SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

MODULE-4

HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that may, or tend to cause adverse health effects on the
ecosystem and human beings. These wastes pose present or potential risks to human health or
living organisms, due to the fact that they:
 are non-degradable or persistent in nature
 can be biologically magnified
 Are highly toxic and even lethal at very low concentrations.

Identification

By using either or both of the following criteria, we can identify as to whether or not a waste is
hazardous:
 The list provided by government agencies declaring that substance as hazardous.
 Characteristics such as ignitibility, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity of the substance.

Characteristics of hazardous wastes

The regulations define characteristic hazardous wastes as wastes that exhibit measurable
properties posing sufficient threats to warrant regulation. For a waste to be deemed a
characteristic hazardous waste, it must cause, or significantly contribute to, an increased
mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness, or pose a
substantial hazard or threat of a hazard to human health or the environment, when it is
improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise mismanaged.

1. Ignitability: A waste is an ignitable hazardous waste, if it has a flash point of less than
60C; readily catches fire and burns so vigorously as to create a hazard or is an ignitable
compressed gas or an oxidizer. A simple method of determining the flash point of a waste
is to review the material safety data sheet, which can be obtained from the manufacturer
or distributor of the material. Naphtha, lacquer thinner, epoxy resins, adhesives and oil
based paints are all examples of ignitable hazardous wastes.

2. Corrosivity: A liquid waste which has a pH of less than or equal to 2 or greater than or
equal to 12.5 considered to be a corrosive hazardous waste. Sodium hydroxide, a caustic
solution with a high pH, is often used by many industries to clean or degrease metal parts.
Hydrochloric acid, a solution with a low pH, is used by many industries to clean metal
parts prior to painting. When these caustic or acid solutions are disposed of, the waste is a
corrosive hazardous waste.

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3. Reactivity: A material is considered a reactive hazardous waste, if it is unstable, reacts

violently with water, generates toxic gases when exposed to water or corrosive materials,
or if it is capable of detonation or explosion when exposed to heat or a flame. Examples
of reactive wastes would be waste gunpowder, sodium metal or wastes containing
cyanides or sulphides.

4. Toxicity: To determine if a waste is a toxic hazardous waste, a representative sample of

the material must be subjected to a test conducted in a certified laboratory. The toxic
characteristic identifies wastes that are likely to leach dangerous concentrations of toxic
chemicals into ground water.

CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous wastes are classified as:

1. Radioactive substance: Substances that emit ionizing radiation are radioactive. Such
substances are hazardous because prolonged exposure to radiation often results in
damage to living organisms. Radioactive substances are of special concern because they
persist for a long period.
2. Chemicals: Most hazardous chemical wastes can be classified into four groups: synthetic
organics, inorganic metals, salts, acids and bases, and flammables and explosives. Some
of the chemicals are hazardous because they are highly toxic to most life forms. When
such hazardous compounds are present in a waste stream at levels equal to, or greater
than, their threshold levels, the entire waste stream is identified as hazardous.
3. Biomedical wastes: The principal sources of hazardous biological wastes are hospitals
and biological research facilities. This group mainly includes malignant tissues discarded
during surgical procedures and contaminated materials, such as hypodermic needles,
bandages and outdated drugs.
4. Flammable wastes: Most flammable wastes are also identified as hazardous chemical
wastes. This dual grouping is necessary because of the high potential hazard in storing,
collecting and disposing of flammable wastes. These wastes may be liquid, gaseous or
solid, but most often they are liquids. Typical examples include organic solvents, oils,
plasticizers and organic sludge’s.
5. Explosives: Explosive hazardous wastes are mainly ordnance (artillery) materials, i.e.,
the wastes resulting from ordnance manufacturing and some industrial gases. Similar to
flammables, these wastes also have a high potential for hazard in storage, collection and
disposal, and therefore, they should be considered separately in addition to being listed as
hazardous chemicals. These wastes may exist in solid, liquid or gaseous form.

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Sources of Hazardous Waste

The term hazardous waste often includes by-products of industrial, domestic, commercial, and
health care activities. Rapid development and improvement of various industrial technologies,
products and practices may increase hazardous waste generation. Major hazardous waste sources
and their pollution routes in the environment are listed below.
 Agricultural land and agro-industry: Hazardous wastes from agricultural land and
agro-industry can expose people to pesticides, fertilizers and hazardous veterinary
product wastes. Farms are a major source of these wastes, and agrochemicals can leach
into the environment while in storage or can cause damage after their application.
 Domestic: Households stock various hazardous substances such as batteries and dry cells,
furniture polishes, wood preservatives, stain removers, paint thinners, rat poisons,
herbicides and pesticides, mosquito repellents, paints, disinfectants, and fuels (i.e.
kerosene) and other automotive products. These can present a variety of dangers during
storage, use and disposal.
 Mines and mineral processing sites: Mining and mineral processing sites handle
hazardous products that are present in the additives, the products and the wastes.
 Health care facilities: Health care facilities are sources of pathological waste, human
blood and contaminated needles. Specific sources of these wastes include dentists,
morticians, veterinary clinics, home health care, blood banks, hospitals, clinics and
medical laboratories.
 Commercial wastes: Commercial waste sources include gasoline stations, dry cleaners
and automobile repair shops (workshops). The types of hazardous wastes generated by
these sources depend on the services provided.
 Institutional hazardous waste sources: Institutional hazardous waste sources are mainly
research laboratories, research centers and military installations. Some military
installations are used for the manufacture and storage of ammunition, and they are also
used as testing grounds for military hardware. Military establishments also carry out
activities that generate other types of hazardous wastes of household, commercial and
industrial nature.
 Industrial hazardous waste sources: Hazardous wastes are created by many industrial
activities. For example, the hazardous wastes from the petroleum fuel industry include
the refinery products (fuels and tar), impurities like phenol and cyanides in the waste
stream, and sludge flushed from the storage tanks.
 Solid waste disposal sites: These are mainly disposal sites for municipal solid waste, but
hazardous wastes that have not been properly separated from other wastes are also at
these sites. In developing countries, solid waste disposal sites are a major source of
pollutant-laden leachate to surrounding areas, as well as recyclable materials for
scavengers, who can collect and resell waste materials that have been exposed to or that
contain hazardous substances.

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Sources of Hazardous waste

Waste Category Sources

Biomedical research facilities, colleges and university laboratories,
Radioactive substances
offices, hospitals, nuclear power plants, etc.
Agricultural chemical companies, battery shops, car washes,
chemical shops, college and university laboratories, construction
companies, electric utilities, hospitals and clinics, industrial cooling
Toxic chemicals
towers, newspaper and photographic solutions, nuclear power
plants, pest control agencies, photographic processing facilities,
plating shops, service stations, etc.
Biomedical research facilities, drug companies, hospitals, medical
Biological wastes
clinics, etc.
Dry cleaners, petroleum reclamation plants, petroleum refining and
Flammable wastes processing facilities, service stations, tanker truck cleaning stations,
etc.
Explosives Construction companies, dry cleaners, ammunition production
facilities, etc.

Storage and collection of Hazardous waste

Onsite storage practices are a function of the types and amounts of hazardous wastes generated
and the period over which generation occurs. Usually, when large quantities are generated,
special facilities are used that have sufficient capacity to hold wastes accumulated over a period
of several days. When only a small amount is generated, the waste can be containerized, and
limited quantity may be stored. Containers and facilities used in hazardous waste storage and
handling are selected on the basis of waste characteristics. For example, corrosive acids or
caustic solutions are stored in fibre glass or glass-lined containers to prevent deterioration of
metals in the container. Great care must also be exercised to avoid storing incompatible wastes in
the same container or locations.

Typical drum containers used for the storage of hazardous waste:

Light-Gauge Closed Head Drum

Light-Gauge Open Head Drum

The waste generator, or a specialized hauler, generally collects the hazardous waste for delivery
to a treatment or disposal site. The loading of collection vehicles is completed in either of the
following ways:
 Wastes stored in large-capacity tanks are either drained or pumped into collection
vehicles;

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 Wastes stored in sealed drums or sealed containers are loaded by hand or by mechanical
equipment onto flatbed trucks.
The stored containers are transported unopened to the treatment and disposal facility. To avoid
accidents and the possible loss of life, two collectors should be assigned when hazardous wastes
are to be collected. The equipment used for collection vary with the waste characteristics.

Equipment for Collection of Hazardous Waste

Waste Category Collection equipment and accessories

Radioactive substances Various types of trucks and railroad equipment depending on
characteristics of wastes; special marking to show safety hazard;
heavy loading equipment to handle concrete-encased lead
containers.
Toxic chemicals Flatbed trucks for wastes stored in drums; tractor-trailer tank truck
combination for large volumes of wastes; railroad tank cars;
special interior linings such as glass, fibreglass or rubber.
Biological wastes Standard packers’ collection truck with some special precautions
to prevent contact between wastes and the collector; flatbed trucks
for wastes stored in drums.
Flammable wastes Same as those for toxic chemicals, with special colorings and
safety warning printed on vehicles.
Explosives Same as those for toxic chemicals with some restriction on
transport routes, especially through residential areas.

HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT

The various options for hazardous waste treatment can be categorized under physical, chemical,
thermal and biological treatments.

Physical and chemical treatment

1. Filtration and separation: Filtration is a method for separating solid particles from a
liquid using a porous medium. The driving force in filtration is a pressure gradient,
caused by gravity, centrifugal force, vacuum, or pressure greater than atmospheric
pressure. The application of filtration for treatment of hazardous waste fall into the
following categories:

 Clarification, in which suspended solid particles less than 100 ppm (parts per million)
concentration are removed from an aqueous stream. This is usually accomplished by
depth filtration and cross-flow filtration

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and the primary aim is to produce a clear aqueous effluent, which can either be discharged
directly, or further processed. The suspended solids are concentrated in a reject stream.

 Dewatering of slurries of typically 1% to 30 % solids by weight. Here, the aim is to

concentrate the solids into a phase or solid form for disposal or further treatment. This is
usually accomplished by cake filtration. The filtration treatment, for example, can be
used for neutralization of strong acid with lime or limestone, or precipitation of dissolved
heavy metals as carbonates or sulphate followed by settling and thickening of the
resulting precipitated solids as slurry. The slurry can be dewatered by cake filtration and
the effluent from the settling step can be filtered by depth filtration prior to discharge

2. Chemical precipitation: This is a process by which the soluble substance is converted to

an insoluble form either by a chemical reaction or by change in the composition of the
solvent to diminish the solubility of the substance in it. Settling and/or filtration can then
remove the precipitated solids. In the treatment of hazardous waste, the process has a
wide applicability in the removal of toxic metal from aqueous wastes by converting them
to an insoluble form. This includes wastes containing arsenic, barium, cadmium,
chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium and zinc. The sources
of wastes containing metals are metal plating and polishing, inorganic pigment, mining
and the electronic industries. Hazardous wastes containing metals are also generated from
cleanup of uncontrolled hazardous waste sites, e.g., leachate or contaminated ground
water.

3. Chemical oxidation and reduction (redox): In these reactions, the oxidation state of
one reactant is raised, while that of the other reactant is lowered. When electrons are
removed from an ion, atom, or molecule, the substance is oxidised and when electrons
are added to a substance, it is reduced. Such reactions are used in treatment of metal-
bearing wastes, sulphides, cyanides and chromium and in the treatment of many organic
wastes such as phenols, pesticides and sulphur containing compounds. Since these
treatment processes involve chemical reactions, both reactants are generally in solution.
However, in some cases, a solution reacts with a slightly soluble solid or gas.

4. Evaporation: Evaporation is defined as the conversion of a liquid from a solution or

slurry into vapour. All evaporation systems require the transfer of sufficient heat from a
heating medium to the process fluid to vaporise the volatile solvent. Evaporation is used
in the treatment of hazardous waste and the process equipment is quite flexible and can
handle waste in various forms – aqueous, slurries, sludges and tars. Evaporation is
commonly used as a pre-treatment method to decrease quantities of material for final
treatment. It is also used in cases where no other treatment method was found to be
practical, such as in the concentration of trinitrotoluene (TNT) for subsequent
incineration.
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Thermal treatment

Incineration: Incineration can be regarded as either a pre-treatment of hazardous waste, prior to

final disposal or as a means of valorizing waste by recovering energy. It includes both the
burning of mixed solid waste or burning of selected parts of the waste stream as a fuel. The
concept of treating hazardous waste is similar to that of municipal solid waste.

Pyrolysis: This is defined as the chemical decomposition or change brought about by heating in
the absence of oxygen. This is a thermal process for transformation of solid and liquid
carbonaceous materials into gaseous components and the solid residue containing fixed carbon
and ash. The application of pyrolysis to hazardous waste treatment leads to a two-step process
for disposal. In the first step, wastes are heated separating the volatile contents (e.g., combustible
gases, water vapour, etc.) from non-volatile char and ash. In the second step volatile components
are burned under proper conditions to assure incineration of all hazardous components.
To elaborate, pyrolysis is applicable to hazardous waste treatment, as it provides a precise
control of the combustion process. The first step of pyrolysis treatment is endothermic and
generally done at 425 to 760C. The heating chamber is called the pyrolyser. Hazardous organic
compounds can be volatilized at this low temperature, leaving a clean residue. In the second step,
the volatiles are burned in a fume incinerator to achieve destruction efficiency of more than 99%.
Separating the process into two very controllable steps allows precise temperature control and
makes it possible to build simpler equipment. The pyrolysis process can be applied to solids,
sludge’s and liquid wastes. Wastes with the following characteristics are especially amenable to
pyrolysis:
 Sludge material that is either too viscous, too abrasive or varies too much in consistency
to be atomized in an incinerator.
 Wastes such as plastic, which undergo partial or complete phase changes during thermal
processing.
 High-residue materials such as high-ash liquid and sludge’s, with light, easily entrained
solids that will generally require substantial stack gas clean up.
 Materials containing salts and metals, which melt and volatilize at normal incineration
temperatures. Materials like sodium chloride (NaCl), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb), when
incinerated may cause refractory spalling and fouling of the heat-exchanger surface.

Biological treatment

1. Land treatment: This is a waste treatment and disposal process, where a waste is mixed
with or incorporated into the surface soil and is degraded, transformed or immobilised
through proper management. The other terminologies used commonly include land
cultivation, land farming, land application and sludge spreading. Compared to other land
disposal options (e.g., landfill and surface impoundments), land treatment has lower long-

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term monitoring, maintenance and potential clean up liabilities and because of this, it has
received considerable attention as an ultimate disposal method. It is a dynamic,
management-intensive process involving waste, site, soil, climate and biological activity
as a system to degrade and immobilise waste constituents. In land treatment, the organic
fraction must be biodegradable at reasonable rates to minimise environmental problems
associated with migration of hazardous waste constituents.

2. Enzymatic systems: Enzymes are complex proteins ubiquitous in nature. These proteins,
composed of amino acids, are linked together via peptide bonds. Enzymes capable of
transforming hazardous waste chemicals to non-toxic products can be harvested from
microorganisms grown in mass culture. Such crude enzyme extracts derived from
microorganisms have been shown to convert pesticides into less toxic and persistent
products. The reaction of detoxifying enzymes are not limited to intracellular conditions
but have been demonstrated through the use of immobilised enzyme extracts on several
liquid waste streams. The factors of moisture, temperature, aeration, soil structure,
organic matter content, seasonal variation and the availability of soil nutrients influence
the presence and abundance of enzymes.

Disposal

Regardless of their form (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas), most hazardous waste is disposed off either
near the surface or by deep burial.
Although, controlled landfill methods have been proved adequate for disposing of municipal
solid waste and limited amounts of hazardous waste, they are not suitable enough for the disposal
of a large quantity of hazardous waste, due to the following reasons:
 possible percolation of toxic liquid waste to the ground water;
 dissolution of solids followed by leaching and percolation to the ground water;
 potential for undesirable reactions in the landfill that may lead to the development of
explosive or toxic gases;
 Corrosion of containers with hazardous wastes.

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E-WASTE

Electronics Waste: Popularly known as E Waste can be defined as electronic and electrical
equipment’s / Products (Including the connecting power plug and batteries) which has been
obsolete due to:
i. Changes in fashion, style and status
ii. Nearing the end of their useful lifes

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Treating E-Waste
As of now, there are no proper methods being implemented even in the first world to eliminate
the problem of e-waste.

 The two methods found to be interesting for proper treatment of e-waste

are recycling and refurbishing.
 For recycling, there may be products that cannot be recycled completely. PVC layers, for
example, stay as such for ages and cannot be recycled. It would be better if the
manufacturers use recyclable material so that the e-waste is converted into something that
can be used again without harming the planet and its inhabitants. Thus, one of the major
factors in treating e-waste is to compel manufacturers to use green elements.
 If electronics are refurbished, they can be sold again at a lower price. Thus, both the
society and environment will benefit. Instead of simply dumping your old TV into the
garbage bin, you might want to think about calling the vendor and ask him where to
present the item for refurbishing. If you cannot find, consider donating the item to some
charity that can either use it as such or get it repaired and use it. I do not think it is a
practice well implemented, but it would be nice if all vendors provide a refurbishing
facility.

E -Waste Disposal Methods

 LANDFILLING
This is the most common methodology of e-waste disposal. Soil is excavated and trenches are
made for burying the e-waste in it. An impervious liner is made of clay or plastic with a leachate
basin for collection and transferring the e-waste to the treatment plant. However, landfill is not
an environmentally sound process for disposing off the e-waste as toxic substances like
cadmium, lead and mercury are released inside the soil and ground water.

 ACID BATH
Acid bath involves soaking of the electronic circuits in the powerful sulphuric, hydrochloric or
nitric acid solutions that free the metals from the electronic pathways. The recovered metal is
used in the manufacturing of other products while the hazardous acid waste finds its ways in the
local water sources.

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 INCINERATION
This is a controlled way of disposing off the e-waste and it involves combustion of electronic
waste at high temperature in specially designed incinerators. This e-waste disposal method is
quite advantageous as the waste volume is reduced extremely much and the energy obtained is
also utilized separately. However, it is also not free from disadvantages with the emission of the
harmful gases mercury and cadmium in the environment.

Step-by Step Process of E-waste Recycling

The e-waste recycling process is highly labor intensive and goes through several steps. Below is
the step-by-step process of how e-waste is recycled,

1. Picking Shed - When the e-waste items arrive at the recycling plants, the first step
involves sorting all the items manually. Batteries are removed for quality check.
2. Disassembly - After sorting by hand, the second step involves a serious labor
intensive process of manual dismantling. The e-waste items are taken apart to retrieve
all the parts and then categorized into core materials and components. The dismantled
items are then separated into various categories into parts that can be re-used or still
continue the recycling processes.

3. First size reduction process -Here, items that cannot be dismantled efficiently are
shredded together with the other dismantled parts to pieces less than 2 inches in
diameter. It is done in preparation for further categorization of the finer e-waste
pieces.

4. Second size reduction process - The finer e-waste particles are then evenly spread
out through an automated shaking process on a conveyor belt. The well spread out e-
waste pieces are then broken down further. At this stage, any dust is extracted and
discarded in a way that does not degrade the environmentally.

5. Over-band Magnet - At this step, over-band magnet is used to remove all the
magnetic materials including steel and iron from the e-waste debris.

6. Non-metallic and metallic components separation. - The sixth step is the separation
of metals and non-metallic components. Copper, aluminum, and brass are separated
from the debris to only leave behind non-metallic materials. The metals are either sold
as raw materials or re-used for fresh manufacture.

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7. Water Separation- As the last step, plastic content is separated from glass by use of
water. One separated, all the materials retrieved can then be resold as raw materials
for re-use. The products sold include plastic, glass, copper, iron, steel, shredded circuit
boards, and valuable metal mix.

E-cycle components re-use

1. Plastic. All the plastic materials retrieved are sent to recyclers who use them to manufacture
items such as fence posts, plastic sleepers, plastic trays, vineyard stakes, and equipment holders
or insulators among other plastic products.

2. Metal. Scrap metals materials retrieved are sent to recyclers to manufacture new steel and
other metallic materials.

3. Glass. Glass is retrieved from the Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) mostly found in televisions and
computer monitors. Extracting glass for recycling from CRTs is a more complicated task since
CRTs are composed of several hazardous materials. Lead is the most dangerous and can
adversely harm human health and the environment. Tubes in big CRT monitors can contain high
levels of lead of up to 4 kilograms. Other toxic metals such as barium and phosphor are also
contained in CRT tubes. To achieve the best environmentally friendly glass extraction, the
following steps ensure a specialized CRT recycling:

 Manual separation of the CRT from the television or monitor body

 Size reduction process where the CRT is shredded into smaller pieces. Dust is
eliminated and disposed in an environmentally friendly way.
 All metals are removal through over-band magnets, where ferrous and non-ferrous
components are eliminated from the glass materials.
 A washing line is then used to clear oxides and phosphors from the glass
 Glass sorting is the final step whereby leaded glass is separated from non-leaded
glass. The extracts can then be used for making new screens.

4. Mercury. Mercury containing devices are sent to mercury recycling facilities that uses a
specialized technology for elimination for use in dental amalgams and metric
instruments, and for fluorescent lighting. Other components such as glass and plastics are
re-used for manufacture of their respective products.
5. Printed Circuit Boards. Circuit boards are sent to specialized and accredited companies
where they are smelted to recover non-renewable resources such as silver, tin, gold,
palladium, copper and other valuable metals.

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6. 6. Hard Drives. Hard drives are shredded in whole and processed into aluminum ingots
for use in automotive industry.
7. Ink and Toner Cartridges. Ink and toner cartridges are taken back to respective
manufacturing industries for recycling. They are remanufactured while those that can’t
are separated into metal and plastic for re-use as raw materials.
8. Batteries. Batteries are taken to specialized recyclers where they are hulled to take out
plastic. The metals are smelted is specialized conditions to recover nickel, steel, cadmium
and cobalt that are re-used for new battery production and fabrication of stainless steel.

CONSTRUCTION WASTE

Construction waste is anything generated as a result of construction and then abandoned,

regardless of whether it has been processed or stockpiled. It comprises surplus materials from
site clearance, excavation, construction, refurbishment, renovation, demolition and road works.

Construction waste is generated from construction building and demolition activities consisting
of concrete, tiles, bricks, drywall, asphalt, plastics, metals, wood, rocks and more. These
construction waste materials are often inert and non-biodegradable, heavy, bulky and overload
landfills.

Construction waste recycling and management involves the process and separation of salvaging

the recoverable waste materials for recycling and reuse. Krause Manufacturing’s innovative
approach and advanced solutions to construction waste disposal  and commercial waste
recycling will boost your productivity and bottom line profitability.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE

 BUILDINGMATERIALS

Construction, demolition, restoration, and remodeling projects all produce a lot of

building material waste. This waste may include insulation, nails, electrical wiring, rebar,
wood, plaster, scrap metal, cement, and bricks. These materials may be damaged or
unused, but can be recycled or reused in other forms. Waste wood can be recovered and
recycled into wood for new building projects. Cement, bricks, and plaster can be crushed
and reused in other construction or building projects. These materials can be collected in
a roll of dumpster that can then be picked up by your waste management or recycling
company.

 DREDGING MATERIALS 

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Dredging materials are materials or objects that are displaced during the preparation of a
construction or demolition site. These materials may include trees, tree stumps, rubble,
dirt, and rocks. A waste management company can provide waste disposal and trash
removal of dredging materials. If any of these materials can be reused or recycled, they
will be taken to a recycling plant. A waste management company can also provide
dumpster rentals in which you can collect this waste.

 HAZARDOUSWASTE 

The sites of construction, demolition, restoration, and remodeling projects often produce
hazardous waste. Hazardous waste may include lead, asbestos, plasterboard, paint
thinners, strippers, and solvents, mercury, fluorescent bulbs, and aerosol cans. These
materials need to be disposed of according to strict state and federal laws, and there are
harsh fines and punishments for non-compliance. A waste management company in
Atlanta can help you comply with city, county, and state guidelines, as well as with your
insurance requirements for the safe disposal of hazardous waste.

SOURCES OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE

 Waste from different construction activities of building roads. Consists of: -
 Concrete
 Brick
 Timber
 Sanitary ware
 Glass
 Steel
 Plastics
CONCRETE
 Concrete is one of the most important construction material.
 Approximately one ton of concrete is used per capita per year through out the world
 Recycling of concrete reduces
 Cost of aggregate
 Disposal costs
 Environmental damage

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 Consumption of natural resources &

 Valuable landfill space
 Recycled coarse aggregates may be more durable than virgin material.
 It can also be used in residential construction.
BRICK
 Broken & discarded brick can be used as construction infill or as aggregate for non –
structural concrete.
 Brick that are part of demolish rubble can be crushed and used in the same way.
 Brick masonry rubble contains mortar upto 20% by volume.
 Crushed brick & roofing tiles are the bulk of demolition waste which were earlier being
dumped in landfills, but now they can be recycled into mortar plaster & building blocks.

TIMBER
 It is mostly crushed into chip & used as fuel.
 It can also be utilized to manufacture wood –chip concrete by injecting cement grout into
voids of compacted wood chips in moulds.
 Wood-chip in concrete can be used as building material.
 This chip can be sawn & nailed as well.
 In Japan alone about 12 million cubic meters of used timber from demolished houses are
used.
SANITARY WARE
 Sanitary ware includes tiles also.
 There can be reused as it is, if they are not damaged.
 If sanitary where are chipped (or) cracked (or) otherwise damaged are advised to crush
and use them as construction infill (or) as filler in concrete.
 Pozzolanic value of such crushed & powdered sanitary ware is a desirable property in
concrete mixes.
GLASS
 One ton of recycled waste glass corresponds to savings in energy equivalent to 125lit of
fuel oil & 1.2 tonnes of raw materials
 Recycling of glass reduces non-biodegradable glass out of landfills.

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 Glass can be used as substitute for Quarts & Feldspar in the manufacturing of high
strength porcelain sanitary ware.
 It can also be used to make mineral wool an insulation product & in granular form as part
of the aggregate in concrete mixes.
 In USA an experiment was conducted on metal free glass constituents separated from
municipal incinerator residue. This glass was used to produce brick, glass-wool thermal
insulation & as a major component of a light weight aggregate use in structural concrete.
STEEL
 Steel is most commonly used metal in the world.
 Steel reinforcement from demolished concrete is usually separated from the rubble on site
& sold scrap to recycling plants.
 The world produces over 783 million tons of raw steel. It currently recycles over 320
million tonnes of iron & steel every year.
 Scrap metal can yield energy savings of upto 76%.
 In Europe steel is most recycled.
PLASTIC
 There is an over abundance of waste plastic.
 It is very difficult to dispose plastics.
 Waste plastic can be shredded & used as filler in other materials such as concrete & also
in construction of roads.
 House hold plastic waste can be recycled to obtain artificial light weight aggregates for
mortar.
 Plastic reduces the possibilities of cracking.

REASONS FOR INCREASE OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE

 Many old buildings concrete pavements bridges and other structures have overcome their
age and limit of use due to structural deterioration beyond repairs and need to be
demolished.
 New construction for better economic growth.
 Structures are turned into debris resulting from natural disasters like earthquake, cyclone
and floods etc.

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COLLECTION OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE

The construction and demolition waste include waste forming during construction,
reconstruction, repairs or demolition of buildings, also a construction product waster.
 Construction and big-sized waste forming during construction, repairs or demolition of
buildings may be collected in three ways: -
 On special routes: according to a schedule settled in advance waste is collected from
yards of apartment buildings and sites of domestic waste containers located near
buildings;
 In construction waste containers: special metal containers are placed in residential or
commercial areas or building lots. Their capacity may amount to from 5 up to 20 cbm.
Full containers are replaced by empty ones;
 In big-bags: this pre-payable service is especially important to individuals or enterprises,
holding low amounts of construction or big-sized waste – those who are repairing their
homes or willing to get rid of unnecessary things. Also, to those who are not willing to
hire a construction container or have no place for it.

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TREATMENT OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE

Details of the treatment method : Refer previous Module Notes

DISPOSAL OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE

 Being predominantly inert in nature, construction and demolition waste does not create
chemical or biochemical pollution
 The material can be used for filling/levelling of low-lying areas.
 In the industrialised countries, special landfills are sometimes created for inert waste,
which are normally located in abandoned mines and quarries.
 The same can be attempted in our country also for cities, which are located near open
mining quarries or mines where normally sand is used as the filling material.

However, proper sampling of the material for its physical and chemical characteristics has to be
done

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BIOMEDICAL WASTE

Biomedical waste is any kind of waste containing infectious materials. It may also include waste

associated with the generation of biomedical waste that visually appears to be of medical or
laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused bandages, infusion kits, etc.), as well research
laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms that are restricted from environmental
release.
Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Examples of infectious waste include discarded blood,
sharps, unwanted microbiological cultures and stocks, identifiable body parts, other human or
animal tissue, used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, other medical supplies that may
have been in contact with blood and body fluids. Waste sharps include potentially contaminated
used (and unused discarded) needles, scalpels, lancets and other devices capable of penetrating
skin.

Biomedical waste is generated from biological, medical sources and activities, such as the
diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Common generators (or producers) of biomedical
waste include hospitals, health clinics, nursing homes, emergency medical services, medical
research laboratories, offices of physicians, dentists, and veterinarians, home health care,
and morgues or funeral homes. 

 Eight Categories of Bio Medical Waste

It’s important to know what kind of medical waste your facility produces then you can determine
the proper disposal.
The WHO classified the medical waste into eight (8) categories of medical waste:
1. Infectious waste – Waste that may transmit infection from virus, bacterial, parasites to
human, i.e.: lab cultures, tissues, swabs, equipment and excreta
2. Sharps – Sharp waste, such as needle, scalpels, knives, blades, etc.
3. Pathological – Human tissue or fluids i.e. body parts, blood, other body fluids
4. Radioactive – Unused liquid in radiotherapy or lab research, contaminated glassware,
etc.
5. Chemical – Expired lab reagents, film developer, disinfectant
6. Pharmaceuticals – Expired and contaminated medicines
7. Pressurized containers – Gas cylinders and gas cartridges
8. General waste (UMW) – No risk to human health because no blood or any related
bodily fluid, i.e.: office paper, wrapper, kitchen waste, general sweeping, etc.

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Stages of Medical Waste Disposal

Stage 1 – Collecting & Segregating 

The biomedical waste has to be collected in containers that are resilient and strong from
breakage during the handling process. Do not place sharps, used needles, syringes, or other
contaminated tools in common waste disposal or recycle bin because the entire waste will be
infectious by doing so. The segregation also needs to be performed between the liquid and solid
biomedical waste products. Categorizing the medical waste with correct segregation to isolate
and manage each waste in the proper way. For this purpose, the segregations come in colored
waste containers, label coding and plastic bags.
Storage of waste
Storage refers to keeping the waste until it is treated on-site or transported off-site for treatment
or disposal. There are many options and containers for storage. Regulatory agencies may limit
the time waste can remain in storage. Handling is the act of moving biomedical waste between
the point of generation, accumulation areas, storage locations and on-site treatment facilities.
Workers who handle biomedical waste must observe standard precautions

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Generation and accumulation

Biomedical waste should be collected in containers that are leak-proof and sufficiently strong to
prevent breakage during handling. Containers of biomedical waste are marked with
a biohazard symbol. The container, marking, and labels are often red.
 Discarded sharps are usually collected in specialized boxes, often called needle boxes.

Sources of Biomedical waste

Major Sources
 Government Hospitals, private hospitals & Nursing homes
 Primary Health centers
 Medical Colleges and Research centers
 Veterinary Colleges and animal Research centers
 Blood Bank & mortuaries
 Biotechnology Institutions

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Treatment
The goals of biomedical waste treatment are to reduce or eliminate the waste's hazards, and
usually to make the waste unrecognizable. Treatment should render the waste safe for subsequent
handling and disposal. There are several treatment methods that can accomplish these goals.

Biomedical waste is often incinerated. An efficient incinerator will destroy pathogens and sharps.
Source materials are not recognizable in the resulting ash.

1. INCINERATION
Type 1 of Medical Waste Treatment The incineration technology used a high temperature
thermal process that can convert inert material and gases with the combustion process. It will
process the waste to convert into ash, gas, and heat. There are three types of incinerators that
are commonly used for biomedical waste:
1. The Multiple Hearth Type– it has a circular steel furnace that contains solid refractory
hearths with a central rotating shaft to convert the waste into ash
2. Rotary Kiln – it is an incinerator, shape like a drum, commonly for medical and
hazardous waste
3. Controlled Air – there are two process chambers that will handle the waste. The
complete combustion and oxidizing it, leading to a stream of gas with carbon dioxide and
water vapor composition. It is commonly used for waste that has organic materials.
In addition, for some cases, performing a shredding for biomedical waste needed as an aid for
incineration process.

2. AUTOCLAVE
An autoclave may also be used to treat biomedical waste.

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1. The autoclaving system is commonly used for the human body fluid waste, sharps, and
microbiology laboratory waste. This system requires high temperature (thermal) that
produces steam to decontaminate the biomedical waste.
2. An autoclave uses steam and pressure to sterilize the waste or reduce its microbiological
load to a level at which it may be safely disposed of. The steam plays a critical role in the
medical waste autoclaving process therefore a good waste holding container is required.
3. Beside autoclaving, irradiation is the other thermal method which uses a high frequency
microwave for disposal. The wave will generate heat to the waste materials and kill all
the bacteria, or any other contamination in the tools. Many healthcare facilities routinely
use an autoclave to sterilize medical supplies.

3. MICROWAVE DISINFECTION
Microwave disinfection can also be employed for treatment of Biomedical wastes.
 Microwave irradiation is a type of non-contact heating technologies for disinfection.
When exposed to microwave frequencies, the dipoles of the water molecules present in
cells re-align with the applied electric field.
 As the field oscillates, the dipoles attempts to realign itself with the alternating electric
field and in this process, energy is lost in the form of heat through molecular friction and
dielectric loss.
 Microwave disinfection is a recently developed technology which provides advantage
over old existing technologies of autoclaves as microwave based disinfection has less
cycle time, power consumption and it requires minimal usage of water and consumables
as compared to autoclaves.
 For liquids and small quantities, a 1–10% solution of bleach can be used to disinfect
biomedical waste. Solutions of sodium hydroxide and other chemical disinfectants may
also be used, depending on the waste's characteristics. Other treatment methods include
heat, alkaline digesters and the use of microwaves.

Disposal

For solid waste, once medical waste producers have adhered to regulations for collecting,
storing, transporting, and treating their waste, they may then use their municipal landfill and
sanitary sewer system as their final disposal method.
That’s right, your local municipal landfill is commonly used as the final place of your treated
decontaminated biomedical waste.
For fluids such as blood, suctioned fluids, excretions and secretions, almost every state and
local government has its own regulations and guidelines to provide the best way to dispose it.

In general, there are two recommended ways to handle medical waste fluids:

1. Collect fluids in a leak proof container, and solidified for autoclave treatment

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2. Thermally (autoclave) fluids then they be disposed into the sanitary sewer system
An extra precaution should be performed before pouring treated fluids in sewer because they
may clog and leak.

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