps) and rangolis. During Diwali, people wear their
finest clothes, illuminate the interior and exterior of their homes with diyas and rangoli, perform
(Lakshmi puja) – worship ceremonies of Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity and wealth,[note
1]
light fireworks, and partake in family feasts, where mithai (sweets) and gifts are shared. Diwali
is also a major cultural event for the Hindu and Jain diaspora from the Indian subcontinent.

The five-day long festival originated in the Indian subcontinent and is mentioned in early
Sanskrit texts. Diwali is usually celebrated twenty days after the Dashera (Dasara, Dasain)
festival, with Dhanteras, or the regional equivalent, marking the first day of the festival when
celebrants prepare by cleaning their homes and making decorations on the floor, such
as rangolis. The second day is Naraka Chaturdashi. The third day is the day of Lakshmi Puja and
the darkest night of the traditional month. In some parts of India, the day after Lakshmi Puja is
marked with the Govardhan Puja and Balipratipada (Padwa). Some Hindu communities mark
the last day as Bhai Dooj or the regional equivalent, which is dedicated to the bond between
sister and brother,while other Hindu and Sikh craftsmen communities mark this day
as Vishwakarma Puja and observe it by performing maintenance in their work spaces and
offering prayers.
Some other faiths in India also celebrate their respective festivals alongside Diwali.
The Jains observe their own Diwali which marks the final liberation
of Mahavira, the Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas to mark the release of Guru Hargobind from
a Mughal Empire prison, while Newar Buddhists, unlike other Buddhists, celebrate Diwali by
worshipping Lakshmi, while the Hindus of Eastern India and Bangladesh generally celebrate
Diwali, by worshipping Goddess Kali. The main day of the festival of Diwali (the day of
Lakshmi puja) is an official holiday in Fiji, Guyana, India, Malaysia (except

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Sarawak), Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Suriname, and Trinidad
and Tobago.

Diwali celebrations

Indoor Diya decoration on Naraka Diwali lamps

Chaturdasi night

As Tihar in Nepal Diwali night fireworks over Chennai

Indoor Diwali decorations in front of Dance events and fairs

an altar

Divali Nagar celebration in Trinidad Diwali sweets and snacks

and Tobago
Diwali festivities include a celebration of sights, sounds, arts and flavours.
The festivities vary between different regions.
The term is derived from the Sanskrit words dīpa, "lamp, light, lantern, candle, that which
glows, shines, illuminates or knowledge"and āvali, "a row, range, continuous line, series".
The five-day celebration is observed every year in early autumn after the conclusion of the
summer harvest, coincides with the new moon (amāvasyā) and is deemed the darkest night of
the Hindu lunisolar calendar. The festivities begin two days before amāvasyā, on Dhanteras, and
extend two days after, on the second day of the month of Kartik. (According to Indologist
Constance Jones, this night ends the lunar month of Ashwin and starts the month of Kartik [49] –
but see this note and Amanta and Purnima systems.) The darkest night is the apex of the
celebration and coincides with the second half of October or early November in the Gregorian
calendar.[49] The festival climax is on the third day and is called the main Diwali. It is an official

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holiday in a dozen countries, while the other festive days are regionally observed as either public
or optional restricted holidays in India. In Nepal, it is also a multiday festival, although the days
and rituals are named differently, with the climax being called the Tihar festival by Hindus
and Swanti festival by Buddhists.
History:
The Diwali festival is likely a fusion of harvest festivals in ancient India. It is mentioned in
Sanskrit texts such as the Padma Purana, the Skanda Purana both of which were completed in
the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The diyas (lamps) are mentioned in Skanda Kishore
Purana as symbolising parts of the sun, describing it as the cosmic giver of light and energy to all
life and which seasonally transitions in the Hindu calendar month of Kartik.
King Harsha refers to Deepavali, in the 7th century Sanskrit play Nagananda,
as Dīpapratipadotsava (dīpa = light, pratipadā = first day, utsava = festival), where lamps were
lit and newly engaged brides and grooms received gifts.Rajasekhara referred to Deepavali
as Dipamalika in his 9th century Kavyamimamsa, wherein he mentions the tradition of homes
being whitewashed and oil lamps decorated homes, streets and markets in the night.
Diwali was also described by numerous travellers from outside India. In his 11th century memoir
on India, the Persian traveller and historian Al Biruni wrote of Deepavali being celebrated by
Hindus on the day of the New Moon in the month of Kartika. The Venetian merchant and
traveller Niccolò de' Conti visited India in the early 15th-century and wrote in his memoir, "on
another of these festivals they fix up within their temples, and on the outside of the roofs, an
innumerable number of oil lamps... which are kept burning day and night" and that the families
would gather, "clothe themselves in new garments", sing, dance and feast.[58][59] The 16th-
century Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes wrote of his visit to the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire,
where Dipavali was celebrated in October with householders illuminating their homes, and their
temples, with lamps.
Islamic historians of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era also mentioned Diwali and
other Hindu festivals. A few, notably the Mughal emperor Akbar, welcomed and participated in
the festivities, whereas others banned such festivals as Diwali and Holi, as Aurangzeb did in
1665.
Publications from the British colonial era also made mention of Diwali, such as the note on
Hindu festivals published in 1799 by Sir William Jones, a philologist known for his early
observations on Sanskrit and Indo-European languages In his paper on The Lunar Year of the
Hindus, Jones, then based in Bengal, noted four of the five days of Diwali in the autumn months
of Aswina-Cartica [sic] as the following: Bhutachaturdasi Yamaterpanam (2nd
day), Lacshmipuja dipanwita (the day of Diwali), Dyuta pratipat Belipuja (4th day), and Bhratri
dwitiya (5th day). The Lacshmipuja dipanwita, remarked Jones, was a "great festival at night, in
honor of Lakshmi, with illuminations on trees and houses".

Epigraphy

William Simpson labelled his chromolithograph of 1867 CE as "Dewali, feast of lamps". It

showed streets lit up at dusk, with a girl and her mother lighting a street corner lamp.
Sanskrit inscriptions in stone and copper mentioning Diwali, occasionally alongside terms such
as Dipotsava, Dipavali, Divali and Divalige, have been discovered at numerous sites across
India. Examples include a 10th-century Rashtrakuta empire copper plate inscription of Krsna
III (939–967 CE) that mentions Dipotsava, and a 12th-century mixed Sanskrit-Kannada Sinda

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inscription discovered in the Isvara temple of Dharwad in Karnataka where the inscription refers
to the festival as a "sacred occasion". According to Lorenz Franz Kielhorn, a German Indologist
known for translating many Indic inscriptions, this festival is mentioned as Dipotsavam in verses
6 and 7 of the Ranganatha temple Sanskrit inscription of the 13th-century Kerala Hindu king
Ravivarman Samgramadhira. Part of the inscription, as translated by Kielhorn, reads: "the
auspicious festival of lights which disperses the most profound darkness, which in former days
was celebrated by the kings Ila, Kartavirya and Sagara, (...) as Sakra (Indra) is of the gods, the
universal monarch who knows the duties by the three Vedas, afterwards celebrated here at Ranga
for Vishnu, resplendent with Lakshmi resting on his radiant lap."

Jain inscriptions, such as the 10th century Saundatti inscription about a donation of oil to
Jinendra worship for the Diwali rituals, speak of Dipotsava. Another early 13th-century Sanskrit
stone inscription, written in the Devanagari script, has been found in the north end of a mosque
pillar in Jalore, Rajasthan evidently built using materials from a demolished Jain temple. The
inscription states that Ramachandracharya built and dedicated a drama performance hall, with a
golden cupola, on Diwali. {{refn|group=note|The Diwali-related inscription is the 4th inscription
and it includes the year Vikrama Era 1268 (c. 1211 CE).

Diwali is celebrated by Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, and Newar Buddhists, although for each faith it
marks different historical events and stories, but nonetheless the festival represents the same
symbolic victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, and good over evil.

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Hinduism

Diwali is celebrated in the honour of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth.

The religious significance of Diwali varies regionally within India. The festival is associated
with a diversity of deities, traditions, and symbolism. These variations, states Constance Jones,
may reflect diverse local autumn harvest festivals that fused into one pan-Hindu festival with a
shared spiritual significance and ritual grammar while retaining local traditions.
One tradition links the festival to legends in the Hindu epic Ramayana, where Diwali is the day
Rama, Sita, Lakshman and Hanuman reached Ayodhya after a period of 14 years in exile after
Rama's army of good defeated demon king Ravana's army of evil.

As per another popular tradition, in the Dwapara Yuga Period, Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu,
killed the demon Narakasura, who was evil king of Pragjyotishapura, near present-day Assam
and released 16000 girls held captive by Narakasura. Diwali was celebrated as a significance of
triumph of good over evil after Krishna's Victory over Narakasura. The day before Diwali is
remembered as Naraka Chaturdasi, the day on which Narakasura was killed by Krishna.
Many Hindus associate the festival with Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and wife
of Vishnu. According to Pintchman, the start of the 5-day Diwali festival is stated in some
popular contemporary sources as the day Goddess Lakshmi was born from Samudra manthan,
the churning of the cosmic ocean of milk by the Devas (gods) and the Asuras (demons) – a Vedic
legend that is also found in several Puranas such as the Padma Purana, while the night of Diwali
is when Lakshmi chose and wed Vishnu. Along with Lakshmi, who is representative
of Vaishnavism, Ganesha, the elephant-headed son of Parvati and Shiva of Shaivism tradition, is
remembered as one who symbolises ethical beginnings and the remover of obstacles.[80]
Hindus of eastern India associate the festival with the goddess Kali, who symbolises the victory
of good over evil. Hindus from the Braj region in northern India, parts of Assam, as well as
southern Tamil and Telugu communities view Diwali as the day the god Krishna overcame and

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destroyed the evil demon king Narakasura, in yet another symbolic victory of knowledge and
good over ignorance and evil.
Trade and merchant families and others also offer prayers to Saraswati, who embodies music,
literature and learning and Kubera, who symbolises book-keeping, treasury and wealth
management. In western states such as Gujarat, and certain northern Hindu communities of
India, the festival of Diwali signifies the start of a new year.
Mythical tales shared on Diwali vary widely depending on region and even within Hindu
tradition, yet all share a common focus on righteousness, self-inquiry and the importance of
knowledge, which, according to Lindsey Harlan, an Indologist and scholar of Religious Studies,
is the path to overcoming the "darkness of ignorance".The telling of these myths are a reminder
of the Hindu belief that good ultimately triumphs over evil.

Jainism

A scholar of Jain and Nivethan, states that in Jain tradition, Diwali is celebrated in observance of
"Mahavira Nirvana Divas", the physical death and final nirvana of Mahavira. The Jain Diwali
celebrated in many parts of India has similar practices to the Hindu Diwali, such as the lighting
of lamps and the offering of prayers to Lakshmi. However, the focus of the Jain Diwali remains
the dedication to Mahavira. According to the Jain tradition, this practice of lighting lamps first
began on the day of Mahavira's nirvana in 527 BCE when 18 kings who had gathered for
Mahavira's final teachings issued a proclamation that lamps be lit in remembrance of the "great
light, Mahavira” This traditional belief of the origin of Diwali, and its significance to Jains, is
reflected in their historic artworks such as paintings.

Sikhism

Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas in remembrance of the release of Guru Hargobind from
the Gwalior Fort prison by the Mughal emperor, Jahangir, and the day he arrived at the Golden
Temple in Amritsar.[98] According to J.S. Grewal, a scholar of Sikhism and Sikh history, Diwali
in the Sikh tradition is older than the sixth Guru Hargobind legend. Guru Amar Das, the third
Guru of the Sikhs, built a well in Goindwal with eighty-four steps and invited Sikhs to bathe in
its sacred waters on Baisakhi and Diwali as a form of community bonding. Over time, these
spring and autumn festivals became the most important of Sikh festivals and holy sites such as
Amritsar became focal points for annual pilgrimages. The festival of Diwali, according to Ray
Colledge, highlights three events in Sikh history: the founding of the city of Amritsar in 1577,
the release of Guru Hargobind from the Mughal prison, and the day of Bhai Mani Singh's
martyrdom in 1738 as a result of his failure to pay a fine for trying to celebrate Diwali and
thereafter refusing to convert to Islam.

Buddhism

Diwali is not a festival for most Buddhists, with the exception of the Newar people of Nepal who
revere various deities in the Vajrayana Buddhism and celebrate Diwali by offering prayers to
Lakshmi.[29][30] Newar Buddhists in Nepalese valleys also celebrate the Diwali festival over five
days, in much the same way, and on the same days, as the Nepalese Hindu Diwali-Tihar
festival.[104] According to some observers, this traditional celebration by Newar Buddhists in
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Nepal, through the worship of Lakshmi and Vishnu during Diwali, is not syncretism but rather a
reflection of the freedom within Mahayana Buddhist tradition to worship any deity for their
worldly betterment.

Diwali celebrations include puja (prayers) to Lakshmi and Ganesha. Lakshmi is of the
Vaishnavism tradition, while Ganesha of the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism.
Diwali is a five-day festival, the height of which is celebrated on the third day coinciding with
the darkest night of the lunar month. During the festival, Hindus, Jains and Sikhs illuminate their
homes, temples and work spaces with diyas, candles and lanterns Hindus, in particular, have a
ritual oil bath at dawn on each day of the festival. Diwali is also marked with fireworks and the
decoration of floors with rangoli designs. Food is a major focus with families partaking in feasts
and sharing mithai. The festival is an annual homecoming and bonding period not only for
families, but also for communities and associations, particularly those in urban areas, which will
organise activities, events and gatherings. Many towns organise community parades and fairs
with parades or music and dance performances in parks. Some Hindus, Jains and Sikhs will send
Diwali greeting cards to family near and far during the festive season, occasionally with boxes of
Indian confectionery.

Diwali is a post-harvest festival celebrating the bounty following the arrival of the monsoon in
the subcontinent. Depending on the region, celebrations include prayers before one or more
Hindu deities, the most common being Lakshmi. According to David Kinsley, an Indologist and
scholar of Indian religious traditions particularly in relation to goddess worship, Lakshmi
symbolises three virtues: wealth and prosperity, fertility and abundant crops, as well as good
fortune. Merchants seek Lakshmi's blessings in their ventures and will ritually close their
accounting year during Diwali. Fertility motifs appear in agricultural offerings brought before
Lakshmi by farming families, who give thanks for the recent harvests and seek her blessings for
prosperous future cropsA symbolic piece of traditional fertiliser, a dried piece of cow dung, is
included in the ensemble in Odisha and Deccan region villages, an agricultural motif according
to Kinsley. Another aspect of the festival is remembering the ancestors.

Rituals and preparations for Diwali begin days or weeks in advance, typically after the festival of
Dusshera that precedes Diwali by about 20 days. The festival formally begins two days before
the night of Diwali, and ends two days thereafter. Each day has the following rituals and
significance:.
Dhanteras, Dhanatrayodashi, Yama Deepam (Day 1

Choti Diwali is the major shopping day for festive mithai (sweets) RIGHT PIC

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Dhanteras starts off the Diwali celebrations with the lighting of Diya or Panati lamp rows, house
cleaning and floor rangoli
Dhanteras, derived from Dhan meaning wealth and teras meaning thirteenth, marks the
thirteenth day of the dark fortnight of Kartik and the beginning of Diwali.
On this day, many Hindus clean their homes and business premises. They install diyas, small
earthen oil-filled lamps that they light up for the next five days, near Lakshmi and Ganesha
iconography. Women and children decorate doorways within homes and offices with rangolis,
colourful designs made from rice flour, flower petals, colored rice or colored sand, while the
boys and men decorate the roofs and walls of family homes, markets, and temples and string up
lights and lanterns. The day also marks a major shopping day to purchase new utensils, home
equipment, jewellery, firecrackers, and other items. On the evening of Dhanteras, families offer
prayers (puja) to Lakshmi and Ganesha, and lay offerings of puffed rice, candy toys, rice cakes
and batashas (hollow sugar cakes).
According to Tracy Pintchman, Dhanteras is a symbol of annual renewal, cleansing and an
auspicious beginning for the next year. The term "Dhan" for this day also alludes to
the Ayurvedic icon Dhanvantari, the god of health and healing, who is believed to have emerged
from the "churning of cosmic ocean" on the same day as Lakshmi. Some communities,
particularly those active in Ayurvedic and health-related professions, pray or
perform havan rituals to Dhanvantari on Dhanteras.
On Yama Deepam (Yama Dipadana, Jam ke Diya), Hindus lights a diya, ideally made of wheat
flour and filled with sesame oil, that faces south in the back of their homes. This is believed to
please Yama (Yamraj), the god of death, and to ward off untimely death. Some Hindus observe
Yama Deepa on the second night before the main day of Diwali.

Naraka Chaturdashi, Kali Chaudas, Chhoti Diwali, Hanuman Puja) (Day 2

Naraka Chaturdashi also known as Chhoti Diwali, is the second day of festivities coinciding
with the fourteenth day of the second fortnight of the lunar month. The term "chhoti" means
little, while "Naraka" means hell and "Chaturdashi" means "fourteenth".The day and its rituals
are interpreted as ways to liberate any souls from their suffering in "Naraka", or hell, as well as a
reminder of spiritual auspiciousness. For some Hindus, it is a day to pray for the peace to the
manes, or defiled souls of one's ancestors and light their way for their journeys in the cyclic
afterlife. A mythological interpretation of this festive day is the destruction of the asura
(demon) Narakasura by Krishna, a victory that frees 16,000 imprisoned princesses kidnapped by
Narakasura.
Naraka Chaturdashi is also a major day for purchasing festive foods, particularly sweets. A
variety of sweets are prepared using flour, semolina, rice, chickpea flour, dry fruit pieces
powders or paste, milk solids (mawa or khoya) and clarified butter (ghee.) According to
Goldstein, these are then shaped into various forms, such as laddus, barfis, halwa, kachoris,
shrikhand, and sandesh, rolled and stuffed delicacies, such as karanji, shankarpali, maladu,
susiyam, pottukadalai. Sometimes these are wrapped with edible silver foil (vark). Confectioners
and shops create Diwali-themed decorative displays, selling these in large quantities, which are
stocked for home celebrations to welcome guests and as gifts. Families also prepare homemade

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delicacies for Lakshmi Pujan, regarded as the main day of Diwali. Chhoti Diwali is also a day for
visiting friends, business associates and relatives, and exchanging gifts.
On the second day of Diwali, Hanuman Puja is performed in some parts of India especially
in Gujarat. It coincides with the day of Kali Chaudas. It is believed that spirits roam around on
the night of Kali Chaudas, and Hanuman, who is the deity of strength, power, and protection, is
worshipped to seek protection from the spirits. Diwali is also celebrated to mark the return
of Rama to Ayodhya after defeating the demon-king Ravana and completing his fourteen years
of exile. The devotion and dedication of Hanuman pleased Rama so much that he blessed
Hanuman to be worshipped before him. Thus, people worship Hanuman the day before Diwali's
main day.
This day is commonly celebrated as Diwali in Tamil Nadu, Goa, and Karnataka.
Traditionally, Marathi Hindus and South Indian Hindus receive an oil massage from the elders in
the family on the day and then take a ritual bath, all before sunrise.[121] Many visit their favourite
Hindu temple.[122]
Lakshmi Pujan, Kali Puja (Day 3)
The third day is the height of the festival, and coincides with the last day of the dark fortnight of
the lunar month. This is the day when Hindu, Jain and Sikh temples and homes are aglow with
lights, thereby making it the "festival of lights". The word Deepawali comes from the word the
Sanskrit word deep, which means an Indian lantern/lamp. Kali Puja, also known as Shyama
Puja or Mahanisha Puja, is a festival, originating from the Indian subcontinent, dedicated to
the Hindu goddess Kali, celebrated on the new moon day (Dipannita Amavasya) of the Hindu
month Kartik especially in the regions of Bengal, Mithila, Odisha, Assam and the town
of Titwala in Maharashtra.[2] It coincides with the Lakshmi Puja day of Diwali. While
the Hindu Bengalis ,Odias, Assamese and Maithils worship the goddess Kali[2] on this day, the
rest of India and Nepal worships goddess Lakshmi on Diwali.
As per the Kalikula sect of Shaktism, the supreme celestial Mother goddess Mahakali took 10
manifestations to slay evils on the Earth, which are collectively known as Dasa Mahavidyas.
Each Mahavidya has a day of incarnation in the Hindu calendar of 12 months. Out of those 10
Mahavidyas, the last goddess is Kamalatmika, whose day of incarnation is celebrated
as Kamalatmika Jayanti, falls on the day of Deepavali. She is often recognized as
'Tantrik Lakshmi'. In the rest of Indian subcontinent, the day is associated with
deity Srirama or Srikrishna. Since both of them are central Gods of Vaishnavism, most Indians
celebrate Deepavali as a Vaishnavite-oriented festival and thus worship the Goddess Lakshmi,
the consort of Lord Mahavishnu as the supreme mother Goddess.
However, in Eastern & Northeastern India, the Kalikuli Shakta faith being dominant, the root
goddess of Kamalatmika, Mahakali is worshipped. Thus, the day eventually becomes Kali puja.
The festival of Kali Puja is not an ancient one. Kali Puja was practically unknown before the
16th century;famous sage Krisnananda Agambagish first initiated Kali puja, also a late 17th-
century devotional text Kalika mangalkavya –by Balram mentions an annual festival dedicated to
Kali.[3] In Bengal during the 18th century, King (Raja) Krishnachandra of Krishnanagar, Nadia,
West Bengal also made this puja wide spread . Kali Puja gained popularity in the 19th century,
with Krishanachandra's grandson Ishvarchandra and the Bengali elite; wealthy landowners began
patronizing the festival on a grand scale. Along with Durga Puja, Kali Puja is the biggest festival
in Bengal and Assam.

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During kali puja (like Durga Puja) worshippers honour the goddess Kali in their homes in the
form of clay sculptures and in pandals (temporary shrines or open pavilions). She is worshipped
at night with Tantric rites and mantras. She is prescribed offerings of red hibiscus flowers,
sweets, rice and lentils. It is prescribed that a worshipper should meditate throughout the night
until dawn.[6] Homes and pandals may also practice rites in the Brahmanical (mainstream Hindu-
style, non-Tantric) tradition with ritual dressing of Kali in her form as Adya Shakti Kali and no
animals are sacrificed. She is offered food and sweets made of rice, lentils, and
fruits.[7] However, in Tantric tradition, animals are ritually sacrificed on Kali Puja day and
offered to the goddess.[2] A celebration of Kali Puja in Kolkata , Bhubaneswar and
in Guwahati is also held in a large cremation ground[ where she is believed to
dwell. Barasat, Madhyamgram region of North 24 Parganas is well known for their majestic
pandals, lightings and Idols. Durga Puja of Kolkata is often said synonymously with Kali Puja
of Barasat. The region experiences Lacs of footfalls during the days of the festival. People from
different regions gather to witness the majestic Pandals.
The pandals also house images of Kali's consort Shiva, two famous Bengali Kali devotees
named Ramakrishna and Bamakhepa, along with scenes from mythology of Kali and her various
forms, including images of the Mahavidyas, sometimes considered as the "ten Kalis." The
Mahavidyas is a group of ten Tantric goddesses headed by Kali People visit
these pandals throughout the night. Kali Puja is also the time for magic shows, theater, and
fireworks. Recent custom has incorporated wine consumption.
In the Kalighat Temple in Kolkata, Kalikhetra Temple in Bhubaneswar and in Kamakhya
Temple in Guwahati, Kali is worshipped as Lakshmi on this day so as to reflect an essence
of Vaishnava Haldars on Kali worship. Goddess Lakshmi is worshiped in her three forms, Maha
Lakshmi, Maha Kali and Maha Saraswati on this day. The temple is visited by thousands of
devotees who give offerings to the goddess. Another famous temple dedicated to Kali in Kolkata
is Dakshineswar Kali Temple, where Sri Rāmakrishna performed rites.

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Artisan making an idol of goddess Kali at Kumortuli, Kolkata.A Kali Puja pandal with a
replica of the Kalighat Kali Temple icon. child bursting firecracker in Bengal during Kali
Puja
Although the widely popular annual Kali Puja celebration, also known as the Dipanwita Kali
Puja, is celebrated on the new moon day of the month of Kartika, Kali is also worshipped in
other new moon days too. Two other major Kali Puja observations are Ratanti Kali
Puja and Phalaharini Kali Puja. Ratanti puja is celebrated on Magha Krishna Chaturdashi and
Phalaharini puja is celebrated on Jyeshta Amavashya of Bengali calendar. The Phalaharini Kali
Puja is especially important in the life of the saint Ramakrishna and his wife Sarada Devi, since
on this day in 1872, Ramakrishna worshipped Sarada Devi as the goddess Shodashi. many
Bengali and Assamese households, Kali is worshipped daily.
The youngest members in the family visit their elders, such as grandparents and other senior
members of the community, on this day. Small business owners give gifts or special bonus
payments to their employees between Dhanteras and Lakshmi Pujan. Shops either do not open or
close early on this day allowing employees to enjoy family time. Shopkeepers and small
operations perform puja rituals in their office premises. Unlike some other festivals, the Hindu
typically do not fast during the five-day long Diwali including Lakshmi Pujan, rather they feast
and share the bounties of the season at their workplaces, community centres, temples and homes.

Lighting candle and clay lamp in their house and at temples during Diwali night
As the evening approaches, celebrants will wear new clothes or their best outfits, teenage girls
and women, in particular, wear saris and jewellery. At dusk, family members gather for the
Lakshmi Pujan, although prayers will also be offered to other deities, such as Ganesha,
Saraswati, Rama, Lakshmana, Sita, Hanuman, or Kubera. The lamps from the puja ceremony are
then used to light more earthenware lamps, which are placed in rows along the parapets of
temples and houses, while some diyas are set adrift on rivers and streams.[13][128][129] After
the puja, people go outside and celebrate by lighting up patakhe (fireworks) together, and then
share a family feast and mithai (sweets, desserts).

The puja and rituals in the Bengali Hindu community focus on Kali, the goddess of war, instead
of Lakshmi. According to Rachel Fell McDermott, a scholar of South Asian, particular Bengali,
studies, in Bengal during Navaratri (Dussehra elsewhere in India) the Durga puja is the main
focus, although in the eastern and north eastern states the two are synonymous, but on Diwali the
focus is on the puja dedicated to Kali. These two festivals likely developed in tandem over their
recent histories, states McDermott. Textual evidence suggests that Bengali Hindus worshipped
Lakshmi before the colonial era, and that the Kali puja is a more recent
phenomenon. Contemporary Bengali celebrations mirror those found elsewhere, with teenage

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boys playing with fireworks and the sharing of festive food with family, but with
the Shakti goddess Kali as the focus.

On the night of Diwali, rituals across much of India are dedicated to Lakshmi to welcome her
into their cleaned homes and bring prosperity and happiness for the coming year.[132][133] While
the cleaning, or painting, of the home is in part for goddess Lakshmi, it also signifies the ritual
"reenactment of the cleansing, purifying action of the monsoon rains" that would have concluded
in most of the Indian subcontinent Vaishnava families recite Hindu legends of the victory of
good over evil and the return of hope after despair on the Diwali night, where the main
characters may include Rama, Krishna, Vamana or one of the avatars of Vishnu, the divine
husband of Lakshmi. At dusk, lamps placed earlier in the inside and outside of the home are lit
up to welcome Lakshmi. Family members light up firecrackers, which some interpret as a way
to ward off all evil spirits and the inauspicious, as well as add to the festive mood. According to
Pintchman, who quotes Raghavan, this ritual may also be linked to the tradition in some
communities of paying respect to ancestors. Earlier in the season's fortnight, some welcome the
souls of their ancestors to join the family for the festivities with the Mahalaya. The Diwali
night's lights and firecrackers, in this interpretation, represent a celebratory and symbolic
farewell to the departed ancestral souls
The celebrations and rituals of the Jains and the Sikhs are similar to those of the Hindus where
social and community bonds are renewed. Major temples and homes are decorated with lights,
festive foods shared with all, friends and relatives remembered and visited with gifts.

Annakut, Balipratipada (Padwa), Govardhan Puja (Day 4)

The day after Diwali is the first day of the bright fortnight of the luni-solar calendar. It is
regionally called as Annakut (heap of grain), Padwa, Goverdhan puja, Bali Pratipada, Bali
Padyami, Kartik Shukla Pratipada and other names. According to one tradition, the day is
associated with the story of Bali's defeat at the hands of Vishnu. In another interpretation, it is
thought to reference the legend of Parvati and her husband Shiva playing a game of dyuta (dice)
on a board of twelve squares and thirty pieces, Parvati wins. Shiva surrenders his shirt and
adornments to her, rendering him naked. According to Handelman and Shulman, as quoted by
Pintchman, this legend is a Hindu metaphor for the cosmic process for creation and dissolution
of the world through the masculine destructive power, as represented by Shiva, and the feminine
procreative power, represented by Parvati, where twelve reflects the number of months in the
cyclic year, while thirty are the number of days in its lunisolar month

his day ritually celebrates the bond between the wife and husband and in some Hindu
communities, husbands will celebrate this with gifts to their wives. In other regions, parents
invite a newly married daughter, or son, together with their spouses to a festive meal and give
them gifts.
In some rural communities of the north, west and central regions, the fourth day is celebrated as
Govardhan puja, honouring the legend of the Hindu god Krishna saving the cowherd and
farming communities from incessant rains and floods triggered by Indra's anger,[141] which he
accomplished by lifting the Govardhan mountain. This legend is remembered through the ritual
of building small mountain-like miniatures from cow dung. According to Kinsley, the ritual use

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of cow dung, a common fertiliser, is an agricultural motif and a celebration of its significance to
annual crop cycles.
The agricultural symbolism is also observed on this day by many Hindus as Annakut, literally
"mountain of food". Communities prepare over one hundred dishes from a variety of ingredients,
which is then dedicated to Krishna before shared among the community. Hindu temples on this
day prepare and present "mountains of sweets" to the faithful who have gathered
for darshan (visit). In Gujarat, Annakut is the first day of the new year and celebrated through
the purchase of essentials, or sabras (literally, "good things in life"), such as salt, offering
prayers to Krishna and visiting temples.
Bhai Duj, Bhau-Beej, Vishwakarma Puja (Day 5)

The last day of the festival is called Bhai Duj (literally "brother's day"[144]), Bhau Beej, Bhai
Tilak or Bhai Phonta. It celebrates the sister-brother bond, similar in spirit to Raksha
Bandhan but it is the brother that travels to meet the sister and her family. This festive day is
interpreted by some to symbolise Yama's sister Yamuna welcoming Yama with a tilaka, while
others interpret it as the arrival of Krishna at his sister's, Subhadra, place after defeating
Narakasura. Subhadra welcomes him with a tilaka on his forehead.
The day celebrates the sibling bond between brother and sister. On this day the womenfolk of the
family gather, perform a puja with prayers for the well being of their brothers, then return to a
ritual of feeding their brothers with their hands and receiving gifts. According to Pintchman, in
some Hindu traditions the women recite tales where sisters protect their brothers from enemies
that seek to cause him either bodily or spiritual harm. In historic times, this was a day in autumn
when brothers would travel to meet their sisters, or invite their sister's family to their village to
celebrate their sister-brother bond with the bounty of seasonal harvests.
The artisan Hindu and Sikh community celebrates the fourth day as the Vishwakarma puja
day.[note 12] Vishwakarma is the presiding Hindu deity for those in architecture, building,
manufacturing, textile work and crafts trades. The looms, tools of trade, machines and
workplaces are cleaned and prayers offered to these livelihood means.[

During the season of Diwali, numerous rural townships and villages host melas,[ or fairs,
where local producers and artisans trade produce and goods. A variety of entertainments are
usually available for inhabitants of the local community to enjoy. The women, in particular,
adorn themselves in colourful attire and decorate their hands with henna. Such events are also
mentioned in Sikh historical records.In the modern day, Diwali mela are held at college, or
university, campuses or as community events by members of the Indian diaspora. At such events
a variety of music, dance and arts performances, food, crafts, and cultural celebrations are
featured.

Economics
Diwali marks a major shopping period in India, and is comparable to the Christmas period in
terms of consumer purchases and economic activity. It is traditionally a time when households
purchase new clothing, home refurbishments, gifts, gold, jewellery, and other large purchases
particularly as the festival is dedicated to Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and
such purchases are considered auspicious. According to Rao, Diwali is one of the major festivals
where rural Indians spend a significant portion of their annual income, and is a means for them to
renew their relationships and social networks. Other goods that are bought in substantial

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quantities during Diwali include confectionery and fireworks. In 2013, about ₹25
billion (US$350 million) of fireworks were sold to merchants for the Diwali season, an
equivalent retail value of about ₹50 billion (US$700 million) according to The Times of India.
ASSOCHAM, a trade organisation in India, forecasted that online shopping alone to be
over ₹300 billion (US$4.2 billion) over the 2017 Diwali season. About two-thirds of Indian
households, according to the ASSOCHAM forecast, would spend between ₹5,000 (US$70)
and ₹10,000 (US$140) to celebrate Diwali in 2017. In 2020, the INDF ETF was launched to
mark the start of Diwali.
Politics
Diwali has increasingly attracted cultural exchanges, becoming occasions for politicians and
religious leaders worldwide to meet Hindu or Indian origin citizens, diplomatic staff or
neighbours. Many participate in other socio-political events as a symbol of support for diversity
and inclusiveness. The Catholic dicastery Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, founded
as Secretariat for non-Christians by Pope Paul VI, began sending official greetings and Pope's
message to the Hindus on Diwali in the mid-1990s.
Many governments encourage or sponsor Diwali-related festivities in their territories. For
example, the Singaporean government, in association with the Hindu Endowment Board of
Singapore, organises many cultural events during Diwali every year. National and civic leaders
such as Prince Charles have attended Diwali celebrations at prominent Hindu temples in the UK,
such as the Swaminarayan Temple in Neasden, using the occasion to highlight contributions of
the Hindu community to British society. Since 2009, Diwali has been celebrated every year at 10
Downing Street, the residence of the British Prime Minister.
Diwali was first celebrated in the White House by George W. Bush in 2003 and was given
official status by the United States Congress in 2007. Barack Obama became the first president
to personally attend Diwali at the White House in 2009. On the eve of his first visit to India as
President of the United States, Obama released an official statement sharing his best wishes with
"those celebrating Diwali"
Every year during Diwali, Indian forces approach their Pakistani counterparts at the border
bearing gifts of traditional Indian confectionery, a gesture that is returned in kind by the
Pakistani soldiers who give Pakistani sweets to the Indian soldiers.

The AQI PM2.5 and PM data for air quality from 1 August to 31 December 2015 in Delhi, India.
The 5-day Diwali festival in 2015 was observed from 9 to 13 November.
The 51% of which is caused by the industrial pollution, 27% by vehicles, 8% by crop
burning and 5% by diwali fireworks. The tradition of annual Diwali fireworks has caused
widespread coverage in Indian media, where debate has centred on air quality within Indian
cities in autumn and winter and the role the fireworks play. On 9 October 2017, the Supreme
Court of India banned the sale, but not use, of fireworks in Delhi during the Diwali
season,[181] with the assumption that banning the use of fireworks would substantially improve
the air quality of Delhi. Critics stated that the ruling was judicial over-reach and a bias against
Hindu culture, while supporters stated that it would be beneficial to public health.
Scholars have stated that many factors contribute to the poor air quality in Delhi, and northern
India, that accompanies the harvest festival of Diwali. According to Jethva and others, the post-
monsoon custom is to prepare the crop fields by deliberately burning the residual stubble
between October and November. As crop productivity per hectare has increased with
mechanised harvesting, this has led to the practice becoming more widespread in the northern

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and northwestern regions of India in the months when Diwali is observed.[182] The smoke from
the burning of the fields is carried by seasonal winds over the floodplain, where it is inverted by
the colder winds and spread throughout the region for much of the winter. Other contributors to
the poor air quality include daily vehicular and industrial activity along with the burning of other
biomass.[182][183]
A study of residential areas of Delhi in 2006–08, found that concentration of particulate matter as
well as sulphur dioxide increased on the day of Diwali relative to other days of the month and
that the increase could be exacerbated by prevailing meteorological conditions; there was also a
correlated increase in ambient noise levels. Another study of air pollution in Delhi found that the
PM2.5 levels in 2015 and 2016 did rise over Diwali, but these higher levels were "a result of
contribution from fireworks on the Diwali night, trans-regional movement of pollutants due to
crop residue burning, low wind speed, and high humidity". The authors concluded that the
contribution of the festival fireworks could lead to a 1.3% increase in the non-carcinogenic
hazard index.[ Other studies have stated that the fireworks of Diwali produce particulates and
pollutants with a decay-life time of about one day
uminates the soul. It is an opportunity to cultivate and enjoy eternal bliss.
Deepawali, Deepavali, or Diwali is the biggest and the brightest of all Hindu festivals. It is the
festival of lights: deep means "light" and avali "a row" to become "a row of lights." Diwali is
marked by four days of celebration, which literally illuminates the country with its brilliance and
dazzles people with its joy.

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The Diwali festival occurs in late October or early November. It falls on the 15th day of the
Hindu month of Kartik, so it varies every year. Each of the four days in the festival of Diwali is
marked with a different tradition. What remains constant is the celebration of life, its enjoyment,
and a sense of goodness.
The Origins of Diwali
Historically, Diwali can be traced back to ancient India. It most likely began as an important
harvest festival. However, there are various legends pointing to the origin of Diwali.
Some believe it to be the celebration of the marriage of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, with
Lord Vishnu. Others use it as a celebration of her birthday, as Lakshmi is said to have been born
on the new-moon day of Kartik.
In Bengal, the festival is dedicated to the worship of Mother Kali, the dark goddess of
strength. Lord Ganesha—the elephant-headed god and symbol of auspiciousness and wisdom—
is also worshiped in most Hindu homes on this day. In Jainism, Deepawali has the added
significance of marking the great event of Lord Mahavira attaining the eternal bliss of nirvana.
Diwali also commemorates the return of Lord Rama (along with Ma Sita and Lakshman) from
his 14-year-long exile and vanquishing the demon-king Ravana. In joyous celebration of the
return of their king, the people of Ayodhya, the capital of Rama, illuminated the kingdom with
earthen diyas (oil lamps) and set off firecrackers.
The Badami Cave Temples with sculture depicting Vishnu resting on Shesha (snake). Frédéric
Soltan/Getty Images
The Four Days of Diwali
Each day of Diwali has its own tale to tell. The first day of the festival, Naraka
Chaturdasi marks the vanquishing of the demon Naraka by Lord Krishna and his wife
Satyabhama.
Amavasya, the second day of Deepawali, marks the worship of Lakshmi when she is in her most
benevolent mood, fulfilling the wishes of her devotees. Amavasya also tells the story of Lord
Vishnu, who, in his dwarf incarnation, vanquished the tyrant Bali and banished him to hell. Bali
is allowed to return to earth once a year to light millions of lamps and dispel darkness and
ignorance while spreading the radiance of love and wisdom.
It is on the third day of Deepawali, Kartika Shudda Padyami, that Bali steps out of hell and rules
the earth according to the boon given by Lord Vishnu. The fourth day is referred to as Yama
Dvitiya (also called Bhai Dooj), and on this day sisters invite their brothers to their homes.
Dhanteras: The Tradition of Gambling
Some people refer to Diwali as a five-day festival because they include the festival
of Dhanteras (dhan meaning "wealth" and teras meaning "13th"). This celebration of wealth and
prosperity occurs two days before the festival of lights.
The tradition of gambling on Diwali also has a legend behind it. It is believed that on this day,
Goddess Parvati played dice with her husband Lord Shiva. She decreed that whosoever gambled
on Diwali night would prosper throughout the ensuing year.
The Significance of Lights and Firecrackers
All of the simple rituals of Diwali have a significance and a story behind them. Homes are
illuminated with lights, and firecrackers fill the skies as an expression of respect to the heavens
for the attainment of health, wealth, knowledge, peace, and prosperity.
According to one belief, the sound of firecrackers indicates the joy of the people living on earth,
making the gods aware of their plentiful state. Still another possible reason has a more scientific

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basis: the fumes produced by the firecrackers kill or repel many insects, including mosquitoes,
which are plentiful after the rains.
The Spiritual Significance of Diwali
Beyond the lights, gambling, and fun, Diwali is also a time to reflect on life and make changes
for the upcoming year. With that, there are a number of customs that revelers hold dear each
year.
Give and forgive. It is common practice that people forget and forgive the wrongs done by
others during Diwali. There is an air of freedom, festivity, and friendliness everywhere.
Rise and shine. Waking up during the Brahmamuhurta (at 4 a.m., or 1 1/2 hours before sunrise)
is a great blessing from the standpoint of health, ethical discipline, efficiency in work, and
spiritual advancement. The sages who instituted this Deepawali custom may have hoped that
their descendants would realize its benefits and make it a regular habit in their lives.
Unite and unify. Diwali is a unifying event, and it can soften even the hardest of hearts. It is a
time when people mingle about in joy and embrace one another.
Those with keen inner spiritual ears will clearly hear the voice of the sages, "O children of God
unite, and love all." The vibrations produced by the greetings of love, which fill the atmosphere,
are powerful. When the heart has considerably hardened, only a continuous celebration of
Deepavali can rekindle the urgent need of turning away from the ruinous path of hatred.
Prosper and progress. On this day, Hindu merchants in North India open their new account
books and pray for success and prosperity during the coming year. People buy new clothes for
the family. Employers, too, purchase new clothes for their employees.
Homes are cleaned and decorated by day and illuminated by night with earthen oil lamps. The
best and finest illuminations can be seen in Bombay and Amritsar. The famous Golden Temple
at Amritsar is lit in the evening with thousands of lamps.
This festival instills charity in the hearts of people, who perform good deeds. This
includes Govardhan Puja, a celebration by Vaishnavites on the fourth day of Diwali. On this
day, they feed the poor on an incredible scale.
Illuminate your inner self. The lights of Diwali also signify a time of inner illumination.
Hindus believe that the light of lights is the one that steadily shines in the chamber of the heart.
Sitting quietly and fixing the mind on this supreme light illuminates the soul. It is an opportunity
to cultivate and enjoy eternal bliss.
From Darkness Unto Light...
In each legend, myth, and story of Deepawali lies the significance of the victory of good over
evil. It is with each Deepawali and the lights that illuminate our homes and hearts that this simple
truth finds new reason and hope.
From darkness unto light—the light empowers us to commit ourselves to good deeds and brings
us closer to divinity. During Diwali, lights illuminate every corner of India, and the scent of
incense sticks hangs in the air, mingled with the sounds of firecrackers, joy, togetherness, and
hope.
Diwali is celebrated around the globe. Outside of India, it is more than a Hindu festival; it's a
celebration of South-Asian identities. If you are away from the sights and sounds of Diwali, light
a diya, sit quietly, shut your eyes, withdraw the senses, concentrate on this supreme light, and
illuminate the soul.

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 CHAPTER X IV

OTHER REINCARNATIONS of Laxmi

The Mantra of Tārā

OṀ TĀRE TUTTĀRE TURE SVAHĀ
Mohini – The Only Female Avatar of Lord Vishnu

Mohini is introduced in the Hindu legends of the narrative epic of Mahabharata. She appears as a
form of Vishnu, who acquires the pot of Amrita from Asuras(demons) and gives it back to the
devas (gods) helping them retain their immortality. She is the only female avatar of the lord
Vishnu. Mohini is also known as enchantress because she is supernaturally beautiful and
feminine by nature.

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Etymology of the Name

Mohini means ‘erotic magic or spell’. The name has its origin in the word ‘moha’ which means
‘delusion personified’ or to enchant, perplex or to delude. Therefore, moha is the quality of
desire after which the Mohini has been named. In Sanskrit, Mohini simply means Enchantress.
The name also has an implied connotation of “the essence of female beauty and allurement”.

Historical Background

She was first introduced in the Mahabharata. Mohini, who was the only female Avatar of
Vishnu, became an important part of the ‘Samudra Manthan’ in which she acquires ‘Amrita’
from Asuras (demons) and gives it to the Devas to make them immortal. In original texts, Mohini
is referred simply as an enchanting, female form of Vishnu. But in the later versions, Mohini is
described as Maya (illusion) of Vishnu. Once the Mohini legend becomes popular, it was
expanded, retold and re-written in several texts. The tales of Mohini-Vishnu gradually increased
among various other religions. The similar type of Mahabharata version of the story is expanded
in the Bhagwat Purana in the 10th century CE where Mohini becomes formal Avatar of Vishnu.

Relationship with Shiva

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The most famous and prominent tale of her life is her union with Shiva. The connection of Shiva
with Mohini became popular everywhere. According to Bhagwat Purana, after Vishnu deceives
the demons by his Maya, the female form, Shiva wanted to meet her again. Every god started
praising Lord Vishnu and the beauty of Mohini. This incident overwhelmed Lord Shiva so much
that he immediately visited Vishnu along with his wife Parvati. In the Bhramanda Purana, when
sage Narada tells Shiva about Vishnu’s Mohini form that deluded the demons, Shiva dismisses
him. Shiva, along with Parvati go to Vishnu’s home and asked him to take the form of Mohini
again. Vishnu started to meditate on the Goddess, and in place of Vishnu stands the gorgeous
Mohini.

When Vishnu turned himself into a beautiful and seductive lady, Lord Shiva fell for her.
Overcome by lust, Lord Shiva ran behind the gorgeous Mohini and grabbed her arms and
embraced her but she escaped. During her violent coupling, Shiva’s seed fell on the ground and
that led to the birth of another God known as Ayyappa.

Son of Shiva and Vishnu

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According to various texts and Puranas, Shiva and Mohini have a union which led to the birth of
their son Ayyappa. He is known by different names in different parts of the country. Ayyappa is
also called as Mahashasta, Sastava, Manikandan who is believed to be an incarnation of Dharma
Sasta, the offspring of Shiva and Vishnu. He is generally depicted in a yoga posture, wearing a
jewel around his neck, hence named as Manikandan which literally means “with a bell around

Appearance of Mohini

According to mythologist Puttanaik, the appearance of Mohini is just a disguise to delude the
demon Bhasmasura, rather than a sexual transformation. Mohini was reincarnated or
transferred from Vishnu’s physical body to a beautiful ‘apsara’. Westerners may interpret the
Shiva-Mohini union as homosexual, but traditional Hindus do not agree with this interpretation.
Similarly, Shiva’s union cannot be considered as homosexual as it was done with Mohini (the
avatar) not with Lord Vishnu himself. Mohini does not have an independent existence, she exists
only as a temporary form and is transformed back into Vishnu after serving her purpose.

Temples of Devi Mohini

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Art by Prathamesh More

Among various temples of Mohini, there is Jagan Mohini Keshava Swami Temple of Mohini
Devi in Andhra Pradesh East Godavari district of Rayali, India. There is also one of Mahasala
which is located in Nevasa, Maharashtra, India. Similarly, Harikanyaka Temple is also one of the
ancient Hindu temple named after Mohini which is situated near Guruvayur. Similarly, Ryali
Jagan Mohini Temple is another holy temple which is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
Likewise, Mohini is still worshipped in many places today. Thus, there are many other temples
named after Mohini Devi.The counter view is that Lord Siva ran after Mohini is a nonsense. The
Vaishnavas who are fanatic, have composed this kind of nonsense. Lord Siva is a 100% viragi.
He is a Niraakara and Nirguna Paramaatma. People worship Him in Linga form. He does not
wear jewels or silk robes or diamond kireetam as other gods do. He uses only Vibhooti which
has no smell, flavour etc. The word Siva means Mangalam. Infact, He does not have a wife.
Mother Parvati is his power. Lord Siva and Mother Parvati are one and the same.

She is portrayed as a femme fatale, an enchantress, who maddens lovers, sometimes leading them
to their doom. Mohini is introduced into the Hindu mythology in the narrative epic of
the Mahabharata. Here, she appears as a form of Vishnu, acquires the pot of Amrita (an elixir of
immortality) from the thieving asuras (demons), and gives it back to the devas (gods), helping
them retain their immortality.
Many different legends tell of her various exploits and marriages, including union with the
god Shiva. These tales relate, among other things, the birth of the god Shasta and the destruction
of Bhasmasura, the ash-demon. Mohini's main modus operandi is to trick or beguile those she
encounters. She is worshipped throughout Indian culture, but mainly in Western India, where
temples are devoted to her depicted as Mahalasa, the consort of Khandoba, a regional avatar of
Shiva.

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The name Mohini comes from the verb root moha, meaning "to enchant, perplex, or
disillusion," and literally means "delusion personified." In the Baiga culture of Central India, the
word mohini means "erotic magic or spell.The name also has an implied connotation of "the
essence of female beauty and allurement
The Amrita

Mohini distributing the Amrita to the Devas (left), while the Asuras look on

The earliest reference to a Mohini-type goddess appears in the Samudra manthan episode of the
5th century BCE Hindu epic Mahabharata. The Amrita, or nectar of immortality, is produced by
the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The Devas and the Asuras fight over its possession. The
Asuras contrive to keep the Amrita for themselves, angering the Devas. Vishnu, wise to their
plan, assumes the form of an "enchanting damsel". She uses her allure to trick the Asuras into
giving her the Amrita, and then distributes it amongst the Devas. Rahu, an Asura, disguises
himself as a god and tries to drink some Amrita himself. Surya (the sun-god) and Chandra (the
moon-god) quickly inform Vishnu, and he uses the Sudarshana Chakra (the divine discus) to
decapitate Rahu, leaving the head immortal. The other major Hindu epic, Ramayana (4th century
BCE), narrates the Mohini story briefly in the Bala Kanda chapter.[8] This same tale is also
recounted in the Vishnu Purana four centuries later.
In the original text, Mohini is referred to as simply an enchanting, female form of Vishnu. In
later versions, Mohini is described as the maya (illusion) of Vishnu. Later still, the name of the
avatar becomes Mohini from the original phrase describing his deliberate false appearance
(mayam ashito mohinim). Once the Mohini legend became popular, it was retold, revised, and
expanded in several texts. The tales of Mohini-Vishnu also increased among devotional circles in
various regions. The same expanded Mahabharata version of the story is also recounted in
the Bhagavata Purana in the 10th century CE. Here, Mohini becomes a formal avatar of Vishnu.
This legend is also retold in the Padma Purana and Brahmanda Purana. In the Brahmanda
Purana, however, Vishnu-Mohini simply, after meditation upon the Great Goddess Maheshvari,
acquires her form to trick the thieving asuras.

Slayer of demons

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Bhasmasura-Mohini by Raja Ravi Varma. Bhasmasura (left) is about to place his hand on his
head following the dancing Mohini (centre), as Shiva (right) looks from behind the tree.
Mohini also has an active history in the destruction of demons throughout Hindu texts. In
the Vishnu Purana, Mohini defeats Bhasmasura, the "ash-demon".Bhasmasura invokes the god
Shiva by performing severe penances. Shiva, pleased with Bhasmasura, grants him the power to
turn anyone into ashes by touching their head. The demon decides to try the power on Shiva
himself. Shiva prays to Vishnu for help and Vishnu transforms into Mohini and charms
Bhasmasura. Bhasmasura is so taken by Mohini that he asks her to marry him. Mohini agrees,
but only on the condition that Bhasmasura follows her move for move in a dance. In the course
of the dance, she places her hand on her head. Bhasmasura mimics the action, and in turn,
reduces himself to ashes. The legend of Bhasmasura is retold in the Buddhist text Satara Dewala
Devi Puvata, with a slight variation. In this tale, Vishnu assumes his female form (the name
"Mohini" is not used) and charms Bhasmasura. The female Vishnu asks Bhasmasura to promise
never to leave her by placing his hand on his head as per the usual practice to swear on one's
head. On doing so, Bhasmasura is reduced to ashes.
In a similar legend related to the birth of Ayyappa, the demon Surpanaka earns the power to turn
anyone into ashes by his austerities. The tale mirrors all other aspects of the Buddhist version of
the Bhasmasura tale, where he is forced by Mohini to severe fidelity by keeping his hand on his
head and is burnt.
The prelude of the Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana, the demon Nontok is charmed
and killed by Mohini-Vishnu. Nontok misuses a divine weapon given to him by Shiva. The four-
armed Mohini-Vishnu enchants Nontok and then attacks him. In his last moments, the demon
accuses Vishnu of foul play saying that Vishnu first seduced him and then attacked him. Vishnu
decrees that in his next birth, Nontok will be born as the ten-headed demon Ravana and Vishnu
will be a mortal man called Rama. He will then fight him and defeat him.
In a lesser-known tale in the Ganesha Purana (900–1400 CE) the wise asura king Virochana is
rewarded a magical crown by the sun-god Surya. The crown shields him against all harm.
Vishnu as Mohini then enchants Virochana and steals his crown. The demon, thus unprotected, is
killed by Vishnu.
Another South Indian legend about the demon Araka associates Mohini
with Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu) rather than the god himself. The demon Araka had become
virtually invincible because he had never laid eyes on a woman (extreme chastity). Krishna takes
the form of the beautiful Mohini and marries him. After three days of marriage, Araka's bonds of
chastity are broken, and Krishna kills him in battle. Transgender Hijras consider Krishna-Mohini
to be a transsexual deity.

Relationship with Shiva

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A Mattancherry palace mural shows Shiva and Mohini in an embrace while Parvati seated on the
white bull, looks at them in distaste.

Shiva and Mohini-Vishnu having sex. Parvati and the white bull she is riding on, avert their gaze.

Stories about Mohini and Shiva have been popular in South Indian texts. In the southern version
of the Bhagavata Purana, after Vishnu deceives the demons by his maya female form, Shiva
sees Mohini. He becomes "bereft of shame and robbed by her of good sense," runs crazily behind
enchanting form, while his wife Parvati (Uma) looks on. Shiva is overcome by Kāma (love and
desire) in this version of mythology. Shiva's seed falls on the ground creating ores of silver and
gold. Vishnu then states that emotions are difficult to overcome, and states that Maya will
become a half of Shiva's Ardhanarisvara aspect. Shiva then extols Vishnu's power.

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The Tripurarahasya, a south Indian Shakta text, retells the story, giving more importance to the
Goddess. When Shiva wishes to see Vishnu's Mohini form again, Vishnu fears that he may be
burned to ashes like Kamadeva by the supreme ascetic Shiva. So, Vishnu prays to
goddess Tripura, who grants half of her beauty to Vishnu, begetting the Mohini-form. As Shiva
touches Mohini, his seed spills, indicating a loss of the merit gained through of all his austerities.

In the Brahmanda Purana when the wandering sage Narada tells Shiva about Vishnu's Mohini
form that deluded the demons, Shiva dismisses him. Shiva and his wife Parvati go to Vishnu's
home. Shiva asks him to take on the Mohini form again so he can see the actual transformation
for himself. Vishnu smiles, again meditates on the Goddess and transforms himself into Mohini.
Overcome by desire, Shiva chases Mohini as Parvati hangs her head in shame and envy. Shiva
grabs Mohini's hand and embraces her, but Mohini frees herself and runs further. Finally, Shiva
grabs her and their "violent coupling" leads to discharge of Shiva's seed which falls on the
ground and the god Maha-Shasta ("The Great Chastiser") is born. Mohini disappears, while
Shiva returns home with Parvati.

Shasta is identified primarily with two regional deities: Ayyappa from Kerala and the
Tamil Aiyanar. He is also identified with the classical Hindu gods Skanda and Hanuman.[30] In
the later story of the origin of Ayyappa, Shiva impregnates Mohini, who gives birth to Ayyappa.
They abandon Ayyappa, who is born to kill Mahishi, and the child was found by a king who
raised him. The legend highlights Vishnu's protests to be Mohini again and also notes that
Ayyappa is born of Vishnu's thigh as Mohini does not have a real womb. Another variant says
that instead of a biological origin, Ayyappa sprang from Shiva's semen, which he ejaculated
upon embracing Mohini. Ayyappa is referred to as Hariharaputra, "the son of Vishnu (Hari) and
Shiva (Hara)", and grows up to be a great hero. Another tale says after Surpanaka's destruction,
Shiva wishes to see Mohini and mesmerized by her looks, has union with her resulting in the
birth of Ayyapppa.

The Tamil text Kanda Puranam narrates about the birth of Shasta identified with Aiyanar. The
text tells just before the tale that Vishnu is Shiva's Shakti (wife and power) Parvati in a male
form. The legend begins with Shiva's request and Vishnu's agreement to show his illusionary
Mohini form, that he assumed for the distribution of amrita. Shiva falls in love with Mohini and
proposes a union with her. Mohini-Vishnu declines saying that union of two men was unfruitful.
Shiva informs Mohini-Vishnu that he was just one of forms of his Shakti ("female consort").
Thereafter, their union resulted in the birth of a dark boy with red locks, who was named
Hariharaputra. Further, he was also known as Shasta and Aiyannar.

In the Agni Purana, as the enchanted Shiva follows Mohini, drops of his semen fall on the
ground and become lingas, Shiva's symbols. His seed also generates the monkey-god Hanuman,
who helps Vishnu's avatar Rama in his fight against Ravana in the Ramayana.[36] The Shiva
Purana says that by the mere glimpse of Mohini, Shiva spurts out his seed. The seed was
collected and poured into the ear of Añjanā, who gave birth to Hanuman, the incarnation of
Shiva. The latter is retold in the Thai and Malaysian version of the Ramayana.Though Hanuman
strings from Shiva's seed, he is also considered as a combined son of Vishnu and Shiva

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The Buddhist version of the Bhasmasura tale continues with Shiva (Ishvara) asking the female-
Vishnu, who is seated on a swing, to marry him. She asks Shiva to get the permission of his wife
Umayangana to take her home. Shiva returns with Umayangana's consent to find the female-
Vishnu pregnant, who sends him back to get permission to bring a pregnant woman home. When
he returns, a child is born and female-Vishnu is pregnant again. She requests Shiva to seek
approval to bring a pregnant woman with a child home. This happens six more times. Finally,
Shiva brings Umayangana with him to witness the miraculous woman. Vishnu then returns to his
male form. Umayangana embraces the six youngest children merging them into the six-headed
Skanda, while the eldest, named Aiyanayaka ("eldest brother") remains intact. Aiyanayaka is
identified with Aiyanar.

Mohini seduces the sages. Mohini is depicted nude, adorned with garlands and ornaments, holding
a lotus and a parrot, leaning on a stick. The sages pray to her, as their phalluses point to
her.RIGHT Aravanis, the transgender "brides" of god Aravan, mourn his death. Aravanis don the
role of Mohini-Krishna

The rare instance where an "explicit, male homosexual act" is suggested is in a Telugu text
where when Shiva is busy lovemaking with Mohini-Vishnu, the latter returns to his original form
and still the lovemaking continues.
Mohini plays a lesser role in a Shaiva legend in the Skanda Purana. Here, Vishnu as Mohini
joins Shiva to teach a lesson to arrogant sages. A group of sages are performing rituals in a
forest, and start to consider themselves as gods. To humble them, Shiva takes the form of an
attractive young beggar (Bhikshatana) and Vishnu becomes Mohini, his wife. While the sages
fall for Mohini, their women wildly chase Shiva. When they regain their senses, they perform a
black magic sacrifice, which produces a serpent, a lion, an elephant (or tiger) and a dwarf, all of
which are overpowered by Shiva. Shiva then dances on the dwarf and takes the form of Nataraja,
the cosmic dancer. The legend is retold in the Tamil Kovil Puranam and Kandha Puranam with
some variation. This legend is also told in the Sthala Purana related to the Chidambaram
Temple dedicated to Shiva-Nataraja. ( Read our book on the Chidambaran Temple on
academia.edu)

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Another legend from the Linga Purana says that the embracing of love-struck Shiva and Mohini
led to be their merging into one body. At this moment, Mohini became Vishnu again, resulting
the composite deity Harihara, whose right side of the body is Shiva and left side is Vishnu in his
male form. In the temple in Sankarnayinarkovil near Kalugumalai is one of the rarest exceptions
to iconography of Harihara (Sankara-Narayana). The deity is depicted similar to the Ardhanari,
the composite form of Shiva-Parvati, where right side of the body is the male Shiva and left side
is female. This image's female side represents Mohini and it, as a whole, symbolizes the union of
Shiva and Mohini In a Harihara image, the Shiva side has an erect phallus (urdhva linga) and
relates to Shiva's love to his left side Vishnu-Mohini. The influence of Shakta traditions on
Shaiva ones may have led to the development of composite images like Harihara, where Vishnu
is identified with Shiva's consort, or Mohini. Like the Kanda Puranam narrative, the Shaiva
saint Appar identifies Vishnu as Parvati (Uma), the female counterpart of Shiva.

Other Legands
In the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Mohini tries to seduce the creator-god Brahma. While doing so,
she says, "A man who refuses to make love to a woman tortured by desire is a eunuch. Whether a
man is ascetic or amorous, he must not spurn a woman who approaches him, or he will go to
Hell. Come now and make love to me." In one breath, Brahma replies, "Go away, Mother". He
argues that he is like her father, and thus, too old for Mohini. Later, Mohini reminds that his
consort had emerged from him.

Another South Indian folktale tells of the Mahabharata hero Aravan (who becomes the Tamil
god Kuttantavar), who was married to Mohini, before his self-sacrifice. Aravan agrees to become
the sacrificial victim for the Kalappali ("sacrifice to the battlefield") to ensure the victory of
the Pandavas, his father, and his uncles. Before being sacrificed to goddess Kali, Aravan asks
three boons from Krishna, the guide of the Pandavas. The third boon was that Aravan should be
married before the sacrifice so that he could get the right of cremation and funerary offerings
(bachelors were buried). This third boon, however, is found only in the folk cults. To fulfill this
wish in the Kuttantavar cult myth, Krishna turns into Mohini, marries Aravan, and spends the
night with him. Then after the sacrifice, Mohini laments Aravan's death, breaking her bangles,
beating her breasts, and discarding her bridal finery. She then returns to the original form of
Krishna.[48] The legend of the marriage of Aravan and Krishna in his female form as Mohini, and
Mohini-Krishna's widowhood after Aravan's sacrifice, forms the central theme of an eighteen-
day annual festival in the Tamil month of Cittirai (April–May) at Koovagam. The marriage
ceremony is re-enacted by transgender Hijras, who play the role of Mohini-Krishna.

.Cultural interpretations
According to mythologist Pattanaik, Mohini is just a disguise to delude the demon Bhasmasura,
rather than a sexual transformation in this legend. Mohini is a disillusion, Vishnu's maya.
Stories in which Shiva knows of Mohini's true nature have been interpreted to "suggest the
fluidity of gender in sexual attraction" Pattanaik writes while Westerners may interpret the
Shiva-Mohini union as homosexual, traditional Hindus do not agree to this interpretation. He
also writes that those focusing only on homoeroticism miss the narrative's deeper metaphysical
significance: Mohini's femininity represents the material aspect of reality, and Mohini's
seduction is another attempt to induce the ascetic Shiva into taking an interest in worldly matters.

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Only Vishnu has the power to "enchant" Shiva; a demon who tried to enchant and hurt Shiva in
form of a woman was killed in the attempt.

Another interpretation posits that the Mohini tale suggests that Vishnu's maya blinds even
supernatural beings. Mohini is "the impersonation of the magically delusive nature of existence
which fetters all beings to the rounds of births and deaths and vicissitudes of life."[3] Mohini also
does not have an independent existence; she exists only as a temporary delusion, and is absorbed
back into Vishnu after serving her purpose.

The legend of the union of Mohini-Vishnu and Shiva may also be written as part of the desire to
have a common child of the two cosmic patriarchs of Hinduism.

Vishnu (left) as Mohini with his consort Lakshmi, Nevasa.

On the fifth day of Brahmotsavam, Venkateshwara is dressed as Mohini and paraded in a grand
procession

In Goa, Mohini is worshipped as Mahalasa or Mahalasa Narayani. She is the Kuladevi (family
goddess) of many Hindus from western and southern India, including Goud Saraswat Brahmins,[
Karhade Brahmins, Daivajnas and Bhandaris. The chief temple of Mahalasa Narayani is
at Mardol, Goa, though her temples also exist in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,
and Gujarat.[55] Mahalasa has four hands, carrying a Trishula, a sword, a severed head, and a
drinking bowl. She stands on a prostrate man or demon, as a tiger or lion licks blood dripping
from the severed head. Goud Saraswat Brahmins as well as Vaishnavas from Goa and South
Canara identify her with Mohini and call her Narayani and Rahu-matthani, the slayer of Rahu, as
told in the Bhavishya Purana

Mahalasa is also called Mhalsa, the consort of Khandoba, a local incarnation of Shiva. As the
consort of Khandoba, her chief temple - the Mohiniraj temple - is located at Nevasa, where she is
worshiped as a four-armed goddess and identified with Mohini. Mhalsa is often depicted with
two arms and accompanying Khandoba on his horse or standing besides him.[57]
The central icon of the Jaganmohini-Kesava Swany temple at Ryali, discovered buried
underground by the king in the 11th century, represents the male Vishnu in the front, while the
back of the icon is the female Jagan-Mohini ("one who deludes the world") or Mohini, with a

369
female hairdo and figure. A Sthala Purana tells that the flower in Mohini's hair fell at Ryali
("fall" in Telugu) when Mohini was being chased by Shiva.

Mohini has an important, dramatic role in several mythical works of South Indian drama
like Yakshagana and Kathakali. In Kerala, however, where Mohini's son Ayyappa is popular,
the Mohiniattam ("the dance of Mohini") is honored as an independent dance form.[59] Named
after the goddess, it is a dance meant exclusively for women and "an ideal example of the erotic
form." The origins of Mohiniattam form are unknown, though it was popularized in the 1850s,
but later banned as it was used by "loose women" to attract customers. The ban was lifted in
1950, after which it has seen a renewal.

The legends of Mohini are also being depicted in other dances, including the modern Kathak
The Sonal Nati, performed in the Saho area of Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh, retells the
Mohini-Bhasmasura tale, and hence is known as the Mohini-Bhasmasura dance. It is performed
on festive occasions, especially in the Saho fair held in Baisakh in the precincts of the
Chandershekhar temple.

The whole idea of Lakshmi being whimsical, and continuously moving, is a reminder that money
has value only when it is circulated.

Its value comes either when Lakshmi comes into your house, or you give her ..

Lakshmi (Sanskrit: lakṣmī) is the Hindu goddess of wealth, prosperity (both material and
spiritual), fortune, and the embodiment of beauty. She is the wife and active energy of Vishnu.
Her four hands represent the four goals of human life considered proper in Hindu way of life –
dharma, kāma, artha, and moksha. Representations of Lakshmi are also found in Jain
monuments. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors
the characteristics and attributes of Hindu goddess Lakshmi, with minor iconographic
differences.

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Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine
qualities, or Gunas, and also because she is the source of strength even to Vishnu. When Vishnu
incarnated on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi took incarnation as his
consort. Sita (Rama's wife), Radha (Krishna's lover), Rukmini is considered forms of Lakshmi.
In ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. The
marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband, states Patricia
Monaghan, is "the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu
weddings".
Archeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for goddess
Lakshmi, in Scytho-Parthian kingdom and throughout India, by 1st millennium BC. Lakshmi's
iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples of southeast Asia, estimated to
be from second half of 1st millennium AD.
In modern times, Lakshmi is worshipped as the goddess of wealth. She is also worshipped as the
consort of Vishnu in many temples. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri
Purnima) are celebrated in her honour.

We have just gone through the darkest night of the year on Dipawali when the Sun reaches the
farthest point from this part of the globe. For, traversing the southern hemisphere, it reaches the
extreme end of western horizon, where as India is located in the northern hemisphere and

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towards the eastern horizon. Following the age old tradition, we dispelled darkness by lighting
the habitation on a massive scale in a celebratory mode.
Why do we celebrate darkest night every year. In the Indian perception, darkness is not taken as
negative. For, in the first place, dark night is a precursor to the rise of brightening Sun. Second, it
is in the dark realm of earth mass where seeds germinate to emerge as flower and fruit bearing
plants. Seeds of creation are nurtured in the dark region of a mother’s womb to produce a child.
Again, it is in the invisible quarters of mind that thoughts get excited, which when gravitate
further, following processing in the laboratory of mind, lead to action and thereby creativity. And
so we celebrate the darkest night of the year, which symbolically means a new productivity cycle
in offing, both in terms of agriculture produce or usual business activity.

lakshmi & Kali: Two faces of creation

So is Mother Goddess lakshmi, the deity identified with wealth and prosperity, worshipped at the
dead of night with full reverence in most part of the country. Towards the eastern end of the
country, however, people have a date with Mother Goddess Kali. For, going by pauranic
concept, Kali in her aggressive mode saves humanity by striking at all demonic existences. In
metaphysical terms, however, she drives through creative potential inlaid with lord Shiva, which
eventually manifests into a plural world with all its enormity and diversity. So, east looks to the
root of creation, and the rest looks forward to produce. It will be therefore unfair to see either of
them in isolation. For, one without the other is simply inconceivable as the two represent just two
faces of the creative chain.

Symbolically, lord Shiva stands for that singularity — the primal-source and effective cause of
creation — which lies at the root of manifest world, and Kali as is his kinetic side, brings forth
the manifest world in visible terms. The two are coterminous, as one without the other is
inconceivable. It is something like a static fire-ball, and heat waves emanating there from. It will
be pertinent to note here that according to ‘the theory of relativity’, whenever there is entropy, it
multiplies. Here, the heat waves emanating from the so called fire-ball, is nothing but entropy
that led to emergence of diversified energies out of primal-source, which eventually evolved into
a phenomenal form-world. So is lord Shiva perceived as the beholder of transcendent-
consciousness and Kali that of immanent-consciousness. Thus is perceived the imagery of the
imagery of Kali, in action, with her one leg on the body of lord Shiva lying in corpse-form.
It is believed that there was spontaneous pulsation at the primordial-source, which excited the
primal-sound “Om”, out of which emerged Shakti-trinity — Sata, Rajasa, and Tamas). Random
mutation of the three variants of shakti led to diversified sound notes, out of which those audible
to human ears are symbolised by the 50 letters of Sanskrit, the seed-syllables (Beeja-mantras). So
is Kali perceived as sporting the garland made of 50 human skulls, and which, holds the key to
the manifest existential order with form and name. Kali’s lower part is covered with apparel
made out of human hands to mean that she grants the power which lets organic world being in
active mode. Thus came into being the dynamic world with all its functionalities.

Kali is shown as black, because she is beyond the scope of human comprehension. She is shown
as nude, to mean that the whole universe forms her apparel meaning infinity. Remember, if an

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ephemeral world has come into being, it has to meet its end one day, when it collapses into its
source, something like the star collapsing to form an invisible black-hole.
In the reverse cycle, once karma-cycle gets exhausted, signified by chopped hands, and ego gets
dissolved as symbolised by head skulls, one gets to realise Kali. The cycle of time begins with
Kali exciting creation chain, and ends when the phenomenal world merges back into her. So, is
she named Kali, the beholder of time. This concept is, therefore, nothing but scientific principle
deified.

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 The Tridevi
The Tridevi (English: three goddesses; Sanskrit: वत्रदे िी, tridevī) is a concept in Hinduism joining
a triad of eminent goddesses either as a feminine version of the Trimurti or as consorts of a
masculine Trimurti, depending on the denomination. This triad is typically personified by
the Hindu goddesses Saraswati, Lakshmi, and Parvati. In Shaktism, these triune goddesses are
the manifestations of Mula-Prakriti or Devi.

Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati

Tridevi, a three-in-one-goddess. Tri is Sanskrit for three, and devi is goddess (the meaning is
"shining one", etc.). Indian iconography is rich, complex, and ancient. Thoughts are expressed in
picture form, and not just verbalised. Each of the three goddesses depicted as one, has a rich and
complex "history of making", where ideas replace others, some merge and so on. The
presentation below is not unusual today.
Lakshmi is to the left, Parvati is in the middle, and Saraswati, goddess of learning,music, arts,
and much else, is to the right.
The triple-goddess is standing on a lotus, which is rich in mythological significance. For one
thing it represents purity, for another thing it may be associated with chakras (wheels, padmas,
vortexes, most of the main ones along the spine area). Each devi has many arms, which
represents several functions. One of their hand gestures is one of fearlessness - the abhaya
mudra. At times a devi is represented as having two arms, at other times four arms, and still

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 other times as having eight arms, suggesting that each may effectuate many things. Each devi has
a forehead decoration called bindi (tilak), which is a mark between the eyebrows. It reminds
of the third eye, which may be experienced in that area in some forms of advancing yoga-
depending on methods. All Hindu women wear a bindi. Each goddess is crowned, suggesting
Subtle Attainments, nobility - royalty, even lordship.
Also, a goddess typically has a consort: Saraswati has Brahma, God the Creator; Lakshmi has
Vishnu; and Parvati has Shiva. Together they correspond to the Hindu trinity of Brahma, Vishnu,
and Shiva. The goddess icon is taken to represent the shakti, power, prowess of her consort, but
maybe she is independent, or quite independent of him also - at times, and so on.
Many a devi has a history of amalagamated features from many sources attributed to her. And
there is room for many interpretations, but sound historical knowledge of each goddess is not bad
for those who would like to get closer to any of them.
When represented separately, the three goddesses have typical features; some of them are seen
in the tridevi (triple goddess) painting too:

Saraswati, beautiful goddess of knowledge, music and the arts, is considered the consort of God
the Creator, so she represents fertility and prosperity also. She is also reckoned with in
Mahayana Buddhism, holding Tripitaka scriptures. In Vedanta she is considered to be the
feminine energy and knowledge aspect (shakti) of Brahman (God).
Dressed in pure white, which signifies the purity of true knowledge, she represents the
experience of the Highest Reality, and also intelligence, consciousness, secular learning, and
essential divine knowledge, creativity, education, enlightenment, music, the arts, and power. She
is associated with purity and creativity, literary communication, and sound verbal skills - flows
of thoughts and words.
In Hindu iconography she is seated on a swan, hamsa. She is often seated on a white lotus as
well, and is additionally associated with the colour yellow. Saraswati dresses modestly, not
heavily adorned with jewels and gold.
Her four arms represent the four sides to learning: mind, intellect, alertness, and ego.
Alternatively, her four arms are taken by some to mean prose - the book in one hand; poetry - the
garland of crystal; music - the vina; and the pot of water - purity:

 The book. Universal lore and her perfection of the sciences and the scriptures.
 The rosary of crystals. The power of meditation and spirituality.
 The sacred water. Purificatory powers.
 The musical instrument, the vina. Wise perfection of arts and sciences, and the love for and
rhythm of music speaking of emotions and feelings.

A white swan is often seen close to her feet. The swan thus symbolizes fine, elegant
discrimination. Saraswati is also referred to as Hamsa-vahini, which means "she who has a swan
as her vehicle". She is usually depicted near a flowing river, which may be related to her early
history as a river goddess. The swan and her association with the lotus flower also point to her
ancient origin. Sometimes a peacock of vain arrogance is shown beside her. It is allegedly to
teach not to be so much concerned with external appearance and to be wise concerning eternal
truth.

Lakshmi of beauty, grace, loveliness, and charm represents calm and wealth, prosperity, purity,
generosity and good fortune, such as by strokes of luck. She holds a lotus and spreads petals. Her

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name indicates she is a goddess of means to achieving objectives, including prosperity,
according to Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, which is online today.
According to one legend she appeared at the creation, floating over the water on the expanded
petals of a lotusflower. She is closely associated with the lotus. The lotus represents purity, and a
lotus seat in Hindu iconography represents a fertile growth of organic life too.
Her traditionally accepted vehicle is the owl who sleeps at day and prowls at night. it may be
understood in this way: "Loveliness is a prowler in the unseen." There are other possibilites of
interpretation too.

Parvati is generally considered benign, and represented as fair and beautiful. She seems to be the
most recent addition to Hindu goddesses of the three, as she does not appear in ancient, Vedic
literature. She is referred to first between 400 BC - 400 AD. She used to be consistently depicted
with bare breasts before the muslim invasion in the 1100s AD. Bare breasts were considered a
mark of divinity in ancient India. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata present Parvati as Shiva's
wife, but only between the 300s and 1300s AD do the myths of her and Shiva get comprehensive
details. Different scholars suggest many older, Vedic goddesses she might be a mixture of.
After the combinations were rather stabilised, she now stands for fertility, marital felicity,
devotion to the spouse, and asceticism. Her characteristics have become more and more
obscured, as she absorbed more and more goddesses into her iconography. The colour of her
clothes is milk white, the colour of enlightenment and knowledge, or of having and being
without the three gunas . At times she carries a rosary, mirror, bell, and citron in her hands. Her
worship first arose in the Himalayas, and her qualities were mainly supernatural and fairy-queen-
like.
Her symbolic hand gestures indicate fascination, among other things. In typical recent
iconography, where she is wed to Shiva, the bow and arrow in Parvati's hand suggests she is a
markswoman. She holds a trident and sword too. However, the arrow may symbolise an idea,
and the bow is the spine in yourself, according to one interpretation.
Parvatis' main animal vehicle is a (white) lionness, and in some places she rides a bull.

At bottom of the picture is the idea that one goddess has many manifestations: Lakshmi, Parvati,
Saraswati, and many others. Many goddesses have mantras along with them.
Each is associated with an animal - or several animals. These beings indicate energies and
their expressions somehow.

Whereas in androcentric denominations of Hinduism the feminine Tridevi goddesses are

relegated as consorts and auxiliary deities to the more eminent masculine Trimurti gods, in
the Shaktidharma denomination the feminine Tridevi goddesses are given the eminent roles
of Creatrix (Mahasarasvati), Preservatrix (Mahalaxmi), and Destructrix (Mahakali), with the
masculine Trimurti gods being relegated as the auxiliary deities as agents of the feminine
Tridevi.Saraswati is the goddess of learning, arts, and cultural fulfilment, as well as the consort
of Brahma, the creator. She is cosmic intelligence, cosmic consciousness, and cosmic
knowledge.Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth, fertility, and material fulfilment, as well as the
consort of Vishnu, the maintainer or preserver. However, Lakshmi does not signify mere
material wealth, but also abstract prosperity, such as glory, magnificence, joy, exaltation, and
greatness.Parvati, or in her demon-fighting aspect, Kali is the goddess of power, beauty, love,
and spiritual fulfilment, as well as the consort of Shiva, the destroyer of evil or transformer.

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Together they form Adishakti. To kill the demon Mahishasura the tridevis took the form
of Durga.Shakti or Vimarsh is the power that is latent in pure consciousness, required to reach
pure consciousness and essential to create, sustain and destroy. Just as Energy can never be
created nor be destroyed, but changes from one form to another; Devi took many incarnations to
do different tasks. God is both male and female. But all different forms of energy or powers of
God are with the Trimurti in the form of Mahasaraswati, Mahalakshmi, and Mahakali. That is to
say, a non-dimensional God creates this world through Srishti-Shakti (Mahasaraswati or Sound
or knowledge), preserves through Sthiti-Shakti (Mahalakshmi or Light or resources), and
destroys through Samhara-Shakti (Mahakali or Heat or Strength). It is also seen that God cannot
create, generate or destroy because God does not possess any attribute. So True Energy or Adi
Shakti does everything on God's behalf.
Via Buddhism and syncretism with Japanese Shinto deities, the Tridevi entered Japanese
mythology as the goddesses Benzaitennyo 弁財天女 (Sarasvati), Kisshoutennyo 吉祥天女
(Laxmi), and Daikokutennyo 大黒天女 (Mahakali).

Buddhist Deity: Lakshmi (Pal Lhamo)

Shri Lakshmi (pal lhamo): believed to be the peaceful form of Shri Devi Dudsolma the principal
female protector of Tibetan Buddhism and also of Lhasa, Tibet. Shri Devi Dudsolma has one
face and four arms, riding atop a donkey. She is not the same entity as Shri Devi Magzor
Gyalmo, the wrathful form of Sarasvati, with one face and two arms riding atop a mule.
Depictions of Shri Lakshmi are common after the 17th century and primarily related to the Gelug
Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism.

Pal Lhamo is depicted with a third eye in the middle of the forehead but otherwise is typically

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shown in a peaceful appearance. However, she is sometimes depicted as semi-peaceful semi-
wrathful in appearance). The green Devi Lakshmi is most commonly found depicted in Karma
Kagyu paintings.

84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha: The Prophecy of Śrī Mahādevī (Śrīmahādevī-
vyākaraṇa, ’phags pa lha mo chen mo dpal lung bstan pa).

Lakshmi (Indian Goddess) Lakshmi (Indian Goddess)(Pal Lhamo) (Pal Lhamo)

Lakshmi (Indian Goddess)Consort of Vishnu

Lakshmi (Indian Goddess)Pal Lhamo)

Lakshmi (Indian Goddess)
(Pal Lhamo)

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Lakshmi (Indian Goddess)
(Pal Lhamo)

Lakshmi (Indian Goddess)

(Pal Lhamo)

Tara (Sanskrit: तारा, also known as Jetsun Dölma (Tibetan language: rje btsun sgrol ma)
in Tibetan Buddhism, is an important figure in Buddhism. She appears as a
female bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism, and as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism.
She is known as the "mother of liberation", and represents the virtues of success in work and
achievements. She is known as Tara Bosatsu (多羅菩薩) in Japan, and occasionally as Duōluó
Púsà (多羅菩薩) in Chinese Buddhism.

Tārā is a meditation deity worshiped by practitioners of the Tibetan branch

of Vajrayana Buddhism to develop certain inner qualities and to understand outer, inner and
secret teachings such as karuṇā (compassion), mettā (loving-kindness),
and shunyata (emptiness). Tārā may more properly be understood as different aspects of the
same quality, as bodhisattvas are often considered personifications of Buddhist methodsThere is
also recognition in some schools of Buddhism of twenty-one Tārās. A practice text

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entitled Praises to the Twenty-One Taras, is the most important text on Tara in Tibetan
Buddhism. Another key text is the Tantra Which is the Source for All the Functions of Tara,
Mother of All the Tathagatas.
The main Tārā mantra is the same for Buddhists and Hindus alike: oṃ tāre tuttāre ture svāhā. It
is pronounced by Tibetans and Buddhists who follow the Tibetan traditions as oṃ tāre tu tāre
ture soha. The literal translation would be “Oṃ O Tārā, I pray O Tārā, O Swift One, So Be It!”

Famous Holy Spoken Green Tara in Nyanang Phelgyeling Monastery, Nepal.

Within Tibetan Buddhism Tārā is regarded as a bodhisattva of compassion and action. She is
the female aspect of Avalokiteśvara and in some origin stories she comes from his tears:
"Then at last Avalokiteshvara arrived at the summit of Marpori, the 'Red Hill', in Lhasa. Gazing
out, he perceived that the lake on Otang, the 'Plain of Milk', resembled the Hell of Ceaseless
Torment. Myriad beings were undergoing the agonies of boiling, burning, hunger, thirst, yet they
never perished, sending forth hideous cries of anguish all the while. When Avalokiteshvara saw
this, tears sprang to his eyes. A teardrop from his right eye fell to the plain and became the
reverend Bhrikuti, who declared: "Child of your lineage! As you are striving for the sake of
sentient beings in the Land of Snows, intercede in their suffering, and I shall be your companion
in this endeavour!" Bhrikuti was then reabsorbed into Avalokiteshvara's right eye, and was
reborn in a later life as the Nepalese princess Tritsun. A teardrop from his left eye fell upon the
plain and became the reverend Tara. She also declared, "Child of your lineage! As you are
striving for the sake of sentient beings in the Land of Snows, intercede in their suffering, and I
shall be your companion in this endeavor!" Tārā was then reabsorbed into Avalokiteshvara's left
eye."

Tārā manifests in many different forms. In Tibet, these forms included Green Tārā's
manifestation as the Nepalese Princess (Bhrikuti) and White Tārā's manifestation as the Chinese
princess Kongjo (Princess Wencheng).[ Tārā is also known as a saviouress, as a heavenly deity
who hears the cries of beings experiencing misery in saṃsāra.

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Whether the Tārā figure originated as a Buddhist or Hindu goddess is unclear and remains a
source of inquiry among scholars. Mallar Ghosh believes her to have originated as a form of the
goddess Durga in the Hindu Puranas. Today, she is worshiped both in Buddhism and
in Shaktism (Hinduism) as one of the ten Mahavidyas. It may be true that goddesses entered
Buddhism from Shaktism (i.e. the worship of local or folk goddesses prior to the more
institutionalized Hinduism which had developed by the early medieval period (i.e. Middle
kingdoms of India). According to Beyer, it would seem that the feminine principle makes its first
appearance in Buddhism as the goddess who personified prajnaparamita.

The Mantra of Tārā

OṀ TĀRE TUTTĀRE TURE SVAHĀ
in the Lañja variant of Ranjana and Tibetan alphabets.
Tārā came to be seen as an expression of the compassion of perfected wisdom only later, with
her earliest textual reference being the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa (c. 5th–8th centuries CE). The
earliest, solidly identifiable image of Tārā is most likely that which is still found today at cave 6
within the rock-cut Buddhist monastic complex of the Ellora Caves in Maharashtra (c. 7th
century CE), with her worship being well established by the onset of the Pala Empire in Eastern
India (8th century CE).
Tārā became a very popular Vajrayana deity with the rise of Tantra in 8th-century Pala and, with
the movement of Indian Buddhism into Tibet through Padmasambhava, the worship and
practices of Tārā became incorporated into Tibetan Buddhism as well. She eventually came to be
considered the "Mother of all Buddhas," which usually refers to the enlightened wisdom of the
Buddhas, while simultaneously echoing the ancient concept of the Mother Goddess in India.
Independent of whether she is classified as a deity, a Buddha, or a bodhisattva, Tārā remains
very popular in Tibet (and Tibetan communities in exile in Northern
India), Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim and is worshiped in a majority of Buddhist
communities throughout the world (see also Guanyin, the female aspect of Avalokitesvara in
Chinese Buddhism).
Today, Green Tara and White Tara are probably the most popular representations of Tara. Green
Tara (Khadiravani) is usually associated with protection from fear and the following eight
obscurations: lions (= pride), wild elephants (= delusion/ignorance), fires (= hatred and anger),
snakes (= jealousy), bandits and thieves (= wrong views, including fanatical views), bondage (=
avarice and miserliness), floods (= desire and attachment), and evil spirits and demons (=
deluded doubts). As one of the three deities of long life, White Tara (Saraswati) is associated
with longevity. White Tara counteracts illness and thereby helps to bring about a long life. She
embodies the motivation that is compassion and is said to be as white and radiant as the moon.

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 Statue of Tara, Sri Lanka, 7th - 8th century
The Buddhist Goddess Tara, gold and silver, Central Java, Indonesia, ca. 9th century.[10] The Walters Art
Museum.
Tara as Prajñāpāramitā, 13th century, Java, Indonesia.
Sita (White) Tara by Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar. Mongolia, ca. 17th century.
Shyama Tara (Green Tara)
Attended by Sita Tara (White Tara) and Bhrikuti (Yellow Tara). ca. 8th century.

Tārā has many stories told which explain her origin as a bodhisattva.

Syamatara (Green Tara), 8th century, protect her followers from danger. Brooklyn Museum/Syamatara (Green
Tārā), 9th century Javanese Shailendran art, from Central Java, Indonesia./Tara from Pakhna, Uttar Pradesh,
India, 9th century
In this tale there is a young princess who lives in a different world system, millions of years in the past. Her name
is Jnanachanrda or Yeshe Dawa, which means "Moon of Primordial Awareness". For quite a number
of aeons she makes offerings to the Buddha of that world system, whose name was Tonyo Drupa. She receives
special instruction from him concerning bodhicitta - the infinitely compassionate mental state of a
bodhisattva. After doing this, some monks approach her and suggest that because of her level of
attainment she should next pray to be reborn as a male to progress further. At this point she lets
the monks know in no uncertain terms that it is only "weak minded worldlings" who see gender
as a barrier to attaining enlightenment. She sadly notes there have been few who wish to work

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for the welfare of sentient beings in a female form, though. Therefore, she resolves to always be
reborn as a female bodhisattva, until samsara is no more. She then stays in a palace in a state
of meditation for some ten million years, and the power of this practice releases tens of millions
of beings from suffering. As a result of this, Tonyo Drupa tells her she will henceforth manifest
supreme bodhi as the Goddess Tārā in many world systems to come.
With this story in mind, it is interesting to juxtapose this with a quotation from the 14th Dalai
Lama about Tārā, spoken at a conference on Compassionate Action in Newport Beach, CA in
1989:
There is a true feminist movement in Buddhism that relates to the goddess Tārā. Following her
cultivation of bodhicitta, the bodhisattva's motivation, she looked upon the situation of those
striving towards full awakening and she felt that there were too few people who
attained Buddhahood as women. So she vowed, "I have developed bodhicitta as a woman. For all
my lifetimes along the path I vow to be born as a woman, and in my final lifetime when I attain
Buddhahood, then, too, I will be a woman."
Tārā, then, embodies certain ideals which make her attractive to women practitioners, and her
emergence as a Bodhisattva can be seen as a part of Mahayana Buddhism's reaching out to
women, and becoming more inclusive even in 6th-century CE India.
Tārā's name literally means "star" or "planet", and therefore she is associated with navigation and
travel both literally and metaphorically as spiritual crossing to the 'other side' of the ocean of
existence (enlightenment). Hence she is known literally as "she who saves" in Tibetan. In
the 108 Names of the Holy Tara, Tara is 'Leader of the caravans ..... who showeth the way to
those who have lost it' and she is named as Dhruva, the Sanskrit name for the North Star.
According to Miranda Shaw, "Motherhood is central to the conception of Tara".Her titles include
"loving mother", "supreme mother", "mother of the world", "universal mother" and "mother of
all Buddhas".
She is most often shown with the blue lotus or night lotus (utpala), which releases its fragrance
with the appearance of the moon and therefore Tārā is also associated with the moon and night.
Tārā is also a forest goddess, particularly in her form as Khadiravani, "dweller in the Khadira
forest" and is generally associated with plant life, flowers, acacia (khadira) trees and the wind.
Because of her association with nature and plants, Tārā is also known as a healing goddess
(especially as White Tārā) and as a goddess of nurturing quality and fertility. Her pure land in
Mount Potala is described as "Covered with manifold trees and creepers, resounding with the
sound of many birds, And with murmur of waterfalls, thronged with wild beasts of many kinds;
Many species of flowers grow everywhere." Her association with the wind element (vaayu) also
means that she is swift in responding to calls for any aid.

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Painting of Buddhist goddess Green Tara by Prithvi Man Chitrakari done in 1947.

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Saviouress:

Green Tara, Nepal, 14th century. Gilt copper inset with precious and semiprecious stones,
H20.25 in, (51.4 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Louis V. Bell Fund, 1966, 66.179.
Tārā also embodies many of the qualities of feminine principle. She is known as the Mother of
Mercy and Compassion. She is the source, the female aspect of the universe, which gives birth to
warmth, compassion and relief from bad karma as experienced by ordinary beings in cyclic
existence. She engenders, nourishes, smiles at the vitality of creation, and has sympathy for all
beings as a mother does for her children. As Green Tārā she offers succor and protection from all
the unfortunate circumstances one can encounter within the samsaric world. As White Tārā she
expresses maternal compassion and offers healing to beings who are hurt or wounded, either
mentally or psychically. As Red Tārā she teaches discriminating awareness about created
phenomena, and how to turn raw desire into compassion and love. As Blue Tārā (Ekajati) she
becomes a protector in the Nyingma lineage, who expresses a ferocious, wrathful, female energy

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whose invocation destroys all Dharmic obstacles that engender good luck and swift spiritual
awakening.
Within Tibetan Buddhism, she has 21 major forms in all, each tied to a certain color and energy.
And each offers some feminine attribute, of ultimate benefit to the spiritual aspirant who asks for
her assistance.
Another quality of feminine principle which she shares with the dakinis is playfulness. As John
Blofeld expands upon in Bodhisattva of Compassion, Tārā is frequently depicted as a young
sixteen-year-old girlish woman. She often manifests in the lives of dharma practitioners when
they take themselves, or the spiritual path too seriously. There are Tibetan tales in which she
laughs at self-righteousness, or plays pranks on those who lack reverence for the feminine.
In Magic Dance: The Display of the Self-Nature of the Five Wisdom Dakinis, Thinley Norbu
explores this as "Playmind". Applied to Tārā one could say that her playful mind can relieve
ordinary minds which become rigidly serious or tightly gripped by dualistic distinctions. She
takes delight in an open mind and a receptive heart then. For in this openness and receptivity her
blessings can naturally unfold and her energies can quicken the aspirants spiritual development.
These qualities of feminine principle then, found an expression in Indian Mahayana Buddhism
and the emerging Vajrayana of Tibet, as the many forms of Tārā, as dakinis, as Prajnaparamita,
and as many other local and specialized feminine divinities. As the worship of Tārā developed,
various prayers, chants and mantras became associated with her. These came out of a felt
devotional need, and from her inspiration causing spiritual masters to compose and set
down sadhanas, or tantric meditation practices. Two ways of approach to her began to emerge. In
one common folk and lay practitioners would simply directly appeal to her to ease some of the
travails of worldly life. In the second, she became a Tantric deity whose practice would be used
by monks or tantric yogis in order to develop her qualities in themselves, ultimately leading
through her to the source of her qualities, which are Enlightenment, Enlightened Compassion,
and Enlightened Mind.
Tantrism:
18th-century Eastern Tibetan thanka, with the Green Tara (Samaya Tara Yogini) in the center
and the Blue, Red, White and Yellow taras in the corners, Rubin Museum of Art
Tārā as a focus for tantric deity yoga can be traced back to the time period of Padmasambhava.
There is a Red Tārā practice which was given by Padmasambhava to Yeshe Tsogyal. He asked
that she hide it as a treasure. It was not until the 20th century, that a great Nyingma lama, Apong
Terton rediscovered it. It is said that this lama was reborn as Sakya Trizin, present head of
the Sakyapa sect. A monk who had known Apong Terton succeeded in retransmitting it to Sakya
Trizin, and the same monk also gave it to Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche, who released it to his
western students.
Martin Willson in In Praise of Tārā traces many different lineages of Tārā Tantras, that is Tārā
scriptures used as Tantric sadhanas. For example, a Tārā sadhana was revealed to Tilopa (988–
1069 CE), the human father of the Karma Kagyu. Atisa, the great translator and founder of
the Kadampa school of Tibetan Buddhism, was a devotee of Tārā. He composed a praise to her,
and three Tārā Sadhanas. Martin Willson's work also contains charts which show origins of her
tantras in various lineages, but suffice to say that Tārā as a tantric practice quickly spread from

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around the 7th century CE onwards, and remains an important part of Vajrayana Buddhism to
this day.
The practices themselves usually present Tārā as a tutelary deity (thug dam, yidam) which the
practitioners sees as being a latent aspect of one's mind, or a manifestation in a visible form of a
quality stemming from Buddha Jnana. As John Blofeld puts it in The Tantric Mysticism of Tibet:
The function of the Yidam is one of the profound mysteries of the Vajrayana...Especially during
the first years of practice the Yidam is of immense importance. Yidam is the Tibetan rendering
of the Sanskrit word "Iṣṭadeva"—the in-dwelling deity; but, where the Hindus take the Iṣṭadeva
for an actual deity who has been invited to dwell in the devotee's heart, the Yidams of Tantric
Buddhism are in fact the emanations of the adepts own mind. Or are they? To some extent they
seem to belong to that order of phenomena which in Jungian terms are called archetypes and are
therefore the common property of the entire human race. Even among Tantric Buddhists, there
may be a division of opinion as to how far the Yidams are the creations of individual minds.
What is quite certain is that they are not independently existing gods and goddesses; and yet,
paradoxically, there are many occasions when they must be so regarded.

Sarasvati thangka, Eastern Tibet, 18th century/Kurukulla thangka, American Museum of Natural History, Manhattan, New York City

There are many forms of Tārā, including various popular lists of 21 different emanations of Tārā.
Green Tārā, (śyāmatārā) associated with peacefulness and enlightened activity is the most
depicted and the central aspect of Tārā from which others such as the 21 Tārās emanate. In her
Green form, she is often also known as Khadiravaṇi-Tārā (Tārā of the acacia forest), who
appeared to Nagarjuna in the Khadiravani forest of South India and protects from the eight great
fears. She is often accompanied by her two attendants Mārīcī and Ekajaṭā. Dharmachari Purna
writes on the various forms of Tara:
Tārā is in fact the name of a whole class of deities. She appears in all the five colours of the
Jinas. There are at least ten green forms, seven white, five yellow, two blue and one red. As
Sarvajñamitra says of her form: 'It is a universal form, varied like crystal, since it changes
according to circumstance'.She has both peaceful and wrathful forms. Her figure is shown in
virtually all postures from standing to sitting, full lotus, half lotus, one leg down, and both legs
down. There is apparently also a reclining Tārā. She has two-armed forms, four arms, eight arms,

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twelve arms, and Getty even mentions a Tibetan painting showing a standing Tārā with 'one
thousand heads and arms'. Ghosh lists seventy-six distinct forms of Tārā, and tradition tells us
there are one hundred and eight names for her.
According to Sarvajnamitra she has a “universal form” (visva-rupa), that encompasses all living
beings and deities, and which changes with the needs of each being.
Other forms of Tārā include:

 White Tārā, (Sitatārā) with two arms seated on a white lotus and with eyes on her hand and
feet, as well as a third eye on her forehead (thus she is also known as "Seven eyed"). She is
known for compassion, long life, healing and serenity. Also known as The Wish-fulfilling
Wheel, or Cintachakra.
 Pravīratārā, "Tārā Swift and Heroic", a Red colored form with eight arms holding bell and
vajra, bow and arrow, wheel, conch, sword and noose.
 Kurukullā (Rikchema) of red color and fierce aspect associated with magnetizing all good
things
 Black Tārā (Ugra Tārā), associated with power
 Various forms of Yellow or Golden colored Tārās, sometimes associated with wealth
and prosperity including "Yellow Cintamani Tārā" (“Wish-Granting Gem Tara”) holding a
wish granting jewel, eight armed "Vajra Tārā" and golden "Rajasri Tārā" holding a blue
lotus.[28]
 Blue Tārā (Ekajati), wrathful with many heads and arms, associated with transmutation of
anger
 Cintāmaṇi Tārā, a form of Tārā widely practiced at the level of Highest Yoga Tantra in
the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism, portrayed as green and often conflated with Green
Tārā
 Sarasvati (Yangchenma), known for the arts, knowledge and wisdom
 Bhṛkuṭītārā (Tronyer Chendze), "Tārā with a Frown", known for protection from spirits
 Uṣṇīṣavijaya Tārā, White Tārā named "Victorious Uṣṇīṣa" with three faces and twelve arms,
associated with long life
 Golden Prasanna Tārā - wrathful form, with a necklace of bloody heads and sixteen arms
holding an array of weapons and Tantric attributes.
 Yeshe Tsogyal ("Wisdom Lake Queen"), the consort of Padmasambhava who brought
Buddhism to Tibet, was known as an emanation of Tārā
 Rigjay Lhamo, “Goddess Who Brings Forth Awareness,” seated in royal posture surrounded
by rainbow light.
 Sitatapatra Tārā, protector against supernatural danger
 Violet Tara, an emanation of the violet fire of forgiveness and transmutation.
Tārā's iconography such as the lotus also shows resemblance with the Hindu goddess Lakshmi,
and at least one Tibetan liturgy evokes Lakshmi as Tārā.[30] According to Miranda Shaw, there is
a later trend of Tārā theology that began to see all other female divinities as aspects of Tārā or at
least associated with her. Apart from her many emanations named Tārā of varying colors, other
Mahayana female divinities that became part of Tara's theology
include Janguli, Parnasabari, Cunda, Kurukulla, Mahamayuri, Usnisavijaya, and Marici. Based

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on this principle of Tārā as the central female divinity, Dakinis were also seen as emanations of
her.[31]

Tara statue. Gyantse Kumbum. 1993

Sadhanas in which Tārā is the yidam (meditational deity) can be extensive or quite brief. Most
all of them include some introductory praises or homages to invoke her presence and prayers of
taking refuge. Then her mantra is recited, followed by a visualization of her, perhaps more
mantra, then the visualization is dissolved, followed by a dedication of the merit from doing the
practice. Additionally there may be extra prayers of aspirations, and a long life prayer for the
Lama who originated the practice. Many of the Tārā sadhanas are seen as beginning practices
within the world of Vajrayana Buddhism, however what is taking place during the visualization
of the deity actually invokes some of the most sublime teachings of all Buddhism. Two examples
are Zabtik Drolchok and Chime Pakme Nyingtik.
In this case during the creation phase of Tārā as a yidam, she is seen as having as much reality as
any other phenomena apprehended through the mind. By reciting her mantra and visualizing her
form in front, or on the head of the adept, one is opening to her energies of compassion and
wisdom. After a period of time the practitioner shares in some of these qualities, becomes
imbued with her being and all it represents. At the same time all of this is seen as coming out of
Emptiness and having a translucent quality like a rainbow. Then many times there is a
visualization of oneself as Tārā. One simultaneously becomes inseparable from all her good
qualities while at the same time realizing the emptiness of the visualization of oneself as
the yidam and also the emptiness of one's ordinary self.

Green Tārā, (Syamatara) known as the Buddha of enlightened activity, ca. 11th century.

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This occurs in the completion stage of the practice. One dissolves the created deity form and at
the same time also realizes how much of what we call the "self" is a creation of the mind, and has
no long term substantial inherent existence. This part of the practice then is preparing the
practitioner to be able to confront the dissolution of one's self at death and ultimately be able to
approach through various stages of meditation upon emptiness, the realization of Ultimate Truth
as a vast display of Emptiness and Luminosity. At the same time the recitation of the mantra has
been invoking Tārā's energy through its Sanskrit seed syllables and this purifies and activates
certain psychic centers of the body (chakras). This also untangles knots of psychic energy which
have hindered the practitioner from developing a Vajra body, which is necessary to be able to
progress to more advanced practices and deeper stages of realization.
Therefore, even in a simple Tārā sadhana a plethora of outer, inner, and secret events is taking
place and there are now many works such as Deity Yoga, compiled by the present Dalai
Lama,[34] which explores all the ramifications of working with a yidam in Tantric practices.
The end results of doing such Tārā practices are many. For one thing it reduces the forces of
delusion in the forms of negative karma, sickness, afflictions of kleshas, and other obstacles and
obscurations.
The mantra helps generate Bodhicitta within the heart of the practitioner and purifies the psychic
channels (nadis) within the body allowing a more natural expression of generosity and
compassion to flow from the heart center. Through experiencing Tārā's perfected form one
acknowledges one's own perfected form, that is one's intrinsic Buddha nature, which is usually
covered over by obscurations and clinging to dualistic phenomena as being inherently real and
permanent.
The practice then weans one away from a coarse understanding of Reality, allowing one to get in
touch with inner qualities similar to those of a bodhisattva, and prepares one's inner self to
embrace finer spiritual energies, which can lead to more subtle and profound realizations of the
Emptiness of phenomena and self.
As Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche, in his Introduction to the Red Tārā Sadhana,[35] notes of his
lineage: "Tārā is the flawless expression of the inseparability of emptiness, awareness and
compassion. Just as you use a mirror to see your face, Tārā meditation is a means of seeing the
true face of your mind, devoid of any trace of delusion".
There are several preparations to be done before practising the Sadhana. To perform a correct
execution the practitioner must be prepared and take on the proper disposition. The preparations
may be grouped as "internal" and "external". Both are necessary to achieve the required
concentration.
The preparations are of two types: external and internal. The external preparations consist of
cleaning the meditation room, setting up a shrine with images of Buddha Shakyamuni and Green
Tara, and setting out a beautiful arrangement of offerings. We can use water to represent nectar
for drinking, water for bathing the feet, and perfume. For the remaining offerings—flowers,
incense, light, and pure food—if possible we should set out the actual substances. As for internal
preparations, we should try to improve our compassion, bodhichitta, and correct view of
emptiness through the practice of the stages of the path, and to receive a Tantric empowerment
of Green Tara. It is possible to participate in group pujas if we have not yet received an
empowerment, but to gain deep experience of this practice we need to receive an empowerment.

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The main internal preparation is to generate and strengthen our faith in Arya Tara, regarding her
as the synthesis of all Gurus, Yidams, and Buddhas.

 Tara statue near Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, India. Avalokiteshvara

Medititating Tara, Ratnagiri, Odisha, India, 8th century/White Tara statue in a Karma
Kagyu dharma centre

Tara and the Cult of the Female in Buddhism

The female in Buddhism, despite its Master's reluctance to admit women
folk into the order, was its psychological need and comprised its spiritual
structure. Compassion - the softest aspect of being, man or divine, which was the core of
Buddhism, best revealed itself in a female frame. Hence, in the course of time, feminineness
dominated the Buddhist ambience so much so that even the images of the male gods like
Avalokiteshvara were conceived with a feminine touch in their appearance and as an essential
aspect of personality.

The feminine tenderness and grace with which subsequent Buddhist images were conceived
define the epitome of Buddhist iconographic perception and art. After benevolence and
protectiveness, other virtues which a female best represented, were added to the cardinal of
compassion this feminine aspect was more thrusting and diversified with the result that during
Mahayana phase, more so in Tibetan Buddhism, the number of female deities reached in
thousands.

Such psychodynamics apart, factors outside Buddhism, especially plurality cult of Brahmanism
and preponderance of feminine elements, played a vital role in determining the male-female ratio

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and their relative significance in Buddhism too. By sixth century or so mutuality of Brahmanical
male and female 'devatas - gods, was completely revolutionized, the female gaining supremacy
and priority over the male, even the great Trinity - Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Texts like Devi-
Mahatmya in the Markandeya Purana and Devi-Bhagavata among others installed Devi not only
as possessing attributes and cumulative energies of all male gods but also as preceding them,
even creation. Invoking a different form or aspect in each of the 'dhyanas' - meditative visions,
these texts perceived Devi - Divine Female, as one and also as many, the former defining unity,
and latter, diversity. To this plurality were added her 'shaktis' - subordinate powers. Aboriginals
as well as Vedic Aryans had some early female deities but while those in the former tradition
were just regional inoperative boon-bestowing icons, most of the latter represented aniconic
elements or aspects of nature - usually terror inflicting, they appeased by laudation and 'havya'! -
offerings. The more accomplished post-Devi-Mahatmya form of Devi was, however, completely
different from them both.

Early Female Deities in Buddhism

The Buddhism, too, had some early female deities,

mostly inherited from erstwhile cults, as the Earth
goddess and some yakshanis, Hariti in particular, from
aboriginal tribes, and Lakshmi and Saraswati, from the
Vedic. Interestingly, the Earth goddess who had iconic
presence in pre-Buddhist cults was in Buddhism a
symbolic presence, while Lakshmi and Saraswati, the
aniconic Vedic deities, had in Buddhism well-defined
iconographic forms. When the Buddha invoked the
mother earth to be the witness to his act of conquering
Mara and its hosts, he perceived her as all-seeing
formless one competent to certify genuineness of his
act.

Except the Lalitavistara that talks of her as appearing in

person, or the Nidanakatha and Mahavastu that talk of
her quaking and dispelling Mara and its hosts, in the
entire Buddhist literature the mother earth remains a
non-operative aniconic spiritual presence. The earth
goddess is alluded to in texts time and again sometimes
as Sthavara - Steadfast, having ten lac forms, and at
other times as Aparajita - Undefeatable, in Buddhist
Nirvana Buddha Under the Tree of narratives she does not appear again. In the Mahayana
Life narratives she appears before the pilgrim Suthana but
only to proclaim that she has been the witness of the
'spiritual transformations of all Buddhas when they
were to almost attain enlightenment', a role identical to her earlier one.

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Later, after Buddha's mother Mayadevi was
deified around Lumbini, where the Buddha was
born, the role of mother-goddess shifted to her.

Maya Devi and Buddha's Birth

The other woman who rose to divine heights and attained Buddhahood was Mahaprajapati
Gautami, Buddha's maternal aunt, who brought him up after his mother Mayadevi died.
However, Gautami appears in Buddhist narratives only after Sakyamuni attains Buddhahood and
accepting his path she embarks on her quest for liberation, as a regular monk. She was the first
woman to seek monastic life on par with men and establish the order of female monks. She was
the founder of nuns' order and was the ever first preceptor of its first batch. She had thus an
outstanding role in the growth of institutional life in Buddhism. The Buddhist tradition venerates
Gautami as the female Buddha, who destroyed all her imperfections, acquired great powers,
knew others' thought, heard divine chorus, and was beyond the cycle of birth and death. No
shrines are dedicated to Gautami but her legends figure in Buddhist sectarian art and faithful
heads have always bowed in reverence over them.

Hariti and Yakshani Cult

Yakshas-yakshanis, often interchanged with 'devatas', were an integral part of pre-Buddhist

cosmology and their worship a major cultic activity of Indian populace. Buddhism neither
questioned or prohibited nor ignored yaksha-worship. Rather, yakshas-yakshanis were a
recurring theme in early Buddhist art. Buddha even advised people to honor, worship and make
offerings to yakshas as it brought prosperity. He even ordained that Hariti, the yakshani, would
have a shrine at every monastery and also daily offering. Since then Hariti shrine became a
monastery's essential feature, and Hariti, its protecting deity. The benevolent matron surrounded

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 This human-born mother of their Master was more
intimate a mother and inspired greater reverence
than did the symbolic earth goddess. As the
tradition has it, Mayadevi gave up her mortal frame
soon after the Buddha was born, only to seek
greater freedom to roam and re-visit her son as and
when wished. Consequently, each time a
Bodhisattva was born Mayadevi re-created herself
to be his mother. She was thus the mother of all
Bodhisattvas and all Buddhas. She was present on
all eventful occasions in Buddha's life, as at river
Niranjana where he emaciated due to fasting. Her
eyes melted into tears the moment she saw him.
Buddha visited her in Tushit or Trayastrinsha
Heaven and delivered sermon.

She is said to descend from Heaven on the

Buddha's Mahaparinirvana and weep over his robe.

Tushita Buddha

by children, Hariti represented female procreativity, abundance and fertility.

Hariti, meaning thief, was initially a devourer of infants. Buddha transformed her into a protector
of children and benefactor of humans. As the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya has it, Hariti was the
daughter of Sata, patron yaksha of Rajagraha. Her name was Abhirati. After Sata died, his duties
towards Rajagraha devolved on Abhirati and her brother Satagiri. Abhirati had, however, a
different mind. Instead of serving as protector she had a vow to prey on children of Rajagraha
and the same she revealed to her brother. When nothing could dissuade her, Satagiri married her
to Panchaka, the son of the patron Yaksha of Gandhara. She had by him five hundred children.
Before long, impelled to act by her baneful pledge she along with her offspring came back to
Rajagraha and began abducting and devouring infants and children. Reports reached the king,
and on his counselor's advice offerings were made to the unknown yaksha but all without result.
Meanwhile, a yaksha disclosed all that Abhirati was doing. The term Abhirati meant a 'joyful
girl', something not co-relating with her act. People hence changed her name to Hariti, the thief.
Finally, townsfolk approached Sakyamuni who moved by their grief decided to deal with
Abhirati in her own coins. He concealed Abhirati's youngest son Priyankara under his alms bowl.
Not finding him anywhere, Abhirati broke into tears blinding her almost. Eventually, advised by
a senior yaksha she also went to Sakyamuni and pledged that she would end her life that very
day if her son was not restored. It afforded to Buddha the opportunity to make Abhirati realize
the grief of parents who lost their only son when the loss of just one out of five hundred crazed
her.

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Realizing her ills Hariti empathized with parents
whose children she had stolen and promised not
only to desist but also protect and nourish them
since onwards. She turned to Buddha as her spiritual
guide and to his path. Buddha restored her child. He
ordained that she would have a part of offerings, and
with it she would nourish her offspring. He also
revealed to her what turned her into a devourer of
infants and children. In one of her previous birth she
was a herdswoman in Rajagraha. One day when in
market to sell her buttermilk, a huge crowd of
people celebrating some festival invited her to
dance. Accepting the invitation she participated and
danced and aborted in exhaustion. Despite all that,
she sold her buttermilk for five hundred mangos and
staggered homewards. On her way she met a
Pratyeka (solitary) Buddha. Impressed by him she
offered him all her five hundred mangos. In her
moments of deep reverence she pledged to avenge This Gandharan masterpiece, carved
people of Rajagraha for her miscarriage by in a warm-toned schist, portrays
devouring their children. Hariti as the epitome of maternal
grace, a regal yet figure.

Lakshmi and Saraswati

Lakshmi and Saraswati are two Rig-Vedic deities in the Buddhist line. Their absorption into the
Buddhist stream was perhaps necessitated by what they represented - Lakshmi, abundance,
prosperity, fertility, happiness, beauty, luster, sovereignty among others, and Saraswati, art,
culture, learning and all fruits of intellect. With followers from ranks and upper strata Buddhism
could hardly ignore Lakshmi. And, an order as was Buddhism, esteeming wisdom, reasoning,
oratorical skill . as the best of man, might not reject Saraswati who besides harnessing them had
a lot in common with Prajnaparmita, the most venerated Buddhist divinity.

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 Devi Saraswati

Prajnaparamita

Early Buddhist texts are, however, evasively

silent about them both. Lakshmi has significant
presence in early Buddhist art at Bharhut, Sanchi
. but Saraswati is completely missing. By around
the 3rd century C.E., even Lakshmi disappears.
Except a couple of them, Lakshmi images are
not seen even in Gandhara sculptures. From
around the sixth-seventh centuries Lakshmi
images begin appearing on a larger scale but
they are on Brahmanical lines, not Buddhist.
Lakshmi's presence in early art but absence in
texts, and in art, her icons decorating subordinate
spaces, not forming part of the proper Buddhist
theme, are enigmatic. Maybe, while rich donors commissioning construction of a stupa, or a part,
at Bharhut, Sanchi or anywhere, insisted inclusion of Lakshmi icons for her favor, the order of
the monks that determined the line of a text, or the body of the theme to be carved at a sacred
site, was reluctant to admit her into the pantheon, at least as regular deity. The conflict was
perhaps resolved by including Lakshmi icons as subordinate motifs, not as official deity, or part
of a regular Buddhist theme. Saraswati was the patron of intellectuals - poets, dramatists. Like
rich donors these intellectuals weren't instrumental in constructing a shrine, and, hence,

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Saraswati images weren't patronized. Apart, Buddhism had Saraswati's substitutes in Tara and
Prajnaparmita, the deities with wider range of attributes and personality aspects. It was in late
Tibetan Buddhism that the order of Lamas laid fresh impetus on Saraswati worship and
consecrated her in Buddhist pantheon.

Tara

'Whose smile made the sun to shine and frown made darkness to envelope the terrestrial sphere'
is how the 778 AD Nagari inscription of Kalasan Chandi sanctuary at Java pays homage to Tara.
This apart, Prince Shailendra, the founder of sanctuary, lauds the goddess as the savior of men
and the most noble and venerable one. The temple she then enshrined was just one but by around
12th century Java hardly had a household shrine which was without an image of Tara.

Tara, the principal Buddhist goddess conceived

with a wide range of attributes and personality
aspects, has in Buddhism the same status as
Devi or Durga in the Brahmanical. As various
Brahmanical goddesses look like different forms
of Devi, most Buddhist deities look like Tara's
'bhedas' - manifestations. As Devi preceded all
gods, Tara as Prajnaparmita - Perfection of
Wisdom and highest metaphysical principle, is
claimed to have priority even over Buddha. Like
Devi who revealed to Vishnu who he was and
what for he was there, in Buddhism, Tara was
the light and the prime source of Buddhahood
and thus of all Buddhas. Like Devi, who is
Shiva's consort, Tara has been conceived as the
consort of Avalokiteshvara. Like Devi who is
the mother of the gods of the highest order,
Tara, at least in Mahayana Buddhism, is the
mother of all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Tara
had an early presence in the Buddhist pantheon;
however it was largely after the emergence of
the Devi cult around the sixth-seventh centuries
Goddess White Tara and Cosmic Buddhas that Tara rose to a status on par with any other
Buddhist god and was sometimes venerated like
the great Master himself. Tibetan Buddhism has
thousands of deities with local identities; Tara is the deity known to all, and her mantra - hymn,
to every lip. In Tibet she is almost its national deity.

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Tara in Brahmanism

Scholars have discovered in early texts like the

Mahabharata a term 'tarini' meaning one that carried
one's votaries across waters of tribulation and linked
it with Tara suggesting her early origin and
Brahmanical connection. The argument is little
convincing. Tara's form, as emerged later in the
Tantra, or as one of the Mahavidyas, was not known
to the writers of the Mahabharata or of the main
eighteen Puranas. Not so early, she undoubtedly
preceded Mahavidyas, as when with one
Mahavidya, not ten, the Mahavidya-cult was just
evolving, Tara had her fully evolved form. Her
transformation as one of the Mahavidyas occurred
long after. Goddess Tara Who Guides Through
Troubles (Ten Mahavidya Series)

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 In her early form Tara was seen as commanding
shaktis - powers that controlled rush of waters,
Sri Vedavyasa protected navigators and guided boats.
AGNIMAHAPURANAM:
(SANSKRIT TEXT, ENGLISH Before her emergence as second Mahavidya Tara's
TRANSLATION AND INDEX OF concept continued to change. In Agni Purana, she is
VERSES) (Two Volumes) a Yogini, not devata.

In Mayadipaka, she has one form while as Mahavidya, another. Shaivite tradition considers her
as the transform of Mahamaya, the great illusion. Shiva's epithet after he consumed arson during
ocean-churning was Akshobhya - unperturbed, and Tara was his consort. Tara's prime presence
is, however, in Tantra. Brahmanical Tantra-books do not go back beyond 6th century. Obviously,
the Brahmanical Tara must have emerged only afterwards. The Java inscription, dated 778, and
Chalukyan dated circa 1095-96, comprise her earliest known epigraphic records. Not as popular
in South as in North, Tara is the principal deity of all significant Tantras. In Brahmanical texts
too, Chinachara-krama - worship-mode as prevailed in China, was the accepted mode of her
worship. Apart, the legend that sage Vashishtha went to Mahachina to learn the mode of
worshipping Tara from Buddha, as the same was not known to anybody else, as also her form
different from all other Brahmanical divinities, suggest that the Buddhist Tara was her prototype.

However, the two concepts of the goddess are widely different. Despite that in Buddhism Tara
has many manifestations, she is almost always benevolent, compassionate, gentle, playful,
young, lustrous, and protective. The Brahmanical Tara, especially as the Mahavidya, is almost
always fierce, often horrible to behold, and potentially dangerous, the same as Kali.

She is usually conceived as riding a corpse in the cremation ground, or as standing in the
attitude of an archer - pratyalidha posture. Not that Tara does not have a fierce form in
Buddhism, or a benign one in Brahmanism, in general, in the former context she manifests gentle
aspects, while in the latter, fierce ones. Brahmanical texts allude to her several forms, however,
among them three - Ekajata, Nilasaraswati and Ugra are more significant. Tararahasya,
Taratantra, Tantrasara and Mantramahodadhi are the principal Brahmanical texts on Tara's
Tantrika-cult.

Origin of Tara

Ambiguity prevails in regard to both, place and period of the origin of Tara. Buddha was
reluctant to admit womenfolk into the Sangh. Hence, an early worship-cult of female principle
might be a remote possibility. Western scholars, misled by her 7th-8th century representations in
stone, fix her origin around then and somewhere in Himalayan region, more likely Tibet, or
around. No doubt, Tara's early pictorial representations, in caves at Nishik, Ellora, Kanheri etc.,
are datable to 6th-7th centuries, but a concept or a metaphysical principle would emerge so
extensively and with such pre-eminence in art in simultaneity to its origin is something difficult
to concede. The journey of a religious concept from the mind it was born in to the mind that
believed it, and further, to formal visualization into stone or any other medium, which

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represented it, might have taken pretty long time, a few centuries or so. More reasonably, Tara
had her origin during early centuries of the Common Era, perhaps as a cult already prevalent
amongst aboriginals or others, which the liberal Buddhism readily adopted. Being mightier and
more popular the Tara-cult absorbed other concurrent similar cults and emerged as the mightiest.
Tara's visual transforms emerged late, not before 4th century at least. Early Avalokiteshvara
images are without Tara, which suggests that her form as his consort was a later development,
perhaps in pursuance to Ardhanarishvara model of Shiva and Shakti.

The Mantra Mahodadhi of

Mahidhara (English Translation
Only)

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Such academic allusions that the worship of Tara
was revived in Tibet by Nagarjuna, the founder of
Madhyamika school, apart, the origin of Tara
abounds in several interesting myths. It is said that
all creatures of the world began lamenting when
Avalokiteshvara was about to attain nirvana - final
liberation. Avalokiteshvara heard them. His heart
melted in compassion for their suffering and a tear
rolled from his eyes which turned into Tara. The
so-born Tara was the essence of the essence of
compassion. The Swatantra-tantra relates her
origin in a Cholana lake, which lay on the western
slope of the mount Meru, the Indo-Tibetan
borderland which had around it several lakes and
many monasteries. People living there looked for
a deity to help cross these lakes. Ultimately, their
desire had divine sanction. On Cholana's right
bank close to village Tar was a mountain. People
one day saw on it twenty-one figures of the
goddess Tara which have come into existence of
their own.

Since then the great goddess was always there to Green Tara with Twenty-One Taras
help cross the lakes. This form of Tara is
essentially her original form. Root 'tri' from which
the term Tara developed itself means to 'swim across'. All her names popular in Tibet, China,
Korea and Japan give this meaning. In islands like Java she was especially popular, perhaps for
helping people against tempestuous seas. In Buddhism this aspect was not so significant but as
'Tarini' she enabled her votaries to wade across 'bhavasagara' - ocean of life.

Tara's Bhedas or Forms of Tara

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 Otherwise innumerable, Tara's main forms are
five : Sita or White Tara,

Buddhist Long Life Goddess - White Tara

Green Tara - The Savior Goddess

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Yellow Tara Kashmir Style, 18th Century

Ekajati (Blue Tara or The Ferocious Tara or

The Single-Breasted, One-Eyed and Single-
Toothed Goddess)

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 White Tara manifests in seven forms, Green Tara in ten, Yellow Tara in five, Blue Tara in two,
and Red Tara just in one. These five forms relate to five sacred colors associated with five
Dhyani-Buddhas whose Shaktis these forms are. They also represent five cosmic elements. Her
two other forms : Rajeshvari-Tara, equated with Gauri or Vishvamata, and the blue lotus-
carrying Pitha-Tara also occur in the Sadhanamala. Apart, the sacred Tara-mantra
commemorates her in eleven forms. In yet another classification her forms are twenty-one.

The Vajrasana White Tara, her foremost form, represents Prajnaparmita. She is usually two-
armed, right held in varada, and left in vitarka-mudra - teaching posture, besides it carries the
stem of a full blown lotus. She generally has a third eye, symbolic of knowledge, but sometimes
as many as seven, grafted on soles and hands. As the Shakti of Amoghasiddha, she carries stems
of lotuses in both hands. Lotus supports a Vishvavajra - double thunderbolt. Texts perceive her
as the timeless youth of sixteen, lustrous as moon, and adorned in white and with brilliant jewels.
In Tantra, she manifests as white complexioned Janguli, with two or four arms, wearing white
garment, white jewels and carrying white serpents. With original two hands she plays on vina, of
the other, right is held in abhaya and left holds a white serpent. Rays of moon form her garland.

Green Tara carries a fully or partially closed blue lotus. With right leg pendent reaching a foot-
rest made of a smaller lotus she sits on a lotus-throne. Sometimes her seat is supported on two
roaring lions. She carries the image of Amoghasiddha in her head-dress. When with
Avalokiteshvara, she is usually on his right. A urna mark defines her forehead. She is sometimes
accompanied by her own eight forms, and at other times, by Ekajata and Marichi, or Janguli and
Mahamayuri, her manifestations. When with Janguli and Mahamayuri, she becomes Dhanada,
giver of wealth. As Dhanada she has four arms, upper ones in usual postures, lower ones
carrying a goad and a lasso. Some texts perceive her as two-armed, one carrying a lotus and
other held in varada, and as three-eyed. Surrounded by Shaktis having various colors she is
conceived with a smiling face, as adorned with bright pearls and wearing shoes set with jewels.

Yellow Tara or Bhrikuti, the goddess that frowns, is Tara's angry form. She carries
Amoghasiddha in diadem, holds her right hand in varada and carries in the left a blue lotus. She
is flanked by Marichi on her right and by Ekajata on left. She is conceived as a celestial maiden
with timeless youth and adorned with jewels. Khadiravarni Tara and Vajra Tara are her forms.
Adorned with all sorts of ornaments, she is represented as seated in the midst of Matrikas, divine
mothers, having eight arms, right ones carrying vajra, arrow, conch, varada, and the left, lotus-
bow, diamond-goad, noose and the forefinger of the fourth raised towards sky, four faces,
yellow, black, white and red from left to right, and three eyes in each face. She sits on the moon
placed on a lotus representing universe. In another innovation, she sits on a diamond-throne, has
red body color and four Buddhas on her crown.

Blue Tara or Ekajata, one with single chignon, manifests Tara's ferocious - ugra aspect and is
hence known as Ugra Tara. As represented in texts, she stands in archer's posture, has short
stature, one face; three eyes and protuberant abdomen, is fierce and terrible-looking, wears
necklace of human heads, and is adorned with a blue lotus. She rides a corpse, is adorned with
eight snakes and five mudras - attitudes, has red and round eyes and protruding tongue, and is in
the prime of youth. Always very happy she is resplendent because of her wild laughter and
dreadful with her protruding jaws. She wears tiger-skin around her waist. In her two right hands

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she carries sword and scissors, in the left, blue lotus and skull. Her chignon is brown, and head
adorned by Akshobhya.

The four-armed Red Tara or Kurukulla is red-

complexioned, sits on red lotus and wears red
garment. One of her right hands is held in abhaya,
while in other is carried an arrow, in one of the left
is held a quiver of jewels, and in other, an arrow
made of red-lotus-buds set on a bow of flowers
drawn up to ears.

Many of Tara's forms are merely her attributes.

Over-emphasis make them look like her bhedas -
forms. She is one throughout. Her attributes are
two-fold, pacific and angry, or five-fold according
to five sacred colors, pacific being white or green,
and angry red, yellow or blue. Pacific forms have
smiling expression, long and wavy hair and
ornaments that befitted a Bodhisattva, and angry,
fierce and awe-striking. Many of Tara's forms -
Janguli, Prajnaparmita, Marichi, Bhrakuti. have
emerged in the tradition as independent goddesses
and have shrines dedicated to them.
Kurukulla

Himalayan Buddhist Art 101: Controversial Art, Part 4 – The Female Nude

Buddhist practice and Buddhist art have been inseparable in the Himalayas ever since Buddhism
arrived to the region in the eighth century. But for the casual observer it can be difficult to make
sense of the complex iconography. Not to worry—Himalayan art scholar Jeff Watt is here to
help. In this “Himalayan Buddhist Art 101” series, Jeff is making sense of this rich artistic
tradition by presenting weekly images from the Himalayan Art Resources archives and
explaining their roles in the Buddhist tradition.

Part 1: Dorje Shugden

Part 2: The Svastika
Part 3: Ithyphallic Deities

Controversial Art, Part 4: The Female Nude

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Vajrayogini

Himalayan style erotic art, or obvious depictions of a sexual nature, are generally of three types:
there are the embracing couples found in the highest level of Buddhist tantra, ithyphallic deities,
and nude female figures. As for the couples, they are not very revealing in their embrace, with
their anatomy is mostly concealed. The ithyphallic deities are certainly more provocative, though
there are very few of them found in the pantheon of deities. The Mahadeva and Ganapati forms
are certainly the more shocking from this group.

The nude female figure is easily the most pervasive of these types in painting and sculpture. She
appears as a central figure in painted compositions, and as a repeated retinue figure in the
mandala arrangements of many other deities. When the nude female is a central figure, she is
almost always identified as a form, or related form, of Vajrayogini—a very prominent
meditational deity in tantric Buddhist practice.

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Kachod Karmo

Yoginis, as a class of deities, are depicted as nude female figures wearing a crown of jewel or
bone ornaments, along with earrings, bracelets, anklets, girdles, and so forth. They may also have
a scarf or shawl over their shoulders, as well as ribbons attached to the crown or looped around
their earrings. The term dakini is commonly employed in reference to yoginis. There are, of
course, technical definitions and textual distinctions as to which term should be used for a given
deity.

The first example is of Vajrayogini in a form known as Vajravarahi. The term varahi relates to
the long-snouted boar’s head attached to the right side of her own. The second example is a
white-colored Vajrayogini known in Tibetan as Kachod Karmo. Here the imagery is very
revealing, with legs raised and vulva fully exposed. Kachod Karmo is probably the most
animated and graphic example of the female nude in Himalayan art.

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 Kali seated atop Bhairava

The last example is a Nepalese depiction of the Hindu goddess Kali seated atop the prone form
of Bhairava, the wrathful form of the god Shiva. Under Bhairava is the quiescent Shiva, white in
color, with four arms, and wearing a tiger skin. The imagery of this painting symbolizes the
dominance of the female principle over that of the male. Sexually explicit iconography and art is
actually far more common in the many different forms of Hinduism, such as Shaiva and Shakta,
than it is in tantric Buddhism and the art of the Buddhist Himalayas.

Below Neeya Rai a Heroine as laxmi in the movie

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In science

4034 Vishnu is an asteroid discovered by Eleanor F. Helin. Vishnu rocks are a type of
volcanic sediment found in the Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA. Consequently, mass formations
are known as Vishnu's temples.

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Dr. Uday Dokras
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M A H A L A X M I

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Dr Uday Dokras

MAHALAXMI
415