1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION & COMPONENTS

INTRODUCTION

This project is designed so that students can understand

the technology used in the now a day’s driver less metro
train which is used in most of the developed countries like
Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are
equipped with the CPU, which control the train. The train is
programmed for the specific path. Every station on the
path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance
between the two stations is predefined. This is very
wonderful project to control the working of the train
without driver. These train are equipped with the CPU
which control the train. 1. 8051 Microcontroller 2. ULN
2003 3. Stepper motor 4. LCD In this project we try to
give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are
using ATMEL microcontroller 8051 to control all the
function as CPU. Microcontroller controls the rotation of
motor. First the motor is controlled and name of each
station is displayed over LCD and accordingly the different
delay for each station is provided. So this project works for
metro train without driver. The motion of the train is
controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in
the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines.
The train is designed for three stations, named as New
Delhi, Noida, and Greater Noida. The Stoppage time is of 3
Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec.
There is a LCD display for showing various messages in
the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are
used to show the train direction i.e. UP path and down
path. Before stopping at station the train blows the
buzzer. It also includes an emergency brake system due to
which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied
and resumes journey when the emergency situation is
over.
WHAT IS EMBEDDED TECHNOLOGY

Embedded technology is software or hardware that is

hidden embedded in a large device or system. It typically
refers to a fixed function device, as compared with a PC,
which runs general purpose application. Embedded
technology is nothing new. It all around us and has been
for years. An early example of embedded technology is
the engine control unit in a car, which measures what
setting to give the engine. Your coffee maker has
embedded technology in the form of a microcontroller,
which is what tells it to make the coffee at 6 a.m. the
vending machine has it too. Overall, billions of devices
woven into everyday life use embedded technology. In the
past embedded technology existed in standalone device
vending machines and copiers that did their jobs with little
regard for what went on around them,. But as technology
has learned to connect device to the internet and to each
other, embedded technology potential has grown.
Suddenly it is and what actions those connections let them
perform. Cell phone companies figured that out a long
time ago, which is why cell phones are cheap and the
service, plans are expensive. It is not the phone itself that
matters, but the connectivity to a vast network of other
phones, other people and the internet. Until you
download software that lets you find a local restaurant or
mange your finances. Let say you make freezers the big,
expensive kind that grocery stores buy. You sell ne and
you are done with that customer. When it brakes the
customer calls a service person, who probably comes from
somewhere other than your company. But let us say that
freezer knows that it is about to go on the fritz. Let say
three refrigerator alerts the customer before it breaks.
Better yet, let us say the freezer alerts the manufacturer
and you are able to send a service person to do
preventative work and save a lot of haagen- dazs from
melting. Embedded technology allows all of that to
happen. You, the freezer company have
transformed yourself from a product company to product
and services company. The possibilities go beyond that
programming device to communicate with businesses can
eliminate the need for costly call centers. Copy machines
that can order their own replacement cartridges will save
businesses time and money. Remember, the fact the
technology is embedded is not what important, and
neither is the device
APPLICATIONS

Telecom

• Mobile phone systems (handsets and base stations),

modems, routers

• Automotive application

• Braking system, Traction control, Airbag release

system, Management units, and Steer-by-wire
systems.

Domestic application

• Dishwasher, television, washing machines,

microwave ovens, Video recorders, Security system,
Garage door controllers, Calculators, Digital watches,
VCRs, Digital cameras, Remote Controls, Treadmills

Robotic

• Fire fighting robot, Automatic floor cleaner, robotic

arm

Aerospace application

• Flight control system, Engine controllers, Autopilots,

Passenger entertainment system

Medical equipment

• Anesthesia monitoring system, ECG monitors,

Pacemakers, Drug delivery systems, MRI scanners

Defense system

• Radar systems, Fighter aircraft flight control system,

Radio system, Missile guidance systems

Office automation
 • Laser printers, Fax machines, Pagers, Cash registers,
Gas pumps, Credit /Debit card readers, Thermostats,
Grain analyzers.

COMPONENTS

LIST OF COMPONENTS USED

Table No. 1.1 List of components

Sr. no Equipment Quantity

1 IC 8051 MC 1

2 IC ULN 2003 1

3 TRANSFORMER 1

4 VOLTAGE 1
REGULATOR 7805
5 2 LINE LCD 1
DISPLAY
6 STEPPER MOTER 1

7 CRYSTAL 1
OSCILLATOR
8 SWITCH 2

9 LED 2

10 RESISTER(220 10
Ω,4.7kΩ,10kΩ)
11 CAPACITOR 2
(33pf,ceramic disk)
12 DIODE 2

13 BUZZER 1
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

1)MICRO-CONTROLLER 8051 DESCRIPTION

The IC 8051 is a low-power; high-performance CMOS 8-bit

microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and
erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is
manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile
memory technology and is compatible with the industry-
standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip
Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-
system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with
Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel IC 8051 is a powerful
microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-
effective solution to many embedded control applications.
The IC 8051 provides the following standard features: 4K
bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit
timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt
architecture, full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and
clock circuitry. In addition, the IC 8051 is designed with
static logic for operation down to zero frequency and
supports two software selectable power saving modes.
The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to
continue functioning.
 Pin
Figure No. 1.1: Pin Diagram of 8051
PROCESSOR

A processor is an electronic device capable of

manipulating data in a way specified by a sequence of
instructions.

INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions in a computer are binary numbers just like

data. Different numbers, when read and executed by a
processor, cause different things to happen. The
instructions are also called opcodes or machine codes.

Different bit patterns activate or deactivate different

parts of the processing core. Every processor has its own
instruction set varying in number, bit pattern and
functionality.

PROGRAM

The sequence of instructions is what constitutes a

program. The sequence of instructions may be altered to
suit the application.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Writing and understanding such programs in binary or

hexadecimal form is very difficult ,so each instructions is
given a symbolic notation in English language called as
mnemonics. A program written in mnemonics Form is
called an assembly language program. But it must be
converted into machine language for execution by
processor.

ASSEMBLER
 An assembly language program should be converted to
machine language for execution by processor. Special
software called ASSEMBLER converts a program written in
mnemonics to its equivalent machine opcodes.
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

A high level language like C may be used to write

programs for processors. Software called compiler
converts this high level language program down to
machine code. Ease of programming and portability.

PIN DESCRIPTION

VCC (Pin 40)

Provides voltage to the chip . +5V

GND (Pin 20)

Ground

XTAL1 (Pin 19) and XTAL2 (Pin 18)

Crystal Oscillator connected to pins 18, 19.Two capacitors

of 30pF value. Time for one machine
cycle:11.0592/12=1.085 µ secs

RST (Pin 9)

RESET pin

1.Active high. On applying a high pulse to this pin,

microcontroller will reset and terminate all activities.

2.INPUT pin
3.Minimum 2 machine cycles required to make RESET

4.Value of registers after RESET

External Access: EA 31

•Connected to VCC for on chip ROM

•Connected to Ground for external ROM containing the

code Input Pin

Program Store Enable: PSEN 29

•Output Pin

•In case of external ROM with code it is connected to the

OE pin of the ROM

Address Latch Enable: ALE 30

• Output Pin. Active high

•In case of external ROM ,ALE is used to de multiplex

(PORT 0) the address and data bus by connecting to the G
pin of 74LS373 chip

I/O Port Pins and their Functions:

•Four ports P0,P1,P2,P3 with 8 pins each, making a total of

32 input/output pins

•On RESET all ports are configured as output. They need

to be programmed to make them function as inputs

PORT 0

•Pins 32-39

•Can be used as both Input or Output

•External pull up resistors of 10K need to be connected

•Dual role: 8051 multiplexes address and data through

port 0 to save pins .AD0-AD7

•ALE is used to de multiplex data and address bus

PORT 1

•Pins 1 through 8

•Both input or output

•No dual function

•Internal pull up registers

•On RESET configured as output

PORT 2

•Pins 21 through 28

•No external pull up resistor required

•Both input or output

•Dual Function: Along with Port 0 used to provide the 16-

Bit address for external memory. It provides higher
address A8-A16

PORT 3

•Pins 10 through 17

•No external pull up resistors required

PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE

Block Diagram
External interrupts
On-chip Timer/Counter

Interrupt ROM for

program On-chip Timer 1 Counter
Control RAM Inputs
code Timer 0

CPU

Bus Serial
4 I/O Ports
OSC Control Port

P0 P1 P2 P3 TxD RxD
Address/Data
Figure No. 1.3: Block Diagram of Microcontroller
ALU

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs the internal

arithmetic manipulation of data line processor. The
instructions read and executed by the processor decide
the operations performed by the ALU and also control the
flow of data between registers and ALU. Operations
performed by the

ALU are Addition , Subtraction , Not , AND , NAND , OR ,

NOR , XOR , Shift Left/Right , Rotate Left/right , Compare
etc. Some ALU supports Multiplication and Division.
Operands are generally transferred from two registers or
from one register and memory location to ALU data
inputs. The result of the operation is the placed back into
a given destination register or memory location from ALU
output.

REGISTERS

Registers are the internal storage for the processor. The

number of registers varies significantly between processor
architectures.

•WORKING REGISTERS

Temporary storage during ALU Operations and data

transfers.

•INDEX REGISTERS

Points to memory addresses.

•STATUS REGISTERS

Stores the current status of various flags denoting

conditions resulting from various operations.

•CONTROL REGISTERS
 Contains configuration bits that affect processor
operation and the operating modes of various internal
subsystems.

Memory Organization
Program Memory

Data Memory
The right half of the internal and external data memory spaces available on
Atmel’s Flash microcontrollers. Hardware configuration for accessing up to 2K
bytes of external RAM. In this case, the CPU executes from internal Flash.
Port 0 serves as a multiplexed address/data bus to the RAM, and 3 lines of
Port 2 are used to page the RAM. The CPU generates RD and WR signals as
needed during external RAM accesses. You can assign up to 64K bytes of
external data memory. External data memory addresses can be either 1 or 2
bytes wide. One-byte addresses are often used in conjunction with one or
more other I/O lines to page the RAM. Two-byte addresses can also be used,
in which case the high address byte is emitted at Port 2.

Internal data memory addresses are always 1 byte wide, which implies an
address space of only 256 bytes. However, the addressing modes for internal
RAM can in fact accommodate 384 bytes. Direct addresses higher than 7FH
access one memory space, and indirect addresses higher than 7FH access a
different memory space. Thus, the Upper 128 and SFR space occupying the
same block of addresses, 80H through FFH, although they are physically
separate entities. The lowest 32 bytes are grouped into 4 banks of 8 registers.
Program instructions call out these registers as R0 through R7. Two bits in the
Program Status Word (PSW) select which register bank is in use. This
architecture allows more efficient use of code space, since register
instructions are shorter than instructions that use direct addressing.
Programming Status Word:

The Instruction Set

All members of the Atmel microcontroller family execute the same instruction set. This
instruction set is optimized for 8- bit control applications and it provides a variety of fast
addressing modes for accessing the internal RAM to facilitate byte operations on small
data structures. The instruction set provides extensive support for 1-bit variables as a
separate data type, allowing direct bit manipulation in control and logic systems that
require Boolean processing. The following overview of the instruction set gives a brief
description of how certain instructions can be used.

Program Status Word

The Program Status Word (PSW) contains status bits that reflect the current state of the
CPU. The PSW, shown in Figure 11, resides in SFR space. The PSW contains the
Carry bit, the Auxiliary Carry (for BCD operations), the tworegister bank select bits, the
Overflow flag, a Parity bit, and two user-definable status flags. The Carry bit, in addition
to serving as a Carry bit in arithmetic operations, also serves as the “Accumulator” for a
number of Boolean operations.

The bits RS0 and RS1 select one of the four register banks shown in Figure 8. A
number of instructions refer to these RAM locations as R0 through R7. The status of the
RS0 and RS1 bits at execution time determines which of the four banks is selected. The
Parity bit reflects the number of 1s in the Accumulator: P=1 if the Accumulator contains
an odd number of 1s, and P=0 if the Accumulator contains an even number of 1s.
Thus, the number of 1s in the Accumulator plus P is always even. Two bits in the PSW
are uncommitted and can be used as general purpose status flags.

Addressing Modes
The addressing modes in the Flash microcontroller instruction set are as follows.

Direct Addressing
In direct addressing, the operand is specified by an 8-bit address field in the instruction.
Only internal data RAM and SFRs can be directly addressed.

Indirect Addressing
In indirect addressing, the instruction specifies a register that contains the address of
the operand. Both internal and external RAM can be indirectly addressed. The address
register for 8-bit addresses can be either the Stack Pointer or R0 or R1 of the selected
register bank. The address register for 16-bit addresses can be only the 16-bit data
pointer register, DPTR.

Register Instructions
The register banks, which contain registers R0 through R7, can be accessed by
instructions whose opcodes carry a 3- bit register specification. Instructions that access
the registers this way make efficient use of code, since this mode eliminates an address
byte. When the instruction is executed, one of the eight registers in the selected bank is
accessed. One of four banks is selected at execution time by the two bank select bits in
the PSW.

Register-Specific Instructions
Some instructions are specific to a certain register. For example, some instructions
always operate on the Accumulator, so no address byte is needed to point to it. In these
cases, the opcode itself points to the correct register. Instructions that refer to the
Accumulator as A assemble as Accumulator-specific opcodes.

Indexed Addressing
Program memory can only be accessed via indexed addressing. This addressing mode
is intended for reading look-up tables in program memory. A 16-bit base register (either
DPTR or the Program Counter) points to the base of the table, and the Accumulator is
set up with the table entry number. The address of the table entry in program memory is
formed by adding the Accumulator data to the base pointer. Another type of indexed
addressing is used in the “case jump” instruction. In this case the dest ination address
of a jump instruction is computed as the sum of the base pointer and the Accumulator
data.

•SRAM

Volatile, fast, low capacity, expensive, requires lesser external

support circuitry.

•DRAM

Volatile, relatively slow, highest capacity needs continuous

refreshing. Hence require external circuitry.

•OTP ROM

One time programmable, used for shipping in final products.

•EPROM

Erasable programmable, UV Erasing, Used for system

development and debugging.

•EEPROM

Electrically erasable and programmable, can be erased

programmed in- circuit, Used for storing system parameters.

•FLASH

Electrically programmable & erasable, large capacity, organized

as sectors.

BUSES
 A bus is a physical group of signal lines that have a related
function. Buses allow for the transfer of electrical signals between
different parts of the processor

Processor buses are of three types:

•Data bus

•Address bus

•Control bus

CONTROLLER LOGIC

Processor brain decodes instructions and generate control signal

for various sub units. It has full control over the clock distribution
unit of processor.

I/O Peripherals

The I/O devices are used by the processor to communicate with

the external world

•Parallel Ports.

•Serial Ports.

•ADC/DAC.

2)ULN 2003 7805

 Figure No. 1.4: ULN 2003

FEATURES

- Output current 500mA per driver (600mA peak) - Output

voltage 50V - Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads -
Outputs can be paralleled for higher current -
TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTL Compatible inputs - Inputs pinned opposite
outputs to simplify Layout

DESCRIPTION
 The ULN2001, ULN2002, ULN2003 and ULN2004 are high
voltage, high current Darlington Arrays each contain seven open
collector Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each Channel
rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA.
Suppression diodes are Included for inductive load driving and the
inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board

MAXIMUM RATING

Table No. 1.2: Maximum Rating of ULN

Table :-1 Absolute max ratings

Symbol Parameter Value Unit

V₀ Output voltage 50 V
Vi Input voltage 30 V
Ic Countinuous 500 Ma
collector
current
Ib Countinuous 25 Ma
base current
Ta Operating -20 - 85
ambient
tempreture
range
Tstg Storage -55 - 155
tempreture
range
Tj Junction 150
tempreture

Table :-2 Thermal Data

Symbol Parameter Dip -16 So -16 Unit

R th.ra Thermal 70 120 C/w
resistance
junction
 ambient -
max

WHY WE USE ULN 2003?

Digital system and microcontroller pins lack sufficient current to

drive the relay. While the stepper motor’s coil needs around 10ma
to be energized, the microcontroller’s pin can provide a maximum
of 1-2 mA current. For this reason, we place a driver.

3)VOLAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and

15V) or variable output voltages. The maximum current they can
pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are available,
mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some
automatic protection from excessive current (over load
protection) and overheating (thermal protection). Many of fixed
voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads. They include a hole for
attaching a heat sink if necessary.

Figure No. 1.5: 7805 Voltage Regulator

DESCRIPTION

These voltage regulators are monolithic circuit integrated circuit

designed as fixed voltage regulators for a wide variety of
applications including local, on card regulation. These regulators
employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and safe-area
compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver
output current in excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as
a fixed voltage regulator, these devices can be used with external
components to obtain adjustable voltage and current.

FEATURES

•Output current in Excess of 1.0 A

•No external component required

•Internal thermal overload protection

•Internal short circuit current limiting

•Output transistor safe-area compensation

•Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance

•Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead
transistor packages

•Previous commercial temperature range has been extended to a

junction temperature range of -40 degree C to +125 degree C.

4)STEPPER MOTOR

Identification of Stepper Motor

There are several types of stepper motors, these cannot be driven in the same way. In
this application note, we have chosen to drive a unipolar stepper motor For more
information you will find schemes to identify the other types of stepper motors. Unipolar
Stepper Motor Unipolar stepper motors are characterised by their center-tapped
windings.

Unipolar Stepper Motor

Bipolar Stepper Motor Bipolar stepper motors are designed with separate coils.

Bipolar Stepper Motor

Variable Reluctance Variable reluctance stepper motor (also called hybrid motors) are
characterised by one common lead.

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Driving Unipolar Stepper Motors

There are three ways to drive unipolar stepper motors (one phase on, two phase on or
half step), each one has some advantages and disavantages.
There are two stages to sorting out which wire is which in a 5- or
6-wire unipolar stepper motor:

1. Isolate the Common Power wire(s) by using an ohmmeter to check the

resistances between pairs of wires. The Common Power wire will be the one
with only half as much resistance between it and all the others. This is
because the Common Power wire only has one coil between it and each
other wire, whereas each of the other wires have two coils between them.
Hence half the resistance.
2. Identify the wires to the coils by supplying a voltage on the Common
Power wire(s) and keeping one of the other wires grounded while grounding
each of the remaining three wires in turn and observing the results. Select
one wire and ground it Assume it's connected to coil 4. Keeping it grounded,
ground each of the other three wires one by one Grounding one wire should
make the rotor turn a little clockwise. That'll be the wire connected to Coil 3.
Grounding one wire should make the rotor turn a little anticlockwise. That'll
be the wire connected to Coil 1. Grounding one wire should do nothing
that’ll be the wire connected to Coil 2.
GENERAL INFORMATION

A stepper motor system is an electro-mechanical rotary actuator

that converts electrical pulses into unique shaft rotations. This
rotation is directly related to the number of pulses. Motion
Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the
movement of an object based on speed, distance, load, inertia or
a combination of all these factors. There are numerous types of
motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear Step
Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more.
Stepper motors are ideally suited for precision control. This motor
can be operated in forward/reverse with controllable speed from a
BASIC Stamp or any other microcontroller through a transistor
driver circuit. Some of the applications for this motor include
educational experimentation, robotics and precision mechanical
control the #27964 is a Unipolar (4 phase) 12 VDC, 150 mA motor
that takes 3.6 degrees per step.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

· Phase resistance (Ohms): 75 · Current (mA): 150 · Phase

Inductance (mH): 39 · Detent torque (g-cm): 80 · Holding Torque
(g-cm): 600 · Mounting hole space diagonal (in.): 1.73 · Mounting
hole (in.) 0.11 · Shaft diameter (in.): 0.197 · Shaft length (in.):
0.43

· Motor

Diameter (in.): 1.66

·Motor

height (in.): 1.35

· Weight: 0.55 lbs.

5)LCD DISPLAY

DESCRIPTION OF LCD DISPLAY

This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will
start with something simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-
directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should work with
most, if not all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of
the Status Port as an input. These LCD Modules are very common
these days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the logic
required to run them is on board.
Interfacing 7-Seg Display to
Microcontroller :

7 Segment displays are basically 7 LED's.

Basically there are two types of 7-Seg display's:

• Common Cathode where all the segments share the same

Cathode.

• Common Anode where all Segments share the same

Anode.

Here we will be only discussing the Common Anode type. In

common Anode in order to turn ON a segment the corresponding
pin must be set to 0. And to turn it OFF it is set to 1.
 Figure 2

Controller 7-seg display

P2.0 A

P2.1 B

P2.2 C

P2.3 D

P2.4 E

P2.5 F

P2.6 G

Figure 1 shows how to interface 7-seg display to a

microcontroller. Now we create a lookup table containing
the seven segment pattern to display the corresponding hex
digits. e.g. consider we have to display '1' from the above figure
we come to know that turning ON segment B & C will show '1' on
the 7-seg display so P2.1 & P2.2 should be LOGIC 0 whereas rest
of the pins should be LOGIC 1. FIGURE 2 shows the lookup table
for CA display.

Figure 3

Figure 3 shows the circuit for interfacing two 7 segment displays

We can now interface a single 7-Seg to the microcontroller but for

interfacing multiple 7-seg's we use Scanning Principle where One
7-seg is displayed after another but this process is very fast
hence the flickering cannot be seen by human eye.

When interfacing more than one 7-seg display the segment's (A-
G) of all displays are connected together whereas their ANODE
(Cathode in case of CC displays) are switched ON one after
another. Consider we have to display '31' on the above 7-seg
display so we TURN ON the first transistor by setting its
corresponding pin to 1 & then give the 7-seg equivalent code for
'3' which is 4fh. Then we TURN OFF the first transistor & TURN ON
the second & output its corresponding 7-seg equivalent code of
'1' i.e. 06h.Then we again go back to display '3'

this is a never ending loop.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Figure No. 1.8: Schematic Diagram of LCD

Display

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable

and Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control
Port is an open collector / open drain output. While most Parallel
Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which don't.
Therefore by incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors,
the circuit is more portable for a wider range of computers, some
of which may have no internal pull up resistors. We make no
effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we
hard wire the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will
cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a result we cannot
read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD
has accepted and finished processing the last instruction. This
problem is overcome by inserting known delays into our program.
The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel.
Nothing fancy here. As with all the examples, I've left the power
supply out. You can use a bench power supply set to 5v or use an
onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors,
especially if you have trouble with the circuit working properly.
The 2 line x 16 character LCD modules are available from a wide
range of manufacturers and should all be compatible with the
HD44780. The diagram to the right shows the pin numbers for
these devices. When viewed from the front, the left pin is pin 16
and the right pin is pin 1.

Figure No. 1.9: LCD Display

Figure 1 shows how to inte ace 7-seg display to a microcontroller.

Now we create a lookup table containing the seven segment
pattern to display the corresponding hex digits. e.g. consider we
have to display '1' from the above figure we come to know that
turning ON segment B & C will show '1' on the 7-seg display so
P2.1 & P2.2 should be LOGIC 0 whereas rest of the pins should be
LOGIC 1. FIGURE 2 shows the lookup table for CA display.

6)POWER SUPPLY

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier circuit consists of four diodes arranged in the

form of a bridge as shown in figure.
OPERATION

During the positive half cycle of the input supply, the upper end
A of the transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to
its lower point B. This makes Point1 of bridge Positive with
respect to point 2. The diode D1 & D2 become forward biased &
D3 & D4 become reverse biased. As a result a current starts
flowing from point1, through D1 the load & D2 to the negative
end. During negative half cycle, the point2 becomes positive with
respect to point1. Diodes D1 & D2 now become reverse biased.
Thus a current flow from point 2 to point1.

7)TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a major class of coils having two or more

windings usually wrapped around a common core made from
laminated iron sheets. It has two cols named primary and
secondary. If the current flowing through primary is fluctuating,
then a current will be inducted into the secondary winding. A
steady current will not be transferred from one coil to other coil.

Transformers are of two types:

1.Step up transformer

2.Step down transformer

In the power supply we use step down transformer. We apply

220V AC on the primary of step down transformer. This
transformer step down this voltages to 6V AC. We Give 6V AC to
rectifier circuit, which convert it to 5V DC.
8)DIODE

The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used

to control the flow of the current in any one direction. The diode
widely works in forward bias.

Diode When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it

is in forward bias. The Zener diode is used in reverse bias function
i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of the diode`s
terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The
silver/black line is the negative terminal (cathode) and the other
terminal is the positive terminal (cathode).

APPLICATION

•Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc

•Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.

•Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc

9)RESISTORS

The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing

force similar in many respects to mechanical friction .this
opposing force is called resistance of the material .in some
electric circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in form of
resistor. Resistor used fall in three categories , only two of which
are color coded which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the
third category is the wire wound type ,where value are generally
printed on the vitreous paint finish of the component. Resistors
are in ohms and are represented in Greek letter omega, looks as
an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to
make them work properly and it is obliviously important to find
out something about the different types of resistors available.
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega
ohm. 1 ohm is quite small for electronics so resistances are often
given in kohm and Mohm.

Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1

ohm or as high as 10 Mohm.

FUNCTION

Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a

resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit
the current passing through the LED.

TYPES OF RESISTORS

FIXED VALUE RESISTORS

It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film

.These two types are explained under

1. CARBON FILM RESISTORS

During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small

ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiraled away in an
automatic machine until the resistance between there two ends of
the rods is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads
and end caps are added, the resistors is covered with an
insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to
indicate the resistor value

Figure No. 1.15: Carbon Film Resistors

Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22 Kilo-Ohms

also known as 22K at 5% tolerance: Band 1 = Red, 1st digit Band
2 = Red, 2nd digit Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with
zeros, in this case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

3.METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a similar way,
but can be made more accurately to within ±2% or ±1% of their
nominal vale there are some difference in performance between
these resistor types, but none which affects their use in simple
circuit.

WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and

because of this, they can be manufactured to precise values. Also,
high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire
material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency
circuits. Coils are used in high frequency circuit. Wire wound
resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened with special cement.
They have very high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of
watts. These resistors can become extremely hot when used for
high power application, and this must be taken into account when
designing the circuit.

TESTING

Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a

defective resistor the ohm-meter shows infinite high reading.

10)CAPACITORS

In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work

in completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store
electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work , then you
know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery,
chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb
electrons at the other terminal.

BASIC
 Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the
capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by
a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything
else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from
touching each other. You can easily make a capacitor from two
pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a
particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it
will work.

In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

Figure No. 1.17: Symbol of Capacitor

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens:

•The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal

of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.

•The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal

of the battery loses electrons to the battery.
TESTING

To test the capacitors, either analog meters or specia

l digital meters with the specified function are used. The non-
electrolyte capacitor can be tested by using the digital meter.

Multi – meter mode : Continuity Positive probe : One end

Negative probe : Second end Display : `0`(beep sound occur)
`OL` Result : Faulty OK

11)LED

LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light
emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when
it is energized. In any forward biased P-N junction there is, with
in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a
recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires
that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron be
transferred to another state. The process of giving off light by
applying an electrical source is called electroluminescence.
LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being
carried out are displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows
when the current is being flown through it in forward bias
condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and also in
the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.

BUZZER
 Buzzer is a device used for beep signal. This will help us to make
understand information or message. A buzzer is usually electronic
device used in automobiles, household applications etc.

It mostly consists of switches or sensors connected to a control

unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset
time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on appropriate
button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a
continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this
device was based on an electromechanical system which was
identical to an electrical bell without the metal gong. Often these
units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or
wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-
connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC
current into a noise loud enough to derive a loudspeaker and
hook this circuit to a cheap 8-ohm speaker. These buzzers do not
make a sound or turn on a light, they stop a nearby digital clock,
briefly fire two smoke cannons on each side of the stage exit and
open the exit. However, at the end of the Heartbreaker in Viking,
the buzzer is replaced with a sword that, when removed, causes
two contacts to touch, closing the circuit and causing the latter
two actions above to occur.

Interfacing Matrix Keypad to 8051:

As you have seen in the article for interfacing switches to
microcontroller normally the port pin is high but when a switch is
pressed the controller pin gets a Low signal and we come to know
that a switch has been pressed. One end of switch is connected to
the port pin whereas the other end is connected to the Ground.
In case of matrix Keypad both the ends of switches are connected
to the port Pin. Over here we have considered a 4x3 matrix
keypad i.e. four rows and three columns. So in all twelve switches
have been interfaced using just seven lines. The adjoining figure
shows the diagram of a matrix keypad and how it is interfaced
with the controller.
As you can see no pin is connected to ground, over here the
controller pin itself provides the ground. We pull one of the
Column Pins low & check the row pins if any of the Pin is low then
we come to know which switch is pressed.
Suppose we make column 1 pin low and while checking the rows
we get Row 3 is low then we come to know switch 7 has been
pressed.
ALGORITHM:
1. Start.
2. Make All Pins High.
3. Make Column 1 pin low.
4. Check if Row 1 is low, if yes then Switch 1 has been
pressed.
5. Check if Row 2 is low, if yes then Switch 4 has been
pressed.
6. Check if row 3 is low if yes then Switch 7 has been
pressed.
7. Check if row 4 is low if yes then Switch 10 has been
pressed.
8. Make Column 1 Pin high & Column 2 Pin Low.
9. Check if Row 1 is low, if yes then Switch 2 has been
pressed.
10. Check if Row 2 is low, if yes then Switch 5 has been
pressed.
11. Check if row 3 is low if yes then Switch 8 has been
pressed.
12. Check if row 4 is low if yes then Switch 11 has been
pressed.
13. Make Column 2 Pin high & Column 3 Pin Low.
14. Check if Row 1 is low, if yes then Switch 3 has been
pressed.
15. Check if Row 2 is low, if yes then Switch 6 has been
pressed.
16. Check if row 3 is low if yes then Switch 9 has been
pressed.
17. Check if row 4 is low if yes then Switch 12 has been
pressed.
18. Make column 3 pin high
19. Stop
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

PREHISTORY: 8048

In fact, it should have started with chapter -2, the invention of

microprocessor. Intel introduced a single-chip processor, the
4004, in 1971. It was a 4-bit microprocessor, with whopping
processing speed of 100 thousand operations per second, and
was meant for an electronic calculator. There is a lot of 4-bit
processing in calculators, especially if the software is based on
BCD arithmetics. Later Intel introduced the 8-bitter 8008 and it's
grown-up brother - the famous 8080 (which then was perfected
by an ex-Intel employee as Zilog Z80, one of the best 8-bit
microprocessors of all times). In 1976, Intel introduced its first
microcontroller, 8048. It integrated the processing core with code
and data memory and certain peripherals. The code memory was
a 1kB mask ROM (defined by the last metallisation mask during
the chip processing) or EPROM (after all, Intel invented EPROM),
the data memory was 64 bytes of RAM (including the 8-level stack
and two pages of eight general purpose registers). Besides
general-purpose I/O (see below), peripherals included a timer and
an external interrupt (plus the necessary interrupt system).
Although the 8048 is clearly an 8-bit architecture, it is said to be
an ancestor of the 4-bit 4004 rather than the 8080. Also it is said
to bear remarkable similarities to Fairchild F8 microprocessor.
Today, it is hard to say whether something of this is true, but one
thing is sure, the 8048 has a couple of strange features. Using
four of its general purpose input/output ports, and adding one or
more 8243-type chip - and the I/O expand into another four 4-bit
ports. This expansion has not only support in the hardware -
dedicated pins on 8048 - but also in the instruction set, having
dedicated instructions for I/O operations (including AND and
OR(!)) via the expander.

The 8048 already had a lot of useful features known well to 8051-
users: external code memory support; external data memory
support (inherently only 256 bytes addressed indirectly by R0 and
R1 as there is no 16 bit pointer register such as the DPTR in 8051
- the 8051 inherited this 8-bit external data access);
quasibidirectional I/O ports. Maximum clock is 11MHz, but an
instruction cycle takes 15 oscillator clocks. The "A" version
(advanced) introduced powerdown mode There were multiple
variations of the 8048 around, mostly with different numbering,
but generally denoted as the MCS-48 family. 8048 itself denoted a
mask-ROM part, 8748 an EPROM part - windowed (CERDIP -
erasable) for development, and unwindowed (PDIP) OTP. The
romless part was a bit surprisingly marked 8035 (probably most
of the parts sold as romless were parts with unusable ROM, due to
error in the "programmed" firmware). There was a low-cost
version with reduced pin count and omitted some of the features
as 8021, and versions with more ROM and RAM as 8049 (2kB
ROM/128B RAM) and 8050 (4kB ROM/256B RAM); with ROMless
versions as 8039 and 8040; and 8049 had also an EPROM version
8749 (the funny thing is, that 8749 came in 1981, one year after
8051/8751). 8048's were second sourced by a number of
manufacturers, including NEC, Toshiba, and were cloned also
behind the then iron curtain in Czechoslovakia (Tesla
MHB8048/8035) and USSR. Application specific versions of 8048
were also built quite early, with adding of various peripherals,
such as 8-bit ADC in 8022 and a parallel-bus slave interface in
8041/8042. The MCS-48 family was used in a quite wide range of
applications. One of the first applications of 8048 was in a gaming
console (Magnavox Odyssey2), but there were also more
"serious" applications, for example in one of the first car engine
"computerized" control units. But the biggest hit came when IBM
decided to use 8048 in its original PC keyboard. Although in the
AT keyboard IBM used the (presumably cheaper) 6805, it used
8042 as a co-processor on the mainboard, communicating with
the keyboard. The 8042 is still present in almost each and every
PC even today, but don't search for a chip with "8042" on it - it is
integrated in the chipset. It may come as a surprise to somebody,
but thanks to this fact the 8048 with its derivatives is most
probably the most widespread microcontroller at all.

As in the 70s there were no pdf-s and no world-wide web,

datasheets and other documentation is hardly available over the
internet. I believe Intel will give out a copy if one really wants it
(there is a "literature request" form at their "museum" pages).
However, there seems to be a couple of enthusiastic people, one
of the maintaining a wonderful document called “Grokking the
MCS-48 System” at http://home.mnet-online.de/al/mcs-48/mcs-
48.pdf .

8051: THE CLASSICS

In 1980, Intel introduced the successor to 8048, the 8051. Intel

made sure that the transition from the already successful model
will be as smooth as possible. Architecturally, the 8051 is an
extension to 8048. Almost every feature and resource of 8048 is
present in 8051 in same or superior form. 4kB ROM and 128B
RAM on chip. Pin compatibility was not maintained, but it was not
a real issue. Software compatibility is not binarywise but source-
wise, but that is also acceptable. The preliminary datasheet read:
"Enhanced MCS-48 Architecture". The extensions included code
and data memory extended to 64kB with appropriate support in
instruction set and registers (DPTR), relative conditional and
unconditional jumps (conditionals and DJNZ were constrained
within a 256-byte page in 8048), four register banks instead of
two, "unlimited" stack (8048 had stack limited to 16 bytes),
multiple and divide instructions. As for peripherals, second timer
was added and both were extended to 16 bits with multiple
modes (including 8-bit autoreload mode), and an UART (which
was a luxury that many lower-end microcontrollers didn't have
even a couple of years ago). The raw clock frequency did not
increase considerably, being 12MHz, but an instruction cycle is 12
clocks now. Similarly to 8048, also the 8051 had variants, but
there was no cut-down "low-cost" version (presumably because of
the cost of ROM/RAM and the DIP40 package went low enough).
The romless version was 8031 and the EPROM version was 8751.
The "extended" version - 8052 (with 8032 and 8752) came 3
years later and featured besides 8kB ROM and 256B RAM also an
extra 16-bit timer. An unusual chip was the 8052AH-BASIC, which
according to Intel was "software-onsilicon version of the 8052
microcontroller with a BASIC interpreter on-chip in 8K ROM". The
whole family was eventually called MCS-51 and was
manufactured in NMOS, since 1986 in CMOS. Intel provided all
the needed initial tools and support with the 8051 - assembler,
application notes, example software, in-circuit emulator. Some of
the appnotes and software still can be found on Intel's webpages
and are of excellent quality. The basic datasheet set - dubbed in
the community as "the bible" - is still THE reference source of
information on 8051 and its derivatives, even today. So, Intel did
its job, providing everything needed to make 8051 successful,
and the rest is history.

THE BIRDS ARE OUT OF

THE NEST
Similar to 8048, also the 8051 has been licensed to various
manufacturers worldwide. Some of the early adopters include
Philips, Signetics, MHS (Matra) and Siemens. Most of these
companies don't exist any more, some have been taken over,
others have been renamed; but most of them still manufacture
some derivative of 8051. The licensees started to make fully
compatible models. Naturally, they took over also the datasheets,
for example the "bible" is better used in the Philips version, which
is a verbatim copy of the Intel version, except that it is a true
searchable pdf, while the Intel is a scanned copy of paper
document, unsearchable. More than that, the manufacturers took
over the annoying practice of Intel to include in datasheets only
the specific differences to the "bible", very confusing for the
newbies (but there are opinions on this, some of the users
consider this arrangement better than having huge datasheets
containing all the “common” details). The manufacturers
published their own appnotes, which all together form a huge
knowledge base and code library, but... due to competition it is
scattered across the manufacturers' sites, an another confusing
fact for the newbies. Later, the manufacturers rolled out their
own derivatives and variants with varying marking - there is no
real standard in it (although there are some idiosyncrasies
present in the marking of most manufacturers). All types of
modifications described in the following chapters were applied;
but the compatibility to the original 8051 was usually maintained.
This, together with the availability of second-, third-,...,35th-,...-
source of 8051 is the true source of its immortality.

EMBEDDED IN EMBEDDED

Intel and the licensees soon realized that 8051 is a nice core that
can be embedded in various ASIC chips to perform setup and
control tasks. Typically, the resources of the ASIC are mapped as
external data memory, as if the ASIC would be connected to a
conventional 8051 chip. This approach allows to use an
unmodified core, which speeds up the chip development and
decreases the chance for error; also the ASIC could be
breadboard-prototyped in this form easily. As an example, Intel
produced 80C51SL, a descendant of 8042. Philips has a line of
8051-based teletext controllers. In a particular USB webcamera,
the chip interfacing the CCD and USB was controlled by an
embedded 8051. There are probably much more examples
around, but most of them never get public. In spite of this, the
8051 in this form is produced probably in much higher volumes
than as general-purpose microcontrollers.

EXTRAS

Besides application-specific, also general purpose derivatives

have been introduced by Intel and the licensees, with enhanced
features and increased code and data memories. In contrast with
the ASICs mentioned above, these chips tend to implement the
extra features in the core itself, acces allows faster code as SFRs
are accessed by all the instructions using direct addressing (mov,
logic), and some of them by the bit-manipulation instructions, too.
One of the first such derivative by Intel was the 80C51FA, which
introduced the programmable counter array (PCA) (and was a
8052 otherwise). It was intended for automotive applications
(brake control). Soon, FB and FC continued, with more and more
code memory. 80C51RA/RB/RC followed, with added "internal
external" data memory. These were the basis for the today's
89C51RD2 "sub-family", produced by Philips, Atmel (as ex-Temic),
SST and Winbond.

FAT BOYS: 16-BIT EXTENSIONS

 When the 8051 was accepted widely enough, some of the
applications started to grow and soon required more power than
the 8051 even with enhancements could provide. There were 16-
bit microcontrollers around (e.g. Intel had it's 80C196 line), but it
seemed a good idea to provide a more natural migration path by
creating a 16-bit version of 8051. Intel addressed the problem by
introducing 80C251. It went all the way to achieve compatibility -
it was able to run 8051 binary code (being able to switch to native
16-bit 251-mode) and had a package pin-compatible with 8051. It
was not a big success, most probably for bad market timing
(although it is second sourced by Temic/Atmel). Philips on the
other hand employed source-compatibility for its XA family, which
seems to be adequate for most of the applications, where legacy
code has to be maintained or parallel development with 8051 is
needed; and poses little constraint on the chip design itself. All in
all, the 16-bit versions of 8051 gained far less popularity than the
8051 and are less widespread.

FLASH FOR THE MASSES

In the 90s, Atmel introduced a derivative of 8051 with Flash code

memory, enabling fast erasure and reprogramming. It enabled to
use the production-grade chip in development, and enabled the
chips used in the product to be reprogrammed when upgrade or a
bugfix was needed, cutting down costs. It brought down the 8051
to the masses - the small "garage" companies and hobbyists.
Besides that, Atmel introduced also 89C2051 with decreased pin
count (and price).This was a smart move, the chip proved to be
extremely popular in many small applications. Today, virtually
all manufacturers produce 8051 derivatives with Flash, most of
them able to be programmed via some few-pin serial interface
(called in-situ programming (ISP), SPI-style or UART-style) and the
higher-end versions also able to reprogram themselves (in-
application programming, IAP). MaskROM and EPROM - windowed
or OTP - seems to become extinct, at least in the mainstream
applications.

NEED FOR SPEED

The need for higher processing power, addressed unsuccessfully

by the 16-bit versions, has been solved by introducing the high
speed derivatives of 8051. The original 12-clock instruction cycle
scheme is obviously inefficient and also the technology
progressed enough to achieve higher clock rates than the original
12MHz. The first derivative addressing this in a radical way is the
now legendary Dallas DS80C320. It featured a 4-clocker core with
incompatible timing, and could be clocked as high as 33MHz.
Unfortunately, it was produced as ROMless only. The following
step was taken by Cygnal, where a single-clock core has been
developed. In the top-range models, the clocking is as high as
100MHz, being the fastest 8051s around.

Today, there are many 8051 derivatives with sped-up cores

available. They can be divided into two groups: the 6-clockers
(e.g. the 8xC51RD2) and 2-clockers (Philips LPC9xx) have the
same number of instruction cycle per instruction as the original;
while the 4-clockers and singleclockers are incompatible in this
way, requiring recalculation of timing loops if used.

WHERE IS IT GOING?

The 8051 is a sound mcu core with rich history. However, it seems
that it is already over its peak, although it might take quite a lot
of time until it will be completely replaced by most modern
microcontrollers. So we now have superfast 8051 derivatives with
loads of internal FLASH and RAM. ISP and IAP seems to be the
standard these days. There are the 8051s built around advanced
analog circuits, mainly high resolution ADC. There are derivatives
suitable for extreme applications – high temperature, radiation
hardened. There are softcores around, tuned up, and even open
source. There is a wealth of knowledge and experience, however,
it is scattered around and the newbies tend to get the easier path
- competing 8-bit microcontrollers usually do have a single-stop
information resource site, so this knowledge and experience
seems to die out as the "old boys" retire gradually. The price
difference between the high-end 8-bitters and the much more
powerful low-end 32-bit RISCs (such as the ARMs) seems to
decrease rapidly and will change eventually, as the 32-bitters are
becoming the standard in all but the least demanding
applications.So there is perhaps still a need for the 8051s, but this
need is decreasing and 8051s life cycle is slowly approaching its
end.
 CHAPTER 3

P.C.B. DESIGNING & WORKING

1) P.C.B. DESIGNING

P.C.B. LAYOUT

The entire circuit can be easily assembled on a general purpose

P.C.B. board respectively. Layout of desired diagram and
preparation is first and most important operation in any printed
circuit board manufacturing process. First of all layout of
component side is to be made in accordance with available
components dimensions. The following points are to be observed
while forming the layout of P.C.B.

1.Between two components, sufficient space should be

maintained.

2.High voltage/max dissipated components should be mounted at

sufficient distance from semiconductor and electrolytic
capacitors.

3.The most important points are that the components layout is

making proper compromise with copper side circuit layout.
Printed circuit board (P.C.B.s) is used to avoid most of all the
disadvantages of conventional breadboard. These also avoid the
use of thin wires for connecting the components; they are small in
size and efficient in performance.

PREPARING CIRCUIT LAYOUT

First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the

copper side of the copper clad board. Then enamel paint is
applied on the tracks of connection with the help of a shade
brush. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at which
the connection is to be made. It avoids the disconnection between
the leg of the component and circuit track. After completion of
painting work, it is allowed to dry.

DRILLING

After completion of painting work, holes 1/23inch(1mm) diameter

are drilled at desired points where we have to fix the
components.

ETCHING

The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the

printed circuit is known as etching. From this process the copper
clad board wit printed circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl with
3-4 drops of HCL in it and is kept so for about 10 to 15 minutes
and is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the
P.C.B. After etching, the P.C.B. is kept in clean water for about
half an hour in order to get P.C.B. away from acidic, field, which
may cause poor performance of the circuit. After the P.C.B. has
been thoroughly washed, paint is removed by soft piece of cloth
dipped I thinner or turbine. Then P.C.B. is checked as per the
layout, now the P.C.B. is ready for use.

SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductor the

joint where two metal conductors are to be join or fused is
heated with a device called soldering iron and then as allow of tin
and lead called solder is applied which melts and converse the
joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure is good and
durable connection between the jointed metal converting the joint
solder also present oxidation.

SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING TECHIQUES:

These are basically two soldering techniques.

•Manual soldering with iron.

•Mass soldering.

SOLDERING WITH IRON

The surface to be soldered must be cleaned & fluxed. The

soldering iron switched on and bellowed to attain

soldering temperature. The solder in form of wire is allied hear

the component to be soldered and heated with iron. The surface
to be soldered is filled, iron is removed and joint is cold without
disturbing.

SOLDER JOINT ARE SUPPOSED TO

1.Provide permanent low resistance path.

2.Make a robust mechanical link between P.C.B. and leads of

components.

3.Allow heat flow between component, joining elements and

P.C.B.

4.Retain adequate strength with temperature variation. The

following precaution should be taken while soldering:

1.Use always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron.

2.Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold.

3.Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering
instead of asking the iron.

4.Tighten the tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to

power supply.

5.Clean component lead and copper pad before soldering.

6.Apply solder between component leads, P.C.B. pattern and tip
of soldering iron.

7.Iron should be kept in contact with the joint for 2-3 seconds only
instead of keeping for very long or very small time.

8.Use optimum quantity of solder

2) WORKING OF PROJECT

METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE is a microcontroller based device. It is

used in driverless metro train, which is used in most of developed
countries. These trains are equipped with CPU, which control the
chain. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station
on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance
between the two stations is predefined. Basically it has four parts

1.POWER SUPPLY

2.8051 IC

3.DISPLAY UNIT

4.STEPPER MOTOR The 230 AC supply is converted into 9 volts by

the power supply section in which 4

Elements are used.

1.TRANSFORMER

2.7805 REGULATOR
3.DIODES 4007 (in bridge shape)

4.CAPACITOR OF 100 MICRO FARADS & 470 MICRO FARAD The

230 volts is attenuated by 9 volts by transformer. Then it is
rectified by the bridge rectifier made up of diodes. Then the 9 v
is regulated by 7805. 1000 micro farad capacitor is used to filter
the DC voltage. The LED attaches to check the correctness of
power supply. In this project we try to give the same prototype for
this type of trains. We are using microcontroller 8051 as CPU. The
motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for
displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD
Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations,
named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad and New Delhi. The stoppage time
is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 Sec.
There is a LCD display for showing

various messages in the train for passengers. There are

indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. UP path
and Down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the
buzzer.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
SHCEMATIC DIAGRAM:
CHAPTER 4
COST ANALYSIS & TROUBLESHOOTING
 COST ANALYSIS OF COMPONENTS USED

Table no. 4.1: Cost Analysis

Sr. no Equipment Quantity RATING COST

1 IC 8051 MC 1 ------

2 IC ULN 2003 1 ------

3 TRANSFORMER 1 9-0-9

4 VOLTAGE 1 7805
REGULATOR
7805
5 2 LINE LCD 1 ------
DISPLAY
6 STEPPER 1 ------
MOTER
7 CRYSTAL 1 12mhz
OSCILLATOR
8 SWITCH 2 ------

9 LED 2 ------

10 RESISTER(220 10 220
Ω,4.7kΩ,10kΩ) Ω,4.7kΩ,10
kΩ

11 CAPACITOR 2 33pf
(33pf,ceramic ,
disk) 470µf,100
µ
12 DIODE 2 ------

13 BUZZER 1 ------
14 PCB 1 ------
15 VARIABLE 1 10k
 RESISTANCE
16 40 PIN IC 1 -----
BASE

PROBLEM FACED
 •First problem that was in making the circuit of METRO
TRAIN PROTOTYPE that, it is difficult to match time with
rotation of stepper motor & LCD.
•Second problem is faced due to redundancy in handling
the rotation of STEPPER MOTOR
•We have to take extra care while soldering 2 line LCD
•During soldering, many of the connection become short
cktd. So we desolder the connection and did soldering
again.
•A leg of the crystal oscillator was broken during
mounting. So it has to be replaced.
•LED`s get damaged when we switched ON the supply so
we replace it by the new one.
TROUBLESHOOT
•Care should be taken while soldering. There should be
no shorting of joints.
•Proper power supply should maintain.
•Project should be handled with care since IC are delicate
•Component change and check again circuit

CHAPTER 5 CONCULSION
AREA OF APPLICATIONS

The theme of the project when merged with certain

established technologies can be quite effective in number
of countries like Germany, France & Japan etc. which
control the train . The project when used with an
improved sensitivity. The train is programmed for the
specific path. Every station on the path is defined;
stoppage timing of the train & distance between the two
stations is predefined.

The circuit diagram is shown in the figure. Here LCD

display is connected with the P1 of the MC. Control lines
are connected with port 3 of the microcontroller. The
contrast of the LCD is controlled by 10K variable resistor.
Unipolar Stepper motor is used for running of the train.
This motor has 5 wires, which are named as A1, B1, B2,
and COM. Common line is given at +5V. The other lines
can be connected with port 2 of microcontroller. The
stepper motor is derived by the ULN 2003 chip. This Chip
includes Darlington pairs, so that motor can get enough
current to for its running. This chip required pull ups at
inputs.
FUTURE SCOPE

This Project is useful in dveloping conturies & this project

has a bright future as it is being used in countries like
Germany, France & Japan. This project helps us to control
train without a driver and the stations are shown on the
LCD so the passenger doesn’t has any difficulty. This
project will lead to increase in technological trends & this
will help the people in many ways.

REFRENCES
1.Collins, J.; Pymm, P, “Replacement of the station data
logger at Hunterston B nuclear power station”,
‘Retrofit and Upgrading of Computer Equipment in
Nuclear Power Stations, IEE Colloquium’ on 11 Mar 1991
Page(s):11 - 15.
2.Engel berg, S.; Kaminsky, T.; Horesh, M.;
“Instrumentation notes - A USB-Enabled, FLASH-Disk-
Based DAS”Vol. 10, Issue 2, April 2007 Page(s):63 – 66.
, Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, IEEE,
3.Erdem, H, “Design and implementation of data
acquisition for fuzzy logic controller
” ‘Industrial Technology, 2002. IEEE ICIT '02. 2002 IEEE
International Conference’ on 11-14 Dec. 2002
Page(s):199 - 204 vol.1.
4.Kuchta, R.; Stefan, P.; Barton, Z.; Vrba, R.; Sveda, M,
“Wireless temperature data logger”,
‘Sensors and the International Conference on new
Techniques in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Research,
2005 Asian Conference’ on 5-7 Sept. 2005 Page(s):208 –
212.
5.Lee Tat Man, “Recording power demand characteristics
and harmonic pollution by a general-purpose data
logger”,
‘Advances in Power System Control, Operation and
Management, 1991. APSCOM-91., 1991 International
Conference’ on 5-8 Nov 1991 Page(s):737 - 743 vol.2.
6.Luharuka, E.; GAO, R.X., “A microcontroller-based data
acquisition for physiological sensing
”, ‘Instrumentation and Measurement Technology
Conference, 2002. IMTC/2002. Proceedings of the 19th
IEEE’, 21-23 May 2002 Page(s):175 - 180 vol.1
WEBSITES
www.atmel.com
www.seimens.com
www.philipsemiconductors.com
www.howstuffworks.com
www.alldatasheets.com
www.efyprojects.com
www.thomson.com/learning
www.google.com
APPENDIX
CODING
Program for a stepper having connected & to show
message on the LCD
$mod51
data equ p1 ;p0
busy equ p0.7 ;p0.7
rs equ p3.2
rw equ p3.1
en equ p3.0
org 400h
show0: db 'Welcome To All','0'
show1: db 'Current Station','0'
show2: db 'Next Station','0'
show3: db 'Aligarh','0'
show4: db 'Ghaziabad','0'
Show5: db 'New Delhi','0'
 org 0000h
here:
mov p2,#00h
acall ini
mov dptr,# show0
acall read
clr p3.3 ;p1.0

acall delay
mov a,#01h
acall command;
Now make memory clear cursor home
mov dptr,#show1
acall read
mov a,#0c0h
acall command
mov dptr,#show3
acall read
acall delay ;
Stopage1 time 3 sec new delhi
acall delay
acall delay
mov a,#01h
acall command
mov dptr,#show2
acall read
mov a,#0c0h
acall command
mov dptr,#show4
acall read ;
acall delay ;Stopage1 time 3 sec new delhi
acall stepperf
mov a,#01h
acall command
mov dptr,#show1
acall delay
;Stopage2 time 3 sec greater noida
acall delay
acall delay
setb p3.3
; p1.0 ;off led at p1.0 for forward journey
clr p3.4 ; p1.1
; 0n Led for back ward journey
mov a,#01h
acall command
mov dptr,#show2
;display ne noida
acall read
mov a,#0c0h
acall command
mov dptr,#show4
acall read
acall stepperb
mov a,#01h
acall command
mov dptr,#show1
acall read
mov a,#0c0h
acall command
mov dptr,#show4
acall read
acall delay
;Stopage2 time 3 sec noida
acall delay
acall delay

mov a,#01h
acall command
mov dptr,#show2 ;display ne new delhi
acall read
mov a,#0c0h
acall command
mov dptr,#show3
acall read ;
acall delay
acall stepperb
mov a,#01h
acall command
mov dptr,#show1
acall read
mov a,#0c0h
acall command
mov dptr,#show3
acall read
setb p3.4 ;p1.1
ljmp here
;routine for stepper motor
; Delay Routine
delay:
push acc
push 00h
push 01h
push p0
push p1
mov r0,#0eh
loopr:
mov a,#0ffh
loopb:
mov b,#0ffh
loopa:
djnz b,loopa
djnz 0e0h,loopb
djnz r0,loopr
pop p1
pop p0
pop 01h
pop 00h
pop acc
ret ;
dlay stepper delays:
push acc
push 00h
push 01h
push p0
push p1
mov a,#0ffh

loopa1:
mov b,#0ffh
loopb1:
djnz b,
loopb1
djnz 0e0h,
loopa1
pop p1
pop p0
pop 01h
pop 00h
pop acc
ret
;++++++++++++Routine to read data from prog mem
read:
nex: clr a
movc a,@a+dptr
cjne a,#'0',aga
sjmp down
aga: acall display
;acall delay
inc dptr
sjmp nex
down:
;acall delay
ret
;================ stepper routine
stepperf:
push acc
push p1
mov a,#88h
; mov p2,a
mov r0,#0e0h
mov r1,#01h
loop:
mov p2,a
acall delays
rr a
dec r0
cjne r0,#00h,
loop
dec r1
cjne r1,#00h,
loop
pop p1
pop acc
ret
stepperb:
push acc
push p1
mov a,#88h
; mov p2,a
mov r0,#0e0h
mov r1,#01h
mov p2,a
acall delays
rl a
dec r0
cjne r0,#00h,
loop1
dec r1
cjne r1,#00h,
loop1
pop p1
pop acc
ret
end