Practical Research 2 Note Guide

Quantitative Research Method
Practical
Research 2
Note Guide
Quantitative Research
Method
Authored and Compiled by:
REX F. CAŇETE, MAED-TGS

Research Educator
0
To God Be All the

Glory!!!
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PREFACE
This note guide advances a framework, a process, and

compositional approaches for designing quantitative method
research in the human and social sciences. Increased interest and
continuing use of quantitative designs have created a need for this
material to properly inform and guide students and teachers alike
in their quests for inquiry.
This paper begins with preliminary consideration of

philosophical assumptions, a review of the literature, an
assessment of the use of theory in research designs, and reflections
about the importance of writing and ethics in scholarly inquiry.
This also addresses the key elements of the process of

research: writing an introduction, stating a purpose for the study,
identifying research questions and hypotheses, and advancing
methods and procedures for data collection and analysis. At each
step in this process, the reader is taken through quantitative
approaches.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Preface 2
Nature of Inquiry and Research 4
Characteristics of Quantitative Research 4
Types of Quantitative Research 5
Worksheet No. 1: LET’S CREATE 6
The Importance of Quantitative Research 7
The Six Steps in the Process of Research 7
The Nature of Variables 8
Kinds of Research Variables 9
Worksheet No. 2: DESIGNER’S PLANE 11
The Research Problem 12
How Do You Write the Statement of the Problem? 12
Worksheet No. 3: FOCUSING ON A RESEARCH TOPIC 12
Worksheet No. 4: COMING UP WITH A GOOD QUESTION (A) 13
Worksheet No. 5: COMING UP WITH A GOOD QUESTION (B) 13
Learning From Others and Reviewing the Literature 14
Steps in Reviewing the Literature 14
Worksheet No. 6: DOING LIBRARY AND INTERNET RESEARCH EVEN MORE 15
Conceptual Framework 16
Worksheet No. 7: DRAFTING THE FRAMEWORK 17
Hypotheses 18
Writing Quantitative Hypothesis 18
Worksheet No. 8: HYPOTHESIS WRITING 20
Quantitative Methods 21
Defining Surveys and Experiments 21
Components of a Survey Plan 21
The Population and Sample 22
Instrumentation 25
Data Analysis and Interpretation 26
Components of an Experimental Method Plan 27
Instrumentation and Materials 27
Experimental Procedures 28
Pre-experimental Designs 29
Quasi-experimental Designs 30
True Experimental Designs 30
Correlational Research 31
Worksheet No. 9: DEVELOPING INSTRUMENT 32
Statistics: Tool in Analyzing Data 33
American Psychological Association (APA) Format 35
References and Citations 36
Quantitative Research Format 40
Technical Guidelines in Writing the Research Paper 41
The Cover Page 47
The Title Page 48
References 49
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NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase

our understanding of a topic or issue. At a general level, research consists of three steps:
1. Pose a question.
2. Collect data to answer the question.
3. Present an answer to the question.
Quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories by examining the

relationship among variables. These variables in turn, can be measured typically on
instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures
(Creswell, 2008).
Like qualitative researchers those who engage in this form of inquiry have
assumptions about testing theories deductively, building in protections against bias,
controlling for alternative explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the
findings.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
In quantitative research the major characteristics are:
◆ Describe a research problem through a description of trends or a need for an

explanation of the relationship among variables
◆ Provide a major role for the literature through suggesting the research questions to be
asked and justifying the research problem and creating a need for the direction (purpose
statement and research questions or hypotheses) of the study
◆ Create purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are specific,
narrow, measurable, and observable
◆ Collect numeric data from a large number of people using instruments with preset
questions and responses
◆ Analyze trends, comparing groups, or relating variables using statistical analysis, and
interpreting results by comparing them with prior predictions and past research
◆ Write the research report using standard, fixed structures and evaluation criteria, and
taking an objective, unbiased approach
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
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1.) Experimental Designs

Some quantitative researchers seek to test whether an educational practice or idea
makes a difference for individuals. Experimental research procedures are ideally suited
for this study. Experimental designs (also called intervention studies or group comparison
studies) are procedures in quantitative research in which the investigator determines
whether an activity or materials make a difference in results for participants. You assess
this impact by giving one group one set of activities (called an intervention) and
withholding the set from another group.
2.) Correlational Designs
In some studies, you may be unable to provide an intervention or to assign individuals
to groups. Moreover, you focus more on examining the association or relation of one or
more variables than in testing the impact of activities or materials. Correlational designs
are procedures in quantitative research in which investigators measure the degree of
association (or relation) between two or more variables using the statistical procedure of
correlational analysis. This degree of association, expressed as a number, indicates
whether the two variables are related or whether one can predict another. To accomplish
this, you study a single group of individuals rather than two or more groups as in an
experiment.
3.) Survey Designs
In another form of quantitative research, you may not want to test an activity or
materials or may not be interested in the association among variables. Instead, you seek
to describe trends in a large population of individuals. In this case, a survey is a good
procedure to use. Survey designs are procedures in quantitative research in which you
administer a survey or questionnaire to a small group of people (called the sample) to
identify trends in attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a large group of
people (called the population).
4.) Mixed Methods Designs
You decide to collect both quantitative data (i.e., quantifiable data) and qualitative data (i.e.,
text or images). The core argument for a mixed methods design is that the combination of both
forms of data provides a better understanding of a research problem than either quantitative or
qualitative data by itself. Mixed methods designs are procedures for collecting, analyzing, and
mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or in a multiphase series of studies.
In this process, you need to decide on the emphasis you will give to each form of data (priority),
which form of data you will collect first (concurrent or sequential), how you will “mix” the data
(integrating or connecting), and whether you will use theory to guide the study (e.g., advocacy or
social science theory).
5.) Action Research Designs
Like mixed methods research, action research designs often utilize both quantitative and
qualitative data, but they focus more on procedures useful in addressing practical problems in
schools and the classrooms. Action research designs are systematic procedures used by teachers
(or other individuals in an educational setting) to gather quantitative and qualitative data to
address improvements in their educational setting, their teaching, and the learning of their
students. In some action research designs, you seek to address and solve local, practical problems,
such as a classroom-discipline issue for a teacher. In other studies, the objective might be to
empower, transform, and emancipate individuals in educational settings.
WORKSHEET No. 1
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Name: _____________________ Section: ____________ Date: ________
LET’S CREATE!
Create a diagram that will show the different research designs. Explain each briefly.
THE IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELD
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1.) Research Adds to Our Knowledge

Educators strive for continual improvement. This requires addressing problems or
issues and searching for potential solutions. Adding to knowledge means that educators
undertake research to contribute to existing information about issues. We are all aware of
pressing educational issues being debated today, such as the integration of AIDS
education into the school curriculum. Research plays a vital role in addressing these
issues. Through research we develop results that help to answer questions, and as we
accumulate these results, we gain a deeper understanding of the problems. In this way,
researchers are much like bricklayers who build a wall brick by brick, continually adding
to the wall and, in the process, creating a stronger structure.
2.) Research Improves Practice

Research is also important because it suggests improvements for practice. Armed
with research results, teachers and other educators become more effective professionals.
This effectiveness translates into better learning for kids. For instance, through research,
personnel involved in teacher education programs in schools of education know much
more about training teachers today than they did 20 years ago.
3.) Research Informs Policy Debates

In addition to helping educators become better practitioners, research also
provides information to policy makers when they research and debate educational topics.
Policy makers may range from federal government employees and state workers to local
school board members and administrators, and they discuss and take positions on
educational issues important to constituencies. For these individuals, research offers
results that can help them weigh various perspectives. When policy makers read research
on issues, they are informed about current debates and stances taken by other public
officials. To be useful, research needs to have clear results, be summarized in a concise
fashion, and include data-based evidence. For example, research useful to policy makers
might summarize the alternatives on:
◆ Welfare and its effect on children’s schooling among lower income families
◆ School choice and the arguments proposed by opponents and proponents
THE SIX STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH
When researchers conduct a study, they proceed through a distinct set of steps.
Years ago these steps were identified as the “scientific method” of inquiry (Kerlinger,
1972; Leedy & Orrod, 2001). Using a “scientific method,” researchers:
◆ Identify a problem that defines the goal of research
◆ Make a prediction that, if confirmed, resolves the problem
◆ Gather data relevant to this prediction
◆ Analyze and interpret the data to see if it supports the prediction and resolves
the question that initiated the research
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Applied today, these steps provide the foundation for educational research. Although
not all studies include predictions, you engage in these steps whenever you undertake a
research study.
1. Identifying a research problem
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Specifying a purpose for research
4. Collecting data
5. Analyzing and interpreting the data
6. Reporting and evaluating research
THE NATURE OF VARIABLES
VARIABLES
The variables need to be specified in an experiment so that it is clear to readers

what groups are receiving the experimental treatment and what outcomes are being
measured. Here are some suggestions for developing ideas about variables in a proposal:
1.) Clearly identify the independent variables in the experiment. One independent
variable must be the treatment variable. One or more groups receive the experimental
manipulation or treatment from the researcher. Other independent variables may simply
be measured variables in which no manipulation occurs (e.g ... attitudes or personal
characteristics of participants). Still other independent variables can be statistically
controlled, such as demographics (e.g... gender or age). The method section must list and
clearly identify all the independent variables in an experiment.
2.) Identify the dependent variable or variables (i.e. the outcomes) in the
experiment. The dependent variable is the response or the criterion variable that is
presumed to be caused by or influenced by the independent treatment conditions and any
other independent variables). Rosenthal and Rosnow (1999) advanced three prototypic
outcomes measures: the direction of observed change, the amount of this change, and the
ease with which the participant changes (e.g., the participant reacquires the correct
response as in a single-subject design).
A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that

(a) researchers can measure or observe and (b) varies among individuals or organizations
studied. They are key ideas that researchers seek to collect information on to address the
purpose of their study. Consider the following examples of variables typically studied in
educational research:
◆ Leadership style (by administrators)
◆ Achievement in science (by students)
◆ Interpersonal communication skills (of counselors)
KINDS OF RESEARCH VARIABLES
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Dependent Variables
A dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic that is dependent on or influenced by
the independent variable. You may find them labeled in the literature as the outcome, effect,
criterion, or consequence variables. Researchers typically investigate multiple dependent
variables in a single study (e.g., you hit another car, the other car hit the car in front of it, and so
forth), although in many studies, one of the dependent variables is typically of central interest.
Dependent variables can be measured using continuous or categorical scores. Examples of
dependent variables in education are achievement scores on a test, the organizational climate of a
junior high school, the leadership skills of principals, or the cost effectiveness of student affairs
programs in colleges. To locate dependent variables in a study, examine purpose statements,
research questions, and hypotheses for outcomes that the researcher wishes to predict or explain.
Ask yourself, “What is the outcome in this study?”
Independent Variables
An independent variable is an attribute or characteristic that influences or affects
an outcome or dependent variable. In research studies, you will find the independent
variables called factors, treatments, predictors, determinants, or antecedent variables.
Regardless of name, researchers measure this type of variable distinctly (or
independently) from the dependent variable, and they identify these variables as worthy
of study because they expect them to influence the outcomes. Researchers study
independent variables to see what effect or influence they have on the outcome. For
instance, consider this research question: Do students who spend more instructional time
in class on math have higher math scores than students who spend less time?
Measured Variables
The standard independent variable influences the outcome and is measured by the
researcher. A measured variable is an independent variable that is measured or observed
by the researcher and consists of a range of continuous or categorical scores. For
example, consider the following research question: How does math ability influence
achievement on the final quiz in the classroom? The independent variable is a measured
variable indicating math ability scores assessed by results on an ability test.
Control Variables
A control variable is another type of independent variable that researchers
measure for the purposes of eliminating it as a possibility, but it is not a central variable
of concern in explaining the dependent variables or outcomes. A control variable is a
variable that is important to consider and “neutralize” (Tuckman, 1999, p. 100) because it
potentially influences the dependent variable. Typically, control variables are personal
demographic attributes or characteristics (Tuckman, 1999) such as:
◆ Gender
◆ Socio-economic status
◆ Intelligence
◆ Race
Treatment Variables
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Two other specific types of independent variables can be introduced here because
they will be used in educational experiments. In an experiment, a researcher treats one
group of participants to specific activities and withholds them from another group. The
question is whether the group that receives the activities scores differently on the
dependent variable than the group without the activities. Because researchers assign
individuals to these two groups, the groups are “treated” or “manipulated” by the
researcher. A treatment variable is measured in categories (received or denied activities)
to determine its effect on an outcome. In the literature you will find these variables
labeled as manipulated variables or variables with levels. Experimental researchers refer
to these groups as levels (i.e., Group 1, Group 2). In the following example, the treatment
variable is the type of instruction used by the teacher in an elementary math classroom:
Moderating Variables
Moderating variables deserve our attention because they, too, are often used in
educational experiments. Moderating variables are new variables constructed by the
researcher by taking one variable times another to determine the joint impact of both
variables together. This impact is called an interaction effect. For now, recognize that
interaction effects are a special form of independent variable. A moderating variable can
be illustrated in this quantitative hypothesis:
Small-group discussion for students with high prior test scores contributes to higher
math quiz results than lecture discussion for students with low prior test scores.
Intervening Variables
Intervening variables are different from dependent variables or any of the types of
independent variables. Using cause-and-effect thinking, factors sometimes intervene
between the independent variable and the dependent one to influence the outcomes. An
intervening variable is an attribute or characteristic that “stands between” the independent
and dependent variables and exercises an influence on the dependent variable apart from
the independent variable. Intervening variables transmit (or mediate) the effects of the
independent variable on the dependent variable. Thus, they are also called mediating
variables.
WORKSHEET No. 2
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Name: _____________________ Section: _______________ Date: ______
DESIGNER’S PLANE
GOAL: Design a standard paper airplane that can fly the longest distance.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1.) Make a standard paper airplane using a short size bond paper.
2.) Let it fly and measure the distance of flight.
3.) Using a paper clip, do some modifications in the plane.
4.) Test the flight of the plane once again and measure the distance traveled.
5.) Take note of the changes and analyze its effect on the plane.
What did you change?
What remains the same?
What is the independent Variable?
What is the dependent Variable?
What is/are the intervening variables?
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
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A research problem is a general educational issue, concern, or controversy

addressed in research that narrows the topic.
HOW DO YOU WRITE THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM?

After you have identified your research problem, determined that it can and
should be researched, and specified either the quantitative or qualitative approach, it is
time to begin writing about the “problem” in a statement of the problem section that
introduces your research study. The statement of the problem section includes the actual
research problem as well as four other aspects:
1. The topic
2. The research problem
3. A justification of the importance of the problem as found in the past research
and in practice.
4. The deficiencies in our existing knowledge about the problem
5. The audiences that will benefit from a study of the problem. By identifying
these five elements, you can easily understand introductions to research studies and write
good introductions for your own research reports.
WORKSHEET No. 3
Name: _____________________ Section: _____________ Date: __________
FOCUSING ON A RESEARCH TOPIC
What subject should I study?
What is/are the possible Independent Variables?

1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
What is/are the possible Dependent Variables?
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
What are the possible moderators or interveners?
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
WORKSHEET No. 4
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COMING UP WITH A GOOD QUESTION (A)
The Effect Question:
What is the effect of ____________________on _________________________?
The How Does Affect Question:
How does ________________________affect ___________________________?
The Which/What and Verb Question:
Which/What _____________________________(verb)_____________________?
WORKSHEET No. 5
COMING UP WITH A GOOD QUESTION (B)

Proposed Working Title
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Moderators/Interveners
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
Research Questions
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
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It is important to know who has studied the research problem you plan to
examine. You may fear that you will initiate and conduct a study that merely replicates
prior research. However, faculty and advisors often fear that you will plan a study that
does not build on existing knowledge and does not add to the accumulation of findings on
a topic. Because of these concerns, reviewing the literature is an important step in the
research process.
Reviewing the literature means locating summaries, books, journals, and indexed
publications on a topic; selectively choosing which literature to include in your review;
and then summarizing the literature in a written report. The skills required for reviewing
the literature develop over time and with practice. You can learn how to locate journal
articles and books in an academic library, access computerized databases, choose and
evaluate the quality of research on your topic, and summarize it in a review. Library
resources can be overwhelming, so having a strategy for searching the literature and
writing the review is important.
A literature review is a written summary of journal articles, books, and other
documents that describes the past and current state of information on the topic of your
research study. It also organizes the literature into subtopics, and documents the need for
a proposed study. In the most rigorous form of research, educators base this review
mainly on research reported in journal articles.
A good review, however, might also contain other information drawn from
conference papers, books, and government documents. In composing a literature review,
you may cite articles that are both quantitative and qualitative studies. Regardless of the
sources of information, all researchers conduct a literature review as a step in the research
process.
STEPS IN REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
Although conducting a literature review follows no prescribed path, if you plan to

design and conduct a study, you will typically go through five interrelated steps. If you
are simply looking for literature on a topic for your own personal use or for some
practical application only the first four steps will apply. However, learning all five steps
will provide a sense of how researchers proceed in reviewing the literature. These steps
are:
1. Identify key terms to use in your search for literature.
2. Locate literature about a topic by consulting several types of materials and
databases, including those available at an academic library and on the Internet.
3. Critically evaluate and select the literature for your review.
4. Organize the literature you have selected by abstracting or taking notes on the
literature and developing a visual diagram of it.
5. Write a literature review that reports summaries of the literature for inclusion in
your research report.
WORKSHEET No. 6
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DOING LIBRARY AND INTERNET RESEARCH EVEN MORE
Find your literatures. Follow the APA format (review the guidelines found on page 35).
Author/s Book/Article Page No. Notes

Title/Website
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
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It is a diagram that shows how the interplaying variables are correlated with one
another. This can be a cause and effect depiction of relationship or a dependent,
independent and moderating variable framework.
Example 1:
The effect of independent variable to the dependent variable when analyzed
according to interning variables.
Independent Dependent
Intervener
Example 2:
The effect of an intervention to a measured variable (IPO): Input-Process-Output
Input Output
Process
WORKSHEET No. 7
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DRAFTING THE FRAMEWORK
Instruction:
 Decide on the type of framework that would fit in your study.
 Construct a Framework by identifying the variables and their possible
relationships.
HYPOTHESES
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Hypotheses are statements in quantitative research in which the investigator makes a

prediction or a conjecture about the outcome of a relationship among attributes or characteristics.
Traditionally used in experiments, they serve, like research questions, to narrow the purpose
statement to specific predictions. These predictions are not simply an “educated guess.”
Rather, researchers base them on results from past research and literature where
investigators have found certain results and can now offer predictions as to what other
investigators will find when they repeat the study with new people or at new sites. You will find
these hypotheses stated at the beginning of a study, typically at the end of the introduction.
Investigators also place them immediately after the review of the literature or in a separate section
titled “Hypotheses.”
WRITING QUANTITATIVE HYPOTHESES
Similar to research questions, hypotheses narrow the purpose statement in quantitative

research, but hypotheses advance a prediction about what the researcher expects to find. The
researcher can make these predictions because of past studies in the literature that suggest certain
outcomes. Also, hypotheses are not used to describe a single variable as found in the case of
research questions. They also are not used as frequently as research questions because they
represent a formal statement of relationships and the prediction of the relationship may not be
known. Researchers narrow the focus of the study to at least one hypothesis that provides a
prediction about the outcome of the study.
Guidelines for writing hypotheses:

1.) State the variables in this order: independent (first position), dependent (second
position), and control (third position).
2.) If you compare groups in your hypothesis, explicitly state the groups; if variables are
related, specify the relationship among the variables.
3.) Make a prediction about changes you expect in your groups, such as less or more
favorable or no changes (e.g., no difference). You will then test this prediction using statistical
procedures.
4.) You may state information about the participants and the site of the study, but this
information may not be necessary if it repeats information stated in your purpose statement.
There are two types of hypotheses: the null and the alternative to the null.
Null Hypotheses
The null hypothesis is the most traditional form of writing a hypothesis. Null hypotheses
make predictions that of all possible people whom researchers might study (i.e., called the general
population), there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables or no
difference between groups of an independent variable or a dependent variable. To study this
hypothesis, you would select a sample of all possible people and draw conclusions from the
statistical analysis of this sample for the population.
A null hypothesis might begin with the phrase “There is no difference between” groups
or “There is no relationship between (or among)” variables.
To write a hypothesis, you can complete the following script, which employs the
language “no difference”:
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There is no difference between (independent variable, group 1) and (independent

variable, group 2) in terms of (dependent variable) for (participants) at (research site).
An example of the application of this script might be:
There is no difference between at-risk and non-at-risk students in terms of student

achievement on math test scores for third-grade students in a Midwest school district.
Independent variable: at-risk students (members and nonmembers) Dependent variable:

student achievement test scores Participants: third-grade students Site: X school district Form and
language: null indicating no difference
Alternative Hypotheses
In contrast to the null hypothesis, you may write an alternative hypothesis. You will use
an alternative hypothesis if you think there will be a difference based on results from past
research or an explanation or theory reported in the literature. The two types of alternative
hypotheses are directional and non-directional.
In a directional alternative hypothesis, the researcher predicts the direction of a change, a
difference, or a relationship for variables in the total population of people. A researcher selects a
sample of people from a population and predicts that the scores will be higher, better, or changed
in some way. This typical form for writing hypotheses is encountered in the literature more than
any other type of hypothesis.
A script for a directional alternative hypothesis is:
(Group 1, independent variable) at (research site) will have (some difference, such as higher,
lower, greater, lesser) on (dependent variable) than ( group 2 of independent variable).
An example of this script is:
Students who participate in direct learning in four elementary schools will have higher
achievement scores than students who participate in whole-language learning.
Independent variable: learning (direct and whole language) Dependent variable:

achievement test scores Participants: third-grade students Research site: four elementary schools
Key indicator: directional, a prediction is implied
A variation on the directional hypothesis is the non-directional hypothesis. In a non-

directional alternative hypothesis the researcher predicts a change, a difference, or a relationship
for variables in a population but does not indicate whether the direction of this prediction will be
positive or negative, or greater or less. The non-directional alternative is not as popular as the
directional alternative because the researcher does not take a stand about the direction of the
relationship of the variables.
A script for a non-directional alternative hypothesis is:
There is a difference between (group 1, independent variable) and (group 2, independent

variable) in terms of (dependent variable).
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WORKSHEET No. 8
HYPOTHESIS WRITING
Proposed Working Title
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Moderators/Interveners
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
Level of Significance
Alternative Hypothesis
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
Null Hypothesis
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
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QUANTITATIVE METHODS
For many proposal writers, the method section is the most concrete, specific part
of a proposal. This part presents essential steps in designing quantitative methods for a
research proposal or study, with specific focus on survey and experimental designs.
 Determinism suggests that examining the relationships between and among
variables is central to answering questions and hypotheses through surveys and
experiments.
 The reduction to a parsimonious set of variables tightly controlled through
design or statistical analysis provides measures or observations for testing a
theory.
 Objective data result from empirical observations and measures are analyzed and
interpreted.
 Validity and reliability of scores on instruments lead to meaningful
interpretations of data.
DEFINING SURVEYS AND EXPERIMENTS
A survey design provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends,

attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. From
sample results, the researcher generalizes or makes claims about the population.
In an experiment, investigators may also identify a sample and generalize to a

population; however, the basic intent of an experimental design is to test the impact of a
treatment (or an intervention) on an outcome, controlling for all other factors that might
influence that outcome.
As one form of control, researchers randomly assign individuals to groups. When

one group receives a treatment and the other group does not, the experimenter can isolate
whether it is the treatment and not the other factors that influence the outcome.
COMPONENTS OF A SURVEY METHOD PLAN
The design of a survey method section follows a standard format. Numerous

examples of this format appear in scholarly journals, and these examples provide useful
models. The following sections detail typical components.
The Survey Design

In a proposal or plan, one of the first parts of the method section can introduce
readers to the basic purpose and rationale for survey research. Begin the discussion by
reviewing the purpose of a survey and the rationale for its selection for the proposed
study.
This discussion can identify the purpose of survey research. This purpose is to:
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1.) Generalize from a sample to a population so that inferences can be made about
some characteristic, attitude, or behavior of this population (Babbie, 1990).
2.) Provide a reference to this purpose from one of the survey method texts.
3.) Indicate why a survey is the preferred type of data collection procedure for the
study. In this rationale, consider the advantages of survey designs, such as the
economy of the design and the rapid turnaround in data collection. Discuss the
advantage of identifying attributes of a large population from a small group of
individuals (Babbie, 1990; Fowler, 2009).
4.) Indicate whether the survey will be cross-sectional, with the data collected at one
point in time, or whether it will be longitudinal, with data collected over time.
5.) Specify the form of data collection. Fink (2007) identifies four types: self-
administered questionnaires; interviews; structured record reviews to collect
financial, medical, or school information; and structured observations. The data
collection may also involve creating a Web-based or Internet survey and
administering it online (Nesbary, 2000; Sue & Ritter, 2007). Regardless of the
form of data collection, provide a rationale for the procedure, using arguments
based on its strengths and weaknesses, costs, data availability, and convenience.
THE POPULATION AND SAMPLE
If you select an entire school to study or a small number of individuals, you need
to consider what individuals or schools you will study. In some educational situations,
you will select individuals for your research based on who volunteers to participate or
who is available (e.g., a specific classroom of students). However, those individuals may
not be similar (in personal characteristics or performance or attitudes) to all individuals
who could be studied. A more advanced research process is to select individuals or
schools who are representative of the entire group of individuals or schools.
Representative refers to the selection of individuals from a sample of a
population such that the individuals selected are typical of the population under study,
enabling you to draw conclusions from the sample about the population as a whole. This
definition is loaded with terms, and we will sort them so that you can see alternative
procedures for deciding what individuals or organizations to study.
A population is a group of individuals who have the same characteristic. For
example, all teachers would make up the population of teachers, and all high school
administrators in a school district would comprise the population of administrators. As
these examples illustrate, populations can be small or large. You need to decide what
group you would like to study. In practice, quantitative researchers sample from lists and
people available.
A target population (or the sampling frame) is a group of individuals (or a group
of organizations) with some common defining characteristic that the researcher can
identify and study. Within this target population, researchers then select a sample for
study.
A sample is a subgroup of the target population that the researcher plans to study
for generalizing about the target population. In an ideal situation, you can select a sample
of individuals who are representative of the entire population. For instance, you might
22
select a sample of high school teachers (the sample) from the population of all teachers in
high schools in one city (the population). Alternatively, you might be able to study only
biology teachers in two schools in the city. The first scenario represents rigorous,
systematic sampling called probability sampling and the second, unsystematic
nonprobability sampling.
Probabilistic and Nonprobabilistic Sampling

Sampling Researchers employ either probability or nonprobability sampling
approaches. Several types of both approaches are available. Researchers decide which
type of sampling to use in their study based on such factors as the amount of rigor they
seek for their studies, the characteristics of the target population, and the availability of
participants.
In probability sampling, the researcher selects individuals from the population
who are representative of that population. This is the most rigorous form of sampling in
quantitative research because the investigator can claim that the sample is representative
of the population and, as such, can make generalizations to the population.
Simple Random Sampling

The most popular and rigorous form of probability sampling from a population is
simple random sampling. In simple random sampling, the researcher selects participants
(or units, such as schools) for the sample so that any individual has an equal probability
of being selected from the population. The intent of simple random sampling is to choose
individuals to be sampled who will be representative of the population. Any bias in the
population will be equally distributed among the people chosen.
The typical procedure used in simple random sampling is to assign a number to
each individual (or site) in the population and then use a random numbers table, available
in many statistics books, to select the individuals (or sites) for the sample. For this
procedure, you need a list of members in the target population and a number must be
assigned to each individual
Systematic Sampling
A slight variation of the simple random sampling procedure is to use systematic
sampling. In this procedure, you choose every nth individual or site in the population
until you reach your desired sample size.
To illustrate systematic sampling, assume a school district administrator wants to
study parent satisfaction with the schools in the district. Using systematic sampling, the
administrator would first study a percentage of the parents (e.g., 20%). If there were
1,000 parents in the school district, the administrator would select 200 (or 20%) for the
study. The administrator uses an interval of five (200/1,000, or 1 out of 5) to select
parents from the mailing list (or target population list). Therefore, this administrator
sends every fifth parent on the list a survey.
Stratified Sampling
Another type of probability sampling is stratified sampling. In stratified sampling,
researchers divide (stratify) the population on some specific characteristic (e.g., gender)
and then, using simple random sampling, sample from each subgroup (stratum) of the
23
population (e.g., females and males). This guarantees that the sample will include specific
characteristics that the researcher wants included in the sample. When do you use
stratification? You use stratification when the population reflects an imbalance on a
characteristic of a sample.
Assume that there are more males than females in a population. A simple random
sample from this population would likely result in the selection of more males than
females or maybe even no females. In either case, the male views on questions would be
the dominant or exclusive view. To correct for this, researchers use stratified sampling.
Stratification ensures that the stratum desired (females) will be represented in the sample
in proportion to that existence in the population.
Stratification is also used when a simple random sampling procedure would yield
fewer participants in a specific category (e.g., females) than you need for rigorous
statistical analysis. Having few females in a population, for example, would result in the
likelihood of randomly selecting only a few females. This could possibly result in having
numbers too small to analyze statistically. The procedure for selecting a stratified random
sample consists of (a) dividing the population by the stratum (e.g., men and women) and
(b) sampling within each group in the stratum (e.g., women first and then men) so that the
individuals selected are proportional to their representation in the total population.
Multistage Cluster Sampling

A fourth form of probability sampling is multistage cluster sampling. In
multistage cluster sampling, the researcher chooses a sample in two or more stages
because either the researchers cannot easily identify the population or the population is
extremely large. If this is the case, it can be difficult to obtain a complete list of the
members of the population. However, getting a complete list of groups or clusters in the
population might be possible (Vogt, 2005).
For example, the population of all at-risk students in the United States may be
difficult to identify, but a researcher can obtain a list of the at-risk kids in select school
districts. Using multistage cluster sampling, the researcher randomly selects school
districts in the United States and obtains a list of the at-risk students in each of those
school districts. Then the researcher randomly samples within each district. Breaking
down the process like this makes it easier to identify groups and locate lists. However,
with several stages to this design, it is complex and highly dependent on the
characteristics of the population (Babbie, 1998).
It is not always possible to use probability sampling in educational research.
Instead, a researcher can use nonprobability sampling. In nonprobability sampling, the
researcher selects individuals because they are available, convenient, and represent some
characteristic the investigator seeks to study. In some situations, you may need to involve
participants who volunteer and who agree to be studied. Further, you may not be
interested in generalizing findings to a population, but only in describing a small group of
participants in a study. It may be appropriate to calculate descriptive statistics on these
samples and to compare them with the larger population to make inferences from the
sample to the population.
Researchers use two popular approaches in nonprobability sampling: convenience
and snowball sampling approaches.
24
Convenience Sampling
In convenience sampling the researcher selects participants because they are
willing and available to be studied. In this case, the researcher cannot say with confidence
that the individuals are representative of the population. However, the sample can provide
useful information for answering questions and hypotheses. Let’s look at an example of
convenience sampling.
Snowball Sampling
An alternative to convenience sampling is snowball sampling. In snowball
sampling, the researcher asks participants to identify others to become members of the
sample. For example, you might send surveys to a school superintendent and ask that the
superintendent forward copies to the principals of schools in that school district. These
principals then become members of the sample. This form of sampling has the advantage
of recruiting large numbers of participants for the study.
By using this process, however, you give up knowing exactly what individuals
will be in your sample. It also eliminates the possibility of identifying individuals who
did not return the survey, and those responding may not be representative of the
population you seek to study. For example, participants who received the survey (e.g.,
principals who attended the Monday morning meeting with the superintendent) may not
be representative of all individuals in the population (in this case, all principals in the
school district).
INSTRUMENTATION
As part of rigorous data collection, the proposal developer also provides detailed
information about the actual survey instrument to be used in the proposed study. Consider
the following;
1.) Name the survey instrument used to collect data. Discuss whether it is an
instrument designed for this research, a modified instrument, or an intact
instrument developed by someone else. If it is a modified instrument, indicate
whether the developer has provided appropriate permission to use it. In some
survey projects, the researcher assembles an instrument from components of
several instruments. Again, permission to use any part of other instruments needs
to be obtained. In addition, instruments are being increasingly designed for online
surveys (Sue & Ritter, 2007). An online survey tool is SurveyMonkey
(SurveyMonkey.com), a commercial product available since 1999.
2.) To use an existing instrument, describe the established validity and reliability of
scores obtained from past use of the instrument. This means reporting efforts by
authors to establish validity-whether one can draw meaningful and useful
inferences from scores on the instruments. The three traditional forms of validity
to look for are content validity (do the items measure the content they were
intended to measure?), predictive or concurrent validity (do scores predict a
criterion measure? Do results correlate with other results?), and construct
validity (do items measure hypothetical constructs or concepts. Establishing the
25
validity of the scores in a survey helps to identify whether an instrument might be

a good one to use in survey research.
3.) When one modifies an instrument or combines instruments in a study, the original
validity and reliability may not hold for the new instrument, and it becomes
important to reestablish validity and reliability during data analysis.
4.) Include sample items from the instrument so that readers can see the actual items
used. In an appendix to the proposal, attach sample items or the entire instrument.
5.) Indicate the major content sections in the instrument, such as the cover letter
(Dillman, 2009, provides a useful list of items to include in cover letters), the
items (e.g., demographics, attitudinal items, behavioral items, factual items), and
the closing instructions. Also mention the type of scales used to measure the items
on the instrument, such as continuous scales (e.g., strongly agree to strongly
disagree) and categorical scales (e.g., yes/no, rank from highest to lowest
importance).
6.) Discuss plans for pilot testing or field testing the survey and provide a rationale
for these plans. This testing is important to establish the content validity of an
instrument and to improve questions, format, and scales. Indicate the number of
people who will test the instrument and the plans to incorporate their comments
into final instrument revisions.
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
In the proposal the information about the steps involved in analyzing the data was
presented. It is recommended that the following research tips and procedures will be
considered:
Step 1. Report information about the number of members of the sample who did
and did not return the survey. A table with numbers and percentages describing
respondents and nonrespondents is a useful tool to present this information.
Step 2. Discuss the method by which response bias will be determined. Response
bias is the effect of nonresponses on survey estimates (Fowler, 2002). Bias means that if
nonrespondents had responded, their responses would have substantially changed the
overall results. Mention the procedures used to check for response bias, such as wave
analysis or a respondent/nonrespondent analysis.
Step 3. Discuss a plan to provide a descriptive analysis of data for all independent
and dependent variables in the study. This analysis should indicate the means, standard
deviations, and range of scores for these variables.
Step 4. If the proposal contains an instrument with scales or a plan to develop

scales (combining items into scales), identify the statistical procedure (i.e., factor
analysis) for accomplishing this. Also mention reliability checks for the internal
consistency of the scales (i.e., the Cronbach alpha statistic).
26
Step 5. Identify the statistics and the statistical computer program for testing the
major inferential research questions or hypotheses in the proposed study. The inferential
questions or hypotheses relate variables or compare groups in terms of variables so that
inferences can be drawn from the sample to a population. Provide a rationale for the
choice of statistical test and mention the assumptions associated with the statistic.
Step 6. A final step in the data analysis is to present the results in tables or figures
and interpret the results from the statistical test. An interpretation of the results means
that the researcher draws conclusions from the results for the research questions,
hypotheses, and the larger meaning of the results. This interpretation involves several
steps.
 Report whether the results of the statistical test were statistically significant or
not, such as "the analysis of variance revealed a statistically significant difference
between men and women in terms of attitudes toward banning smoking in
restaurants F (2; 6) = 8.55, p =.001."
 Report how these results answered the research question or hypothesis. Did the
results support the hypothesis or did they contradict what was expected?
 Indicate what might explain why the results occurred. This explanation might
refer back to the theory advanced in the proposed study, past literature as
reviewed in the literature review, or logical reasoning.
 Discuss the implications of the results for practice or for future research on the
topic.
COMPONENTS OF AN EXPERIMENTAL METHOD PLAN
An experimental method discussion follows a standard form: participants,

materials, procedures, and measures. These four topics generally are sufficient. As with
the section on surveys, the intent here is to highlight key topics to be addressed in an
experimental method proposal.
INSTRUMENTATION AND MATERIALS
1.) During an experiment, one makes observations or obtains measures using instruments
at a pre-test or post-test (or both) stage of the procedures. A sound research plan calls
for a thorough discussion about the instrument or instruments-their development,
their items, their scales, and reports of reliability and validity of scores on past uses.
The researcher also should report on the materials used for the experimental treatment
(e.g., the special program or specific activities given to the experimental group).
2.) Describe the instrument or instruments participants complete in the experiment,
typically completed before the experiment begins and at its end. Indicate the
established validity and reliability of the scores on instruments, the individuals who
developed them, and any permissions needed to use them.
27
3.) Thoroughly discuss the materials used for the experimental treatment. One group, for
example, may participate in a special computer-assisted learning plan used by a
teacher in a classroom. This plan might involve handouts, lessons, and special written
instructions to help students in this experimental group learn how to study a subject
using computers. A pilot test of these materials may also be discussed, as well as any
training required administering the materials in a standard way. The intent of this
pilot test is to ensure that materials can be administered without variability to the
experimental group.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
The specific experimental design procedures also need to be identified. This

discussion involves indicating the overall experiment type, citing reasons for the design,
and advancing a visual model to help the reader understand the procedures.
Step 1. Identify the type of experimental design to be used in the proposed study.
The types available in experiments are pre-experimental designs, true experiments, quasi-
experiments, and single-subject designs. With pre-experimental designs, the researcher
studies a single group and provides an intervention during the experiment. This design
does not have a control group to compare with the experimental group.
In quasi-experiments, the investigator uses control and experimental groups but
does not randomly assign participants to groups (e.g., they may be intact groups available
to the researcher). In a true experiment, the investigator randomly assigns the participants
to treatment groups. A single-subject design or N of 1 design involves observing the
behavior of a single individual (or a small number of individuals) over time.
Step 2. Identify what is being compared in the experiment. In many experiments,

those of a type called between-subject designs. The investigator compares two or more
groups (Keppel, 1991; Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991).
For example, a factorial design experiment, a variation on the between-group

design, involves using two or more treatment variables to examine the independent and
simultaneous effects of these treatment variables on an outcome (Vogt, 1999). This
widely used behavioral research design explores the effects of each treatment separately
and also the effects of variables used in combination, thereby providing a rich and
revealing multidimensional view (Keppel, 1991).
In other experiments, the researcher studies only one group in what is called a
within-group design. For example, in a repeated measures design, participants are
assigned to different treatments at different times during the experiment.
Another example of a within-group design would be a study of the behavior of a

single individual over time in which the experimenter provides and withholds a treatment
at different times in the experiment, to determine its impact.
28
Step 3. Provide a diagram or a figure to illustrate the specific research design to

be used. A standard notation system needs to be used in this figure. A research tip It is
recommended to use a classic notation system provided by Campbell and Stanley (1963,
p. 6):
X represents an exposure of a group to an experimental variable or event. The

effects of which are to be measured.
O represents an observation or measurement recorded on an instrument.
X's and O's in a given row are applied to the same specific persons. X's and O's
in the same column or placed vertically relative to each other, are simultaneous.
The left-to-right dimension indicates the temporal order of procedures in the
experiment (sometimes indicated with an arrow).
The symbol R indicates random assignment.
Separation of parallel rows by a horizontal line indicates that comparison groups

are not equal (or equated) by random assignment. No horizontal line between
the groups displays random assignment of individuals to treatment groups.
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
One-Shot Case Study

This design involves an exposure of a group to a treatment followed by a
measure.
Group AX---------O
One-Group Pre-Test-Post-Test Design

This design includes a pre-test measure followed by a treatment and a post-test for
a single group.
Group A Ol------------- X------------- O2
Static Group Comparison or Post-Test-Only With Nonequivalent Groups

Experimenters use this design after implementing a treatment. After the treatment,
the researcher selects a comparison group and provides a post-test to both the
experimental group(s) and the comparison group(s).
Group A X--------O
--------------------------------
Group B ---------O
29
Alternative Treatment Post-Test-Only With Nonequivalent Groups Design

This design uses the same procedure as the Static Group Comparison, with the
exception that the nonequivalent comparison group received a different treatment.
Group A Xl----------O
------------------------------
Group B X2---------O
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Nonequivalent (Pre-Test and Post-Test) Control-Group Design

In this design, a popular approach to quasi-experiments, the experimental group A
and the control group B are selected without random assignment. Both groups take a pre-
test and post-test. Only the experimental group receives the treatment.
Group A O-----------X---------O
----------------------------------------
Group B O----------------------O
Single-Group Interrupted Time-Series Design

In this design, the researcher records measures for a single group both before and
after a treatment.
Group A O------O-----O------X------O------O-------O
Control-Group Interrupted Time-Series Design

A modification of the Single-Group Interrupted Time-Series design in which two
groups of participants, not randomly assigned, are observed over time. A treatment is
administered to only one of the groups (i.e., Group A).
Group A O------O-----O------X------O------O-------O
Group B O------O-----O------X------O------O-------O
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Pre-Test-Post-Test Control-Group Design

A traditional, classical design, this procedure involves random assignment of
participants to two groups. Both groups are administered both a pre-test and a post-test,
but the treatment is provided only to experimental Group A.
Group AR----------O-------- X-------- O

Group BR.----------O-------------------O
30
Post-Test-Only Control-Group Design

This design controls for any confounding effects of a pre-test and is a popular
experimental design. The participants are randomly assigned to groups, a treatment is
given only to the experimental group, and both groups are measured on the post-test.
Group AR ----------X--------------O
Group BR.--------------------------O
Solomon Four-Group Design

A special case of a 2 X 2 factorial design, this procedure involves the random
assignment of participants to four groups. Pre-tests and treatments are varied for the four
groups. All groups receive a post-test.
Group AR-----------O----------X----------O
Group BR-----------O-----------------------O
Group CR-----------------------X-----------O
Group DR------------------------------------O
A-B-A Single-Subject Design

This design involves multiple observations of a single individual. The target
behavior of a single individual is established over time and is referred to as a baseline
behavior. The baseline behavior is assessed, the treatment provided, and then the
treatment is withdrawn.
Baseline A Treatment B Baseline A

O-O-O-O-O----X-X-X-X-X------O-O-O-O-O-O
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Correlational designs provide an opportunity for you to predict scores and explain
the relationship among variables. In correlational research designs, investigators use the
correlation statistical test to describe and measure the degree of association (or
relationship) between two or more variables or sets of scores. In this design, the
researchers do not attempt to control or manipulate the variables as in an experiment;
instead, they relate, using the correlation statistic, two or more scores for each person
(e.g., a student motivation and a student achievement score for each individual).
A correlation is a statistical test to determine the tendency or pattern for two (or
more) variables or two sets of data to vary consistently. In the case of only two variables,
this means that two variables share common variance, or they co-vary together. To say
that two variables co-vary has a somewhat complicated mathematical basis. Co-vary
means that we can predict a score on one variable with knowledge about the individual’s
score on another variable.
31
WORKSHEET # 9
DEVELOPING INSTRUMENT
Instructions:
1. Identify quantifiable variables in the study. These variables are those that can
be measured through a survey or observations.
2. Identify indicators that would comprehensively build the quantifiable
variable/s.
3. Create statements that will constitute an indicator (5-10 statements)
4. Assign a distinguishing value of response and interpretation for the Likert
scale.
5. Subject the developed tool for expert checking and validation.
Indicator Statements 5 4 3 2 1
s
A. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
5 4 3 2 1
B. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
5 4 3 2 1
C. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(You can add as many qualified statements possible.)
32
STATISTICS: Tool in Analyzing Data
In the proposal, the researcher needs to present information about the steps
involved in analyzing the data. Research steps are recommended so that the reader can
see how one step leads to another for a complete discussion of the data analysis
procedure.
Step 1. Report information about the number of members of sample and

population. A table with numbers and percentages is a useful tool to present this
information.
Step 2. Discuss the method by which response bias will be determined. Response
bias is the effect of nonresponses on survey estimates (Fowler, 2002).
Step 3. Discuss plan to provide a descriptive analysis of data for all independent
and dependent variables in the study. This analysis should indicate the means, standard
deviations, and the range of scores for these variables.
Step 4. If the proposal contains an instrument with scales or a plan to develop

scales, identify the statistical procedure for accomplishing this.
Step 5. Identify the statistics and the statistical computer program for testing the
major inferential research questions or hypotheses in the proposed study. The inferential
questions or hypotheses relate variables or compare groups in terms of variables so that
inferences can be drawn from the sample to a population. Provide a rationale for the
choice of statistical test and mention the assumptions associated with the statistics. (Refer
to the table provided).
Step 6. A final step in the data analysis is to present the results in tables or figures
and interpret the results from the statistical test. The interpretation of results means that
the researcher draws conclusions from the results for the research questions, hypotheses,
and the larger meaning of the results.
33
Criteria for Choosing Select Statistical Test
Nature of Number of Number of Number of Type of Score Distribution Statistical

question Independent Dependent control Independent/Dependent of Scores Test
Variable Variables variables Variable
(covariables)
Group 1 1 0 Categorical/ Normal t-test
Compariso Continuous
n
Group 1 or more 1 0 Categorical/ Normal Analysis
Compariso Continuous of
n Variance
Group 1 or more 1 1 Categorical/ Normal Analysis
Compariso Continuous of
n covariance
Group 1 1 0 Categorical/ Non- Mann-
Compariso Continuous normal Whitney
n U test
Association 1 1 0 Categorical/ Non- Chi-
between Categorical normal square
groups
Relate 1 1 0 Continuous/ Normal Pearson
variables Continuous product
moment
correlation
Relate 2 or more 1 0 Continuous/ Normal Multiple
variables Continuous regression
Relate 1 1 or more 0 Categorical/ Non- Spearman
variables Categorical normal rank-order
correlation
SEMINAR WORKSHOP
A.) Understanding the Normal Curve and the Areas of Rejection and Acceptance
B.) Descriptive Statistics

Measures of Central Tendencies
Measures of Variability
C.) Inferential Statistics

Comparing Groups
Correlations
34
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) FORMAT (6th Edition)

by Amy D’ Andrade, Revised 9/24/09
This crib sheet is a guide to the APA style. It is not intended to replace the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition. Only
selected citations were chosen for inclusion here. For other examples, see the printed
Manual. Use this only as a reference.
REFERENCES AND CITATIONS
Some general rules for APA reference pages:
 Begin the reference list on a new page. The page begins with the word
References (Reference if there is only one), centered in the top, middle of the
page, using both upper and lower case, bold typeface. If the references take up
more than one page, do not re-type the word References on sequential pages,
simply continue your list.
 References cited in text must appear in the reference list; conversely, each entry in
the reference list must be cited in text.
 The first line of the reference is flush left. Lines thereafter are indented as a
group five or so spaces, to create a hanging indention.
 The reference list is double-spaced.
 Arrange entries in alphabetical order.
 Give the year the work was published in parentheses. If no date is available, write
(n.d.).
 Use italics for titles of books, newspapers, magazines, and journals.
 Capitalize the first word of the title of the article or book, and the first word
following a colon. Also capitalize all proper nouns, including names of
instruments or agencies that appear in the title.
 Always use an ampersand (&) before the last author in the reference page. Do not
use and.
 Use one space after all punctuation.
Citations in Text
To refer to an item from the list of references in the text, an author-date method
should be used. That is, use the surname of the author (without suffixes) and the year of
the publication in the text at appropriate points. Unless you are quoting, page numbers are
not used.
One author
In a recent study, Isaac (2001) found that . . .
35
Many social workers suffer from anxiety (Isaac, 2001).
Two or more authors

When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the
reference occurs.
Smith and James (2001) found that drug use . . .
Adolescent drug use occurs more frequently in rural areas than in

suburban areas (Smith & James, 2001).
Multiple authors
For works with three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first time
the reference occurs. In subsequent citations, include only the last name of the
first author followed by et al. (not italicized and followed by a period). If the
work has six or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by
et al.
Gilbert, Terrell, and Specht (1985) have stated . . .
Social policies in the United States do not provide equity for marginalized
populations (Gilbert, Terrell, & Specht, 1985).
US social policies are driven by dominant class interest groups (Gilbert et

al., 1985).
Typically, when citing more than two authors in text, use the first author’s
name followed by and associates, or and colleagues.
In a study by Jones and associates (2000), social workers . . .
Within a paragraph, you need not include the year in subsequent

references to a study as long as the study cannot be confused with other studies
cited in the article:
In a recent study of social work attitudes, Hanson (2004) stated that

students . . . . Hanson also found that . . .
Groups as authors
When groups (e.g., organizations, government agencies) are cited, write
out the full name in the initial citation and abbreviate in subsequent citations.
First citation: Twenty-two percent of all adults in the US have a

substance abuse problem (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration [SAMHSA], 2004).
36
Next citation: Less than 10 % of adults are alcohol dependent

(SAMHSA, 2004).
Multiple works, same authors
Arrange two or more works by the same author(s) by year of publication.
Child abuse is a major problem in the United States (Berrick & Barth,
1995, 2001).
Multiple works, same authors, same year

Identify works by the same author(s) with the same publication date by the
suffixes a, b, c, and so forth after the year. The suffixes are assigned in the
reference list, where these kinds of references are ordered alphabetically by title.
Child neglect is the most common type of child abuse (Berrick, 2001a,
2001b).
Multiple works, multiple authors

When citing multiple works by different authors, place the citations in
alphabetical by the first author’s surname. Separate the citations with semicolons.
Substance abuse is a phenomenon that few policymakers appreciate or

understand (Albert, 2001; Johnson, 1996, 2003; Zimmerman, 1999).
Quoted Material
When citing quoted material, you must include the page number in
parentheses from which the quote was taken as well as the author and year. If you
are using a long quotation of over 40 words, indent the whole quotation and do
not use quotation marks.
McCafrey (2002) asserts “criminals should not be given the right to vote
upon release from prison” (p.25).
The best intervention for violent criminals is “harsh and severe

punishment” (McCafrey, 2002, p.126).
Personal communications
Personal communications may be things such as email messages,
interviews, speeches, and telephone conversations. Because the information is
not retrievable, they should not appear in the reference list.
In a recent interview (J. Burnitz, personal communication, September 20,

2000) I learned that . . . .
J. Burnitz (personal communications, September 20, 2000) indicated

that ...
37
The Reference List

Arrange entries in your reference list in alphabetical order by the surname of the
first author. If you have many publications by the same author, arrange by year of
publication with the earliest date first.
Articles
The digital object identifier, or DOI, provides a persistent link to the
article and is included in the reference. The DOI can be found on the first page of
the article, and in the electronic summary provided by the database. You do not
include the web address or the date retrieved. If no DOI is available, include the
home page URL for the journal, newsletter, or magazine in place of the DOI. Do
not include the date retrieved.
Journal articles from online source

Simon, A. (2000). Perceptual comparisons through the mind’s eye.
Memory & Cognition, 23, 635-647.
doi:10.1037/02786833.24.2.225
Simon, A. (2000). Perceptual comparisons through the mind’s eye.

Memory & Cognition, 23, 635-647. Retrieved from
http://www.memory.com.
Journal article, two authors

Becker, M. B., & Rozek, S. J. (1995). Social justice and immigration.
Journal of Social Issues, 32, 230-343. doi:10.1037/0278-
6833.24.2.225
Journal article, three to six authors

Garner, H. J., James, J., Berlin, T. K., & Smith, H. S. B. (1998).
Psychology Today, 102, 70-77. doi:10.1037/02786833.24.2.225
Journal article, more than seven authors

Include the first six authors’ names, then insert three ellipses, and
add the last author’s name.
Teasel, J. R., Cunningham, K., Porter, K. L., Johnson, M. N., Werner, H.

H., West, G.H., ….Smith, T. (2000). Journal of Social Welfare,
22(1), 222-245. doi:10.1037/02786833.24.2.225
Books
Just as with articles, if the book is available on-line and there is a DOI, include it
after the publisher information. If there is no DOI for an on-line book, use the URL from
the website from which the book was retrieved. Do not include retrieval date.
38
Book, one author

Burch, H. A. (1999). Social welfare policy analysis and choices. New
York: The Haworth Press.
Edited book
Letheridge, S., & Cannon, C. R. (Eds.). (1997). Bilingual education.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter from edited book

Jackson, J. J., & Packer, F. L. (1997). English as a second language: The
experience of first generation Filipinos. In S. Letheridge & C. R.
Cannon (Eds.), Bilingual education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Government author
U.S Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of
Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2003).
Managing asthma: A guide for schools (NIH Publication No. 02-
2650). Retrieved from http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/lung/
asthma/asth_sch.pdf
Web page with private organization as author

Urban Institute for Poverty. (2003). Poverty in the United States.
Retrieved from http://www.uip.poverty/publications.html
Source: Downloaded from http://www.sjsu.edu/socialwork/docs/7APA_Formatting_6th_ed.doc.
39
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH FORMAT
A.) CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION

Rationale of the Study
Review of Related Literature and Related Studies
Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework
Statement of the Problem
Hypotheses
Significance of the Study
Scope and Delimitations
Definition of Terms
B.) CHAPTER 2 -METHOD

Research Design
Research Environment
Respondents of the Study
Research Instruments
Data Gathering Procedure
Data Analysis
C.) CHAPTER 3 -RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
D.) CHAPTER 4 –SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION
Summary
Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
E.) REFERENCES
F.) APPENDICES
40
[
TECHNICAL GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER
Paper Size: Letter (Short)

Font Style and Size: Arial-12
Margins: Top-1, Bottom-1, Left-1.5, Right-1
Spacing within the Body Text: Double-spacing
CHAPTER 1 2 single spaces

Introduction
Double Space 3 single spaces
Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
3 single spaces
Rationale of the Study

2 single spaces
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.
Review of Related Literature and Studies
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Center space
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Center space,
italic 41
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
Statement of the Problem numbered
Hypotheses numbered
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Significance of the Study
Scope and Delimitations
Not numbered,
Definition of Terms paragraph form
42
[
CHAPTER 2
Method
Research Design
Research Environment
Respondents of the Study
Research Instrument
43
Data Gathering Procedure
Data Analysis
44
[
CHAPTER 3
Results and Discussion
Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Students Exposed to Experimental Approach in Administering Working Activities in
General Biology 2 Heading, First Statement of the Problem
Table 2. Pre-Test and Post-Test Mean Scores of Students Exposed to Process-Induced Learning Method
Standard Mean Gain Mean Percent
Period of Test Mean Score
Deviation Score of Gain Score
Pre-test 11.74 3.54

6.38
54.34%
Post test 18.12 2.50

Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Students Exposed to Conventional Approach in Administering Working Activities in
General Biology 2 Heading, Second Statement of the Problem
Table 3. Pre-Test and Post-Test Mean Scores of Students Exposed to Conventional Method
45
[
Standard Mean Gain Mean Percent
Period of Test Mean Score
Deviation Score of Gain Score
Pre-test 9.70 3.78 1.00

9.35.%
Post test 10.70 2.68

CHAPTER 4
Summary, Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
Summary
Findings
Conclusions
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
46
Recommendations
THE COVER PAGE
School
Logo
3 single spaces
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XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Inverted Pyramid,
Double Space
10 single spaces
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of
Panabo National High School
Double Space 47
15 single spaces
Juan P. Dela Cruz
October 2018
THE TITLE PAGE
School
Logo
3 single spaces
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Inverted Pyramid, 5 single spaces

Double Space
____________________________________
2 single spaces
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of
Panabo National High School
Double Space 2 single spaces
___________________________________
48
2 single spaces
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
In Practical Research 2
2 single spaces
___________________________________
2 single spaces
Juan P. Dela Cruz
October 2018
REFERENCES
Babbie, E. (1990). Survey research methods (2nd ed.). Belmont. CA: Wadsworth.
Babbie. E. (1998). The practice of social research (lith cd.). Belmont CA: Wadsworth/
Thomson. Bailey. E. P. (1984). Writing dearly: A contemporary approach.
Columbus. OH: Charles Merrill.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasiexperimental designs

for research. In N. L. Gage (Ed.), Handbook on research in teaching (pp. 1–80).
Chicago: Rand-McNally.
Creswell. J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell. J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating

quantitative and qualitative research (3rd cd.). Upper Saddle River. NJ: Merrill.
Dillman, D. A. (2009). Mail and internet surveys (electronic resource): The tailored
design method. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
D’ Andrade, A. (2009). AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

FORMAT (6th Edition). Retrieved from downloaded from
http://www.sjsu.edu/socialwork/docs/7APA_Formatting_6th_ed.doc
Fink, A. (2007). The survey handbook (2nd ed.) . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fowler, F. J. (2009). Survey research methods (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Keppel, G. (1991). Design and analysis: A researcher’s handbook. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
49
Kerlinger, F. N. (1972). Behavioral research: A conceptual approach. New York: Holt,

Rinehart and Winston.
Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2001). Practical research: Planning and design (7th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Nesbary, D. K. (2000). Survey research and the World Wide Web. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Rosenthal, M. A., & Rosnow, R. J. (1999). Predictors of within-school differences in

teachers’ sense of community. Journal of Educational Research, 92(5), 259–265.
Sue, R. N., & Ritter, L. (2007). Action research as a way of learning about teaching in a
mentor/student teacher relationship. Action in Teacher Education, XVI(4), 14–24.
Tuckman, B. W. (1999). Conducting educational research (5th ed.). Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Vogt, W. P. (2005). Dictionary of statistics and methodology: A nontechnical guide for

the social sciences (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Vogt, W.P.. (1999). Educational research (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
50

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Quantitative Research Method

Authored and Compiled by:

REX F. CAŇETE, MAED-TGS

To God Be All the

This note guide advances a framework, a process, and

This paper begins with preliminary consideration of

This also addresses the key elements of the process of

NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase

Quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories by examining the

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

In quantitative research the major characteristics are:

◆ Describe a research problem through a description of trends or a need for an

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1.) Experimental Designs

Name: _____________________ Section: ____________ Date: ________

THE IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELD

1.) Research Adds to Our Knowledge

2.) Research Improves Practice

3.) Research Informs Policy Debates

THE SIX STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH

THE NATURE OF VARIABLES

The variables need to be specified in an experiment so that it is clear to readers

A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that

KINDS OF RESEARCH VARIABLES

Name: _____________________ Section: _______________ Date: ______

What did you change?

What remains the same?

What is the independent Variable?

What is the dependent Variable?

What is/are the intervening variables?

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research problem is a general educational issue, concern, or controversy

HOW DO YOU WRITE THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM?

What subject should I study?

What is/are the possible Independent Variables?

Name: _____________________ Section: _____________ Date: __________

COMING UP WITH A GOOD QUESTION (A)

The Effect Question:

What is the effect of ____________________on _________________________?

The How Does Affect Question:

How does ________________________affect ___________________________?

The Which/What and Verb Question:

COMING UP WITH A GOOD QUESTION (B)

STEPS IN REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Although conducting a literature review follows no prescribed path, if you plan to

Name: _____________________ Section: _____________ Date: __________

DOING LIBRARY AND INTERNET RESEARCH EVEN MORE

Author/s Book/Article Page No. Notes

Name: _____________________ Section: _____________ Date: __________

DRAFTING THE FRAMEWORK

Hypotheses are statements in quantitative research in which the investigator makes a

WRITING QUANTITATIVE HYPOTHESES

Similar to research questions, hypotheses narrow the purpose statement in quantitative

Guidelines for writing hypotheses:

There is no difference between (independent variable, group 1) and (independent

An example of the application of this script might be:

There is no difference between at-risk and non-at-risk students in terms of student

Independent variable: at-risk students (members and nonmembers) Dependent variable:

Name: _____________ Section: Date:

Name: _____________ Section: _ Date:

Name: _______________ Section: _ Date: ____

What is the effect of on _____?

How does affect ___?

Name: _______________ Section: _ Date: ____

Name: _______________ Section: _ Date: ____

Name: _______________ Section: _ Date: ____

Name: _______________ Section: _ Date: ____