Introduction

Vedic Literature and Indian Linguistics

We can easily know the culture of any country through its literature itself. The more comprehensive
the literature, the more evolved the culture. The literature is said to be the mirror of the society.
Therefore, we can get knowledge of culture of any society through its literature. Everyone accepts
that Vedas was the foremost literature in the world which was originated in India/Bharat.
India/Bharat prides on the Vedas. The Rshis for several years safeguarded the vedas in oral form
and made it compulsory to recite the mantras in various karmas. Any ancient literature of India
owes its existence to vedas in some way or other. Vedas means collection of knowledge, derived
from root Vid meaning knowledge or Jnana. Vedas contain not just information about Dharma or
righteousness but also the history of mankind.

The following are the three features of vedas:

1) ApauruSheya- not a manmade creation.
2) Annadi- It has no beginning
3) Nityatva- It is eternal

The following was the evolution of the vedas from ancient to present in three stages.

I Vedaha- Saakshaat Krut DharmaNo Rshayo babhuvuhu (Nirukta 1:20)

(The seers who had natural self awareness)- Not by any Intutional effort
II Shrutayaha- Te avarebhyo Asakshaatkrut Dharmabbhyo upadeshena mantraan
sampraaduhu (Niruktaha)
Those seers chanted the vedas for the next generation who had no saakshat kruta dharma
– (No natural self awareness of supreme bliss). Since they have heard/listened to, its is called heard
(Shruti).

III Vedanga- Further after thousands of years, the third generation could not understand the inner
sense ofthe vedas. For that purpose the senior seers prepared vedangas (6 auxalaries to vedas)
for the understanding and learning the system of chanting. Also to know performance of sacrifices
and calculating the write time to perform and chant. Vedangas also called Imam granthas. From this
stage the tradition of guru shishya parampara began.

छः पादौ त ु वेद हौ कोऽथ पते

ु ते।
ोितषामयनं चिु न ं ोम
ु ं ाकरणं ृतम ्
िशा ाणं त ु वेद मख
ताामधी ैव लोके महीयते॥
 Six Vedangas English meaning Parts of the
Veda body
Chandas Meter Legs
Kalpa Vedic Hands
action/Ritual/Rules
Jyotisha Astrology Eyes
Nirukta Etymology Ears
Shiksha Phonetic Nose
Vyakarana Grammar Mouth

Shiksha- Here the pronounciation guidelines of vedic mantras are told regarding svaras as per
Uddata, anudatt aand svarita. Just a small mistake of svaras can cause disaster like example of
Shukracharya doing yajna to produce son to kill Indra but because of false pronounciation the
meaning was taken as a son who will be killed by Indra.
Also here proper care is taken for proper pronounciation of maatras (Hrashva, Deergha and pluta).
PaNini Shiksha says that one should hold the letter with proper balance just like a tigress holds her
baby, not too soft so as to drop it and not too hard so as to crush it.

Kalpa- Kalpa has all details related to Karma Kanda like how to do yajna properly and the
procedures. It is of three types.
a) Shrauta Sutra- It deals with procedures of yajnas in the Srutis (vedas) like DarshapoorNamaas.
b) Grahya Sutra- It deals with fire procedures in home like vivaaha (marriage), Shraadha (ancestors
offering), etc.
c) Dharma Sutras- It details the duties of four VarNas and Ashramas. Manu Smruti has its source
from this only.

VyaakaraNa- It deals with formation of words in the vedic literature and also its purity/Shuddhata.
It also deals with relationship between prakruti (root word) and pratyaya (derived word). PaNini
had organized the VyaakaraNa with his epic work "AshTadhyaayi. The main three persons with
studies of vyaakaraNa were PaNini (AshTadhyaayi), Kaatyaayan (vaartik), and Patanjali
(Mahabhashya). They are known as trimuni (three sages).

Chandas-To pronounce vedic mantras properly one must know the knowledge of chandas or meter.
The main chandas are

Gayatri 24 syllables; 3 verses of 8 syllables 6x4

Ushnih 28 syllables;2 verses of 8;1 of 12 syllables 7x4
Anushtup 32 syllables; 4 verses of 8 syllables 8x4
Brihati 36 syllables; 2 verses of 8; 1 verse of 12; 1 verse of 8 syllables 9x4
Pankti 40 syllables; 5 verses of 8 syllables 10x4
Tristubh 44 syllables; 4 verses of 11 syllables 11x4
Jagati 48 syllables; 4 verses of 12 syllables

Jyotisha- To know the proper/auspicious time to do the yajna, jyotisha was formulated. Without
knowledge of day, night, season, month, nakshatra-constallation, year etc jyotisha cannot be
formulated. The knowledge of jyotisha has been derived from rg veda and yajur veda.
Nirukta- It deals with meaning of vedic words. It can be said that all other vedangas deal with
outside aspect of vedas but Nirukta deals with inside aspect of it. But Nirukta unlike other vedangas
(which are in sutra form) is in the prose form. Nirukta is itself a Bhashya (commentary) of
NighanTu (dictionery of vedic words) written by Yaaska. Yaaska has focused on the words of
NighanTu and tried to reach the meaning by exploring their (word's) relation with the Dhatus or
root words. NighanTu has 5 chapters. But Yaaska has given commentary in 12 chapters including
two additional chapters are appendix. It is said that the appendixes were added by some other
author.

After so many years, when the people who wanted to learn the vedas could not grasp and learn the
vast text. Therefore Krishna dvaipaayana classified vedas for better preservation and prachar
through their lineage.

For continuation of the vedic studies, Vyasa Mahirshi having classifying the vedas taught to his four
pupils by name:

Rshis Vedas
Paila Rgveda
Vaisampayana Yajurveda
Jaimini Samveda
Sumantu Atharveda

The vedas were divided into four parts, basically a) Samhita- collection of mantras, b) BrahmaNa-
yajnic aspect of mantras, c) AaraNyaka and d) upanishad- both c), d) contain the philosophies. The
vedas contain details about the world, Individual soul and the almighty or Ishwara. The Samhita is
of four types namely- Rg, Yajus, Sama and Atharva, all the four have their own BrahmaNa,
AaraNyaka and upanishad portions respectively.

Rg ved has mantras in poetic form. All other vedas have mantras derived from Rg veda only.
Samveda has in musical form using 7 swaras (Sa,re,ga,ma,pa,dha,ni)
Yajurveda has two divisions namely Shukla and KriShna. Shukla yajurveda has only mantras but
KriShna yajurveda has both mantras and sentences.
Atharvaveda has mantras related to abhichaara or imprecation or tantra.

Nighantu and Nirukta

Nirukta is a commentary on the ancient Nighantu. Yaaska has tried to explain the origin of words
listen in the NighanTu in Nirukta. Therefore, NighanTu is very important. It was very novel thing in
the ancient times to make a dictionery of the words spread across in a proper way. But NighanTu
can't be said to be comprehensive but still looking at ancient times it was a good work.
NighanTu is divided into 5 chapters. The first three chapters are called NaighaNtuka KaaNda.
Yaaska has explained the words of the three chapters in the second and third chapter of Nirukta.
NighanTu has total of 1340 words out of which Yaaska has only explained 230 words in these
chapters. Out of the 1340 words, there are many synonyms like 21 words of Prithvi (earth). 100
names of Udaka (water).
Some of the words of NighanTu are not also used in Vedic literature. But over a period of time, the
vedic literature been ruined over time due to invasions or neglect. So many words quoted in
NighanTu were not used in the same context in the vedas. This is the reason that some
knowledgeble people still question NighanTu.
In the fourth chapter of NighanTu, there are three divisons which has 62, 84 and 132 words totalling
to 278 words. These words are independent and not synonyms of any words but have several
meanings. They are difficult words to comprehend so it is also called Naigam or ekapadika kaaNda.
Yaaska has elaborated the fourth chapter of NighanTu in the 4th, 5th, and 6th chapters of Nirukta.
The fifth and last chapter of NighanTu is called Daivat KaaNda. It has 6 divisions which has 3, 13,
36, 32, 36 and 31 words which are different names of devatas. They are also independent. The main
characteristic of this is that through these names, prayer to devtas is sung.
Yaaska has elabored this from 7 to 12 chapters (i.e one chapter for each khaNda-section of
NighanTu's 5th chapter).
Yaaska has put sufficient light on each devtas. In the appendix, there is details on the devtas and
yajnas. Daivata KaNda which speaks of vaidic dharma and samskriti is unique among all scriptures.
Yaaska has not only analyzed vedic words but also some common words used in general samskrita
grammar. He starts with the first word listed in NighanTu i.e Gau (cow) from the second chapter of
nirukta.
The first and second chapter of Nirukta are just introduction and background related to different
types of words, Dhatu-principle of words, importance of nirukta and rules of Nirvachan.
Even in the 7th chapter of Nirukta, Yaaska gives introduction in the form of forms of devtas,
different and nature etc.
Also Yaaska quickly jumps to etymological analysis of any words in the middle of commentary and
then proceeds to the main subject. E.g Nadyaha kasmaat (What is river-nadi). Nadna Bhavanti
(which makes noise) i.e from Nad dhatu which means "making noise". The river makes big noise
while flowing.
Either Yaaska gives the straight meaning or use a stanza from any veda as a reference.
Sometimes Yaaskas also argues with others in controversial topics (like relevance of vedic mantras,
etc) and gives proper answer as per logic and defends his principle. He also quotes the relevant
quotations or explanations given by others knowlegable persons while doing so. This shows he has
a heart of a true scientist.
There were many NighanTu which had many vedic words collected therin. NighanTu signifies
group of persons but not just one person. Yaaska says NighanTu is that which has the following four
things:

1) All root words or Dhatus which means same.

2) All different words which are synonmous.
3) All words which have many meanings
4) The main and secondary name of devtas.

But the current NighanTu doesn't know have 3) lakShana. But it would have existence in the past.
Further Yaaska uses Bahuvachan while addressing NighanTu so there were more than one existing
at that time. Further current NighanTu has only collection of Naam and Akhyaata but not upasarga
and Nipaat. That means there would have been some NighanTu existing in the past having
collection of words of all the four types of words. It is estimated that there would have been around
14-20 Nighantus existing.

Madhusudan saraswati & Sayanacharya say that infact both NighanTu and Nirukta were created by
Yaaska himself. Also Nirukta's first chapter didn't start with Atha which is the tradition in ancient
times. So it is said that both NighanTu and Nirukta are same.

But it is also said Nirukta is essentially a commentary. And a commentary requires a original text
which is commented upon. So both cannot be joined together. Also other arguments which say that
Yaaska is the creator of both NighanTu and Nirukta is refuted.
NighanTu is said to be creation of an unknown Rshi with collection of words from Sruti.
 Numbers of Niruktakaar

Including Yaaska there were 14 Niruktakaar.

1) Aupamanyava
2) AudumbarayaNa
3) VaarSyaayaNi
4) Gargya
5) AagryaayaNa
6) ShaakpooNi
7) AaurNanaabha
8) Taitiki
9) Gaalava
10) SthaulaaStheevi
11) KauShtuki
12) Kaasthkya
13) Yaaska
14) ShaakpooNi's son Kautsavya

Importance of study of the Nirukta

Those who are involved in the study of Vedas know very well that Nirukta is a commentary on the
Vedic Nighantu which is a compilation of obscure words from the Vedas specially from Rg veda.

Among the six auxilaries (Vedangas) to the study of Vedas, the relevance and importance of
interpretation of the Vedic words and mantras lies with the Nirukta. Among six limbs of Veda
Purusha metaphorically, Nirukta is his ear- Nirukta Shrotram Uchyate

Interpretation of Yaska and his methodology adopted to understand the meanings has been
authenticated by the BhaShyakaras (commentators) of the vedas. It is evident especially when we
go through commentaries of Skandaswami, Sayana etc, who respectfully the quote the commentary
of Yaaska to decide the meaning of a mantra depending upon Niruktakaras interpretation though
they differ with him, in certain contexts.

Importance of understanding the meaning of Vedic Mantras

The two verses which are cited in the Nirukta texts reveal the importance and relevance of
understanding the vedic mantras. They are as mentioned below:

Importance of Interpretation & Its benefits (Artha Prashamsa)

This means who having studied vedas does not understand the meaning of it, he is like a bearer like
a post or pillar of burden only (or a cut dried tree). But he who knows the meaning obtains all good
fortunes and, with his sins purged of by knowledge attains heaven. This statement shows how much
the ancients scholars especially the Niruktakaras gave importance to the understanding of Vedas.
They also warned, if interpretation of vedic mantras are neglected, the vedic mantras will lose the
relevance and significance. That warning is being realized/experienced in the present context.
Censuring the Ignorance of Vedic meaning (Agyan Ninda)

Further it has been told: Whatever is learnt without being understood is called mere cramming like
production of sounds of dry logs of wood (Shushkaidho) on an extinguished fire (in the sacrificial
fire), meaning it can never illuminate.
The suggests/states that without understanding the meaning of Vedic mantras, performance and
result of sacrifices is sheer waste, bearing no fruits.
Also refer to the point mentioned in the initial pages for the evolution of vedas in three stages to the
present form in the form (Saakshaat krita DharmaNo....".)

The Word Nighantu

The vedic words which even scholars found very difficult to understand properly, were compiled.
These are called traditional list of words (Samaamnaayaha Samaamnaathaha). The compiled list
has come down to us under the Nighantus- Nighantavas. They are words quoted from the vedas (Ni-
Gamaaha). This process occured repeatedly during thousands of years and they have been handed
down by tradition. Niruktakara (Commentator on NighanTu) by name Aupamanya, who was prior
to Yaska (the latest commentator) opines that, "as these are the quoted words of the vedas, they are
called Nighantavas on account of their being quoted (Ni-Gamanaat). The other opinion is that the
word Ni-ghantavaas may be so called from being fixed only ([han] i.e a list in which the words are
fixed together or collected together [hr])

Etymology of the word NighanTu Meaning

Ni- Gam >>> Ni-gantu >>> NighanTu denoter of meaning
Sam-Aa-han >>> Samaahantu >>> NighanTu collected
Sam-Aa-hr >>> Samaahaarttu >>> NighanTu Chosen/Picking up

The word "Chandobhyaha" signifies that Nirukta deals with only vedic words.

Opinion of Varshayani on becoming

According to Vaarshayaayani, there are six modifications of becoming (verb)/Shad BhaavaVikara
Bhavanti iti.

6 Modifications Type of Bhava Meaning in English

Jaayate Poorvabhava (pre) Genesis
Asti Apara-bhava (Post) Existence
VipariNamate Poorvabhava (pre) Alteration
Vardhate Apara-bhava(Post) Growth
ApakSheeyate Poorvabhava (pre) Decay
Vinashyati Apara-bhava (Post) Destruction
1) Jaayate- Genesis denotes only the commencement of the first state, but neither affirms nor
denies the latter. This is a state before existence but it doesn't not contrardict the next stage of Asti
also.
2) Asti- Existence affirms a being that has been produced. It means that the object produced has its
own existence.
3) VipariNamate- Alteration connotes the modification of elements of a non-decaying being. It
means that there is modification in the object.
4) Vardhate- Growth denotes the increase and development of one's own limbs or of objects which
are associated with one's self , as he grows by means of victory/Vijay or he grows with his
body/Shareera. It may even mean growth of Swarna/Jewellery or Dhanya/Crop
5) ApakSheeyate- The term Decay denotes its antithesis (of body or victory). It is just the opposite
of Vardhate.
6) Vinashyati- Destruction denotes the commencement of the later state, but neither affirms nor
denies the former. It is the beginning of the final stage but it doesn't negate the previous stage of
ApakSheeyate.

Hence other modifications of becoming are only further development of those enumerated above
and should be inferred according to the occasion.

Four Classes of Words- Parts of Speech

Vedic words (Pada) according to Yaska are classified into four (Chatvari Padajaataani)

1) Naama (Noun)
2) Akhyaata (Verb)
3)Upasarga (Prepositions)
4) Nipaata (Particles)

Conditions of Verb- Noun

The verb has "becoming (Bhaava Pradhaanam)" as it fundamental notion. Nouns have "being
(Satva Pradhaanam)" as their fundamental notion.

Bhaava- Also known as Kriya (in process-between beginning and end)

Satva- Also known as Siddha Kriya- (gross- completed)
A 'becoming' arising from a former to a later state is denoted by a verb as 'he goes'
(vrajati/Gachachati) or 'cooks' (Pachati) etc. In other words which describes the process from
beginning to the end like chalati – walks.

The embodiment of the whole process from the beginning to the end, which has assumed the
character of 'being' is denoted by a noun as 'Vrijya/Gamana (going) or pakti (cooking). It is
deonoted by firm or completed action.

But both are dominated by "becoming". When both noun and verb meet together in a sentence then
it is dominated by Bhaava Pradhaanam or becoming. The below are other names of bhava and
saatva.

Another example is that both in Noun and verbs, the action assumes from beginning to end like
Gachchati (goes) from one place till destination is verb but when the action is completed then they
are known as Noun like Gaman (process of going).

Normally we substitute nouns in Samskritam with word Adaha (He) i.e the demostrative pronoun is
a reference to 'being' as cow, horse, man, elephant etc. To be 'becoming' as 'he sits', 'he sleeps', 'he
goes', 'he stands' etc. The verbs is normally refered as Bhavati or happens. Also synonyms of
Bhavati is Aaste or Shete.

According to AudumbaraayaNa, the existence of the words is till the sense organs only.
Before we discuss the other two divisions of words, we shall discuss the argument of
AudumbarayaNa on speech.

Argument of Audumbarayana on Speech

AudumbarayaNa argues that speech is permanent in the organs only.

Therefore four fold divisions of words will not hold good. The grammatical connections, the mutual
reference of sounds which are not produced simultaneously also does not validate. He says on
account of their comprehensiveness and minuteness, words are used to designate objects, with
regard to everyday affairs in the world. They too are names of Gods as well as of human beings. On
account of the limitness of human knowledge, the stanza directing the accomplishment of action, is
to be found in the vedas.

In other words since most philosophical schools consider that sense organs are non eternal, the
words which are dependent on the senses should also be impermanent. Then the four fold division
of words will also become meaningless.
Then there are also few words which are produced at different times and destroyed e.g Samyukta
aksharas or words with visarga. They cannot be reconciled either.
In the same way the Prakruti (root word) and Prataya (derived word) are also impermanent.

But words and their meanings have different existence in the speaker and the listener's mind. On
listening to the word, the same meaning is revived from the mind. This is even though the word's
existence is not there till one listens to the word. This principle is called "sfota" (meaning in
english is eruption like of volcano or some puss in the body). As per this principle words are eternal
and comprehensive.

Words are used so that in day to day lives we can comprehend/cognize the objects. The language of
Devtas is also same as humans. The name of the objects is also same for devtas and humans. But
human knowledge is not eternal. Therefore one has to refer to the only veda mantras or strotras get
results from the praise of devtas.
 Condition of Upasargas

ShakaTayana, another commentator on Nirukta states that unconnected are prepositions towards
Noun. They have no meaning but only express a subordinate sense of nouns and verbs. (Insert
sloka)

But Gargya, the other commentator contradicts the statement of ShakaTayana. He says Upasargas
have various meanings, hence, whatever their meaning may be, they express their meaning which
brings about modification in the sense of the nouns and verbs. (Insert sloka)

As per PaNini, the samskrita grammarian there are 22 upasargas but Yaska says only 20. Yaska
doesn't consider Dus and Dur as upasargas unlike PaNini.

1) Aa- Here 2) Pr, 3) Para- opposite of here

4) Abhi- front 5) Prati- opposite of front
6) Ati & 7) Su- used for respect 8) Nir, 9) Dur- opposite of respect
10) Vi, 11) Av- used to denote "down" 12) Ut- used to denote "up"
13) Sam- collected together 14) Vi, 15) Ap- separate
16) Anu- equal or lagging behind
17) Api- Samsarg
18) Up- Near
19) Pari- all four sides
20) Adhi- The most upward

Shakatayana, another commentator on Nirukta states that prepositions are unconnected to words.
They have no meaning but only express a subordinate sense of nouns and verbs. If upasargas are not
attached to words (whether nouns and verbs), then independently they don't have a meaning. But
they denote the different meaning once attached to nouns and verbs.
Gargya, some other commentator contradicts the statement of shakatayana saying that upasargas
have various meanings. So whatever their meaning may be they express their meaning which brings
about modifications in the sense of the nouns and the verbs. Sometimes they change the meaning of
root word to opposite like Bhavati and Prabhavati.
For example Aa is used in the sense of 'hitherward and pr/para are its antithesis/pratilomyam.

Yaska, Shakatayana and other Vaiyaakarna's feel that the change brought about by meaning of the
words with additions of Upasargas are in infact inherent in the words itself. Upasargas are mere
denoters or reflectors. They are not independent like nouns and verbs.
Upasargas are just like a lamp which brings about the all possible meaning of the Dhatus. In any
object if light is shown, it brings about different qualities of the object like height, colour etc. These
qualities are inherent in the object and not of light.
Refer the below link for more examples on upasargaas
https://nivedita2015.wordpress.com/2015/09/25/prefixes-in-sanskrit-upasarga-
%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97/

Nipaat
Now we shall study Nipaat or particles. There are three types of particles and they come in different
contexts or meanings.

1) Upmaarthak (in comparison) – They are of four types

2) Karmopsangrarthak (in conjuction sense)
3) padapoorNarthak (to fill the words or pada)- Expletive (No meaning just to complete the word)

Types of Upmaarthak Nipaat

1) Iva- Iva is used in both in comparative sense in both general samskrita language and vedas. For
e.g Agniriva (like Agni), Indra iva (like Indra).

2) Na- Na is for used to denote niShedhaartk (negation) in samskrita language but in vedas it is
used for comparative sense as well as negation.
E.g In sentence Na Indran Devam Amamsat (Didn't consider Indra deva), it is used in negation.
E.g Durmadaaso Na Suraayaam (like hard drinkers of wine), it is used in comparison.

Note- When used in negation Na comes in the beginning of the sentence and when in comparison it
comes in the middle or end of the sentence.

3) Chit- It has various meanings.

a) Acharyaschit idam bruyaat (the respected teacher said this)- Here it is used to denote respect.
b) Dadhischit (like curd)- Here it is used for comparison.
c) kulmaaShaanschit aahaar (Bring even the sour gruel)- It is used for contempt.

While describing the 3 a), yaska analyses the origin of the word Acharya. (Acharyaha Aachaaram
Grahayati) He makes students to receive and follow good behaviour/character, (Aachinoti arthaan)
he makes them to understand the text by quoting shastras and (aachinoti buddhimati vaa) he makes
student's develop their mental faculty.

4) Nu- It also has various meanings.

a) Idam nu kariShati (Therefore he will do it)- Here it is used to assign a reason.

b) Katham nu KariShyati (How will he do it)- Here it is for asking a question.
c) VrikShasya nu te puruhoota (O widely invoked one), Vayaaha VrikShasya iva te puruhoota (your
branches resembles like of a tree)- It is used in comparison.

While describing the 4 c), yaska analyses the origin of the word Vayaaha. Vayaaha Shaakha Vaete
(Vayaaha means branches). Vayaaha has derived from root word Vi (to move)- branches move in
the wind.
Now where the word Shaakhaa has come from? Shaakha Khashyaaha (which sleep in the sky are
branches). Kha means sky or aakaash. Or Shaakhaa may be derived from Shak dhatu (to be able).
 Types of Karmopsangrarthak Nipaat
Now we study about conjunctive particles. It is defined as that by whose addition separateness of
notions is indeed recognized but not like an enumerative one i.e because of a separation by
isolation.
In other words the division of letters is seen but it is not told clearly, but only by breaking the letters
the actual divison is known.
They are of various types:

1) Cha- It is used to join two words or aggregration like "Aham cha tvam cha vritrahan" (I and
you, who had killed vritra).
2) Aa- It is also used in joining sense e.g "Devebhyascha pitrubhya aa" (for devtas and pitrus-
ancestors).
3) Vaa
a) It is used to indicate doubt or deliberation e.g hantaaham pruthavim imam nidadhaneeha veha
vaa (Shall I put this earth here or there?)
b) It is also used in aggregration as follows. Vaayurvaa tvaa manurvaa tvaa- (Vayu and thee, manu
and thee)
4) Aha 5) Ha- They are used for mutual opposition or restrictive sense. E.g Ayam aha idam karotu,
ayam idam (let this man do this only and the other that)
Idam ha kariShyati, idam na kariShyati (this man will do this, not that)
6) U- is used in the same sense as above. E.g MruSha ime vadanti, satyam u te vadanti (these
people lie, those say truth)
U is also used to complete words or Padapoorna e.g idamu (this) and tadu (that).
7) Hi- It also has anekakarma (various meanings).
a) In phrase idam hi kariShayati (because he will do it), it is used to give reason.
b) In phrase Katham hi kariShayati (how will he do it), it is used to ask question.
c) In phrase Katham hi VyaakariShayati (how can he do it), it is used in a jeoulous way.
8) Kila- It is used for confirmation or assurance or surety (Nischaya). E.g. Aevam Kila (thus truly it
happened).
Kila is also combined in the end sometimes with Nu and Nanu in asking a question. E.g Na
Kilaivam (was it not so?) or Nanu Kilaivam (was it so?)
9) Maa- It is used to indicate prohibition. E.g Maa KaarShi (do not do it) or Maa HaarShi (do not
take it).
10) Khalu – It also used to indicate prohibition e.g Khalu Kritva (enough of doing this) or Khalu
kritam (have done with it).
It is also used for padapoorna or expletive sense e.g Evam khalu tad babhuveti (thus it happened-
or that happened like this).
11) ShaShvat- It is used for sense of uncertainity e.g ShaShvat evam (was it ever so?) it is used in a
interrogative sense.
Evam ShaShvat (such as indeed), it is used in a when one replies to someone's question.
12) Noonam – It is used in the sense or uncertainty in samskrita language and in vedas both in
expetive/padapoorna and sense of uncertainty.
Yaaska uses Noonam in the sense of today but modern grammarians use it to denote now.
E.g Na Noonam Asti – There is no today.
E.g Noonam (now) saa (that) te (your) varam (boon) jaritre (to singer), prati duhiyat(give please)
indra (O Indra) dakshina (reward) maghoni (excellent)
Meaning O Indra, now your that excellent reward, give it to the singer as a boon.
13) Seem- It is used in meaning of everywhere or even padapoorna. E.g Pr seem adityo asrujat
(Aditi's son varun goes fast). If it is Padapoorna then it may mean goes fast or in the meaning of
everywhere, it may mean everywhere goes fast. Both meanings are possible.
All 1) to 13) are Karmopsangraha, the 14) is sarvaNaam or pronoun.

14) Tva
a)It means one e.g Richam Tvaha poShmaaste PupuSvaan, Gayatram tvo gaayati ShakkreeShu
(one nourishing priest is involved in increasing the Richaas/couplet.
b)Tva is also used in joining meaning. E.g. paryayaa iva tvadaashvnim (They sing similar like song
to Ashiwin).

Types of PadapoorNarthak Nipaat

Few words have been stated in common to Karmopsangraha Nipaat which are also used for
padapoorNa. Apart from this, there is word like Kam which is used to complete word but without
any meaning. Yaaska has not elaborated these category as previous two.

Discussion & Arguments on "Nouns are derived from verbs"

With reference to the above statement ShakaTayana holds that nouns are derived from verbs. This
has been supported by the doctrine of Etymologists too. (Insert sloka)

But Gargya refutes this argument by stating not all nouns are derived from verbs. (Insert sloka)

Some of the grammarians also support Garya's point.

They say, but only of those nouns whose accent and grammatical forms are regular and
accompanied by an explanatory radical modification. Those nouns such as Gau-Cow, Ashva-Horse,
Purusha-Man, Hasti-Elephant. These are conventional terms hence are underivable. Plato who is a
greek philosopher through one of his character also maintains that names are conventional and can
be given arbiterily, altered at will.

1) Suppose If all nouns are derived from verbs, every person who performs a particular action
should be called by the same name. For example Adhvanam Ashnuvati Iti Ashvaha (Whomsoever
runs on the road is Ashva or horse. ). Trindyat Iti TriNam (Whatever pricks is grass so needle should
also be called Needle).

2) Substantive should obtain as many names as the actions with which it is connected.
In other words, whatever actions are related to a object, the object would have been called as per
those actions, but it is not the case. E.g. (SthuNa darashayaa vaa sanjani cha syaat) thus a column
should also be called Beam supporter or that which rests in a hole.

3) Moreover meaning of these substantives (Karmanamika), according to the regular and correct
grammatical form of a verb, may be indubitable. In other words, people would call these nouns by
any action with similar meaning which can be interpreted easily.
E.g Purusha- Man should take the form Puri-Shayaa (City dweller) and Ashva- Horse should be
called AshTati (Runs), TriNam or Grass should be called as Tardati (pricker).

4) And people indulge in sophistry (Abhivichaarayanti). In other words, if any word is in daily use
due to continuous usage then people query about its origin. E.g prithanaat prithvi iti aahuhu
(because of being spread it is called prithvi-earth). Then who spread it and what was the base of the
spreading?

5) ShakaTayana also derives parts of one verb from different verbs, inspite of the meaning being
irrelevant and explanatory radical modification being non existent. E.g Satya (Truth) from Sat+Ya.
And he derived the former syllable that Sat from the regular form of the root As (Asti- To be). And
later syllable Ya from the causal form of the root Ei (to go). This is not fair.

6) Further it has been told that becoming is preceeded by being. How can prior (being) from a
parterior (becoming), this is not tenable. In other words, how can noun be named from a action
which shall take place after some time and not immediately.

E.g Bilwaad means a bird which eats bel fruit and Bilwa is derived from root Bhru (BharaN- filling)
or Bhid meaning piercing. But here the bird when it is born it is dependent on the mother totally but
still it is called Bilwaad.
E.g Lambachudak means a bird has long tail but when it is born it will not have long tail.

Thus theory of the derivation of the nouns from verbs is not tenable. This theory has been refuted
by Yaaska as following.

The above theory is refuted by Yaska as following:

1) ...

2) If all nouns are derived from verbs, every person whosoever performs a particular action should
be called by the same name.

Ans- Yes in some cases the performers of action do obtain a common name e.g. Carpenter
(Takshaa), sanyaasi (parivraajaka), Enlivener (Jeevana), earth born (bhumija). In this case not all
people who are parivraajaka or wanderers can be called as Sanyaasi or monk.

3) Substantive should be named in such a way that their meaning may be indubitable
(pratiitaarthaani),
Ans- There are words of that character, words of rare occurrence, if single words formed by primary
suffixes as creeper (vritati), guest (damuna), one having matted locks (Jaatya), a wanderer
(aarNaaro), wakeful (Jaagaruka), one who sacrifices with a laddle (Darviihomi) etc.

4) People regard to current expression alone that etymological expression most desirable
(abhivyavahaare yogpariShtihi). Regarding e.g. prithvi or earth is indeed broad to look at even if it
is not spread by others.
Moreover if argument on every word continues, for every words we can find fault in derivation.
Also only after experience, name is given for any object.

5) Regarding the point of derived parts of one word (Satya) from different verbs inspite of meaning
being irrelevant, It should be blamed the individual for the fault not if the science of etymology.

6) Designation of prior (being) from posterior (becoming) is not tenable.

We see some cases prior beings do obtain their names from posterior becomings. E.g. as a
woodpecker (Bilwaado) and one having long locks (Lambachudak).

Moreover, without etymology the precise meaning of vedic stanzas cannot be understood. Because
one who does not understand the meaning of vedic stanzas through investigation of accent and
grammatical form is not possible, hence the science of etymology is the complement of grammar
and a means of accomploshing one's own object.
 Discussion on whether Vedic Mantras have meaning

Anarthakaahi Mantraha
If objectives of this science of etymology of Nirukta is to ascertain the meaning of vedic stanzas, it
is useless. In Purvapaksha, opinion of Kautsa is taken that without mantras, nirukta has no
relevance. And a person who doesn't not know the meaning cannot know the svaras and form of
mantras. Nirukta is one of the 14 Vidyasthaana (4 vedas, 6 vedangas, Mimansa, nyaya, puraNas,
Dharmashastra) and complementary to vyakaraNa and helpful in the work of understanding vedas.
But this Nirukta is then absurd as vedic verses have no meaning.

The following arguments from poorvapaksha are taken in support of the above argument.

1) Prepositions have their words fixed. Their order is also immutable fixed (Niyutavaacho). In
other words, there is no flexibility in some cases to change the sequence of words and use some
other words in their place.

2) The accomplishment/purpose of the ritual form of vedic mantras is enjoined/decided by the

Brahmanas (BrahmaNaen roopsampanna vidheeyante)
So if a brahmana says "spread it wide" (uruprapasva) then it is spread (iti prathayati).

3) Their meaning is impossible. E.g "Save him o herbal plant" and while striking one declares, "do
not injure him o axe".

4) Their meaning is contradictory. E.g refer below two sentences from vedas:
a) There was only one Rudra, no second.
b) Rudras who on earth are thousands without number.

5) Only the knower of the procedure is told to perform the ritual. E.g Adhvaryu tells only to hota,
"please read the hyms for offering into the sacrificial fire."

6) Beside it is said "Aditi is everything", "Aditi is Antariksha".

[Note: Aditi is an ancient hindu goddess of the sky and fertility. She is the mother of all Gods.]

7) Their meaning is obsure and unclear e.g words like KaNuka, amyak.

Vedic Stanzas are significant

Now Yaaska refutes these above arguments one by one as below.

1) Certain words only and in a Particular sequence- Their words are identical with those of the
spoken language. This is also seen in general usage like Indragni (Indra-agni) and
Pitaputrau(Father-son). Since father-Indra are elder to son-agni therefore they are placed earlier in
the sequence. Also we cannot keep other words in their place.

2) Purpose decided by BrahmaNas- There is Brahmana passage: This indeed is the perfection of
the sacrifice, that the prescription of the form, that is to say, the action which is to be performed, is
declared by a stanza of Rg or Yajurveda.
Yaska says that this is the repetation of the speaker on the argument that "through Brahmanas only
the form of vedic mantras is decided.
3) Meaning Irrelevant- On the argument of vedic mantras having irrelevant meaning when
referering to "axe" or "herb", Yaaska says that this denotes practice of non-violence in the vedas.
4) Contradictory Meaning- On the argument of vedic mantras have contradictory meaning, Yaaska
says that this happens even in (laukika) or general usage in society like "this brahman has no
enemy, this king has no enemy".
5) Told to knower only- Only the knower is told the procedure/Vidhi. This as per Yaaska denotes
respect for the knower.
Even in the marriage ritual, the sweet prepared by curd and honey (called Madhupark) is given to
priest, celibate, king, father-in-law, son-in-law only. The giver of the sweet has to say word
"Madhupark" three times.
6) Interpretation issues- Yaaska says that this happens even in (laukika) or general usage in
society as "All fluids reside in water".
7) Meaning is obscure/unclear or difficult to understand - That is not the fault of the dried tree if
the blind man does not see it and bumps into it. It is the fault of the man himself. Only true
knowledge differentiates between persons and A man of profound knowledge only is worthy of
praise. Understanding vedas is not everybody's cup of tea.