Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

2.1- Introduction
In the previous chapter, heat conduction was defined as the transfer of
thermal energy from the more energetic particles of a medium to the
adjacent less energetic ones. Although heat transfer and temperature are
closely related, they are of a different nature. Unlike temperature, heat
transfer has direction as well as magnitude, and thus it is a vector
quantity as in Fig.(2.1). Therefore, we must specify both direction and
magnitude in order to describe heat transfer completely at a point.
2.1.1- Steady and Unsteady (Transient) Heat Transfer
The term steady implies no change with time at any point within the Fig.(2.1) Indicating direction of
heat transfer
medium, while transient implies variation with time or time dependence.
Therefore, the temperature or heat flux remains unchanged with time
during steady heat transfer through a medium at any location, although
both quantities may vary from one location to another, as in Fig.(2.2).
2.1.2- Multidimensional Heat Transfer
Heat transfer problems are also classified as being one-dimensional,
two-dimensional, or three-dimensional, depending on the relative
magnitudes of heat transfer rates in different directions and the level of
accuracy desired.
Note1- In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is
three-dimensional. That is, the temperature varies along all three
primary directions within the medium during the heat transfer process.
Note2- A heat transfer problem in that case is said to be two-
dimensional if the temperature in a medium varies mainly in two Fig.(2.2) Steady and transient
primary directions, while its variation in the third direction is too small heat conduction in a plane wall
or negligible, as in the steady temperature distribution in a long bar of
rectangular cross section which is shown in Fig.(2.3).
Note3- A heat transfer problem is said to be one-dimensional if the
temperature in the medium varies in one direction only and thus heat is
transferred in one direction, while its variation in the third direction is
too small or negligible. For example, heat transfer through the glass of a
window can be considered to be one-dimensional since heat transfer
through the glass will occur predominantly in one direction normal to
the surface of the glass and heat transfer in other is negligible as shown
in Fig.(2.4).
2.1.3- Heat Generation
In heat conduction analysis, if there is a medium through which heat
is conducted involves a conversion of electrical, nuclear, or chemical Fig.(2.3) Two-dimensional heat
transfer in a long rectangular bar
energy into heat (or thermal) energy, such conversion processes are
characterized as heat generation.
Note1- The temperature of a resistance wire rises rapidly when electric
current passes through it as a result of the electrical energy being
converted to heat at a rate of I2R, where I is the current and R is the
electrical resistance of the wire.
Note2- Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon. That is, it occurs
throughout the body of a medium. Therefore, the rate of heat generation
in a medium is usually specified per unit volume and is denoted by g and
whose unit is W/m3 or Btu/h · ft3.
Note3- In the special case of uniform heat generation, the total rate of
Fig.(2.4) Heat transfer through
heat generation in a medium of volume V can be determined from; a window of a house can be
G  g V (W ) (2.1) taken to be one-dimensional

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 41
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.2- General Heat Conduction Equation
2.2.1- Rectangular Coordinates
Consider a small rectangular volumetric element of
length Δx, width Δy, and height Δz, as shown in Fig.(2.5).
Assume the density of the body is ρ and the specific heat is
C. An energy balance on this element during a small time
interval Δt can be expressed as;
 E in   E out  G  E stored (2.2)
where E  & E represent the entered and left energy
in out
flow respectively to and from the volumetric element, and Fig.(2.5) Three-dimensional heat conduction
their values will be as follow; through a rectangular volumetric element

 E in  Q x  Q y  Q z (2.3.a)
 E   
out  Qx  x  Qy  y  Qz  z (2.3.b)
while G & E

stored represent the rate of heat generation and the rate of change of stored or accumulated

energy in the volumetric element. Noting that the volume of the element is Velement=Δx Δy Δz, thus, the
rate of heat generation within the element and the change in the energy content of the element can be
expressed as;
G  g Velement  g x y z (2.3.c)
E stored  E stored

Estored  t  t t
t
(T  Tt ) (T  Tt )
 m C t t   C x y z t t (2.3.d )
t t
By substituting Eqs.[(2.3.a), (2.3.b), (2.3.c) &(2.3.d)] into Eq.(2.2) we get;
(T  Tt )
Q x  Q y  Q z  Q xx  Q yy  Q z z  g x y z   C x y z t t
t
Dividing by Δx Δy Δz gives;
1 Q xx  Q x 1 Q y y  Q y 1 Q z z  Q z (T  Tt )
    g   C t t
y z x x z y x y z t
 (2.4)
By noting that the heat transfer areas of the element for heat conduction in the x, y, and z directions
are (Ax=ΔyΔz, Ay=ΔxΔz, and Az=ΔxΔy), respectively, and taking the limit as (Δx, Δy, Δz and Δt → 0)
to the terms in Eq.(2.4), where from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of heat
conduction yields;
1 Q xx  Q x 1 Q x 1   T    T 
lim     k y z    k 
x0 y z x y z x y z x  x  x  x 
1 Q y y  Q y 1 Q y 1   T    T 
lim     k x z     k 
y 0 x z y x z y x z y  y  y  y 
1 Q z z  Q z 1 Q z 1   T    T 
lim     k x y    k 
z 0 x y z x y z x y z  z  z  z 
(T  Tt ) T
lim t t 
t 0 t t
Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 41
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
By substituting the previous differential terms in Eq.(2.4), we get the general heat conduction equation
in rectangular coordinates as follow;
  T    T    T  T
k    k    k   g   C  (2.5)
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
Note1- In the case of constant thermal conductivity k, Eq.(2.5) reduces to;
 2T  2T  2T g 1 T
     (2.6)
x 2 y 2 z 2 k  t
Above equation is known as the Fourier-Biot equation, where the property α = k/ρC is again the
thermal diffusivity of the material.
Note2- Equation (2.6) can be reduced to the following forms under specified conditions;
(1) Steady-state:
 2T  2T  2T g
(called the Poisson equation)    0 (2.7.a)
x 2 y 2 z 2 k
(2) Transient, no heat generation:
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
(called the diffusion equation)     (2.7.b)
x 2 y 2 z 2  t
(3) Steady-state, no heat generation:
 2T  2T  2T
(called the Laplace equation)   0  (2.7.c)
x 2 y 2 z 2
2.2.2- Cylindrical Coordinates
The general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates can
be obtained from an energy balance on a volume element in cylindrical
coordinates, which is shown in Fig.(2.6), by following the steps just
outlined in rectangular coordinates. It can also be obtained directly
from Eq.(2.5) by coordinate transformation using the following
relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular and
cylindrical coordinate systems;
x = r cos Ø, y = r sin Ø, and z = z ...(2.8)
After lengthy manipulations, we obtain;
1   T  1   T    T  T
k r  2  k r    k   g   C
r r  r  r     z  z  t
 (2.8) Fig.(2.6) A differential volume element
in cylindrical coordinates

2.3- One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation

2.3.1- Heat Conduction Equation in a Large Plane Wall (Rectangular Coordinates)
Consider a thin element of thickness Δx in a large plane wall, as shown in Fig.(2.7). Assume the
density of the wall is ρ, the specific heat is C, and the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat
transfer is A. Because the large dimensions of the wall in (y & z) directions, So, we can neglect the
temperature variation with these directions from Eq.(2.5) to obtain the one-dimensional Fourier-Biot
equation in rectangular coordinates as follow;
  T  T
- Variable thermal conductivity k; k   g   C  (2.9.a)
x  x  t
 2T g 1 T
- Constant thermal conductivity k;    (2.9.b)
x 2 k  t
Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 41
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
Note- Eq.(2.9.b) can be reduced to the following forms under specified conditions;
 2T g
(1) Steady-state (∂/∂t =0):  0  (2.10.a)
x 2 k
 2T 1 T
(2) Transient, no heat generation ( g =0):   (2.10.b)
x 2  t
 2T
(3) Steady-state, no heat generation (∂/∂t =0 & g =0): 0  (2.10.c)
x 2
2.3.2- Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder (Cylindrical Coordinates)
Consider a thin cylindrical shell element of thickness Δr in a long cylinder, as shown in Fig.(2.8).
Assume the density of the cylinder is ρ, the specific heat is C, and the length is L. The area of the
cylinder normal to the direction of heat transfer at any location is A = 2πrL where r is the value of the
radius at that location. Note that the heat transfer area A depends on r in this case, and thus it varies
with location. So, By neglecting the temperature variation in the (Ø & z) directions from Eq.(2.8), we'll
obtain the one-dimensional Fourier-Biot equation in cylindrical coordinates as follow;
1   T  T
- Variable thermal conductivity k; k r   g   C  (2.11.a)
r r  r  t
1   T  g 1 T
- Constant thermal conductivity k; r    (2.11.b)
r r  r  k  t
Note- Eq.(2.11.b) can be reduced to the following forms under specified conditions;
1   T  g
(1) Steady-state (∂/∂t =0): r  0  (2.12.a)
r r  r  k
1   T  1 T
(2) Transient, no heat generation ( g =0): r   (2.12.b)
r r  r   t
1   T 
(3) Steady-state, no heat generation (∂/∂t =0 & g =0): r 0  (2.12.c)
r r  r 

Fig.(2.7) One-dimensional heat conduction Fig.(2.8) One-dimensional heat conduction

through a volume element in a large plane wall through a volume element in a long cylinder

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 41
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.3- Boundary and Initial Conditions
The heat conduction equations above were developed using an energy balance on a differential
element inside the medium, and they remain unuseful without the thermal conditions on the surfaces
of the medium, where the mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the boundaries are
called the boundary conditions.

2.3.1- Initial Conditions

The temperature at any point on a wall at a specified time depends on the condition of that surface at
the beginning of the heat conduction process. Such a condition, which is usually specified at time t = 0,
is called the initial condition, which is a mathematical expression for the temperature distribution of
the medium initially. In rectangular coordinates, the initial condition can be specified in the general
form as;
T ( x, y, z, 0)  f ( x, y, z) (2.13)
where the function f(x, y, z) represents the temperature distribution throughout the medium at time t=0.
Note1- We need only one initial condition for a heat conduction problem regardless of the dimension
since the conduction equation is first order in time (it involves the first derivative of temperature with
respect to time).
Note2- When the medium is initially at a uniform temperature of Ti, the initial condition of Eq.(2.13)
can be expressed as; T ( x, y, z, 0)  Ti .
Note3- Under steady conditions, the heat conduction equation does not involve any time derivatives,
and thus, we do not need to specify an initial condition.

2.3.2- Boundary Conditions

The heat conduction equation is second order in space coordinates, and thus a boundary condition
may involve first derivatives at the boundaries as well as specified values of temperature. Boundary
conditions most commonly encountered in practice are the specified temperature, specified heat flux,
convection, and radiation boundary conditions.
2.3.2.a- Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer through a plane wall of thickness L
as shown in Fig.(2.9), for example, the specified temperature boundary
conditions can be expressed as;
T (0, t )  T1 
  (2.14)
T ( L, t )  T2 
where T1 and T2 are the specified temperatures at surfaces at x=0 and x=L
respectively. Fig.(2.9) Specified temperature
2.3.2.b- Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition boundary conditions on both
surfaces of a plane wall
The heat flux q (heat transfer rate per unit surface area, W/m2) in the
positive x-direction anywhere in the medium, including the boundaries,
can be expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction as;
dT  Heat flux in the 
q  k    (W / m 2 ) (2.15)
dx  positive x - direction 
For a plane wall of thickness L subjected to heat fluxes q 0 and q L at
surfaces at x=0 and x=L respectively as shown in Fig.(2.10), for example,
Then the boundary condition at a boundaries is obtained as follow;
T (0, t ) T (0, t ) q 
q 0  k   0 
x x k 
  (2.16)
T ( L, t ) T ( L, t ) q L  Fig.(2.10) Specified heat flux
q L  k  
k 
boundary conditions on both
x x  surfaces of a plane wall

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 41
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
Note1- It is very important to have the correct sign for the specified heat
flux since the wrong sign will invert the direction of heat transfer and
cause the heat gain to be interpreted as heat loss as shown in Fig.(2.10).
Note2- There are some special cases of specified heat flux boundary
condition as follow;
- Special Case1: Insulated Boundary Condition
Some surfaces are commonly insulated in practice in order to minimize
heat loss (or heat gain) through them. Insulation reduces heat transfer but
does not totally eliminate it unless its thickness is infinity. However, heat
transfer through a properly insulated surface can be taken to be zero since
adequate insulation reduces heat transfer through a surface to negligible
levels. Therefore, a well-insulated surface can be modeled as a surface
with a specified heat flux of zero. Then the boundary condition on a
perfectly insulated surface at x = 0 as shown in Fig.(2.11), for example,
can be expressed as follow; Fig.(2.11) A plane wall with
T (0, t ) T (0, t ) insulation and specified
q0  k  0 , or; 0 (2.17) temperature boundary conditions
x x
That is, on an insulated surface, the first derivative of temperature with
respect to the space variable (the temperature gradient) in the direction
normal to the insulated surface is zero.
- Special Case2: Thermal Symmetry
Some heat transfer problems possess thermal symmetry as a result of
the symmetry in imposed thermal conditions. For example, the two
surfaces of a large hot plate of thickness L suspended vertically in air will
be subjected to the same thermal conditions, and thus the temperature
distribution in one half of the plate will be the same as that in the other
half. That is, the heat transfer problem in this plate will possess thermal
symmetry about the center plane at x = L/2. Therefore, the center plane
can be viewed as an insulated surface as shown in Fig.(2.12), where the
thermal condition at this plane of symmetry can be expressed as;
T ( L / 2, t )
0  (2.18)
x Fig.(2.12) Thermal symmetry
boundary condition at the center
2.3.2.c- Convection Boundary Condition plane of plane wall
The convection boundary condition is based on a surface energy
balance expressed as;
 Heat conduction   Heat convection 
   
 at the surface in a    at the surface in  (2.16.a)
 selected direction   the same direction 
   
For one-dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction in a plate of thickness
L as shown in Fig.(2.13), the convection boundary conditions on both
surfaces can be expressed as;
T (0, t ) 
k  h1 [T1  T (0, t )] 
x 
  (2.16.b)
T ( L, t )
k  h2 [T ( L, t )  T 2 ]
x 

where h1 and h2 are the convection heat transfer coefficients and T∞1 and Fig.(2.13) Convection boundary
conditions on the two surfaces
T∞2 are the temperatures of the surrounding mediums on the two sides of of a plane wall
the plate.
Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 41
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.3.2.d- Radiation Boundary Condition
Using an energy balance, the radiation boundary condition on a surface
can be expressed as;
 Heat conduction   Radiation exchange 
   
 at the surface in a    at the surface in the  (2.17.a)
 selected direction   same direction 
   
For one-dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction in a plate of thickness
L as shown in Fig.(2.14), the radiation boundary conditions on both
surfaces can be expressed as;
T (0, t ) 
k   1  [Tsurr
4
1  T( 0 , t ) ] 
4

x 
  (2.17.b)
T ( L, t )
k   2  [T( L , t )  Tsurr2 ]
4 4

x 
 Fig.(2.14) Radiation boundary
where ε1 and ε2 are the emissivities of the boundary surfaces, σ = 5.6 ×108 conditions on both surfaces of a
(W/m2 · K° 4) is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, and Tsurr1 and Tsurr2 are plane wall
the temperatures of the surfaces surrounding the two sides of the plate,
respectively.
2.3.2.e- Interface Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions at the interface of two bodies A and B in
perfect contact at x = x0, as shown in Fig.(2.15), can be expressed as;
TA ( x0 , t )  TB ( x0 , t ) 

TA ( x0 , t ) TB ( x0 , t )  (2.18)
 kA  k B 
x x 
where kA and kB are the thermal conductivities of the layers A and B,
respectively.
Note- The above conditions of perfect contact are based on the following
requirements;
(1) Two bodies in contact must have the same temperature at the
area of contact.
(2) An interface (which is a surface) cannot store any energy, and Fig.(2.15) Boundary conditions
thus, the heat flux on the two sides of an interface must be the at the interface of two bodies in
same. perfect contact

2.3.2.f- Generalized Boundary Conditions

In general, a surface may involve convection, radiation, and specified
heat flux simultaneously. So, the boundary condition in such cases is again
obtained from a surface energy balance, expressed as;
 Heat transfer   Heat transfer 
   
 to the surface    from the surface  (2.19)
 in all modes   in all mode 
   
2.4- Solution of Steady One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Problems
The solution procedure for solving heat conduction problems, as shown in
Fig.(2.17), can be summarized as;
(1) formulate the problem by obtaining the applicable differential
equation in its simplest form and specifying the boundary conditions.
(2) obtain the general solution of the differential equation. Fig.(2.17) Basic steps
(3) apply the boundary conditions and determine the arbitrary constants involved in the solution of
in the general solution. heat transfer problems

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 02
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

2.1-

Fig.(2.16).

Fig.(2.16) Schematic for

Example-2.1

2.2-

Fig.(2.17).

Fig.(2.17) Schematic for

Example-2.2

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 04
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 00
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.3-

as shown in Fig.(2.18).

Fig.(2.18) Schematic
for Example-2.3

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 02
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

2.4-

Fig.(2.19).

Fig.(2.19) Schematic for

Example-2.4

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 01
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

as shown in Fig.(2.20);

Fig.(2.20) The boundary

conditions on the base plate
of the iron discussed in
Example-2.4

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 01
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

2.5-

Fig.(2.21).

Fig.(2.21) Schematic for

Example-2.5

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 01
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

Fig.(2.22);

Fig.(2.22) A simple method of

solving a nonlinear equation is
to arrange the equation such
that the unknown is alone on
the left side while everything
else is on the right side, and to
iterate after an initial guess
until convergence

2.6-

(2.23).
Fig.(2.23) Schematic
for Example-2.6

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 01
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 01
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.5- Heat Generation in a Solid
Consider a solid medium of surface area As, volume V, and constant
thermal conductivity k, where heat is generated at a constant rate of g per
unit volume. Heat is transferred from the solid to the surrounding medium at
T∞, with a constant heat transfer coefficient of h. All the surfaces of the solid
are maintained at a common temperature Ts as shown in Fig.(2.24). Under
steady conditions, the energy balance for this solid can be expressed as;
 Rate of   Rate of 
   
 heat transfer    energy generation  (2.20)
 from the solid   within the solid  Fig.(2.24) At steady
    conditions, the entire heat
Note- from above equation we can compute the quantities of major interest in generated in a solid must
a medium with heat generation, such as; the surface temperature Ts and the leave the solid through its
outer surface
maximum temperature Tmax that occurs in the medium in steady operation.

2.7-

Fig.(2.25).

Fig.(2.25) Schematic for

Example-2.7

as follow;

2.8-

Fig.(2.26).

Fig.(2.26) Schematic for

Example-2.8

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 01
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation

( 2.7 ),

The boundary conditions of the present problem will be as follow;

Multiplying both sides of the equation by r and rearranging, we obtain;

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 22
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.9-

as in Fig.(2.27).

Fig.(2.27) Schematic
for Example-2.9

(2.8),

(2.6),

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 24
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.6- Variable Thermal Conductivity, k (T)
As we say in chapter1 that the thermal conductivity of a material, in
general, varies with temperature Fig.(2.28). In such cases, we can use an
average value for the thermal conductivity and treat it as a constant,
where if the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature k(T) is
known, then the average value of the thermal conductivity in the
temperature range between T1 and T2 can be determined from;
T2

k ave 
 T1
k (T ) dT
(2.21)
T2  T1
Note- The variation in thermal conductivity of a material with
temperature in the temperature range of interest can often be
approximated as;
k (T )  k0 (1   T ) (2.22)
where β is called the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity.
The average value of thermal conductivity in the temperature range T1
to T2 in this case can be determined from;
T2 Fig.(2.28) Variation of the

k ave 
 k0 (1   T ) dT
 T  T2 
 k 0 1   1
thermal conductivity of some
  k (Tave )
T1
solids with temperature
T2  T1  2 
 (2.23)
Note that the average thermal conductivity in this case is equal to the
thermal conductivity value at the average temperature.

2.10-

as shown in Fig.(2.29).

Fig.(2.29) Schematic for

Example-2.10

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 20
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.1- Consider a large plane wall of thickness 2.4- Consider a steam pipe of length L= 15ft,
L=0.4m, thermal conductivity k = 2.3 W/m ·C°, inner radius r1 = 2in, outer radius r2 = 2.4in, and
and surface area A =20m2. The left side of the thermal conductivity k = 7.2 Btu/h · ft ·F°. Steam
wall is maintained at a constant temperature of is flowing through the pipe at an average
T1=80C° while the right side loses heat by temperature of 250F°, and the average
convection to the surrounding air at T∞=15C° convection heat transfer coefficient on the inner
with a heat transfer coefficient of h=24 W/m2·C°. surface is given to be h=1.25 Btu/h· ft2 ·F°. If the
Assuming constant thermal conductivity and no average temperature on the outer surfaces of the
heat generation in the wall, (a) express the pipe is T2=160F°, (a) express the differential
differential equation and the boundary conditions equation and the boundary conditions for steady
for steady one-dimensional heat conduction one-dimensional heat conduction through the
through the wall, (b) obtain a relation for the pipe, (b) obtain a relation for the variation of
variation of temperature in the wall by solving temperature in the pipe by solving the differential
the differential equation, and (c) evaluate the rate equation, and (c) evaluate the rate of heat loss
of heat transfer through the wall. from the steam through the pipe.
Answer: (c) 6030 W Answer: (c) 16,800 Btu/h
2.2- Consider a solid cylindrical rod of length
0.15m and diameter 0.05m. The top and bottom
surfaces of the rod are maintained at constant
temperatures of 20C° and 95C°, respectively,
while the side surface is perfectly insulated.
Determine the rate of heat transfer through the
rod if it is made of (a) copper, k = 380 W/m ·C°,
(b) steel, k = 18 W/m ·C°, and (c) granite, k = 1.2
W/m ·C°.
Answers: 373.1 W, 17.7 W, 1.2 W
2.3- Consider the base plate of a 800W household 2.5- Consider a large plane wall of thickness
iron with a thickness of L = 0.6cm, base area of L=0.3m, thermal conductivity k=2.5W/m·C°, and
A=160cm2, and thermal conductivity of k =20 surface area A=12 m2. The left side of the wall at
W/m ·C°. The inner surface of the base plate is x=0 is subjected to a net heat flux of q 0 =700
subjected to uniform heat flux generated by the
W/m2 while the temperature at that surface is
resistance heaters inside. When steady operating
measured to be T1=80C°. Assuming constant
conditions are reached, the outer surface
thermal conductivity and no heat generation in
temperature of the plate is measured to be 85C°.
the wall, (a) express the differential equation and
Disregarding any heat loss through the upper part
the boundary conditions for steady one-
of the iron, (a) express the differential equation
dimensional heat conduction through the wall, (b)
and the boundary conditions for steady one-
obtain a relation for the variation of temperature
dimensional heat conduction through the plate,
in the wall by solving the differential equation,
(b) obtain a relation for the variation of
and (c) evaluate the temperature of the right
temperature in the base plate by solving the
surface of the wall at x=L. Answer: (c) -4C°
differential equation, and (c) evaluate the inner
surface temperature. Answer: (c) 100C°

2.6- Repeat Prob.(2.5) for a heat flux of 950

W/m2 and a surface temperature of 85C° at the
left surface at x=0. Answer: (c) -29C°
Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 22
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.7- A large steel plate having a thickness of 2.10- A 2kW resistance heater wire with thermal
L=4in, thermal conductivity of k=7.2 Btu/h·ft·F°, conductivity of k =20 W/m ·C°, a diameter of
and an emissivity of ε=0.6 is lying on the ground. D=5mm, and a length of L=0.7m is used to boil
The exposed surface of the plate at x=L is known water. If the outer surface temperature of the
to exchange heat by convection with the ambient resistance wire is Ts=110C°, determine the
air at T∞=90F° with an average heat transfer temperature at the center of the wire.
coefficient of h =12 Btu/h ·ft2 ·F° as well as by Answer: 121.4 C°
radiation with the open sky with an equivalent 2.11- A long homogeneous resistance wire of
sky temperature of Tsky=510R°. Also, the radius r0=0.25in and thermal conductivity k =8.6
temperature of the upper surface of the plate is Btu/h ·ft ·F° is being used to boil water at
measured to be 75F°. Assuming steady one- atmospheric pressure by the passage of electric
dimensional heat transfer, (a) obtain a relation for current. Heat is generated in the wire uniformly
the variation of temperature in the plate by as a result of resistance heating at a rate of
solving the conduction differential equation, and g =1800 Btu/h ·in3. The heat generated is
(b) determine the value of the lower surface transferred to water at 212F° by convection with
temperature of the plate at x=0. an average heat transfer coefficient of h=820
Answer: (b) 67.3 F° Btu/h ·ft2 ·F°. Assuming steady one-dimensional
heat transfer, (a) obtain a relation for the
variation of temperature in the wire by solving
the differential equation, and (b) determine the
temperature at the centerline of the wire.
Answer: (b) 290.8F°

2.8- Repeat Prob.(2.7) by disregarding radiation

heat transfer. Answer: (b) 66.7 F°
2.12- Consider a large 3cm-thick stainless steel
2.9- Consider a compressed air pipe of length plate (k=15.1 W/m·C°) in which heat is generated
L=6m, inner radius r1=3.7cm, outer radius uniformly at a rate of 5×105 W/m3. Both sides of
r2=4cm, and thermal conductivity k =14 W/m ·C° the plate are exposed to an environment at 30C°
equipped with a 300W strip heater. Air is flowing with a heat transfer coefficient of 60 W/m2·C°.
through the pipe at an average temperature of Explain where in the plate the highest and the
-10C°, and the average convection heat transfer lowest temperatures will occur, and determine
coefficient on the inner surface is h=30 W/m2·C°. their values. Answers: 155 C°, 158.7 C°
Assuming 15% of the heat generated in the strip
2.13- Consider a large 5cm-thick brass plate
heater is lost through the insulation, (a) obtain a
(k=111W/m·C°) in which heat is generated
relation for the variation of temperature in the
uniformly at a rate of 2×105 W/m3. One side of
pipe material by solving the steady one-
the plate is insulated while the other side is
dimensional heat conduction differential
exposed to an environment at 25C° with a heat
equation, and (b) evaluate the inner and outer
transfer coefficient of 44W/m2·C°. Explain where
surface temperatures of the pipe.
in the plate the highest and the lowest
Answers: (b) -3.91C°, -3.87C°
temperatures will occur, and determine their
values. Answers: 252.3 C°, 254.5 C°
2.14- A 6m-long, 2kW electrical resistance wire
is made of 0.2cm-diameter stainless steel (k =
15.1 W/m ·C°). The resistance wire operates in an
environment at 30C° with a heat transfer
coefficient of 140W/m2 ·C° at the outer surface.
Determine the surface temperature of the wire.
Answer: 409 C°
Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 21
Chapter Two Heat Conduction Equation
2.15- Consider a cylindrical shell of length L, surface are not known. However, the outer
inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 whose thermal surface of the wall at x=L, whose emissivity is ε
conductivity varies linearly in a specified =0.7, is known to exchange heat by convection
temperature range as k(T)=k0(1+ β T) where k0 with ambient air at T∞=25C° with an average heat
and β are two specified constants. The inner transfer coefficient of h=14 W/m2 ·C° as well as
surface of the shell is maintained at a constant by radiation with the surrounding surfaces at an
temperature of T1 while the outer surface is average temperature of Tsurr=290K°. Further, the
maintained at T2. Assuming steady one- temperature of the outer surface is measured to be
dimensional heat transfer, obtain a relation for (a) T2= 45C°. Assuming steady one-dimensional
the heat transfer rate through the shell and (b) the heat transfer, (a) obtain a relation for the
temperature distribution T(r) through the shell. temperature of the outer surface of the plate by
solving the conduction differential equation, and
2.16- Consider a cylindrical shell of length L, (b) evaluate the inner surface temperature of the
inner radius r1, and outer radius r2 whose thermal wall at x=0. Answer: (b) 64.3C°
conductivity varies in a specified temperature
range as k(T)=k0(1+ β T 2) where k0 and β are
two specified constants. The inner surface of the
shell is maintained at a constant temperature of
T1 while the outer surface is maintained at T2.
Assuming steady one-dimensional heat transfer,
obtain a relation for the heat transfer rate through
the shell.

2.17- Consider a 1.5m-high and 0.6m-wide plate 2.20- A 1000W iron is left on the iron board with
whose thickness is 0.15m. One side of the plate is its base exposed to ambient air at 20C°. The base
maintained at a constant temperature of 500K plate of the iron has a thickness of L=0.5cm, base
while the other side is maintained at 350K. The area of A=150cm2, and thermal conductivity of
thermal conductivity of the plate can be assumed k=18 W/m ·C°. The inner surface of the base
to vary linearly in that temperature range as k(T) plate is subjected to uniform heat flux generated
=k0(1+β T) where k0 =25W/m·K and β = 8.7×10-4 by the resistance heaters inside. The outer surface
K-1. Assuming steady one-dimensional heat of the base plate whose emissivity is ε=0.7, loses
transfer, determine the rate of heat conduction heat by convection to ambient air at T∞ = 22C°
through the plate. Answer: 30,800 W with an average heat transfer coefficient of h =
30W/m2·C° as well as by radiation to the
2.18- Consider a steam pipe of length L, inner surrounding surfaces at an average temperature of
radius r1, outer radius r2, and constant thermal Tsurr =290K°. Disregarding any heat loss through
conductivity k. Steam flows inside the pipe at an the upper part of the iron. Assuming steady one-
average temperature of Ti with a convection heat dimensional heat transfer, (a) obtain a relation for
transfer coefficient of hi. The outer surface of the the temperature of the outer surface of the plate
pipe is exposed to convection to the surrounding by solving the conduction differential equation,
air at a temperature of To with a heat transfer and (b) evaluate the outer surface temperature.
coefficient of ho. Assuming steady one- Answer: (b) 758 C°
dimensional heat conduction through the pipe, (a)
obtain a relation for the variation of temperature
in the pipe material by solving the conduction
differential equation, and (b) obtain a relation for
the temperature of the outer surface of the pipe.

2.19- Consider a large plane wall of thickness

L=0.4m and thermal conductivity k =8.4W/m·C°.
There is no access to the inner side of the wall at
x =0 and thus the thermal conditions on that

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 21
Table (1.1)
The thermal
conductivity
of an alloyChapter
is Two Heat Conduction Equation
usually much
lower than2.21- Consider a long resistance wire of radius
the thermalr1=0.3cm and thermal conductivity kwire =18 W/m
conductivity
of its
·C° in which heat is generated uniformly at a
components constant rate of g  1.5 W/cm3 as a result of
resistance heating. The wire is embedded in a
0.4cm-thick layer of plastic whose thermal
conductivity is kplastic=1.8W/m·C°. The outer
surface of the plastic cover loses heat by
convection to the ambient air at T∞=25C° with an
average combined heat transfer coefficient of h =
14W/m2·C°. Assuming one-dimensional heat
transfer, determine the temperatures at the center
of the resistance wire and the wire-plastic layer
interface under steady conditions.
Answers: 97.1C°, 97.3C°

2.22- Consider a 20cm-thick large concrete plane

wall (k = 0.77 W/m ·C°) subjected to convection
on both sides with T1 = 27C° and h1 = 5 W/m2
·C° on the inside, and T2 = 8C° and h2 = 12 W/m2
·C° on the outside. Assuming constant thermal
conductivity with no heat generation and
negligible radiation. (a) express the differential
equations and the boundary conditions for steady
one-dimensional heat conduction through the
wall, (b) obtain a relation for the variation of
temperature in the wall by solving the differential
equation, and (c) evaluate the temperatures at the
inner and outer surfaces of the wall.
Answers: 20C°, 10.9C°

2.23- Consider a water pipe of length L = 12m,

inner radius r1 =15cm, outer radius r2 =20cm, and
thermal conductivity k = 20 W/m ·C°. Heat is
generated in the pipe material uniformly by a
25kW electric resistance heater. The inner and
outer surfaces of the pipe are at T1 = 60C° and T2
= 80C°, respectively. Obtain a general relation
for temperature distribution inside the pipe under
steady conditions and determine the temperature
at the center plane of the pipe.
Answer: 71.2C°

Dr. Nabeel AlZurfi Mechanical Engineering Dept./ Branch of Air-conditioning and Refrigeration … 21