Appendix 1 Per-Unit Notation: Al.L Transformers
Appendix 1 Per-Unit Notation: Al.L Transformers
Appendix 1 Per-Unit Notation: Al.L Transformers
Per-unit notation
Al.l TRANSFORMERS
This gives the value in ohms which is to be taken as 1.0 per unit impedance.
Plant impedance Z (Q) expressed in per-unit terms, is therefore
Since the unit impedance Zph involves rated voltage and rated current it
is expressed with respect to the V A rating of the plant. Impedance values
expressed with respect to the primary or secondary si~e of a transformer will be
the same fraction of the corresponding value of Zph on that side. The p.u.
impedance is therefore the same on either side-as the following simple
calculation shows.
278 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DYNAMICS
Example 1
Solution
3000 A .
Rated current= 100 = 30 pnmary
3000
= 50 = 60 A secondary
In per-unit terms
When impedance values occur in series or parallel, they must all be referred to
the same V A rating. This is a direct proportionality and any V A rating can be
taken as a common base.
Example 2
Solution
Check
. . phase voltage 9 526
3-phase short-ctrcmt current = h = - - = 4 669.6 A
p ase reactance 2.04
Example 3
Solution
3 810
1.0 p.u. reactance at 10 MV A= 874 .77 = 4.355 n
When only d.c. machines are being investigated it is not usually necessary to use
the per-unit notation. In multi-machine systems, however, the parameters of d.c.
machines can also be written in per-unit form, referred to a selected kV A base.
This may be, for example, the rating of an induction motor, driving a d.c.
generator.
. 3 Rc ( ic ) 2
Resistance (Rr)p.u. = l Z ~· (A1.2)
base 2la
3Z
Reactance (Xr)p.u. = l X r ( ~·ic ) 2 (Al.3)
base 2la
282 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DYNAMICS
Here the current i. is the rated armature current and iris the field current which
will set up rated phase voltage in the stator winding on open-circuit. Typical
values for the parameters of a large 3-phase turbo-alternator are given below,
Rating 200 MV A, generated voltage 16.5 kV.
xd = 1.6 p.u. R. = 0.002 p.u.
xq = 1.6 p.u. R r = 0.001 p.u.
X r = 1.6 p.u. Rkd = 0.009 p.u.
xmd = 1.45 p.u. Rkq = 0.009 p.u.
xmq = 1.45 p.u. Inertia constant H = 3.0 MW s/MV A
X kd = 1.51 p.u.
Xkq = 1.51 p.u.
and
2W 2HG
M=roml=-=-- (Al.lO)
rom rom
or
2H .
M = - p.u. machme rated VA (Al.ll)
rom
In a.c. machines with n pairs of poles, the steady-state and transient electrical
equations in the general machine theory still apply when they are written in
terms of the electrical angular velocity ro. = 2nfelectrical radjs. However, since
the inertial power and torque effects are associated with mechanical angular
velocity, care is required in relating these to the generated electrical power and
torque.
Consider, for example, a machine wound for n pairs of poles, with the rotor
rotating at angular velocity rom rad/s and undergoing hunting excursions !10m.
We define the hunting frequency as a function of synchronous frequency by
and
M(p.u.) = (wml)/G
The hunting inertia constant is
M' = w;,M
and
M'(p.u.) = w;,M(p.u.) (Al.14)
The hunting equations may be expressed throughout in terms of the electrical
supply frequency and the frequency of electrical hunting oscillation at the
machine terminals. In terms of the electrical angular velocity we and displace-
ment !l.O e in electrical radians, we write
= -
h2 w 3
_2_e J !l.Oe +
n
<P: + jhP~e)-~
!l.e
n
(Al.16)
When the rotor undergoes periodic or transient displacement about the mean
constant synchronous speed, the computation of torque and power is simplified
if we use per-unit values. We can then write the following relationships for a
hunting alternator on infinite busbars.
APPENDIX 1 285
Putting p = jhwm
Since
M(p.u.) = wmJ/G
we see that
h 2 w;,M(p.u.) = P, [ (p.u.)jmech. rad]
rated power G
Now rated torque = ----
wm wm
and
h2w2J
---=m'----- = T [ (p.u.)jmech. rad]
rated torque '
or
hzwz J
__m_ = T [ (p.u.)/mech. rad]
G/wm s
or
--t-
h2w3 J
= T, [ (p.u.)jmech. rad]
or
h2 w;,M(p.u.) = T, [ (p.u.)jmech. rad]
= P, [ (p.u.)jmech. rad]
or
h2 M' (p.u.) = T, [ (p.u.)/mech. rad] (Al.19)
= P, [ (p.u.)jmech. rad] (Al.20)
where again
M'=w;,M
Thus we can now write, in terms of per-unit torque and power
tJ.T = [- M'h 2 + T, + jh Td.]MJ (Al.21)
286 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DYNAMICS
and
(Al.22)
In this form of the hunting equations, the power and torque have equal per-unit
values. Reactance and inductance have equal values per-unit. In equations
(Al.21) and (Al.22), we still have
M' = w~M = w~JjG
where wm is in mechanical radians per second. The displacement angle f!..() is also
expressed in per-unit terms, as a fraction of the electrical or mechanical radian
f!..() (p.u.) = f!.(Jmjmech. rad = f!.(Jejelect. rad
since
f!..()e nf!..()m f!..()m
tl () ( p. u.) = -:----'---:-
elect. rad n(mech. rad) mech. rad
where n is the number of pole pairs.
Since torque Tand power P ( = w T) are equal in the per-unit system, there is
an implication that the synchronous speed may be taken as unity. However, as
equations (Al.12) to (Al.22) show, care is required in the use of angular velocity
in the inertia constants.
Appendix 2
Measurement of machine
parameters
Figure A2.1
290 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DYNAMICS
Figure A2.2
z;,(p) Xmo(P)
Figure A2.3
Figure A2.4
APPENDIX 2 291
and A2.5 give the synchronous impedances, with reactances Xd and Xq.lt will be
noticed that due to the absence of a field winding in the q axis, X~= Xq.
If we now neglect the resistance of the windings, we can write
X'= X + X md X r (A2.4)
d a Xm~~+xr
"_
X d-x + Xmdx rXkd (A2.5)
a Xmdxr+Xmdxkd+XrXkd
(A2.7)
(A2.8)
1 {
T"=--x+ x }
X mqa (A2.9)
q wRkq kq x_ + Xa
Xmo(p)
Figure A2.5
Figure A2.6
292 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DYNAMICS
xt(p)
- r.,
Figure A2.7
These two important parameters are classed together here, since measurement
of one of them can be used in the determination of the other. The most reliable
method of determining the polar moment of inertia of the rotating mass is direct
measurement, by removing the rotor and suspending it as a bifilar pendulum.
APPENDIX 2 293
The method is described in text-books on elementary mechanics. When the
polar moment of inertia is known, a speed retardation test will give the
rotational coefficient of friction RF since under these conditions
Jw+RFw=O
If a disc of known moment of inertia can be fixed to the shaft of the machine,
then there is no need to remove the rotor, since simultaneous equations can be
written which will yield both J and RF.
On the other hand RF can be measured by a modification of the Swinburne
test and then used in the retardation test to give J.
The methods described in this appendix give very good approximate values of
the parameters of sufficient accuracy for most purposes. More rigorous
techniques will be found in Canay, I. M., 'Causes of Descrepancies on
Calculation of Rotor Quantities and Exact Equivalent Diagrams of the
Synchronous Machine', Trans. I.E.E.E., PAS 88, 1114--1120 (1969); Shackshaft,
G., 'New Approach to the Determination of Synchronous Machine Parameters
from Tests', Proc. I.E.E., 121, 1385 (1974); and Shackshaft, G., and Poray, A. T.,
'Implementation of a New Approach to Determination of Synchronous
Machine Parameters from Tests', Proc. I.E.E., 124, No. 12, Dec. (1977).
Appendix 3
Estimation of alternator
parameters using the
equivalent circuits
for direct and
quadrature axes
Standard tests give the machine subtransient and transient reactances and their
time constants, shown on the equivalent circuits. These values can be used to
give all of the parameters required in the generalised equations, for dynamical
analysis.
For example, using equations (A2.4)-(A2.8), equation (A2.4) can be written
,_
Xd x rxd-x~
-
Xr
since
and
Xr= Xr+Xmd
Knowing X~ we can calculate Xmd and thus x rand xa can be found. These latter
values can be checked using equation (A2.8). We can then calculate xkd and Rkd
using equations (A2.5) and (A2.4). When xa is known, Xmq is known from Xq.
Hence we can find xkq and X kd = xkd + X md and so on.
Iterative computer programmes can be designed to check all of the
parameters in this manner using both test and estimated values of reactances
and time constants and to converge to a self-consistent set.
APPENDIX 3 295
In some hunting analyses flux penetration in the iron is significant. In these
cases, frequency-dependent operational inductances must be used [see Adkins,
B. and Sen, S. K., 'The Application of the Frequency-response Method to
Electrical Machines', Proc. I.E.E., 103, Part C, 378 (1956) and Walshaw, M. H.
and Lynn, J. W., 'A Hunting Analysis of a Permanent Magnet Alternator and a
Synchronous Motor', Proc. I.E.E., 108, Part C, 516 (1961)].
Index