ESS - Section B Sample Responses

Describe the role of primary producers in ecosystems

● primary producers are plants that convert light energy into usable chemical energy
● these primary producers convert water and carbon dioxide to glucose and oxygen
● as a result, the food chain is established through the conversion of glucose, allowing
members of the food chain to obtain food resources
● primary producers produce oxygen, which is necessary for the ecosystem as there
remains a balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, reducing global warming

Explain the potential impact of ocean acidification on ESS

● ocean acidification is caused by increased CO2 levels in atmosphere leading to more
CO2 absorbed into ocean; the CO2 reacts with the water forming an acid (carbonic acid)
/ decreasing the pH/changing pH from about 8.2 to 8.1;
● macro-algae / seagrasses may benefit from higher CO2 conditions in the ocean; some
organisms are adapted to a narrow pH range/very sensitive to pH changes; low pH /
reduces ability of shelled organisms to maintain their shells / reduces reproductive ability
in fish / shellfish
● producers e.g. phytoplankton/corals in ocean environments can be particularly sensitive
to low pH; corals are more prone to bleaching/less able to recover from damage in
acidified water
● reduction in producers reduces the resilience of an ecosystem / impacts entire food
webs / is a potential tipping point for marine systems / reduces biodiversity; collapse of a
natural ecosystem may lead to collapse of fisheries/collapse of aquaculture (e.g.
oysters) /overfishing of diminishing fish populations
● loss of fisheries can lead to limited food supply for indigenous communities/need to
import food
● decline in fishing / aquaculture would result in reduced employment
● coral reefs support economically valuable ecotourism that may be lost or declined

To what extent do anthropocentric value systems dominate the international efforts to

address climate change?
● anthropocentric viewpoint - the viewpoint that humans can sustainably manage the
ecosystem to solve the environment’s most pressing issues
● ecocentric viewpoint - the viewpoint where nature is put central to humanity; deep
ecologists think that nature has its own intrinsic (natural) value
● technocentric viewpoint - the viewpoint that technological innovations and development
are the solutions to environmental issues; cornucopians are extreme technocentrists
who believe that the world has infinite resources to support and benefit humanity
● climate change - refers to the long-term, sustained change in the average global climate
● international strategies, e.g. anthropocentric strategies include carbon taxes (cap-and-
trade schemes) / international agreements or protocols
● international strategies, e.g. technocentric strategies include vaccination programs
● International strategies, e.g. energy reduction
 ● example of international strategies, e.g. UN Convention on Climate Change or local
governmental efforts including the desalination of water in water scarce locations
● conclude - the 3 value systems have a valuable contribution towards the problem of
climate change, however anthropocentric solutions have the scope to be applied to both
MEDCs and LEDCs, whereas technocentric and ecocentric solutions are limited to either
MEDCs or LEDCs respectively

Outline the reasons why natural capital has a dynamic nature. [4]
● Natural capital is the income that is earned from natural resources such as timber,
mining, diamonds, wood etc.
● The value of natural capital can vary from country to country due to a variety of factors
such as; production cost, import/export cost, demand for the product etc.
➔ For example, currently the demand for sanitizers has gone up due to the COVID 19
pandemic while the demand for cars has gone down since car manufacturers are not
producing any cars and currently there is no market for them.
● the value may vary due to other reasons, eg social/political;
➔ eg uranium’s value decreased quickly after the Fukushima nuclear disaster when public
pressure led to several countries declaring they would phase out nuclear power
● the value may vary due to environmental/technological reasons; eg lithium’s value has
increased as it is used to make batteries for electric cars and personal devices;

Explain how the inequitable distribution of natural resources can lead to conflict. [7]
● Natural resources like water/food/productive land/fossil fuel/ore deposits are distributed
unequally around the globe/some countries have a lot, some others have few; eg sub-
Saharan African countries face water shortages/Middle East countries have a huge
surplus of oil; which may lead one country to invade another for its resources eg ore
deposits in Congo/Afghanistan
● Inequitability often leads to conflict when a resource is shared across national borders
(usually water storages or oil deposits); eg sharing the Nile’s water resources between
Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt
● Inequality in energy/fuel reserves is particularly significant to economics/national
security; eg leading to, and promulgating many conflicts in the Middle East
● Conflicts can also occur between constituencies within a country eg social classes/ethnic
groups/resentments over government regulations/bans/taxation/private ownerships v
public; eg when cost of clean water is prohibitive for lower social classes
● Inequalities may also arise from changes within societies due to overconsumption of
resources, increase in population, lack of technology among people, unsustainable
development; …or from changes in their surroundings eg climatic change.
● politics/economics/war: eg food price crisis in 2008 causing
protests/riots/political/economic/social unrest (in both LEDCs & MEDCs); eg water
scarcity due to climate change in Syria is argued to be a major cause of civil war in
2011;
The management of a resource can impact the production of solid domestic waste. To
what extent have the three levels of the pollution management model been successfully
applied to the management of solid domestic waste? [9]

● Strategy 1 - altering human activity/reducing production

● Strategy 2 - regulating/limiting release
● Strategy 3 - clean-up/restoration, economic incentives/disincentives, legislation

● educational campaigns/legislation for reduced packaging/non-biodegradable products,

product longevity, etc
● promotion of reuse/recycling, composting, landfills, incineration, waste to energy
schemes, etc
● landfill reclamation, litter collection

● Example 1: tax on plastic bags/waste collection (e.g. Germany)

● Example 2: sponsored recycling schemes
● Example 3: clean-up schemes (beaches)

● Conclusion: “logically, it must be most effective to manage waste at the first level which
prevents problems arising but, due to the inevitable inertia in changing people’s
perceptions, values and activities, more is currently being successfully achieved through
the next two levels.”

Distinguish, using examples, between the processes of succession and zonation [4]
Zonation is a change in the pattern of an ecosystem across a spatial gradient such as altitude or
proximity to a water source. An example of this is the Shui Hau mudflats, whereas distance from
the ocean increases, salinity decreases which changes the species able to survive. The
mudflats support small marine molluscs and crustaceans, and beyond the wrack line, a small
beach houses mangroves, which are able to withstand both fresh and saltwater. Further still, the
land turns into abandoned farmland, with non-salt tolerant species growing here. In contrast,
succession is the change in organisms and diversity of a system over time as it progresses
toward a climax community. Succession can be primary or secondary and involves the
colonisation of a bare substrate or existing soil by pioneer species. For example, the wildfires
occurring in Yellowstone National Park allowed secondary succession to occur, with pioneer
species like fireweed re-stabilising soils for larger species of plants like red fescue to continue to
colonise. As plants decompose, the humus content of soils becomes richer, allowing the birch,
oak and lodgepole pine trees of the original forest to return. (4/4 marks)

Explain the relationship between soil ecosystem succession and soil fertility [7]
As the seral stages of succession progress, the soil fertility increases until the ecosystem
becomes a climax community. In primary succession, soil fertility begins extremely low, as the
soil ecosystem begins with a layer of parent material, usually bedrock, granite etc. seeds are
blown in on the wind, and mosses and lichens colonise the parent material. Weathering of the
rock occurs, both through wind and the growth life cycle of the pioneer species. When these
species decompose, a thin layer of nutrients forms, making it easier for more plants to grow.
Larger plants outcompete the pioneers, continuing to increase the nutrients and humus content
of the soils as time progresses and decomposition occurs. The introduction of decomposers
adds to the fertility of the soil system as they cycle nutrients and aerate the soil. Eventually, the
soil is extremely rich in nutrients and forms a closed climax community. Secondary succession
differs in that there is already existing soil, which has been built up over many years and can
often be very fertile already. While fertility may increase slightly over time as succession occurs
and the site is re-colonised, the nutrient content of this soil system will not increase as sharply
as during primary succession. (7/7 marks)

Discuss the relationship between social systems and food production systems with the
help of named examples [9]

Both social and food production systems are dynamic, with varying inputs, outputs and
processes that influence each other, including economic systems and political power of
countries, differences in geographical location and labour, and cultural perspectives behind
intrinsic value of ecosystems.

Firstly, a country’s level of economic development heavily influences the outputs in food
production systems as a whole. Higher income countries with typically more reliable access to a
variety of food, experience food waste as an output due to an excess of food and inefficient
distribution. Over ⅓ of food in the US alone is wasted or thrown away, largely due to
supermarket chains upholding stringent criteria on the aesthetic appearance of produce.
Though food may be completely edible, it is often discarded. In lower income countries, the
outputs of food production occurs due to improper storage and transportation facilities, resulting
in food loss. In India, over 5% of all rice grown in the country becomes food loss as there is little
reliable technology in rural communities to efficiently store crops for long periods of time. Thus,
it is evident that the social system of a country’s economic power limits their abilities to handle
the stages of food production, demonstrating the ability of social systems to cause waste in the
outputs of a linear food system.

Power of nations also plays a role in the type of crop or food produced, not just the wasted
outputs. Kenya’s food production system has been crippled by the power dynamic between low
and higher income countries - Kenya no longer grows crops as its main source of income and
food for its population, but grows billions of flowers that are exported and sold to HIC
supermarket chains like Sainsbury’s in the united Kingdom. As a result, Kenya has to import
food from surrounding nations, raising issues of food security within their food system. Hence,
trading relationships can debilitate a country’s ability to produce food.

Arguably, political borders of established countries are a type of social system, which influences
the geographical location of countries and thus the type of crops suited to grow there. The
warm, tropical climates of the Philippines are suited for growing bananas, and results in a more
efficient use of water and energy resources, compared to bananas grown in the dry, arid climate
of the Southern US, where the virtual water footprint and thus the sustainability of the food
system for growing bananas is reduced dramatically. As such, geographical location influences
the sustainability and productivity of food systems.

Finally, different communities may place different ecosystem values onto the land used for food,
altering the wai food is produced. Indigenous groups are more likely to place cultural and
intrinsic value of the crop land over its economic value, meaning they only engage in small
scale, subsistence farming such as the way the Masai tribe cultivate their livestock. They use
almost all parts of the cow in some way, creating a sustainable cycling of matter and nutrients
within their herds that strengthens the relationships of the community to their food production.
On the other hand, businesses value profit and the economic benefits of food production over
other use values. They are more likely to engage in commercial farming, such as the
commercial livestock production of bovine animals by agribusiness giant ‘Cargill’. On such a
large scale, food production is often highly wasteful and linear, which demonstrates how social
values towards ecosystems alter the processes of food production.

In conclusion, food production systems can be made more or less efficient and sustainable by a
variety of social systems, including economic development, closely tied to political and trade
power, climate conditions and ecosystem values. However, these arguments tie into the level of
development of a country in some way, suggesting that this is the biggest and most universal
social system influencing food production. (9/9 marks)

Distinguish between the concept of a “charismatic” (flagship) species and a keystone

species using named examples. [4]
● flagship species - a species which acts as a symbol for a specific habitat or geographical
area used to highlight a campaign or environmental cause
● keystone species - a vital specie that is necessary for the functioning of the ecosystem;
without these species, the ecosystem may collapse, affecting the whole food chain
● An example of a flagship species is the panda, or a tiger. An example of a keystone
species is the cougar or an elephant
● flagship species are often advertised to appeal towards humans in search to meet their
goals; they have some sort of significance towards humans
● keystone species have a massive impact to the ecosystem; numerous other species rely
on them, and are considered to possess a massive threat to the local environment

Explain the role of two historical influences in shaping the development of the
environmental movement. [7]
● Example 1: Rachel Carson – Author of Silent Spring (1962); Silent Spring
documented/highlighted the problems caused by the widespread use of synthetic
pesticides; focus was placed on the activities of chemical companies; explained impact
of use of insecticides/pesticides on birds of prey; led to widespread awareness amongst
(American) public of environmental issues/bioaccumulation/biomagnification; was a focal
 point for the social/environmental movements of the 1960s; inspired many other
environmentalists; led to ban on DDT for agricultural uses; inspired the formation of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

● Example 2: Bhopal Gas Tragedy; was a gas leak in December 1984 at the Union
Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal; considered to be the world’s worst
industrial disaster; 45 tonnes of methyl isocyanate escaped from the plant, and
continues to affect people even today

Discuss the implications of EVSs in the protection of tropical biomes. [9]

● environmental value systems
● tropical biomes, biodiversity, conservation
● ecotourism, flagship species, sustainable development/exploitation, goods/services.
● restrained resource use, etc and anthropocentric values with laws/regulations/quotas,
public consultation/agreements, sustainable exploitation, ecotourism etc and
technocentric values with economic development, habitat restoration etc.

● examples of tropical biomes include tropical forests, grasslands and lakes

● environmental value systems eg ecocentrism, anthropocentrism, technocentrism, etc
and habitat/species protection strategies eg reserves, managed sustainable harvesting,
ecotourism, fishing quotas, etc and value systems in specific tropical societies eg rights
of nature enshrined in constitutions of Ecuador/Bolivia, human rights to a healthy
environment in laws of Costa Rica/Brazil, etc

● Conclusion - “because ecocentric values embrace the biorights of all living species and
habitats their implications are bound to be the most fundamentally protective, however,
to be practical in current society, more is likely to be achieved in protecting tropical
biomes through some compromise with other value systems.”

Explain, with reference to examples, why some species are more likely to become extinct
in the future than others.
Reduced population sizes are one such factor. As the number of individuals of a species
decreases, it can lead to reduced genetic diversity and greater susceptibility to random
catastrophic events. If the remaining population of a species is small enough, a single forest fire
or even random variations in sex ratios could ultimately lead to extinction. Another factor that
makes species vulnerable to extinction is humans and urbanization. As the world progresses,
there are many advancements in the world which means that the demands of people go up as
well. Due to this, the consumption of meat has also gone up which results in more animals
being killed to meet the needs and wants of people around the world. To add on, an example of
an animal that is likely to be extinct in the near future is rhinos. Rhinos won’t survive outside
national parks and reserves due to persistent poaching and habitat loss over many decades.
Three species of rhino—black, Javan, and Sumatran—are critically endangered. As poaching
for rhino tusks sell for a lot of money, poachers are attracted to their tusks which is one of the
reasons why so many rhinos are tuskless and die after their tusks have been removed from
their body. Due to the massive poaching business especially in Africa, Rhinos have become an
extremely endangered species which can be seen by the number of Rhinos left in the world
today. At the beginning of the 20th century, 500,000 rhinos roamed Africa and Asia. By 1970,
rhino numbers dropped to 70,000, and today, around 27,000 rhinos remain in the wild.

Another example of an endangered species are tigers are on the ICUN’s list for threatened
species with approximately 3,500 tigers left worldwide. This makes tigers extremely vulnerable
to extinction in the near future. Moreover, tigers face challenges as they are being forced to
survive in an unnatural environment where the population of potential prey is also deficient. The
occupation of the land leads many species of animals (i.e., a potential prey of tigers) to relocate
or even perish as a result of the loss of resources. As the number of their prey continue to
decrease, so will the number of tigers. Aside from that, tigers are deprived of a place to do their
usual activities like roaming and hunting. With the reduction of the number of prey, these tigers
have no option but to approach nearby farms and villages and are forced to have human
contact. Due to such almost direct contact, these tigers are sometimes being injured or killed
because of the landowners’ fear that these tigers might kill them and their livestock. To add on,
due to changes in the tiger’s habitat. the survival of tigers in an area is affected by several
climatic and topographic factors which include temperature, humidity, and forest cover.