SS symmetry

Article
Small Wind Turbine Blade Design and Optimization
Hani Muhsen 1 , Wael Al-Kouz 1, * and Waqar Khan 2
1 Mechatronics Engineering Department, Faculty of Applied Technical Sciences, German Jordanian University,
11180 Amman, Jordan; [email protected]
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, 31952 Al Khobar,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 25 October 2019; Accepted: 17 December 2019; Published: 19 December 2019


Abstract: This work aims at designing and optimizing the performance of a small
Horizontal-Axis-Wind-Turbine to obtain a power coefficient (CP ) higher than 40% at a low wind
speed of 5 m/s. Two symmetric in shape airfoils were used to get the final optimized airfoil. The main
objective is to optimize the blade parameters that influence the design of the blade since the small
turbines are prone to show low performance due to the low Reynolds number as a result of the small
size of the rotor and the low wind speed. Therefore, the optimization process will select different
airfoils and extract their performance at the design conditions to find the best sections which form
the optimal design of the blade. The sections of the blade in the final version mainly consist of
two different sections belong to S1210 and S1223 airfoils. The optimization process goes further
by investigating the performance of the final design, and it employs the blade element momentum
theory to enhance the design. Finally, the rotor-design was obtained, which consists of three blades
with a diameter of 4 m, a hub of 20 cm radius, a tip-speed ratio of 6.5 and can obtain about 650 W
with a Power coefficient of 0.445 at a wind-speed of 5.5 m/s, reaching a power of 1.18 kW and a power
coefficient of 0.40 at a wind-speed of 7 m/s.

Keywords: optimization; blade design; power coefficient; wind turbine

1. Introduction
Wind energy is considered as one of the most promising renewable energy sources, and the
blade design has a crucial impact on the harvested energy. The wind is actually produced due to the
differences in the atmospheric pressure. The flow of wind varies in speed and patterns across the world
and is also affected by the difference in terrain, water bodies, and vegetation [1]. Nowadays, electricity
is being generated using wind turbines. The kinetic energy generated by air moves a propeller, which
causes the rotor of a generator to rotate, thus generating electrical power. The aerodynamics of wind
turbines is related to its geometry and flow Reynolds number. Most commonly used in commercial
applications is the Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT). The wind turbines are classified according
to the rated generated power. For instance, small wind turbines refer to wind turbines with rated power
less than 50 kW [2]. The aim of utilizing small wind turbines is to supply buildings with electrical
power, which might or might not be connected to the utility grid. The World Wind Energy Association
has reported that the global installed wind power has increased 52.552 GW, making the total power
generated 539.291 GW. This considerable number accounts for 5% of the global electricity demand,
with Denmark setting a record with 43% of its power consumption covered by wind turbines [3].
Sessarego and Wood [4] demonstrated the procedure for designing small wind turbine blades and
optimized the design for the rapid starting, efficient power extraction, and minimal mass. They noticed
that rapid prototyping has excellent potential for small blade manufacture. They used E-glass and

Symmetry 2020, 12, 18; doi:10.3390/sym12010018 www.mdpi.com/journal/symmetry

Symmetry 2020, 12, 18 2 of 14

polyester resin in the blade design. Al-Abadi et al. [5] developed an aerodynamic shape optimization
method for a horizontal axis wind turbine. They matched the torques produced by the rotor and the
coupled generator and optimized the blade shape. They found good agreement between measured and
computed performance. The Blade Element Momentum theory was employed by Hassanzadeh et al. [6]
to optimize the horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade. They used Viterna equations for deducing
airfoil data into the post-stall regime and demonstrated the high capability of this method to predict
the performance of wind turbines. The airfoil structure can be developed to increase the reliability
of wind turbine blades. This objective was achieved by El-Mouhsine et al. [7]. They calculated an
optimum blade shape and developed an accurate three-dimensional Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine
(HAWT) model. Based on Blade Element Moment theory (BEM), Lanzafame et al. [8] presented a
revised numerical code to assess the performance of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines by determining
the mechanical power, power, torque coefficients, and finding the compatibility with the existing
data. For the large angles of attack, the computational fluid dynamics CFD can be employed along
with optimization algorithms to design wind turbine blades [9]. They performed CFD simulations
using a one equation turbulence model and applied single and multi-objective genetic algorithms
along with artificial neural networks. They demonstrated that artificial neural networks could reduce
computational time by almost 50%.
Nada and Al-Shahrani [10] provided an innovative solution for the small-size wind turbines.
They used a flexible multibody dynamics approach to extend the traditional method of dynamic
modeling of small-size wind turbines. They introduced a trade-off procedure to optimize the geometric
airfoil shape of small-size wind turbines. Jeong et al. [11] studied design optimization of the wind
turbine blade to reduce the blade’s bending moment fluctuation in turbulent wind. They developed a
FastCode to analyze the unsteady aerodynamic load of a wind turbine. They noticed that the magnitude
of the fluctuation of the out-of-plane bending moment was reduced by about 20%, and the rated
power of 1.5 MW was maintained. In several countries, like South Africa, the wind conditions are
appropriate for small-scale wind turbines with wind speed below 7 m/s. Erfort et al. [12] studied the
optimization of these turbines using a surrogate model. They used non-uniform rational B-splines
to encompass a wide range of possible shapes for a wide range of wind speeds. They found that the
surrogate model can provide an optimized solution with an increase in the coefficient of power. A new
optimization method was proposed by Mohammadi et al. [13] for blades of four small scale wind
turbines with maximum output torque as an objective function. They confirmed that this method
could increase the output torque by up to 19.5%. Tenguria et al. [14] presented a comprehensive
review of wind turbines regarding several parameters, including blade design and optimization. They
compared different models and methods of optimization under different operating conditions and
blade materials. Recently, Vivek et al. [15] presented a detailed review of vertical and horizontal
axis wind turbines. They found that a vertical axis wind turbine is widely used in urban settings
and typically has low power production and low efficiency. By contrast, HAWT have high power
production and are more efficient, but require significantly higher investment. Jureczko et al. [16]
developed a numerical model of the wind turbine blade and a computer program to optimize this
model about several criteria. They created several blade models using ANSYS software by changing
thicknesses and main dimensions of the model blade. The computer program enables the optimization
of several objective functions subject to numerous constraints. Based on the blade–element theory
and multi-objective evolutionary algorithm, Benini and Toffolo [17] produced an optimal design of
a horizontal-axis wind turbine. The blade-element approach offers an adequate solution of the flow
field around the rotor disc, whereas the evolutionary algorithm controls the decision variables of
the optimization problem. Multi-objective optimization algorithms recognize a trade-off curve that
exposes the flaws, glitches, and incentives of specific targets. Chehouri et al. [18] employed these
algorithms and introduced the fundamental principles of wind turbine design to explain a classic
multi-objective wind turbine optimization problem using a genetic algorithm. Thumthae [19] designed
a variable speed Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine blade. To achieve a maximum energy output, chord
Symmetry 2020, 12, 18 3 of 14

lengths, blade twist angles, and rotational speeds were varied independently. It was found that 50.5%
efficiency can be achieved at the design tip speed ratio of 7.5. The numerical results agree well with the
BEM calculation. Tang et al. [20] presented a direct method for small wind turbine blade design and
optimization. They developed a unique aerodynamic mathematical model to find the optimal blade
chord and twist angle distributions along the blade span. This method integrates blade design and the
airfoil analysis process. Lin et al. [21] studied 150 kW horizontal axis wind turbines and performed
numerical simulations. To predict turbulent flow, they employed Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
equations and Re-Normalisation Group (RNG) k-ε turbulence model. They demonstrated that below
12 m/s rated wind speed, 180 kW, 82 kW, and 56 kW output power can be achieved for the pitch
angle of 5, 15 and 30◦ , respectively. Furthermore, the maximum aerodynamic performance of 0.42
can be accomplished on the pitch angle of 5 with a tip speed ratio λ of 3.6. The genetic algorithm was
also employed by Pourrajabian et al. [22] to resolve the constrained objective function, obtaining an
optimal blade keeping starting time small and the output power high along with the stress limitation.
They calculated output power and the starting time using blade-element momentum theory and
employed simple beam theory to determine the stress and deflection along the blade. Tahir et al. [23]
optimized the turbine blades using enhanced blade element momentum theory together with the
Viterna-Corrigan stall model to yield low cut-in speed and high power level. They compared numerical
results with experimental results and noticed that the wind turbine could be optimized to produce
more energy. The importance of designing small HAWT from the aerodynamic point of view returns to
the increased interest of employing these turbines for the urban setting [24]. Unlike large HAWTs that
are designed to generate power in areas with optimal wind conditions, small HAWTs are designed to
produce power regardless of optimum wind conditions [25]. The design of small HAWT requires a
deep understanding of the design parameters since they show low performance in contrast to the large
wind turbine. The weakness of the small HAWT performance returns to the operating conditions at
low wind speed and the small rotor size, which will yield a low Reynolds number, and it might cause
laminar separation on the blade [26]. In addition, small HAWT are prone to fatigue due to their small
size, the variation of the wind speed, and the operation at high rotational speed, mainly in the urban
environment [27]. Therefore, it is essential to optimize the design of the HAWT blades to ensure shorter
blades and higher power generation [28], in addition to increasing their reliability in terms of dynamic
behavior. In this paper, Section 2 addresses the extraction of the design parameters of the HAWT blades.
In Section 3, the design steps and the optimization process are presented. The final design of the blade
and the results obtained from this study will be presented and discussed in Section 4. In Section 5,
the validation of the current work is presented. Finally, the conclusion of the work presented in this
research will be summarized in Section 6.

2. Subject Theory
The most commonly used approach to describe the aerodynamics of the wind-turbines blades
is the BEM method, which can be found in many textbooks and previous works [29–33]. Figure 1
shows the blade sectional aerodynamic angles and force coefficients. The tangential which results on
the blade is given by Equation (1). The tangential force is dependent on the chord of the airfoil, air
density, relative wind velocity, global pitch angle, local twist angle, lift coefficient, and drag coefficient.
Furthermore, the tangential force is obtained by a combination of the drag and lift forces. Since the
drag and lift coefficients are nonlinearly dependent on the Angle of Attack (AoA), the ratio of the lift to
the drag coefficient can decrease and cause the turbine to stall after fulfilling the maximum threshold
of the AoA:
2
d fT = 0.5ρ · c · Vrel (CL cos(β) + CD sin(β))dr (1)

where ρ is the air density, c is the chord length, Vrel is the relative wind speed between the blade section
and the wind, the CL is the lift coefficient, the CD is the drag coefficient, and β is the relative angle
between the lift and drag coefficients.
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Figure
Blade1.1.
Figure 1.Figure Bladesectional
sectional
Blade sectional aerodynamic
aerodynamic angles
anglesangles
aerodynamic and andand
forces forces coefficients,
coefficients,
forces where
coefficients, where ||indicates
||where || indicates
indicatesparallel parallel
parallel relation
relation
relation and
and and ∟indicates
∟indicates
indicates perpendicular
perpendicular
perpendicular relation. relation.

In orderIn toorder
In order
calculateto
to calculate
calculate the
the mechanical
the mechanicalmechanical torque
torque ontorque on
on the profile
theof
the profile profile of
of the
the blade, blade,
thethe
blade, the
the tangential
tangential force is force
tangential force is
is
multiplied
multiplied
multiplied by
by the
by the radial radial
radial distance
thedistance betweenbetween
distance the axis the
between axis of rotation
of rotation and the and the internal
internal radius ofradius of the rotor.
the rotor.
Therefore,
it can beititexpressed
Therefore,
Therefore, can
canbe beexpressed
expressed
as: as:
as:

1 11
⋅TrT ==dfdT⋅fTρ ·r⋅rc=⋅ r ⋅V· relρ2 ·c(cC
dτ T = dfdTdτ  ·rLrcos 22
(β(CC)LL−cos
·VVrelrel C D(β
cos )−(C
sin βCD)D)sin
⋅ dr
sin  ·dr dr
(β )) (2) (2)
(2)
2 22
The torque
torquecoefficient
Thecoefficient
The torque coefficientcan
canbe
beexpressed
can be expressedexpressed as
asfollows:
as follows: follows:
C Q ( λ , βC
C) Q Cλ,
Q=(
) =(βCC)LL−cos
L,βcos C D(βsin
cos (CβCD)Dsin
) − sin(β )  (3) (3)
(3)

Hence,
Hence, the themechanical
mechanical
mechanical
Hence, the torqueon
torque acting
torque acting onan
aninfinitesimal
infinitesimal
an infinitesimal
acting on bladecan
blade profile
blade profile canbe
be given
profile can be givenby:
by:
given by:

1 1
dτ T = dτ
d⋅ ρ c⋅ 1r ⋅·Vρrel2·c⋅c·CrrQ·(V
 T⋅= ) Q⋅Qdr(λ,
Vλ2rel2, β· C
C
 ,β) · dr
 dr (4) (4)
(4)
2 T 2 2 rel

where
where cwhere ccrepresents
represents
represents thecross-section
cross-section
the cross-section
the area
area atarea at at
radius r.radius r. The relationship
Ther.relationship
radius The between
relationship between
thethe
the power
between power coefficient
coefficient
power coefficient CP
C
CP and the and the
P torques torques coefficient
coefficient C C Q satisfies
Q satisfies
and the torques coefficient CQ satisfies
CQ = CCCQλ= CCPP/λ
P Q (5) (5)
(5)
The previous equations have been written in terms of the pitch angle β and the tip speed ratio λ, which
The previous
The previous equationsequations
have beenhave been in
written written
termsinofterms of the
the pitch pitch
angle β angle β and
and the the tipratio
tip speed speedλ, ratio λ,
is defined as
which iswhich is as
defined defined as
λ = ω · R/Vrel (6)
λ = ω ⋅ RVrel  R Vrel (6) (6)
The mechanical power of HAWT in Watt can be derived by integrating the mechanical torque of the
blade
The mechanicalmultiplied
The mechanical by the of
power ofpower
HAWT rotational
HAWT
in speed
be of
in Watt
Watt can thebe
can blades
derived andby
derived theintegrating
by integrating number ofthe
blades N:
mechanical
the mechanical torque oftorque
the of the
blade multiplied
blade multiplied by the rotational
by the rotational speed ofspeed of theand
the blades blades and the number
the number of bladesofN:
blades N:
ZR
R
P = N·ω·
R
dτT dr (7)
P = N ⋅ω P ⋅Ndτ 
T dr d T dr  (7) (7)
rHub
rHub rHub

is the Rrotor
where Rwhere
where Risisthe
therotor
radius, is theNnumber
rotorradius,
Nradius, Nisisthe
thenumber
number of
ofthe
of the blades, theblades,
blades,
and ω isand theω
and ωisisthe
therotational
rotational rotationalspeed.
speed.
speed. The The
The relative
relative relative
wind velocity
wind velocity
wind velocity can be found
can beasfound
can be found follows:as follows:
as follows:
q
Vrel = VVrelV(rel aV) (+11(−
r⋅aaω)2⋅ (+
1+ ) ·V(11)2+aa0 )V/V2)2
(ra· ′
2
1=−V
2
ω (8) (8)
(8)

where awhere
where aisisthe
is the aaxial the axialinduction
induction
axial induction
factor, factor,  is
′ is thea0radial
afactor, ais the
the radialinduction
induction
radial induction factor,
factor, and
factor, andVVrepresents
and represents
V represents theupstream
the upstream
the upstream
wind-speed.
wind-speed.
wind-speed. Consequently,
Consequently,
Consequently, the
the angle
the angle
ofangle
relativeofrelative
of relative
wind windvelocity
velocity
wind velocity canbe
can beexpressed
can be expressed expressed
as: as:
as:
V (1− a)V (r1⋅ωa(1 + ra′ 
tan (ϕ ) =tan ) ) 1  a  (9) (9)
tan(ϕ) = V (1 − a)/(r · ω(1 + a0 )) (9)
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where  represents the relative flow angle and it can be expressed as the summation of the twist
where ϕ represents the relative flow angle and it can be expressed as the summation of the twist angle,
angle, AoA, and the pitch angle. According to the previous equations, the parameters of the cost
AoA, and the pitch angle. According to the previous equations, the parameters of the cost function
function that have been selected were: CQ, R, α, λ, and V.
that have been selected were: CQ , R, α, λ, and V.
3.
3. Design
Design Methodology
Methodology
The
The blade is
blade is the
the main
main component
component of of the
the wind
wind turbine,
turbine, which
which extracts
extractsthetheenergy
energyfromfrom the
thewind,
wind,
and
and itit contributes
contributes20–25%
20–25% of of
thethe
wind wind turbine’s
turbine’s overall
overall budgetbudget [34]. Therefore,
[34]. Therefore, it is essential
it is essential to
to optimize
optimize the design of the wind turbine with a maximum power coefficient
the design of the wind turbine with a maximum power coefficient under the design conditions. One of under the design
conditions.
the methodsOne of the methods
to optimize the designto optimize
of HAWT theisdesign of HAWT
the iterative is the The
method. iterative
stepsmethod. The stepsare
of this approach of
this approach are depicted in Figure 2. The iterative approach aims at analyzing
depicted in Figure 2. The iterative approach aims at analyzing the aerodynamics load based on the the aerodynamics
load
Bladebased on Momentum
Element the Blade Element Momentum
(BEM) theory. (BEM)that
It assumes theory. It assumes
the value that induction
of the axial the valuecoefficient
of the axialto
induction
be zero at thecoefficient
beginning, to be
andzero at the beginning,
it depends and itdrag
on the lift force, depends
force,on the lift
thrust force,
force and drag force,force
tangential thrustto
force
expressand tangential
the aerodynamic forceload,
to express
and it the aerodynamic
gives load, and of
a real understanding it gives a realproblem.
the design understanding
In this of the
work,
design
the firstproblem.
objectiveIn thistowork,
was the first
determine theobjective
algorithmwas to used
to be determine
and the therelated
algorithm to be used
parameters and the
of tuning to
related parameters of tuning to be used during the final solution. Many factors and parameters can
be used during the final solution. Many factors and parameters can affect the design of the blade,
affect the design of the blade, and most of these parameters are dependent, which makes the
and most of these parameters are dependent, which makes the optimization process more complicated.
optimization process more complicated. The objective of this work is to design a high-performance,
The objective of this work is to design a high-performance, small Horizontal-Axis Wind-Turbine
small Horizontal-Axis Wind-Turbine (HAWT) with a Power Coefficient (CP) higher than 40% at an
(HAWT) with a Power Coefficient (CP ) higher than 40% at an average wind speed of 20 km/h, using
average wind speed of 20 km/h, using multiple stages of optimization and different tools which might
multiple stages of optimization and different tools which might help during the optimization process,
help during the optimization process, as well as showing the effect of the different factors on the
as well as showing the effect of the different factors on the overall performance of the wind turbine
overall performance of the wind turbine blade. The structural design of the blade will also be taken
blade. The structural design of the blade will also be taken into consideration to make sure that the
into consideration to make sure that the blade can withstand the stresses applied to it without
blade can withstand the stresses applied to it without breaking or deforming.
breaking or deforming.

Figure 2. Iterative method procedures.

Figure 2. Iterative method procedures.
The first step in the design process was to determine the design goal, which can be summarized
The first astep
in designing in the
blade withdesign processlength
a maximum was to2determine the design
m and operates goal,wind
through which can bebetween
speeds summarized 3 m/s
in designing a blade with a maximum length 2 m and operates through wind
and 6 m/s. This means that the blade will have a low Reynolds number due to the small blade surface speeds between 3 m/s
and 6 m/s. This means that the blade will have a low Reynolds number due to
and relatively low wind speed. The next step is to determine the design parameters which have been the small blade surface
and relatively
discharged in low
Tablewind speed.
1, and theyThe
havenext
beenstep is to determine
extracted based on the design parameters
Equation (1) to Equationwhich (9).have
Thebeennext
discharged in Table 1, and they have been
steps in the design process can be summarized as follows:extracted based on Equation (1) to Equation (9). The next
steps in the design process can be summarized as follows:
• Initializing Design Conditions
 Initializing Design Conditions
The wind turbine is assumed to operate at a wind speed of 4–7 m/s at a temperature of 15 ◦ C,
an airThe windof
density turbine
1.1162iskg/m
assumed
3 withto operate atviscosity
a dynamic a wind speed
of 1.81of× 4–7
10−5m/s at a at
kg.s/m temperature of 15 length
15 ◦ C, the blade °C, an
air
mustdensity
be lessofthan
1.1162 kg/mtowith
or equal
3
2 m. aTherefore,
dynamic the viscosity of 1.81
Reynolds × 10 will
number
−5 kg.s/m at than
be less 15 °C,orthe blade
equal length
to 100,000.
must be less than or equal to 2 m. Therefore, the Reynolds number will be less than
The selected number of blades in the designed turbine was three blades, and the tip speed ratio spans or equal to 100,000.
The
fromselected numberthe
4 to 8. Finally, of blades
internal in to
theexternal
designed turbine
radius was was
ration threeselected
blades, between
and the tip speed
0.10 ratioDue
to 0.12. spansto
from
the low4 towind
8. Finally,
speed andthe internal
small rotor to external
area, andradius
it wasration was to
necessary selected
find a between 0.10 suitable
set of airfoils to 0.12. Due
for lowto
the low wind
Reynolds speedapplications.
number and small rotor area, and it was necessary to find a set of airfoils suitable for low
Reynolds number applications.
 Selection of the Airfoils
Symmetry 2020, 12, 18 6 of 14

• Selection of the Airfoils

The selection of the airfoils was obtained using the Xfoil tool to evaluate the aerodynamic
coefficients of the chosen set of airfoils for the design to find the best pitch-angles for the design wind
speed while taking the Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theory into consideration. The selection of
the airfoil must consider the need for airfoils, which shows high performance at low wind speed and
hence low Reynolds number. After virtually experimenting with multiple airfoil shapes, the chosen set
of airfoils for the Design of Experiments include S1210 for the root [35] and S1223 for the tip [36].
• Optimizing the Airfoils Using Xfoil
A MATLAB (MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA) script with four nested for-loops was used to optimize
the design of the blade by finding the optimal values of the design parameters. The design parameters
that represent the input parameters of the MATLAB program that include the rotor diameter, tip-speed
ratio, and internal-external radius ratio. The main goal of the program is to select the airfoil sections
which maximize the power coefficient, and the selection of the airfoil sections will be extracted from
the selected airfoils which fulfill the design conditions and predefined in the previous step. In each
iteration, the MATLAB program returns the power coefficient (CP ), which is calculated using the
Trapezoidal and Simpson methods. Since the CP differs in each section of the blade, it is necessary
to use integration to obtain the overall CP for the entire blade. In addition, the program returns
the optimal values of the chord and the optimal AoA for each section of the airfoil. At the end of
the iterative process, the program will return the optimal values of the design parameters that are
summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Output parameters of the optimization process.

Number of Variables and Output Parameters Symbol Description

1 N Number of Blades
2 λ Tip speed ratio (unitless)
3 D Rotor diameter (m)
4 ω Angular velocity (rad/s)
5 a Induction factor (unitless)
6 V Wind speed (m/s)
7 Cp Power coefficient (%)
8 Power Watts
9 r/R Internal-to-external radius ratio

• BEM Simulation and Further Optimization Using Qblade

In this part, Qblade (TU Berlin, Berlin, Germany) is used to produce the initial design of the rotor
blades. In the first place, the selected airfoils have been imported into Qblade; then, a rotor-blade is
designed using those airfoils considering the angles-of-attacks and chords obtained previously. A BEM
simulation was also made across the tip-speed ratios 4 to 8 to optimize the tip-speed ratio of the blade,
to get the maximum possible power coefficient with this blade. The blades have been investigated at
wind speed ranges from 1 m/s to 7 m/s, rotational-speed ranges from 138 rpm to 500 rpm, and Pitch
ranges from 0–10 degrees. The chord distribution is optimized further, according to Betz [37]:

16 π·R 1
CP = · · q (10)
9 B · CL · λ0 2
λ0 Rr + 4
9

The results of the multi-parameters BEM simulation in QBlade will be presented in the results
section. The simulations will present the changes in the generated power by the wind-turbine with the
change of wind speed and pitch angles. In addition, the BEM simulation will determine the cut-in
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Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

and cut-off wind speeds to obtain the maximum possible power coefficient. Finally, the steps of the
the optimization process of designing the rotor blades have been summarized and depicted in Figure
optimization process of designing the rotor blades have been summarized and depicted in Figure 3.
3.

Figure 3. Rotor blades design and optimization procedures.

Figure 3. Rotor blades design and optimization procedures.
4. Results and Discussion
4. Results and Discussion
The BEM theory was used for the final design of the blade, which has different cross-sections
from rootBEM
The theory
to tip. was used the
Furthermore, for the
BEM final design
theory wasofused the blade, which has
to interpolate twodifferent
adequate cross-sections
airfoils into
from
one to enhance the performance of the resulted airfoil. Figure 4 depicts the sections of theinto
root to tip. Furthermore, the BEM theory was used to interpolate two adequate airfoils one
airfoils
to enhance
S1210, theand
S1223, performance of theairfoil
the interpolated resulted airfoil.
section Figure 4 depicts
S1210–S1223, which theare sections
used in theof the
finalairfoils S1210,
blade design.
S1223, and the interpolated airfoil section S1210–S1223, which are used in the final
The driving force of a wind turbine is Lift force. Lift force will be perpendicular to the apparent velocity, blade design. The
driving force ofincreases
and it usually a wind turbine
with AoA. is Lift force.
Along Liftthe
with force
liftwill
force, beanperpendicular
undesirable to theforce
drag apparent velocity,
also increases.
and
Thisitdrag
usually
forceincreases
can neverwith beAoA. Along with
eliminated; the liftitforce,
therefore, mustan beundesirable
minimized.drag The force also increases.a
best performance
This
winddrag force
turbine cancan never
offer is at be
an eliminated;
angle calledtherefore,
optimum it mustangle;
attack be minimized.
at this angle,Thethebest
liftperformance
to drag ratio is a
wind turbineIncan
maximum. thisoffer
work,is at
theanutilized
angle called
airfoilsoptimum
have been attack angle; at to
investigated thisdetermine
angle, theCliftL /Cto drag ratio
D versus the
is maximum. In this work, the utilized airfoils have been investigated
AoA using Qblade software. It is noticed that the interpolated airfoil S1210–S1223 showed higherto determine C L /C D versus the
CL /CDusing
AoA QbladeReynolds
at different software. It is noticed
numbers thatrange
with the the interpolated
of AoA shown airfoil S1210–S1223
in Figure showednumber
5. At a Reynolds higher
C
ofL/C D at different
100,000, Reynolds numbers
the interpolated with the
airfoil showed range of
a higher CLAoA shown
⁄CD ratio thanin Figure 5. AtS1223
S1210 and a Reynolds
for AoA number
lower
of 100,000, the interpolated airfoil showed a higher C ⁄C ratio than S1210 and
than 4.2 degrees. In addition, the interpolated airfoil showed a higher CL ⁄CD ratio for the whole range
L D S1223 for AoA lower
than
of AoA4.2 when
degrees.
theIn addition,
Reynolds the interpolated
number airfoilThe
is set at 75,000. showed impact a higher CL⁄CD rationumber
of the Reynolds for the on whole
the Crange
L ⁄CD
of AoA
ratio of when the Reynolds
the S1210–S1223 number
airfoil is set atin75,000.
is depicted FigureThe5b. impact of that
It is seen the Reynolds
the CL ⁄CDnumber on the C
ratio is higher inL⁄Cthe
D

ratio of the S1210–S1223 airfoil is depicted in Figure 5b. It is seen that the
case of selecting the highest possible Reynolds number at low wind speed. Accordingly, the Reynolds C L⁄C D ratio is higher in the
case
numberof selecting the highest
was settled 100,000possible
during theReynolds number
simulation, andatitlow waswind speed. Accordingly,
determined the Reynolds
that an interpolated blade
number was settled 100,000 during the simulation, and it was determined that an interpolated blade
between the profiles ‘S1210′, ‘S1223′ will tick all the criteria boxes in terms of high CL⁄CD ratio on low
Reynolds numbers, and gives relatively high performance given the limitations.
Symmetry 2020, 12, 18 8 of 14

Symmetry 2020,
between 12, x FOR‘S1210
the profiles PEER REVIEW
0 , ‘S12230 will tick all the criteria boxes in terms of high C ⁄C ratio on8 of
low14
L D
Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
Reynolds numbers, and gives relatively high performance given the limitations.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. The
The sections
sections of the airfoils
of the airfoils S1210,
S1210, S1223,
S1223, and
and the
the interpolated
interpolated airfoil
airfoil section
section S1210–S1223.
S1210–S1223.
Figure 4. The sections of the airfoils S1210, S1223, and the interpolated airfoil section S1210–S1223.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 5. /CDDvs.
5. CL/C vs.AoA
AoAfor
for(a)
(a)S1210,
S1210,S1223, S1210–S1223 airfoils with Re =
S1223, S1210–S1223 = 100,000, (b) S1210–S1223
Figure 5.
airfoils CL/C
with Re
Re ==100,000,
D vs. AoA forRe
100,000, Re =
(a)= S1210, S1223,
75,000,
75,000, ReRe = 50,000,
S1210–S1223
= 50,000, (c) airfoils
S1210,
(c) S1210, with ReS1210–S1223
S1223,
S1223, = 100,000,
S1210–S1223 (b)airfoils
S1210–S1223
airfoils with with
Re =
Re = 60,000,
airfoils
60,000, with
(d) (d)
ReS1210,
S1210, S1223,
=S1223,
100,000, ReS1210–S1223
= 75,000,
S1210–S1223 Reairfoils
= with
airfoils with
50,000, = Re
Re(c) = 75,000.
S1210,
75,000. S1223, S1210–S1223 airfoils with Re =
60,000, (d) S1210, S1223, S1210–S1223 airfoils with Re = 75,000.
It 3 and
It is
is worth
worthmentioning
mentioningthat thatsimulation
simulation settings
settings have
have been set set
been at anat air
an density of 1.1162
air density kg/mkg/m
of 1.1162 3

an air viscosity of 1.81 × 10 −5 kg.s/m, 40 blade elements, 100 iterations, maximum 0.001 for convergence,
and an It isair
worth mentioning
viscosity of 1.81 that
× 10simulation
−5 kg.s/m, 40 settings
bladehave been set
elements, 100atiterations,
an air density
maximumof 1.1162 kg/m
0.001 for3
and
and aan relaxation
convergence, andfactor
air viscosity ofof1.81
0.3. ×In
a relaxation addition,
10
factor−5
of 0.3. the
kg.s/m, In40 analysis conditions
blade elements,
addition, the analysis were
100 set at wind
iterations,
conditions range
maximum
were set at0.001
at winda speed
for
range
from 1 m/s
convergence, to 7 m/s,
and a rotor range
relaxation in rotational
factor of 0.3. speed
In from
addition, 138
the rpm to
analysis 500 rpm,
conditions
at a speed from 1 m/s to 7 m/s, rotor range in rotational speed from 138 rpm to 500 rpm, and a pitch and a
werepitch
set angle
at windfrom 0◦
range
to ◦
at 10
angle .from
a speedThe from
length of
0°to110°.
m/saThe
blade is a rotor
to 7length
m/s, significant
bladefactor
of a range in affectingspeed
is arotational
significant the power
from
factor extracted
138 rpm
affecting from
theto 500the
power rpm,wind,
andlooking
extracted a from
pitch
back
angle
the atfrom
wind, Equation
0°to (7),
looking 10°.the
The
back relation
at length between
Equationof a(7),
blade theis
the length of the blade
a significant
relation between the(R)
factor and power
affecting
length ofthe (Pr ) is(R)
thepower
blade squared.
extracted from
and power
the
(P wind,
r) is looking back at Equation (7), the relation between the length of the blade (R) and power
squared.
(Pr) isTherefore,
squared. the blade length has been set at 2 m during the optimization process to maximize the
Therefore,
generated powerthe blade
since thislength
valuehas been setthe
represents at 2maximum
m duringpermissible
the optimization
lengthprocess to maximize
in the proposed the
study.
generated
The power
optimal since
values thisdesign
of the value represents
parametersthe maximum
have permissible
been discharged inlength
Table in
2. the
Theproposed
values ofstudy.
these
The optimal values of the design parameters have been discharged in Table 2. The values of these
Symmetry 2020, 12, 18 9 of 14

Therefore, the blade length has been set at 2 m during the optimization process to maximize
Symmetry 2020, 12,power
the generated x FOR PEERsince this value represents the maximum permissible length in the proposed
REVIEW 9 of 14
study. The optimal values of the design parameters have been discharged in Table 2. The values
of these parameters
parameters will be used will to be produce
used to producethe bladethe blade
using using
the the Qblade.
Qblade. The Qblade The was
Qbladeused was to used
further to
further smoothen the blade around the transition areas (from one airfoil
smoothen the blade around the transition areas (from one airfoil to another), as depicted in Figure 6. to another), as depicted in
Figure
This 6. This
blade blade is considered
is considered as the finalasdesign.
the final design.
After After improving
improving the designthe design
of the finalofblade
the finalusingblade
the
using the
Qblade asQblade
mentionedas mentioned
previously previously and implementing
and implementing the BEM thesimulation,
BEM simulation,the CPthe of Cthe
P of the
blade blade
was
was increased
increased to almost
to almost 0.45,0.45,
which which is relatively
is relatively high
high considering
considering thethe size
size andandthethespeed
speedofofthe thewind.
wind.
Figure 7 depicts the
Figure the impact
impactof ofthe thedesign
designparameters
parameterson onthe
thepower
powercoefficient
coefficient which
whichareare
represented
represented by
the rotor diameter, tip speed ratio, and the internal to external radius ratio.
by the rotor diameter, tip speed ratio, and the internal to external radius ratio. In Figure 7a, it is In Figure 7a, it is noticed
that thethat
noticed CP value
the CPisvalue
slightly increased
is slightly with increasing
increased the rotor
with increasing thediameter (D) at the
rotor diameter (D) same
at the tip samespeedtip
ratio (λ).
speed ratioOn theOn
(λ). other
the hand,
other hand,the increase of tip of
the increase speed ratio will
tip speed ratioyield
will in increasing
yield CP forCthe
in increasing same
P for the
rotor diameter,
same which which
rotor diameter, is true is if the
truelength
if the of the rotor
length of theblade
rotoris blade
greateristhan 3 m than
greater as depicted
3 m as in Figure 7b.
depicted in
In addition,
Figure 7b. In itaddition,
was observedit was that the Cthat
observed P valuethe decreases with an increase
CP value decreases with an in the internal
increase in the to external
internal to
radius ratio
external (rR )ratio
radius at the(rRsame
) at the tip same
speedtip ratio as shown
speed ratio asinshown
Figure in 7c.Figure
The maximum CP is obtained
7c. The maximum CP is
corresponding
obtained to D = 4 m,
corresponding to λD==6,4 andm, λrR= = 6, 0.1
andm.rRIn Figure
= 0.1 m. In8a,Figure
it was8a,noticed
it wasthat the power
noticed that the generated
power
can increase
generated canto increase
almost double
to almost just double
by increasing
just bythe velocity by
increasing the2 velocity
m/s, the rated
by 2 m/s,powertheatrated
5.5 m/s will be
power at
around 650 Watts. In Figure 8b, the results showed that C is increasing proportionally
5.5 m/s will be around 650 Watts. In Figure 8b, the results Pshowed that CP is increasing proportionally with increased
rotorincreased
with diameter. rotorIn Figure 8c, since
diameter. the design
In Figure was based
8c, since on anwas
the design optimal
basedaverage wind speed
on an optimal average of 5.5wind
m/s,
the maximum
speed of 5.5 m/s, CPtheof maximum
0.445 was obtainedCP of 0.445 around that value.
was obtained Whenthat
around thevalue.
speedWhendivergesthe from
speedthe design
diverges
windthe
from speed, it iswind
design normal for the
speed, it isCnormal
P to drop. for the CP to drop.

Optimal values
Table 2. Optimal
Table values of design variables.

𝛌 λNo. No.
of Blades
of Blades D (m) ⍵ ω
D (m) (rad/s)
(rad/s) aa VV(m/s)
(m/s) r/R
r/R CP(trap)
CP(trap) CP(sim)
CP(sim)
6 6 3 3 4 4 16.5
16.5 0.275
0.275 5.5
5.5 0.1
0.1 0.391876 0.405566
0.391876 0.405566

Figure 6. Resultant blade from XFOIL and MATLAB with Airfoil sections along the length of the blade.
Figure 6. Resultant blade from XFOIL and MATLAB with Airfoil sections along the length of the
blade.
The mass of the blade is dependent on the thickness of the spar cap that can be minimized at
different cross-sections to comply with the permissible level of strain. In addition, the selection of the
The mass of the blade is dependent on the thickness of the spar cap that can be minimized at
shell material
different and the internal
cross-sections to complymaterial of the
with the blade haslevel
permissible a substantial
of strain.impact on thethe
In addition, mass of the of
selection blade.
the
The thickness of the shell layer and the internal layer was 9% the length of the local chord
shell material and the internal material of the blade has a substantial impact on the mass of the blade. of the blade
section.
The In order
thickness to shell
of the investigate thethe
layer and performance of the
internal layer wasdesigned blade,ofitthe
9% the length was possible
local chordtoofperform
the bladea
stress-analysis
section. In order simulation usingthe
to investigate QBlade to show of
performance thethe
stresses on the
designed blade
blade, it corresponding
was possible totoperform
the loadsa
applied by the wind on it under the operating conditions of the wind turbine. It
stress-analysis simulation using QBlade to show the stresses on the blade corresponding to the loads was necessary to
identify by
applied thethe
internal
windstructure
on it underof the
theblade, as well
operating as the shell
conditions of material
the windand internal
turbine. material,
It was and the
necessary to
identify the internal structure of the blade, as well as the shell material and internal material, and the
mass of the blade was calculated using the software. Therefore, the internal structure of the blade
was hollow with spar, and the utilized internal material is a Ti foam with a compressive-yield
strength of 256 MPa. The shell material is made of Aluminum with a compressive-yield strength of
310 MPa. The Von-Mises stresses acting on the blade under the operating conditions have been
Symmetry 2020, 12, 18 10 of 14

Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

mass of the blade was calculated using the software. Therefore, the internal structure of the blade was
Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14
hollow
Symmetrywith
2020, spar,
determined, andPEER
12, x FOR
and the the REVIEW
utilized internal
stress-distribution material
model is a Ti foam
is showing the with a compressive-yield
critical strength
sections of the blade10was
of 14
of 256 MPa. The shell material is made of Aluminum with a compressive-yield strength of 310 MPa.
created.
determined, and the stress-distribution model is showing the critical sections of the blade was
determined,
The Von-Misesand the stress-distribution
stresses acting on the blade model is showing
under the operating the critical have
conditions sections
beenof the blade and
determined, was
created.
created.
the stress-distribution model is showing the critical sections of the blade was created.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. The(a) impact of design parameters on CP (a)

(a)
(b)D vs. CP at rR = 0.10 m at various tip
(b)
(c)speed ratios;
(c)
(b) C P vs. λ at rR = 0.10 m at various blade diameters; (c) CP vs. rR at D = 3 m at various tip speed ratios.
Figure 7. The impact of design parameters on CP (a) D vs. CP at rR = 0.10 m at various tip speed ratios;
Figure7.7.The
Figure Theimpact
impactof ofdesign
designparameters
parameterson
onCC (a)DDvs.
P P(a) atrrRR =
vs.CCPPat = 0.10 m at various tip
tip speed
speed ratios;
ratios;
(b) CP vs. λ at rR = 0.10 m at various blade diameters; (c) CP vs. rR at D = 3 m at various tip speed ratios.
(b)CCPPvs.
(b) atrrRR == 0.10 m at
vs.λλat at various
variousblade
bladediameters;
diameters;(c)(c)CCPPvs.
vs.rrRR at D=
at D = 3 m at various
various tip
tipspeed
speedratios.
ratios.

Figure 8. (a) Power vs. Wind Speed; (b) CP vs. Wind speed; (c) CP vs. λ.
Figure8.8.(a)
Figure (a)Power
Powervs.
vs.Wind
WindSpeed;
Speed;(b)
(b)CCPPvs.
vs.Wind
Windspeed;
speed;(c)
(c)CCPP vs.
vs. λ.
λ.
Figurewas
The stress analysis 8. (a)performed
Power vs. Wind
usingSpeed; (b) CP vs.
the Qblade at Wind speed;
different (c) CP vs. speeds
rotational λ. to show the
The
Thestress
behavior of theanalysis
stress analysiswas
designed performed
blades
was in loading
performed using the
theQblade
conditions.
using Qblade at
atdifferent
Figure 9 shows
different rotational
the maximum
rotational speeds to
toshow
speedsstress on the
show the
The
behavior
designed stress
of the analysis
designed was performed
blades in loading using the Qblade
conditions. at
Figure different
9 shows rotational
the speeds
maximum to
stressshow
theon the
the
behavior blade
of the to be 13.88blades
designed MPa at in aloading
rotational speed ofFigure
conditions. 100 rpm,9 showswhich theis maximum
far less than stress yield
on the
behaviorof
designed
strength ofAluminum
thetodesigned
blade be 13.88
(310blades
MPa at
MPa),aintheloading
rotational conditions.
speed
deflection of
on 100
the Figure
rpm,
z-axis 9 shows
which
is is farthe
less
(0.00355756 maximum
than
m) the
and stress
yield
on on the
strength
the x-axis
designed blade to be 13.88 MPa at a rotational speed of 100 rpm, which is far less than the yield
designed
of Aluminum blade toMPa),
be 13.88
(310Furthermore, MPa
the at
the deflection aon
rotational
the z-axis speed
is of 100 rpm, which is x-axis
far less than hasthe been
yield
(0.000156953
strength m).
of Aluminum (310 MPa), stress
the analysis
deflection on(0.00355756
that was z-axis m)
the performed and
on on
thethe
is (0.00355756 designed
m) and (0.000156953
blade m).
on the x-axis
strength of
Furthermore,
investigated Aluminum
the stress (310 MPa),
analysis that the
was deflection
performed on the
on thez-axis is
designed (0.00355756
blade has m)
beenand on the
investigated x-axis
at
(0.000156953atm).235 rpm and 500the
Furthermore, rpm, which
stress represents
analysis that wasthat the maximum
performed on therotational
designed speed
blade has wasbeen
set
(0.000156953
235 rpmthe
during and m).
500
design Furthermore,
rpm, which
process. the stress
represents
The results analysis
that
the the that
maximum was performed
rotational on
speed the
wasdesigned
set blade
during arethe has been
design
investigated at 235 rpm and 500 rpm,ofwhich stress analysis
represents at different
that the maximum rotational speeds
rotational speed depicted
was set
investigated
process.
in Figure The
8. at 235 of
results rpmtheand 500analysis
stress rpm, which at represents
different that the
rotational maximum
speeds are rotational
depicted in speed8.was set
Figure
during the design process. The results of the stress analysis at different rotational speeds are depicted
during the design process. The results of the stress analysis at different rotational speeds are depicted
in Figure 8.
in Figure 8.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9. Stress (a)

Figureanalysis
9. Stressofanalysis
the blade.at
of the100
blade.at (b)
rpm (top
100 left),
rpm at(a),235 rpmrpm
at 235 (top(b),
right), at (c)
at 500 500
rpmrpm
(c). (bottom).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 9. Stress analysis of the blade.at 100 rpm (top left), at 235 rpm (top right), at 500 rpm (bottom).
Figure 9. of
5. Validation Stress
theanalysis
Proposedof the blade.at 100 rpm (top left), at 235 rpm (top right), at 500 rpm (bottom).
Approach
5. Validation of the Proposed Approach
5. Validation of the Proposed Approach
Symmetry 2020, 12, 18 11 of 14

Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

5. Validation of the Proposed Approach
For the
For the sake
sake ofofvalidating
validating the the proposed
proposed approach
approach in in designing
designing and and optimizing
optimizing aa smallsmall wind
wind
turbineblade,
turbine blade,thetheresults
resultshave
havebeen
been compared
compared with with experimental
experimental results
results obtained
obtained in in previous
previous works.
works.
Thecomparison
The comparison isisvalidvaliddue
dueto toadopting
adoptingthe thesame
sametest testconditions
conditionsduring
duringthe thesimulation.
simulation. The The first
first
comparisonconsidered
comparison consideredthe theoperation
operationofofthethedesigned
designedturbine
turbineatataawind
windspeed
speedof of12
12m/sm/swith
withReynolds
Reynolds
number of
number of 100,000,
100,000, and
and the
the radius
radius of ofthe
theblade
bladewas waslesslessthan
than22m masasinin[38].
[38]. Figure
Figure10a 10adepicts
depictsthethe
simulation results in terms of the power coefficient of the designed blade at different
simulation results in terms of the power coefficient of the designed blade at different tip speed ratios in tip speed ratios
in comparison
comparison withwith experimental
experimental resultsresults
in [38].inThe
[38].simulation’s
The simulation’s
settingssettings
in Qblade in have
Qblade beenhave been
updated
updated
to to another
establish establishcomparison
another comparison
in which thein which
designed the designed
turbine will turbine willatoperate
operate rated wind at rated
speedwind of
speed
10.5 m/sofwith
10.5am/s with
cut-in a cut-in
speed of 4 speed
m/s and of cut
4 m/soutand
speedcutofout15speed
m/s atof 15 m/s
rated at rated
rotating speed rotating
of 250speed
rpm as of
250
in rpm as in [39].
[39].
Thedesigned
The designedblade bladewas
wasscaled
scaledto tohave
haveaalength
lengthof of1.85
1.85m mand
andthe
the Reynolds
Reynoldsnumber
numberwas wasselected
selected
at100,000.
at 100,000. The
The result
result of
of the
thecomparison
comparison isisdepicted
depicted in inFigure
Figure10b.10b. The
The results
results ofof the
theblades
bladeswith
withA7 A7
andE185
and E185airfoils
airfoilshave
havebeen
beencompared
comparedwith withdesigned
designedblade,
blade,andandthe
theresults
resultsof ofthe
the comparison
comparisonshowedshowed
aagood
goodmatching
matchingbetween
between the the behavior
behavior of of the
thedesigned
designed bladeblade and
and the
the other
other blades
blades at atthe
thesame
sametesttest
conditionsthat
conditions thatvalidate
validatethethe design
design approach.
approach. In order
In order to estimate
to estimate the percentage
the percentage of matching,
of matching, the Rootthe
Root Mean
Mean Squared Squared
Error Error
(RMSE) (RMSE) has used
has been been used to calculate
to calculate the error
the error betweenbetween the simulation
the simulation and and
the
the experimental
experimental results.
results. The The results
results of theofRMSE
the RMSE calculations
calculations havehave
beenbeen discharged
discharged in Table
in Table 3. 3.

(a) (b)
Figure10.
Figure 10. A
A comparison
comparison between
betweenthe
theproposed
proposedapproach
approachand
andexperimental
experimentalworks
worksin
in[38,39].
[38,39].

Table3.3. RMSE
Table RMSE between the results
results of
of the
the designed
designedblade
bladeininsimulation
simulationand
andexperimental
experimentalresults in
results
[38,39]
in under
[38,39] similar
under design
similar conditions.
design conditions.

Designed BladeBlade
Designed vs. Blade
vs. DesignedBlade
Designed Bladevs.vs. Blade Designed
Blade Designed Blade
Blade vs. Blade
vs. Blade
with Blade
Blade in [38]
with Blade in [38] withA7
with A7Airfoil
Airfoil [39]
[39] with
with E387
E387 Airfoil
Airfoil [39] [39]
RMSE
RMSE 0.0321
0.0321 0.0370
0.0370 0.0340
0.0340

6.6. Conclusions
Conclusions
Theobjective
The objectiveofofthis
thiswork
workisisto
todesign
designandandoptimize
optimize aaHorizontal-Axis
Horizontal-Axis Wind-Turbine
Wind-Turbineblade bladefor
for
relativelylow
relatively lowReynolds’
Reynolds’numbers
numbersandandhigher
higherpower
powercoefficient.
coefficient. The
The design
designof ofthe
theblade
bladeisisachieved
achieved
by employing BEM theory, and optimization is performed using the software
by employing BEM theory, and optimization is performed using the software QBlade. A MATLAB QBlade. A MATLAB
script isis utilized
script utilized and
and implemented
implemented to to find
find the
the power
power coefficient
coefficient for
for the
the selected
selected input
input parameters.
parameters.
The MATLAB script is designed to obtain up to four factors at a time to
The MATLAB script is designed to obtain up to four factors at a time to implement the design implement the design ofof
experiments. The numerical results reveal that the interpolated airfoils that are formed
experiments. The numerical results reveal that the interpolated airfoils that are formed from S1210 and from S1210
and S1223
S1223 airfoilsairfoils
are theare the selections,
selections, as they
as they show goodshow good
results results
under under the
the selected selectedconditions.
operating operating
conditions. The rotor-design was also obtained, which consists of 3-blades with
The rotor-design was also obtained, which consists of 3-blades with a diameter of 4 m, a hub of a diameter of 20
4 m,
cma
hub of 20 cm radius, a tip-speed ratio of 6.5, and can generate around 650 W with a Power coefficient
of 0.445 at a wind-speed of 5.5 m/s, reaching a power of 1.18 kW and a power coefficient of 0.40 at a
Symmetry 2020, 12, 18 12 of 14

radius, a tip-speed ratio of 6.5, and can generate around 650 W with a Power coefficient of 0.445 at a
wind-speed of 5.5 m/s, reaching a power of 1.18 kW and a power coefficient of 0.40 at a wind-speed of
7 m/s. The numerical results are compared with the available data and are found in good agreement.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.M. and W.A.-K.; methodology, W.A.-K. and H.M. Software, H.M. and
W.A.-K.; validation, H.M.; W.A.-K.; and W.K.; formal analysis, H.M.; investigation, W.A.-K. and W.K.; resources,
H.M. and W.A.-K.; data curation, H.M.; writing-H.M., W.A.-K., and W.A.K. Draft preparation, H.M., W.A.-K.;
writing—review and editing, W.A.-K. and H.M.; visualization, H.M.; supervision, H.M. and W.A.-K.; project
administration, H.M. and W.A.-K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
ρ Density of air (1.22 kg/m3 )
N Number of blades
D Blade Diameter (m)
P Mechanical Power (W)
V Upstream wind-speed (m/s)
CP Power coefficient
CQ Torque coefficient
c Cross section Area at radius r (m2 )
λ, λ0 tip-speed ratio, optimum
FL Lift force (N)
FD Drag force (N)
CL Lift coefficient
CD Drag coefficient
FT Tangential force (N)
τr Torque per unit-length (N)
Vrel Relative wind speed (m/s)
R Radius of the rotor (m)
Φ Angle of relative wind (deg)
β Pitch angle (deg)
ω Rotational Speed (rad/s)
A Area (m2 )
Rr External radius to internal radius ratio (r / R)
V Average wind speed (m/s)
a Axial Induction factor
a’ Radial Induction factor
Cline Chord line
AoA Angle of Attack
r Internal radius (Distance between the axis of rotation and the blade section) (m)
Re Reynolds number

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