Treasures of The Aga Khan Museum

Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum
Verena Daiber is a lecturer of Arabic and Islamic art and archa-

Masterpieces of Islamic Art »Civilisations manifest and express themselves through their art.«
eology at the University of Bamberg. Her research focuses on ar- His Highness the Aga Khan IV.
chitecture, ceramics and manuscripts. Between 2002 and 2005 she
was a research assistant at the German Archaeological Institute in
Damascus. Among her publications are writings on Islamic potte- For several decades, members of the family of the Aga Khan, and His

ry from Baalbek and several articles for the exhibition cycle »Isla- Highness Prince Karim Aga Khan IV in particular, have been collec-
mic Art in the Mediterranean« initiated by the Museum With No ting art objects from the Islamic world. This magnificent collection
Frontiers (MWNF). Her dissertation Buildings and Politics in 18th will be housed in the future Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, Canada.
Century Damascus will soon be published. Before the collection departs for North America, the Aga Khan wan-
ted to offer the European public a special viewing of its masterpieces.
Benoît Junod is a lawyer and former Swiss diplomat with expertise Hence the exhibition in Berlin, which is the largest and most comple-
in visual arts and cultural event management. Working initially as Prince Karim Aga Khan IV. owns one of the most distinguished and precious te presented so far.
a consultant for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, and since 2008 as collections of Islamic art.
its director of the Museums and Exhibitions unit, he has coordi-
nated the development of the Aga Khan Museum project and has This volume presents more than 200 masterpieces of this significant collec-
curated most of the collection’s exhibitions in Europe. tion with large-sized images, accompanied by essays and comments written
by well-known experts. Illustrated manuscripts, precious miniatures, magni-
ficently decorated ceramics, as well as wood and metall objects testify to the
wealth and extraordinary diversity of the Islamic world and its history .
Cover illustration: Haftvad and the worm

Detail from cat. no. 166
Text from the banner in the upper left:
»It happened that this lucky girl
Saw an apple, thrown from a tree by the wind,
on the alley and quickly picked it –
Now, listen to this astounding story«
(Translated from Persian by Stephan Popp)


Schätze des Aga Khan Museum
Meisterwerke der islamischen Kunst
Martin-Gropius-Bau, Berlin
17. März bis 6. Juni 2010
AGA KHAN TRUST FOR CULTURE
Der Martin-Gropius-Bau wird gefördert durch:
aufgrund eines Beschlusses des Deutschen Bundestages
Eine Ausstellung des Aga Khan Trust for Culture

und des Martin-Gropius-Bau
Berliner Festspiele
Joachim Sartorius
Berliner Festspiele
Intendant
Gereon Sievernich
Martin-Gropius-Bau
Direktor
Sekretariat
Sandra Müller, Anna Shigwedha
Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC)
Luis Monreal
Generaldirektor
Benoît Junod
Museums- und Ausstellungsdirektor
Masterpieces of Islamic Art
Exhibition at the Martin-Gropius-Bau Catalogue
Curator Editors Proof reading

Benoît Junod, Verena Daiber and Benoît Junod Ellen Kenney
Aga Khan Trust for Culture, Geneva Mariam Rahmani
Exhibition Design Scientific Advisors Design

scala Günter Krüger Ladan Akbarnia Jonas Maron, Berlin
Alnoor Merchant
Exhibition Management Fernando Valdés Reproduction
Sabine Hollburg Bild1Druck GmbH, Berlin
Filippa Carlini Authors
Assistance: Julia Wagner Ladan Akbarnia Printing and binding
Michael Barry Tlačiarne BB, Slovakia
Conservation Sheila Canby
Stéphane Ipert, Centre de Conservation Azim Nanji © 2010 Nicolaische Verlags-
du Livre, Arles Fernando Valdés buchhandlung GmbH, Berlin
Silke Schröder, Berlin and Berliner Festspiele
Rüdiger Tertel, Berlin Catalogue entries © of the texts with the authors
Ladan Akbarnia LA © of the images with the photographer
Communication, Press Monique Buresi MB All rights reserved
and Public Relations Sheila Canby SC
Aga Khan Trust for Culture: Moya Carey MC ISBN 978-3-89479-603-7
Celia von Bismarck Annabelle Collinet AC
Ute Schmoock Verena Daiber VD
Aimée Froom AF
Martin-Gropius-Bau: Carine Juvin CJ
Susanne Rockweiler Sophie Makariou SM
Katrin Mundorf Charlotte Maury CM
Ellen Clemens Alnoor Merchant AM
With cooperation from Karoline Czech Stephan Popp SP
Artpress – Ute Weingarten, Marie Skov David J. Roxburgh DR
Fernando Valdés FV
Technical Office
Bert Schülke Photographs of Artworks
Norbert Hiersick Gérald Friedli, Genf
André Merfort Alan Tabor, London Our thanks to the Fundación “la Caixa” for
Saleh Salman allowing us to use almost all their catalogue
Thorsten Seehawer Photographic Credits images in ready-to-print format.
Michael Wolff Lorenz Korn, Bamberg: pp. 86, 148
Henri Stierlin, Genf: pp. 58, 190, 228
Sales akg-images / Bildarchiv Monheim: p. 244
Carlos Rodriguez akg-images / Gérard Degeorge: p. 72, 138, 164
akg-images / Werner Forman: pp. 90, 108
akg-images / Andrea Jemolo: pp. 114, 124
Authors
Ladan Akbarnia Executive Director of the Iran Heritage Foundation, London
Michael Barry Professor of Islamic Cultures, Department of Near Eastern Studies, Princeton
University
Monique Buresi Archivist, Department of Islamic Art, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Sheila Canby Curator in Charge, Department of Islamic Art, The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York
Moya Carey Iran Heritage Foundation Curator, Iran Collections, Victoria and Albert Museum,
London
Annabelle Collinet Research Associate, Department of Islamic Art, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Verena Daiber Lecturer of Arabic Studies, Islamic Art and Archaeology, Oriental Institute of the
Otto-Friedrich-University Bamberg
Aimée Froom Former Curator of Islamic Art at the Brooklyn Museum, New York and Lecturer
for Islamic Art
Carine Juvin Curator, Department of Islamic Art, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Sophie Makariou Director, Department of Islamic Art, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Charlotte Maury Research Associate, Department of Islamic art, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Alnoor Merchant Head Librarian, Institute of Ismaili Studies, London
Azim Nanji Senior Associate Director of Islamic Studies, Stanford University
Stephan Popp Lecturer for Iranian Studies, Oriental Institute of the Otto-Friedrich-University
Bamberg
David J. Roxburgh AKPIA (Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture) Professor of Islamic Art
History, Department of History of Art and Architecture, Harvard University, Cambridge MA
Fernando Valdés Professor of Archaeology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
We thank Princess Catherine Aga Khan for the loan of the objects under the
catalogue numbers 20, 24, 32, 103, 104, 105 and 143.
Contents
9 Foreword
Joachim Sartorius, Gereon Sievernich
11 Introduction
His Highness Prince Karim Aga Khan IV
13 Museums as Collective Memory and Cultural Vectors

Stefan Weber
14 Map of the Islamic World
17 A Plural Vision of Islam for a Singular Museum

Luis Monreal
21 The Historical Context

Azim Nanji
25 Introduction to Islamic Art

Sheila Canby
THE WORD OF GOD
31 The Qur’an
Sheila Canby
59 Pilgrimage and Prayer

Sheila Canby
73 Mysticism
Sheila Canby
THE PATH OF THE TRAVELLERS

From Cordoba to Damascus
87 Looking to the Orient

Fernando Valdés
91 Al-Andalus: The Orient in the West

Fernando Valdés
109 Egypt and Syria
Ladan Akbarnia
115 The Fatimids

Sheila Canby
125 The Mamluks

Ladan Akbarnia
139 Anatolia and the Ottomans

Sheila Canby
THE PATH OF THE TRAVELLERS

From Baghdad to Delhi
149 The Persianised East and the Royal Tradition

Michael Barry
153 Mesopotamia
Ladan Akbarnia
165 Iran in the Middle Ages

Ladan Akbarnia
191 The Safavids

Sheila Canby
229 The Zand and the Qajars

Sheila Canby
245 India and the Mughals

Sheila Canby
272 Transcription Table

273 The Islamic Dynasties
274 Chronology
280 Glossary
282 Bibliography
8
Foreword
Joachim Sartorius, Artistic Director, Berlin Festival
Gereon Sievernich, Director, Martin-Gropius-Bau
Prince Karim Aga Khan is one of the leading edge between cultures. After it was translat-
collectors of Islamic art. From 2013, his large ed into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the
and valuable collection will be on display in a twelfth century, it was regarded as the most
newly-built museum in Toronto. Karim Aga important textbook for the training of doc-
Khan is the spiritual leader of the Ismailis, an tors throughout Europe for the next 500
Islamic community with some 20 million years. Another outstanding cultural asset is
members living in many different parts of the the bifolium of the ninth-century Blue
world. They recognise Prince Karim Aga Qur’an. Written in gold Kufic script on
Khan as a direct descendent of the Prophet sheets of blue parchment, it is one of the
Muhammad. world’s most precious Qur’anic manuscripts.
The Martin-Gropius-Bau has succeeded These are only a few examples of pieces
in bringing the Aga Khan’s magnificent col- found in the Aga Khan’s impressive collec-
lection to Berlin for a period of several months. tion. As works of art, they testify to the as-
This is the first time it has been seen in Ger- tounding artistic richness and extraordinary
many. More than 200 masterpieces – illumi- diversity of a cultural space dominated by
nated manuscripts and paintings, drawings Islam, spanning North Africa and the Iberian
and inscriptions, metal receptacles, ceramics Peninsula to as far as China.
and woodcarvings – represent more than a We extend our warmest and most heart-
thousand years of Islamic cultural history. felt thanks to Prince Karim Aga Khan for al-
The exhibition includes some of the most lowing the most precious treasures from his
spectacular works of Islamic art and scholar- collection to be placed on show at the Mar-
ship. Among them are pages from the heroic tin-Gropius-Bau. Mr Luis Monreal, general
Persian epic Shahnama, or Book of Kings, by director of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture in
the poet Firdawsi, which was first published Geneva, has worked closely with us to bring
one thousand years ago. The miniatures in the project to fruition. We should like to
this edition of the book are among the most thank him as well as the Trust’s director of
remarkable pieces in the collection. Similarly, museums, Benoît Junod, who is also the ex-
the oldest known Arabic manuscript of the hibition curator. His continuous hard work
Canon of Medicine, written by Ibn Sina – has encouraged us to present this exhibition
known in Europe as Avicenna – at the age of to a large audience in Berlin. For us in Eu-
21 some time around 1000 CE, can rightly be rope, it is both a pleasant duty and a cultural
described as sensational. Not only does Avi- challenge to better acquaint ourselves and
cenna’s magnum opus document early scien- learn to more fully appreciate Islamic art.
tific findings by Islamic scholars, it is also a With its dazzling treasures, this exhibition
prime example of the exchange of knowl- will help us to achieve this.
The Court of Gayumars

Detail, cat. no. 163
9
10
Introduction
His Highness Prince Karim Aga Khan IV
I am particularly pleased that the Martin- ment, an additional discovery. It should work
Gropius Bau is hosting this exhibition of in synergy with the Museum of Islamic Art to
highlights of the Aga Khan Museum collec- try and bring a spotlight onto its richness and
tion of artworks from the Islamic world. This variety, its geographic diversity, and its artis-
historical building, which survived the dark- tic accomplishments.
est turbulence of twentieth century Europe, No one can deny that today, there are dis-
and which was for decades at the dividing tressing and even dangerous tensions be-
line of the city, is today the host of countless tween the Muslim world and the West. With
major art exhibitions, both German and in- its history and cultures, and indeed its differ-
ternational, shown in Europe and world- ent interpretations of Islam, the Muslim
wide. world is still little known in the West, as are
The exhibition presented here shows its contributions to global cultural heritage
some highlights of what will be, in a few and patrimony. This lack of knowledge is a
years’ time, the nucleus of the permanent ex- dramatic reality which currently manifests it-
hibition of Islamic art of the future Aga Khan self in a particularly serious way in many
Museum in Toronto. This museum, which western democracies, through widespread at-
has been designed by the renowned Japanese titudes and approaches to Muslim societies
architect Fumihiko Maki, and of which a and countries. Be that as it may, the two
model can be seen in the exhibition, is con- worlds, Muslim and non-Muslim, Eastern and
ceived primarily as an educational institution Western, must, as a matter of urgency, make
in the field of Islamic art and culture, a spe- real efforts to get to know one another better,
cific institution the likeness of which does for I fear that what we have is not a clash of
not yet exist on the North American conti- civilisations, but a clash of ignorance on both
nent. sides.
Germany, and Berlin in particular, is a liv- Insofar as civilisations manifest and ex-
ing example of the cultural and ethnic plural- press themselves through their art, museums
ism which has resulted from the last decades have an essential role to play in facilitating
of its history. It has become a destination of respect and appreciation of social structures,
the hopes of people from many nations, all values and faiths that are an integral part of
over the world, of which a large part are the societies which produced the art, thereby
Muslims. They came here seeking to work in ensuring that whole populations are given
a stable, democratic society, and were made the opportunity to understand each other,
welcome. Today they are valued and contrib- using new, modern methods imaginatively
ute positively to the collective well-being of and intelligently.
the country. It is my hope that this exhibition will bring
Germany has always had admiration and to the Berlin public a better understanding
interest in the universality and plurality of of the Muslim world. The works of art which
culture. As a result, an exceptional range of we can see here speak for themselves. They
artworks can be seen in its museums, includ- express the values of tolerance and plural-
ing the wonderful Museum of Islamic Art of ism, specific to the Muslim world and related
Berlin. This exhibition has no intention of to its ethnic, linguistic, and social diversity
competing with the treasures you have here: throughout its history, and are important wit-
on the contrary, my wish for the Berlin public nesses today.
is that this exhibition should be a comple-
A Prince visits a hermit

Detail, cat. no. 41
11
12
Museums as Collective Memory and Cultural Vectors
Stefan Weber, Director, Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum
In recent years, there have been some inter- Muslim culture, we need to bear in mind that
esting changes in the world of Islamic art. No we are dealing with a vast and very diverse
longer is it only the collections held in the area. Societies where Islamic influence pre-
large, long-established museums in London, dominated were multi-ethnic and multi-faith.
New York and Paris, or those in Istanbul and Across the centuries, people of practically all
Cairo, which serve to introduce visitors to Christian denominations have lived in Mus-
the splendour and diversity of Islamic cul- lim countries, as have Jews, Parsees, Bud-
tures. Muslims are also becoming more and dhists and Hindus. Geographically, the
more interested in their own cultural herit- Islamic world stretched from Spain to South-
age, building up collections or putting them East Asia. Chronologically, it extended from
on public view. The Aga Khan Trust for Cul- Late Antiquity to the modern age. Museums
ture’s travelling exhibition, which has been of Islamic art are the custodians of this diver-
on tour in Europe and which we now wel- sity. The many thousands of objects held
come to Berlin, is at the cutting edge of this in museums are testimony to the cultural
development. Since the foundations of the achievements of Muslim-dominated coun-
great collections were laid in Europe, the tries. Nevertheless, collections of Islamic art
USA and the Middle East in the nineteenth are not self-explanatory and most museums
and early twentieth centuries, their audience do not do enough to communicate the im-
has changed. Public interest in the cultural mense scope of Islamic culture.
heritage of the Islamic world has intensified. Objects recall historical realities far re-
The most recent visitor survey carried out at moved from us, both chronologically or geo-
the Museum of Islamic Art in Berlin clearly graphically. They have come from houses,
shows that people want to know more about palaces, mosques and markets, from the ar-
the geographic, historical, political, social chaeological rubble that has long lain buried
and religious connections forged by Islamic beneath our modern cities. What do we
art. The reasons are obvious: visitors enter know of the people who created, used and
the museum to experience aspects of another then largely forgot them? What is the signifi-
culture in the hope of finding answers to cance of an object? Some objects tell of long
present-day questions. journeys. They recall how their meanings
The Muslim world, one of the most im- have changed and how they have been rein-
portant cultural spaces of all, is not only geo- tegrated into new cultural systems. Others,
graphically close to Europe (and for many because of their beauty, were made into al-
years Islamic Spain, Sicily and the Balkans bums and kept safely in court libraries. Most,
were inside Europe), but also closely con- however, have been forgotten, trodden into
nected culturally and historically to Europe. the soil of history and only slowly and pain-
We only have to think, for example, of what fully retrieved from their dusty hiding places.
both worlds have inherited from Antiquity When properly set in context, objects can
and from the history of science and philoso- build bridges to those other times and reali-
phy; of our shared activities in Mediterranean ties. The role of cultural educators has been
trade, and also of those regions where cul- assigned to museums. We are delighted that
tures merge, with Middle Easterners based in His Highness Prince Aga Khan IV has,
Europe, or Europeans in the Middle East, alongside our collection in the Pergamon
such as the Genoese in Istanbul. Today, Mus- Museum, contributed to the cause of cultural
lims are a permanent part of everyday life in education with this exhibition at the Martin-
A young noble and a dervish in Europe. In order to grasp the significance of Gropius-Bau.
conversation
Detail, cat. no. 39
13
In medieval times, numerous travelers explored
15° 0° 15° 30° 45°
all areas of the Islamic world. Many wrote mem-
oirs recounting their travels to the holy cities Mec-
ca and Medina or to renowned places of learning Routes of Muslim Travellers
like Cairo, Damascus, and Baghdad. Some of ca. 1040–1354
these texts were passed down over the centuries
and became internationally well-known.
Route of Nasir Khusraw ca. 1040
The Khurasanian scholar Nasir Khusraw
(1004–1088) served at the courts of the
Ghaznavids and the Seljuqs until he quit his post Route of Ibn Jubair 1183–1185
early 1046 to set out for his first pilgrimage. He Moscow
travelled westward through northern Iran, across Route of Ibn Battuta 1325–1327
B
Armenia and Azerbaijan, down through Syria to
Route of Ibn Battuta 1327–1341
Jerusalem, Hebron and other cities of the region.
He spent three years in Cairo, the capital of the Disputed route
Fatimids. From his last pilgrimage, he continued Kiev
north across Arabia, then through Iran, going Route of Ibn Battuta 1341–1354 New Sarai
eastward, back home to Balkh where he com-
posed a record of his seven-year journey in his Sa- Disputed route
E U R O P E 0
3
farnama (“Travelogue”). He turns his keen eye
13
toward both the physical and administrative struc- Ship sunk Venice A
tures of each society. Intellectually precise and at-
Borders ca. 1330
tendant in detail, nothing fell outside his curiosity:
C
Bl a c k S ea
local superstitions; a royal banquet; poetry ses- Rome
sions with local poets; Christian shrines; the pres- Constantinople
ence of women in the cafes of Armenia; and the
wonders of Cairo’s bazaars. Trapani
Anatolia
Granada Med Straits of Ta
The Andalusian traveller and writer, Ibn Ju- it Messina
er
bayr (1145–1217) worked as a secretary to the HAFSIDS ra Antioch
governor of Granada until he set out for the pil- Tangier
MERINIDS ne a Damascus
grimage in 1183. He embarked in Ceuta for Alex- n S e a
Fez Baghdad
andria on a Genoese ship, which took a route by Acre
way of Sardinia, Sicily and Crete. After perform- Marrakesh 25
13
–2 Alexandria Jerusalem
ing the pilgrimage in Mecca, he visited Medina, 7
13 Cairo
and continued his journey across the desert as far 52
as Kufa, Baghdad and Mosul, crossed to Aleppo, –5 MAMLUKS
4
coming down to Damascus, and then went to
Re
Acre to embark for Sicily in October 1184, nar-
S a h a r a
d
rowly escaping with his life in a dramatic ship- Medina
Se
wreck in the straits of Messina. He died in 1217
a
on his last journey in Alexandria. Ibn Jubayr com-
posed an account of the first journey in his Rihla Mecca A r
P e n
Nile
(“Travelogue”), as a multi-thematic narrative con-
cerning political, economic, historical, sociological Timbuktu
and other subjects. It is considered one of the best
works of the genre, and was translated into vari-
ous western languages. A F R I C A
Born into a family of legal scholars and judges MALI Jenné A
N
at Tangier, Ibn Battuta (1304–1368 or 1377) is

ige
r
considered one of the world’s most famous travel- Niani

lers. Aged twenty-one, Ibn Battuta set out alone
to visit “the illustrious sactuaries” [Mecca and
Medina] to return back to Morocco only in 1349,
some 24 years later, having traversed some
120,000 kilometres (75,000 miles) crossing what,
on a modern map, would be over forty countries. Mogadishu
In his travelogue Tuhfat al-nuzzar fi ghara’ib al-
amsar wa-‘aja’ib al-asfar (“A Gift to those who
contemplate the wonders of cities and the marvels Malindi
of travelling”) he brought new dimensions to trav- Mombasa
el writing, embracing geography, politics, person-
alities, natural history, local customs, and his own Zanzibar
exploits. His descriptions of life in India, Turkey,
Central Asia, East and West Africa, the Maldives,
Kilwa
and the Malay Peninsula are an extremely impor-
tant source of contemporary knowledge about
those areas, and in some cases they are the only
source. AM
14
60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135° 150°
60°
A S I A
Bulgar
K H A N AT E O F T H E Lake Baikal
G O L D E N H O R DE
Karakorum
Lake Balkhash
Astrakhan Aral Sea
E M PI R E O F T H E
45°
G R E AT K H A N
C H AG ATA I
Ca
sp
K H A N AT E G o b i
ian
Samarkand Khanbaliq
Sea
Am
abriz Merv Da
u
r ya
Rayy
Sarakhs Balkh C H I N A
I L - K H A N AT E
Isfahan TIBET East
Hangzhou
Basra China
Sea 30°
Multan Delhi
Pe
us
d
In
rsi
n Hormuz Gan
Gu
a
ges
lf Quanzhou
Tropic of Cancer
Guangzhou
r a b i a n Pagan
n i n s u l a Bay of
Bengal S outh
Arabi an
Sea China
Sea
15°
Aden Angkor
Calicut
1 34 6
Ceylon
1341
–30
1327
Equator
0°
Sumatra
I N D I A N O C E A N
Java
15
16
A Plural Vision of Islam
for a Singular Museum
Luis Monreal, General Manager, Aga Khan Trust for Culture
Since 2007, the Aga Khan Trust for Culture would come as a surprise for many that for a
has developped a programme of exhibitions great number of Muslims, Arabic is just a ve-
of Islamic masterpieces that have visited vari- hicular language for religion, as incompre-
ous European cities. The initiative’s main hensible as Latin is for Christians today.
purpose is to allow the public of many coun- The Aga Khan Museum will therefore aim
tries – initially in Europe and then in other to undertake an informative and educational
parts of the world – to get to know the antho- mission. Its natural audience will be some
logical aspects of the collection that in the 70 million people (the population living in a
near future will be permanently exhibited in radius equivalent to one hour’s flying dis-
the Aga Khan Museum, a museum that will tance from Toronto to areas on both sides of
start being constructed in Toronto (Canada) the border between Canada and the United
in the next few months. States). In order to capture this potential
It is a very special honour to be able to public and attract visitors from other coun-
present the future Aga Khan Museum collec- tries, the museum will develop an active pro-
tion in Berlin, a capital whose museums have gramme of temporary exhibitions that will
very important holdings of arts of the Islamic contribute to highlight its permanent collec-
world. Germany, moreover, is one of the Eu- tions. The Museum is looking to attract a
ropean countries whose population, increas- very diverse public, not only in terms of cul-
ingly culturally plural, will most appreciate tural origins – the Muslim communities in
this exhibition as an opportunity to better North America constitute, obviously, a prior-
know and understand the richness of the arts ity –, but also with different sociological ori-
created by Muslim societies throughout his- gins and ages. The project is looking to de-
tory. velop specialised programmes and activities
It is reasonable to ask ourselves: Why, at for different types of visitors (school and
the beginning of the twenty-first century, es- family groups, students, researchers, minori-
tablish a museum of Muslim art and culture ties, etc.) and use the most advanced techno-
in North America? The reasons are obvious. logical methods to give the museum a virtual
Nowadays, for social and geopolitical rea- existence that will allow its access via Inter-
sons, Islam is closer to us than it was in our net to millions of people around the world.
parents’ time. Migration phenomena and the The Toronto Museum will be located in a
circumstances that have prevailed in the building of around ten thousand square me-
Near East since the Second World War make tres that has been designed by the renowned
the Muslim world very present in our daily Japanese architect Fumihiko Maki and will
lives. Nevertheless, the rapprochement of be situated in a large park, conceived by
these civilizations has not resulted in im- the Serbian landscape architect Vladimir
proved knowledge of each other. Until re- Djurovic. As contemporary designers with
cent times, public opinion was not interested an external vision of Muslim culture, these
in Islam, its history, culture and social com- architects have tried to establish a formal dia-
position. Thus people are unaware that logue with pluralistic Islam, which through
throughout history and geographical space, the ages has been open to influences from
the Muslim world has been a plural and plu- other cultures and diverse in its artistic ex-
ralistic civilisation that interprets Qur’anic pressions.
faith in different ways and has developped a This museum project is part of the wider
great variety of material cultures and artistic framework of the institutional mission of the
expressions. Also, there is marked ignorance Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC), that
A gathering of dervishes of the ethnic pluralism of Muslim societies primarily promotes conservation programmes
Detail, cat. no. 40 and their linguistic diversity. For instance, it and the rehabilitation of historic cities in the
17
18
A rendering of the building of the future Muslim world. In order to improve the local study and research of Islamic architecture at
Aga Khan Museum in Toronto living conditions of the inhabitants of these Harvard University and the Massachusetts
cities, the Trust sets out to restore the urban Institute of Technology (MIT), as well as
fabric, such as its houses, public spaces and ArchNet, the largest existing on-line resource
monuments, and to introduce new socio- of architecture and urbanism for Muslim
economic development initiatives via micro- countries.
credit programmes, professional training, It is in this context that the decision to
public health, education and technical assist- create the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, of
ance in various fields. Presently, AKTC, with which this exhibition is a small representa-
the cooperation of various institutions of the tive sample, should be placed. The institu-
public sector in each country, undertakes tion will have a relevant role in the cultural,
projects in Cairo, Delhi, Aleppo and Damas- social, educational and development policies
cus, Zanzibar, Timbuktu, Djenné, Mopti, that His Highness the Aga Khan promotes
Kabul and Herat. through the Aga Khan Development Net-
Secondly, AKTC seeks to encourage archi- work, of which AKTC constitutes the cul-
tectural creation with the Aga Khan Award tural agency. In short, with its educational
for Architecture, which was created over mission, the museum will try to promote a
three decades ago and awards triennially better understanding of Islam as a tolerant,
contemporary architectural creation as well pluralistic culture that has contributed to the
as the conservation of heritage of the Muslim universality of knowledge and to the dialogue
world. It also supports the programme of between civilisations.
Prince and Princess Sadruddin Aga

Khan’s “Salon Persan” in Bellerive
Castle, Geneva, Switzerland.
Princess Catherine has generously donated
the showcases and ceramics of this room to
the future Aga Khan Museum, where it will be
reconstituted as seen here.
19
20
The Historical Context
Azim Nanji
The last in the line of the Abrahamic family true meaning of the Islamic message. During
of revealed traditions, Islam emerged in the his lifetime, Prophet Muhammad was both
early decades of the seventh century. Its mes- the recipient and the expounder of Divine
sage, addressed in perpetuity, calls upon peo- revelation. His death marked the conclusion
ple to seek in their daily life, in the very di- of the line of prophecy, and the beginning of
versity of humankind, signs that point to the the critical debate on the question of the
Creator and Sustainer of all creation. Re- rightful leadership to continue his mission
vealed to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia, for future generations. In essence, the posi-
Islam’s influence spread rapidly, bringing tion of the group that eventually coalesced
within its fold, within just over a century of into the majority, the Sunni branch, which
its birth, the inhabitants of the lands stretch- comprises several different juridical schools,
ing from the central regions of Asia to the was that the Prophet had not nominated a
Iberian Peninsula in Europe. successor, as the revelation contained in the
A major world religion, Islam today counts Qur’an was sufficient guidance for the com-
a quarter of the globe’s population among its munity. There developed a tacit recognition
followers. All Muslims affirm the absolute that spiritual-moral authority was to be exer-
unity and transcendence of God (tawhid) as cised by the ³ulama’, a group of specialists in
the first and foremost article of the faith, fol- matters of religious law, or shari³ah. The role
lowed by that of Divine guidance through of the caliph, theoretically elected by the
God’s chosen messengers, of whom the community, was to maintain a realm in which
Prophet Muhammad was the last. This affir- the principles and practices of Islam were
mation constitutes the shahada, the profes- safeguarded and propagated.
sion of faith, and is the basic creed of all The Shi³at ³Ali or the “party” of ³Ali, al-
Muslims. In its essence, Islam refers to the ready in existence during the lifetime of the
inner struggle of the individual, waged singly Prophet, maintained that while the revela-
and in consonance with fellow believers, to tion ceased at the Prophet’s death, the need
engage in earthly life, while rising above its for spiritual and moral guidance of the com-
trappings in search of the Divine. This quest munity, through an ongoing interpretation of
is only meaningful in tandem with the effort the Islamic message, continued. For them,
to do good for one’s kin, for orphans, the the legacy of the Prophet Muhammad could
needy, the vulnerable; to be just, honest, only be entrusted to a member of his own
humble, tolerant and forgiving. family, in whom the Prophet had invested his
authority through designation. That person
Shia Islam: historical origins was ³Ali, the Prophet’s cousin, and the hus-
band of his daughter and only surviving
Within its fundamental unity, Islam has child, Fatima. ³Ali was also the Prophet’s
evoked, over the ages, varying responses to first supporter who devoutly championed
its primal message calling upon man to sur- the cause of Islam. Just as it was the preroga-
render himself to God. Historically, these tive of the Prophet to designate his successor,
responses have been expressed as two main so it is the absolute prerogative of each Imam
perspectives within Islam: the Shia and the of the time to designate his successor from
Sunni. Each encompasses a rich diversity of among his male progeny. Hence, according
spiritual temperaments, juridical preferenc- to Shia doctrine, the Imamate continues by
es, social and psychological dispositions, po- descent from the Prophet through ³Ali and
litical entities and cultures. Ismailism is one Fatima.
Firdawsi and the three court poets of such response from within the larger Shia In time, the Shia were sub-divided. The
Ghazna perspective which seeks to comprehend the Ismailis and what eventually came to be
21
known as the ithna³ashari, or Twelver Shia, ed the intellectual framework for the partici-
parted ways over the succession to Ja³far al- pation of the followers of different faiths in
Sadiq, the great-great-grandson of ³Ali and the affairs of the Fatimid state. Christians
Fatima. The Ithna³asharis transferred their and Jews, as much as Muslims of either
allegiance to al-Sadiq’s youngest son Musa al- branch, were able to rise to the highest ech-
Kazim and after him, in lineal descent, to elons of state office on grounds of compe-
Muhammad al-Mahdi, their twelfth Imam tence alone. The Fatimids’ policies reflected
who, they believe, is in occultation and will a plurality of pious ways rather than a mono-
reappear to dispense perfect order and jus- lithic interpretation of the faith.
tice. Today, the Ithna³asharis are the largest In the last decade of the eleventh century,
Shia Muslim community, and constitute the the Ismaili community suffered a schism over
majority of the population in Iran. The Is- the succession to Imam-caliph al-Mustansir
mailis gave their allegiance to Imam Ja³far billah. One part of the community followed
al-Sadiq’s eldest son Isma³il, from whom they his youngest son al-Musta³li.The other gave
derive their name. They trace the line of Ima- its allegiance to his eldest son Imam Nizar
mate in hereditary succession from Isma³il to from whom the Aga Khan, the present Imam
His Highness the Aga Khan, who is currently of the Ismailis, traces his descent. The seat of
the forty-ninth Imam in direct lineal descent the Ismaili Imams then moved to Alamut, in
from Prophet Muhammad through ³Ali and northern Iran, where the Ismailis had suc-
Fatima. The Ismailis are the second largest ceeded in establishing a state comprising a
Shia Muslim community, and are settled in defensive network of fortified settlements.
over twenty-five countries, mostly in the de- These fortresses housed impressive libraries
veloping world, but now also with a substan- and study rooms whose collections ranged
tial presence in industrialised nations. from books on religion and philosophy to
scientific instruments, and the Ismailis did
The Ismaili Imamate from the time of the not abandon their liberal policy of patronage
division in the Shia community: an overview to men of learning of Muslim as well as non-
Muslim backgrounds. However, the inva-
The foundation of the Ismaili Fatimid sions by the Mongol hordes led to the de-
caliphate in North Africa in the year 909 was struction of the Ismaili state in 1256. After
the culmination of a long and sustained com- this, the Ismailis lived in dispersed communi-
mitment of the descendants of Imam Isma³il ties and, under the direction of each succeed-
to promote the Islamic ideal of social justice ing Imam, centres of activity were established
and equity. in the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, the
Centred in Egypt, the Fatimid caliphate at mountainous regions of the Hindu Kush,
its peak extended westward to North Africa, Central Asia and parts of China over the
Sicily and other Mediterranean islands, and course of several centuries.
eastward to the Red Sea coast of Africa, Pal- The modern phase of Ismaili history be-
estine, Syria, the Yemen and Arabia. The Fa- gan when the forty-sixth Imam, Aga Hasan
timids encouraged intellectual and philo- ³Ali Shah, emigrated from Iran to India in
sophical inquiry, and attracted the finest the 1840s. He was the first Imam to bear the
minds of the age to their court, whatever title of Aga Khan, bestowed by the Persian
their religious persuasions. Al-Azhar, the emperor, Fath ³Ali Shah. He established his
Cairo mosque built by Imam-caliph al- headquarters in Mumbai (Bombay), and this
Mu³izz in 972, was a great centre of learning, marked the beginning of an era of regular
and the Dar al-³Ilm, the House of Knowl- contacts between the Imam and his widely
edge, established in 1005, was the first medi- dispersed followers. Aga Khan I was suc-
eval institution of learning, a precursor of the ceeded by his eldest son Aga ³Ali Shah, who
modern university combining in its pro- assumed the title of Aga Khan II, and was
gramme a full range of major academic disci- honoured with the courtesy of His Highness,
plines, from the study of the Qur’an and Pro- first granted to his father by the British gov-
phetic traditions through jurisprudence, ernment. Building on the initiatives of his
philology and grammar, to medicine, logic, father, Aga Khan II set about the long-term
mathematics and astronomy. In the same task of social development of the community,
spirit, the Ismaili view of history, which ac- with emphasis on education. He passed away
corded due respect to the great monotheistic in 1885, and the institution of the Imamate
religions of the Abrahamic tradition, provid- then devolved upon his son Sultan Muham-
22
mad Shah, Aga Khan III, who was eight years tutions and activities of the Imamate have
old at the time of his accession. expanded far beyond their original scope.
His life marks a remarkable era of mo- The Aga Khan has explained many times that
mentous significance. From every platform, the impulse that underpins these activities
the third Aga Khan advocated free, univer- and shapes the social conscience of his com-
sal, practically oriented primary education, munity remains the unchanging Muslim ethic
improved secondary schools for Muslims, of compassion for the vulnerable in society.
and a generous provision of government and To give an operational structure to his
private scholarships to enable talented Mus- humanitarian activities, the Aga Khan creat-
lim students to study in Britain, Europe, and ed the Aga Khan Development Network
America. It was in pursuit of his educational (AKDN), a group of private, international,
vision that Aga Khan III successfully trans- non-denominational agencies working to im-
formed the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental prove living conditions and opportunities for
College at Aligarh, India, into a leading uni- people in specific regions of the developing
versity. world. The Network’s organisations have in-
Aga Khan III’s abiding concern, through- dividual mandates that range from the fields
out his seventy-two years as Imam – the long- of health and education to architecture, rural
est in history – was the welfare of the Ismaili development and the promotion of private-
community. This period was a critical one in sector enterprises. Together they collaborate
the modern history of the Ismaili community, in working towards a common goal – to build
and it was his inspiring leadership as much as institutions and programmes that can sus-
its enthusiastic response to his guidance that tainedly respond to the challenges of social,
enabled the community to enter a period of economic and cultural change. The Aga Khan
remarkable progress in the areas of health, Foundation, Aga Khan Education Services,
education, housing, commerce and industry, Aga Khan Health Services, Aga Khan Plan-
leading to the establishment of a network of ning and Building Services, Aga Khan Uni-
health clinics, hospitals, schools, hostels, co- versity, and the University of Central Asia
operative societies, investment trusts, and operate in the field of social development.
insurance companies. Economic activities are the province of the
Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development
The contemporary period and the Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance
with their affiliates in tourism, ecotourism,
Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III promotion of industry and financial services.
passed away on 11 July 1957, having desig- The Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) im-
nated his grandson, Prince Karim – twenty plements cultural initiatives aimed at revital-
years old at the time of his accession – to suc- ising the heritage of communities in the Is-
ceed him as the forty-ninth hereditary Imam lamic world. One of the newest undertakings
of the Shia Ismaili Muslim community. Un- of AKTC is the project, set up in 2003, to
der the leadership of Aga Khan IV, the insti- establish an Aga Khan Museum in Toronto.
23
24
Introduction to Islamic Art
Sheila Canby
Works of art like those in this exhibition have were more likely concerned with the visual
made up the visual landscape of the Islamic rhythms and balance of words on a page.
world for 1,400 years. The scope and diver- Muslims fulfil several obligations: to ac-
sity of these objects, religious and secular, cept one God; to say the formal ritual prayers
mirrors that of the societies in which they facing in the direction of the Ka³ba in Mecca;
were produced. For this reason, the exhibi- to share their wealth; to fast during the month
tion which this catalogue accompanies has of Ramadan; and to perform the hajj, or pil-
been structured in two parts, ‘The Word of grimage, to Mecca. Most practising Muslim
God’, consisting of sacred texts and related families today possess a copy of the Qur’an,
objects, and ‘The route of the travellers’, but in early Islamic times this was probably
where objects from a wide geographical area not the case, and memorization of the Qur’an
are shown, extending from part of the Iberi- was not unusual. Figural imagery is absent
an peninsula – al-Andalus – to China, and from mosques and other religious buildings
which reflect different traditional cultures and the Qur’an is never illustrated. Nonethe-
and a multiplicity of aesthetic choices. less, a religious iconography of Islamic art
The sacred and profane were never strict- exists, centred on the Arabic script, geometry
ly separate in Islamic lands. In fact, from at and vegetal designs, including the vine scroll
least as early as the eleventh century, some known as the arabesque. While depictions of
Muslim sultans incorporated the phrase ‘wa- the human form are also absent from prayer
l-dunya wa-l-din’ in their titles, meaning that books and collections of hadith (the tradi-
they were princes of ‘the world (or state) and tions of the Prophet Muhammad), narratives
of the faith (religious domain)’. Various dy- on religious and important personalites of
nasties considered themselves protectors of Islam composed from the thirteenth to nine-
the faith as well as temporal leaders. teenth centuries include illustrations.
How did these dual roles manifest them- The Shia and Sunni communities in Islam
selves in art? The earliest artefacts in Muslim differ on the question of the succession to the
history are found in the mosque and in the leadership of the Muslim world after the
Qur’anic texts written in the Arabic alpha- death of the Prophet. The Shia accept ³Ali,
bet. The codification of the text occurred the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, as
during the reign of the third Rightly Guided the designated Imam, while the Sunnis ac-
Caliph, ³Uthman (r. 644 – 655) in connection cept him as the fourth Rightly Guided Cal-
with his move to have a canonical text of the iph. Thus the notion of the Imam, a divinely
Qur’an produced in written form. Revealed inspired guide for the faithful, is a key tenet
to Muhammad by God between the first dec- of Shiism. Although the Shiite followers of
ade of the seventh century and Muhammad’s ³Ali and the Imams who followed him held
death in 632, the Qur’an, consisting of one no political power in the early period of Mus-
hundred and fourteen chapters or suras, is lim history, their religious movement sur-
the holy scripture of Islam. ³Uthman’s efforts vived and in the tenth century the Shia Fa-
ensured that the Qur’an was not corrupted timids founded a caliphate in Tunisia and
by textual variants of any sort. The copying Egypt.
of Qur’ans from the outset was considered One tradition common to all forms of Is-
an act of piety. To attain the most beautiful lam was mysticism. Groups of mystical devo-
outcome, calligraphers manipulated Arabic tees, or dervishes, gathered around spiritual
letter forms in artistic ways. Although some masters, or pirs, who acted as guides to
scholars have suggested that the elongation achieving mystical states and ultimately one-
Portrait of Shah Jahan and his three or bunching of letters in early Qur’ans is the ness with God. To accommodate the large
sons visual analogue of the spoken word, scribes crowds of disciples who clustered around
25
their spiritual leaders, dervish lodges were can echo those enjoyed in the afterlife, but
constructed in which the faithful could pray the physical world in an Islamic context is the
and enact their rituals as well as be housed illusion and the spiritual world the reality.
and fed. When a pir died, he would be bur- Studying the political history of Islam, one
ied within the precinct of his dervish lodge. might be forgiven for believing that caliphs
While his followers would continue to im- and kings concentrated on the realities of the
part his teachings, the pir’s grave became a material world such as dominion and con-
place of veneration in its own right. As a re- quest rather than on their roles as leaders of
sult, large cemeteries grew up around the the faithful. Even within the Abbasid
tombs of pirs. Caliphate, which ruled from 750 until the
Many paintings from the fifteenth to eight- Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258, local
eenth centuries depict dervishes and holy dynasties exercised considerable power and
men. While certain dervish practices such as in some cases operated independently of the
whirling in order to induce a heightened Abbasids. Although the plethora of dynastic
spiritual state are dynamic subjects for man- names and complex feudal interrelationships
uscript illustrations, a great number of Per- can be confusing, stylistic differences across
sian and Mughal paintings portray princes the various media of Islamic art often reflect
consulting their spiritual masters. The im- regional modes that developed under the pa-
portance of such figures in the lives of great tronage of local dynastic potentates. Works
rulers such as Timur (Tamerlane) (r. 1370 – from a variety of courts included in the exhi-
1405) and Shah ³Abbas I (r. 1587–1629) is bition range from precious gold and rock
attested not only by historical texts but also crystal pieces produced for the Fatimids in
by their building shrines and mosques to the tenth to twelfth centuries, to portraits of
honour these spiritual guides. Ottoman sultans and Qajar shahs made two
The Qur’an contains many graphic de- hundred years ago. Through coins and ob-
scriptions of Paradise as a verdant land, in- jects inscribed with the names and titles
tersected by rivers of water, milk, wine and of the king or caliph, rulers ensured their
honey, planted with fruit trees and flowers public presence in their realms. Luxury items
and filled with celestial beings of great beau- produced for kings and their courtiers, by
ty. Such a vision of Paradise not only is a de- contrast, existed within the rarified world of
sirable contrast to the arid desert of Arabia, the court, simply for the pleasure of their
where the Qur’an was revealed, but also re- owners.
flects ideas inherited from Zoroastrian and This exhibition contains many works of
biblical sources. The need for water for irri- art that represent the preoccupations of me-
gation as well as drinking and bathing has dieval and early modern Islamic courts. Be-
consistently informed the construction of cause of the paramount importance of the
gardens and buildings in much of the Islamic written word in Islam, princes and ‘men of
world. Gardens in the Islamic world, with the pen’ were trained to read and write. Writ-
fruit trees and shade trees, roses and water- ing beautifully was a skill that required train-
courses, are often equated with Paradise. ing, and historical texts describe the educa-
The Qur’an encourages a reverence for tion of princes by leading calligraphers. As a
nature and the humane treatment of animals, result, not only were examples of calligraphy
both of which are reflected in the pictorial produced and collected by princes, but also
arts of the Islamic world. The artists of some richly decorated pen cases, inkwells, knives
periods and regions, such as Ottoman pot- for cutting pen nibs and other accoutrements
ters from Iznik, concentrated on incorporat- of the scribe’s studio were created for wealthy
ing flowers or graceful plants in their designs. calligraphers.
Others, particularly from Iran and India, While theology was studied by all educat-
preferred to depict animals in landscapes or ed Muslims, ethics, science and mathematics
make objects of daily use in the form of ani- were also important subjects which were en-
mals. The artists’ powers of observation and couraged at the most enlightened courts.
understanding of animal and plant life ani- Arab and Persian mathematicians not only
mate their depictions and often inject an ele- translated treatises on their subject from
ment of humour into otherwise humble ob- Greek and Latin, but they were also respon-
jects. At its best, Islamic art communicates sible for extremely important advances of
the balance of the natural world. Its gardens their own, especially during the eighth to the
can be likened to Paradise and its pleasures eleventh centuries. Likewise, Muslim scien-
26
tists translated Greek and Latin scientific ence could be intimidating and make the dif-
texts on medicine, botany, and astronomy ference between victory and defeat.
and significantly added to the literature on In times of peace and prosperity rulers
these subjects well into the fifteenth century. in the Islamic world used their wealth to
With the introduction and spread of the use commission monuments such as mosques,
of paper, the production of books of all sorts mausoleums, palaces, religious colleges, and
increased enormously from the eleventh cen- hospitals. They also amassed collections of
tury onwards. Poetry, books of fables, col- luxurious items including gold objects, silks,
lected biographies, histories, and cosmogra- carpets, Chinese porcelains, and rare and
phies filled the libraries of princes and precious substances such as the bezoar stone,
scholars. Another aspect of life within the extracted from the stomachs of goats and an-
palace walls was the enjoyment of music. In telopes and thought to be an antidote to poi-
Iran, from the sixteenth century on, rooms son. Lavish gifts were exchanged between
were constructed with specially shaped nich- courts and later rulers corresponded with
es on the walls to provide improved acous- one another about gems and cures. They en-
tics. Here concerts of singers accompanied couraged their agents to look out for rare
by stringed instruments would entertain the substances on behalf of their royal allies. Un-
master of the house and his coterie. fortunately, political turbulence led to the
In addition to reading, writing, and states- dispersal or destruction of royal collections.
manship, princes at Islamic courts were ex- Gold and silver objects were melted down,
pected to be accomplished horsemen and delicate textiles disintegrated, ceramics and
hunters. These skills are celebrated in manu- glass shattered. Yet, as this exhibition dem-
script illustrations, pottery and metalwork. onstrates, enough of the rarities of Islamic art
Finely ornamented arms and armour would remain to validate the historical descriptions
have been used for sport as well as battle. of the magnificence of, for example, the Ab-
Polo enjoyed popularity in Iran and Central basid, Fatimid, Safavid and Mughal courts.
Asia, while falconry was practised across the While the medieval and early modern courts
Islamic world. Proficiency at riding horses of the Islamic world are remote from the
was necessary not just for the sporting pleas- present day in many ways, their treasures can
ure of the prince; it was crucial so that he still inspire wonder and fascination, much as
could lead his armies in battle. Although they would have done when they were first
kings did not enter the fray every time they produced.
went to war against their enemies, their pres-
27
The Word of God
29
30
The Qur’an
Sheila Canby
As the word of God revealed to the Prophet from different centuries and production cen-
Muhammad, the verses of the Qur’an are ca- tres are exhibited together, the remarkable
nonical and cannot be changed. Because of stylistic variety of Arabic writing becomes
the centrality of the Qur’an to the religion of evident.
Islam, copying all or some of its verses in any Thanks to the replacement of paper for
medium is considered a pious act. parchment from the tenth century on, Qur’an
Over time a wide variety of styles of writ- production expanded exponentially across
ing Arabic script developed, but not all of the Muslim world. As a result many Qur’ans
these were considered appropriate for copy- have survived from the last millennium and
ing Qur’ans. Qur’an manuscripts from the we are thus aware of the range of purposes
first two centuries of Islam were written on for which these manuscripts were produced.
parchment in an angular style called Kufic Some very large Qur’ans, written on sheets of
after the Iraqi city of Kufa, an early Muslim paper glued together, would have come from
capital. manuscripts intended for display in royal
Recent research suggests that the horizon- mosques. By contrast, more conventionally
tal-format Kufic Qur’ans (cat. nos. 1–3) were shaped Qur’ans may have been for personal
used for recitation in mosques, a practice use in a domestic setting (cat. nos. 10, 13,
that probably originated in Iraq, while large 14). Tiny Qur’ans that fit into metal cases
vertical-format Kufic Qur’ans would have would have been worn as amulets and Qur’an
been placed in cradles (kursis) on display in scrolls would have been equally portable.
mosques, possibly in the Hijaz, the area One of the striking features of Qur’ans of
around Mecca in Arabia.1 If this supposition all periods is the decorative illumination that
is correct, the evidence for production of appears at the beginning of the manuscript,
horizontal-format Qur’ans in ninth-century around chapter (sura) headings, and to mark
North Africa demonstrates the widespread the fifth and tenth verses within the chapters,
need for such volumes for recitation pur consisting of foliate, floral and geometric mo-
poses. tifs. Illuminated ornament also varied by pe-
In the tenth century variants of the early riod and region. Although gold decoration
squared letter forms began to appear in appears often in early horizontal-format
Qur’an manuscripts from the Maghreb, the Qur’ans, lapis lazuli blue was combined with
western edge of the Islamic world, as well as gold by the beginning of the eleventh century.
examples from Iran. A distinctive script de- In Mamluk Egypt and Syria, Ottoman Tur-
veloped in North Africa (cat. no. 4) which key, and Timurid and Safavid Iran, lavishly
features nearly circular letter terminals below illuminated Qur’ans, sometimes in thirty vol-
the line. Rounded script was not new but the umes, were compiled for the rulers and their
application of this style to Qur’ans seems to mosques and madrasas. Qur’ans were also
have begun in Iran and marks a major inno- copied on tinted paper, from the ninth or
vation. Thanks to a secretary in the adminis- tenth century onward. One of the earliest,
tration of the Abbasid government called most famous examples of this type (cat. no. 2),
Ibn Muqla, a system of proportions based on with gold writing on a blue parchment
the rhombic dot was devised. Ibn Muqla is ground, was produced in ninth-century North
also credited with the invention of six cursive Africa.
scripts, thuluth, naskh, rihan, muhaqqaq, tau- Great artistic skill has also been lavished
qi³ and riqa³, which range from monumental on the bindings that enclose and protect
to small, and fulfilled different calligraphic Qur’ans. Made of leather and, from the
Safavid Qur’an binding purposes. Additionally, regional styles of seventeenth century on in Iran and India, of
Circa 1540 –1580 (AKM 00386) writing developed. When pages of Qur’ans lacquer, these bindings often have Qur’anic
31
verses stamped on the leather exterior and century), the result of refurbishment and
gilded filigree decoration laid over coloured new building after the destruction of the
paper on the interior surface. Because of the Mongol invasions, indicate a new taste for
Islamic prohibition against anthropomorphic inscriptions in relief used for mihrabs (prayer
or zoomorphic imagery in a religious context, niches), tomb markers and wall decoration.
the decoration of such bindings is limited to Finally, the power of the Qur’an is so great
the floral, epigraphic and geometric. that its verses are considered capable of pro-
In architecture Qur’anic inscriptions were tecting people from evil. Thus, amulets and
carved into stone panels in the form of bands undershirts were inscribed with Qur’anic
running around the interior or exterior of verses to save the wearer from harm. Even on
mosques and other religious edifices. Tile humble surfaces, a shell (cat. no. 17) or a leaf
panels and walls of glazed and unglazed (cat. no. 19), the word of God was lovingly
bricks also feature Qur’anic verses. The anal- written, an enduring act of devotion and ar-
ysis of the choice of Qur’anic verses on spe- tistic virtuosity. As if to remind Muslims that
cific buildings can lead to a better under- God is ubiquitous and all-powerful, the 1 Blair 2006, pp. 110–116, summarising the
standing of the patron’s religious or political Qur’an in all its forms is a constant presence theories of Estelle Whelan.
preoccupations.2 The large number of tiles throughout the Islamic world. 2 Grabar 1959; Necipoblu 2005, p. 200 ff.
from the Il-Khanid period in Iran (13th–14th
32
1 Qur’an folio in gold Kufic script As with the pages of the celebrated “Blue Qur’an” blue and green. An eight-petalled rosette framing
North Africa, 9th–10th century (see cat. no. 2), the execution of this Qur’an folio the letter kaf (“k”) signals the end of a group of
Ink and gold on parchment in gold Kufic script on vellum involved the ten verses in the abjad system, found also in other
17.9 x 26 cm lengthy and expensive process called chrysogra- Kufic Qur’ans. Each letter of the Arabic alphabet
Text: Sura Qaf, 50:14–22 phy (see Fraser and Kwiatkowski 2005, p. 30). is assigned a numerical value to signal the comple-
AKM 00479 The letters were written in “liquid glue,” filled in tion of a particular verse in a chapter – in this
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 35; AKTC 2009a, p. 32; with a careful application of ground gold sus- case, kaf, which equals 20, marks the end of the
AKTC 2009b, p. 32. pended in a solution, and finally outlined with twentieth verse of Sura Qaf. Two other leaves
pale brown ink using a thin-nibbed stylus. The from this Qur’an manuscript are housed in the
vocalisations used to read and recite the text have National Library, Tunis. AF / LA
been applied in the form of dots painted in red,
33
2 Bifolium from the “Blue Qur’an” This extraordinary bifolium of gold Kufic calligra- Differing views exist as to the exact origins of this
North Africa, 9th –10th century phy on indigo-dyed parchment comes from the manuscript. One scholar has relied on palaeo-
Ink, opaque watercolour, silver (now oxidised), celebrated “Blue Qur’an”, one of the most lavish graphical and historical evidence to suggest that it
and gold on blue-dyed parchment Qur’an manuscripts ever created. Careful atten- was created for the Fatimids, who ruled North
26 x 69 cm tion to detail was devoted to every aspect of the Africa from Qayrawan during the first half of the
Text: Sura al-Furqan (The Criterion), 25:55 – 64 manuscript, including the complex and costly tenth century (Bloom 1986, pp. 59– 65; Bloom
AKM 00477 technique of chrysography, as described in cat. no. 1989, pp. 95–99; Bloom 2007, pp. 42– 44). An-
Published: Bloom 2007, p. 42–44; Makariou 2007, 1. Silver rosettes (now oxidized) were also used to other, however, notes that the alphanumeric nota-
pp. 108–109 (no. 34); AKTC 2008a, pp. 44 – 45 indicate the divisions between the verses. The vir- tion system (abjad), here apparent in the form of
(cat. no. 2); AKTC 2009a, p. 33; AKTC 2009b, p. 33. tual simplicity of decoration and illumination us- letters appearing in medallions at the end of each
ing the finest materials – indigo-dyed parchment, verse, was subsequently reserved only for the
silver, and gold – combined with the angular Ku- western Islamic world (Stanley 1995, pp. 7–15).
fic script results in an overwhelming effect on the The unusual colour scheme may have been in-
viewer regardless of his or her level of literacy. spired by Byzantine manuscripts or documents,
Although the two folios are attached, they do some of which are written in silver and gold on
not represent sequential pages in the manuscript. parchment dyed blue or purple. The blue and
Fifteen lines of text fill each page in a dense, an- gold decoration of the mihrab at the Great
gular Kufic script typical of manuscripts attrib- Mosque of Cordoba may also bear some relation
uted to the tenth century (Déroche, 1983, p. 42); to the similar decoration used for the Blue
no diacritical marks are used to indicate vowels. Qur’an.
The calligrapher also inserted cæsuræ within the A section of the manuscript is currently
words in order to place isolated letters at the be- housed in the National Institute of Art and Ar-
ginning of the line as much as possible, creating a chaeology in Tunis and detached leaves or frag-
column effect. The rhythm of the script is made ments are in the National Library, Tunis, the
even more striking by the reduction of illuminat- Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, and in other pub-
ing elements to a minimum: in the margin of the lic and private collections. AM / LA
left folio, an almost obliterated silver rosette
marks each group of twenty verses.
34
3 Qur’an folio in gold Kufic script The Qur’an to which to which this folio once be- would have been high, as its completion would
Near East or Iran, 9th – 10th century longed has often been given a Maghribi attribu- have required a proportionately greater amount of
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on parchment tion because sections of the manuscript were pur- vellum, ink, colours, and gold. Like the folio in
14.9 x 20.9 cm portedly discovered in the mosque at Qayrawan, cat. no. 1, vocalisations appear in the form of red,
Text: Sura al-³Ankabut (The Spider), 29:31– 33 Tunisia. However, as the abjad system (by which blue, and green dots. Singular verses are divided
AKM 00480 Arabic letters are used for verse counts) in this by gold rosettes, while every tenth verse receives
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 34; AKTC 2009b, p. 34 Qu’ran has been identified as “eastern,” it is pos- an abjad letter, echoed in the margin within a larg-
sible that the manuscript was produced in more er medallion containing the verse count in gold
eastern Islamic lands, perhaps in the greater Ira- (in this case, thalathun for “thirtieth”). Other
nian world. As with cat. nos. 1 and 2, no expense leaves and sections from the same Qur’an can be
was spared in the preparation of this Qur’an, found in various collections, including the Bibli-
which was also calligraphed in gold ink using the othèque Nationale, Tunis; the National Institute
technique of chrysography. At only five lines of of Archaeology, Tunis; the Beit al-Quran, Bahrain,
fine Kufic script per page, the cost of production and the Nasser D. Khalili collection, London. LA
35
4 Qur’an folio in Kufic script With only three grand lines of elegant and care- script notable for its dominant verticals such as
North Africa or Near East, 10th century fully attenuated script per page, the Qur’an to the lam-alif combination, countered by an exag-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on parchment which this folio originally belonged was surely a gerated width in the strokes of some letters. In the
23.8 x 33.1 cm luxury commission produced at enormous ex- terminal nun (“n”) letters, for instance, the callig-
Text: Sura al-Rahman (The Most Gracious), pense. The present leaf relates to folios from two rapher has changed the angle of his nib at the
55:62 – 65 known dispersed manuscripts located in public mid-point of the round letter, creating an aestheti-
AKM 00483 and private collections, including the National cally pleasing, symmetrical nun that maximises the
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 37 (AKM 00481); Library, Tunis, Museum of Islamic Arts, width of the stroke.
AKTC 2007b, p. 33 (AKM 00482); Qayrawan, and the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, It is difficult to date and identify the geograph-
AKTC 2009a, p. 35; AKTC 2009b, p. 35 the Al-Sabah Collection, Kuwait, and the Nasser ical origins of Kufic-script Qur’ans. A three-line
D. Khalili Collection, London. Brown ink was Qur’an folio very similar to this one has been at-
used to calligraph the text against a background tributed to the first half of the tenth century
of parchment, red to indicate vowels, and gold to somewhere between Qayrawan and Damascus
illuminate the large medallions and to mark verse (see Fraser and Kwiatkowski 2006, pp. 52– 57;
endings. The characteristic features shared by all Déroche 1992, pp. 42 and 109). AF / LA
of the folios in the codex include a type of Kufic
36
5 Folio from the “Qarmathian Qur’an” This folio is from a dispersed copy of the so-called reserve white on a ground of blue curls. These
Iran, mid-12th century “Qarmathian Qur’an,” one of the most elaborate motifs recall contemporary ceramics and metal-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper large-scale Qur’an manuscripts produced between work. Lavish gold braided borders frame the text
page: 31 x 20.8 cm; text: 21.4 x 14.2 cm the eleventh and early thirteenth centuries. Each and two half-medallions project into the right
Text: Sura al-Ma²ida (The Table Spread), 5:44 – 45 page contains four lines of a broken angular cur- margin. The faded gold text panel on the right
AKM 00256 sive script, characterised by towering verticals an- may have indicated the number of verses in the
Published: Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 46 – 48 chored to a strict horizontal baseline with dramat- Sura, or where it was revealed, according to Sheila
(no. 11); AKTC 2007a, p. 38 – 39 (no. 5); ic modulation between thin and thick strokes. Blair, who also remarks that such extensive deco-
AKTC 2007b, p. 34 – 35 (no. 5); AKTC 2009a, p. 36; The decoration of each folio is appropriately ex- ration executed on an estimated total of 4,500
AKTC 2009b, p. 36 travagant. The script is complemented by a de- pages must have been an extraordinarily time-
tailed background of stylized palmette scrolls in consuming enterprise (see Blair 2006, p. 198). AF
37
6 Qur’an folio Qur’an production from the eleventh century on- enclosed in a ruled margin outlined in red with
Central Asia, 14th century wards was marked by a change in the selection of multi-petalled rosette extensions rendered in gold,
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper script styles. One of the scripts that gradually re- pale green, red, and black and framed in turn
24.7 x 19.9 cm placed the Kufic of earlier Qur’ans as the predom- within stylised palmettes and half-palmettes. A
Text: Sura al-Rum (The Romans), 30:33 – 34 inant style was the rectilinear but more monumen- gold rosette also marks the division between the
AKM 00310 tal muhaqqaq featured on this folio. The earliest thirty-third and thirty-fourth verses of al-Rum, the
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 37; AKTC 2009b, p. 37 known Qur’an written in this script is dated 1160 thirtieth chapter of the Qur’an. This folio was for-
and can be found in the National Library, Cairo merly in the collection of Krikor and Adrienne
(MS. 144; see Lings and Safadi 1976, cat. no. 60). Minassian in New York. LA
Three lines of text fill the present page; they are
38
7 Qur’an folio from al-Andalus In the western Islamic world, a distinct round this one, are on tinted peach-pink paper believed
Spain, early 13th century style of script with generous, sweeping curves of to have been produced in Jativa, site of the earli-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper descending letters had developed by the mid-tenth est documented paper mill in Spain (Fraser and
32.6 x 25.6 cm century (Déroche 1999, pp. 239 – 241; Blair 2006, Kwiatkowski 2006, p. 64). The systems used for
Text: Sura Yunus (Jonah), 10:27– 28 p. 223). Known as maghribi, this script was em- vocalisation, pointing, and orthography are also
AKM 00258 ployed in al-Andalus and the Maghrib, modern- peculiar to maghribi script. This Qur’an folio is an
Published: Falk 1985, p. 39 (no. 7); day Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Maghribi-script elegant example of how the script had evolved by
AKTC 2007a, p. 40 (no. 7); AKTC 2007b, p. 36 Qur’ans are usually written in brown or black ink the early thirteenth century. AF
(no. 7); AKTC 2009a, p. 38; AKTC 2009b, p. 38 with elaborate illumination in gold. Some, like
39
8 Folio from a Mamluk Qur’an Qur’ans decorated with illumination and gilding The production of such lavish manuscripts re-
Egypt, Mamluk, ca. 1450 are known to have existed as early as the tenth quired a team of calligraphers, artists, illumina-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper century, their embellishment at first limited to tors, and gilders, all contributing to a finished
41.3 x 32.1 cm marking a sura or chapter, as well as the headings product that often represented the generosity and
Text: Sura an-Naml (The Ant), 27:88 – 93 and ends of ayas, or verses. On the present folio, wealth of the patron who had commissioned it.
and Sura al-Qasas (The Story), 28:1– 3 the Sura al-Naml is introduced in an elegant white While the patron of the codex to which this
AKM 00243 script, outlined in black and placed within a gild- page belonged is unknown, the manuscript itself
Published: AKTC 2008a, p. 52– 53 (no. 6); ed rectangular frame. The frame contains a gold can be attributed to Egypt based on stylistic
AKTC 2009a, p. 39; AKTC 2009b, p. 39 background and a series of lobed cartouches grounds. Its monumental muhaqqaq script is typi-
painted in red and blue and decorated with gilded cal of Qur’ans produced under the Mamluks
vine scrolls and rosettes. Twelve-petalled rosettes (1250 –1517) in the second half of the fifteenth
outlined in black and illuminated with gold petals century; earlier manuscripts would have avoided
and red dots indicate the end of each verse. this script as it was also associated with the
Qur’ans of the Ilkhanids (1256 –1353), the Mam-
luks’ former rivals in Iran). LA
40
9 Illuminated folio from a Qur’an There are varying suggestions as to the geographi- ture is the decoration of the chapter heading: in
Possibly Yemen, ca. 1300 –1350 cal location of where this Qur’an may have been this case, that of Sura Hud. The text is in white
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold on paper produced. Although an Ilkhanid Persia or Mam- Kufic and this is set within a gold panel with lat-
64 x 38.9 cms luk Egypt origin cannot be discounted, this ticework decoration at either end, terminating in
Text: Sura Yunus (Jonah), 10:109 Qur’an has certain features that suggest an alter- a pear-shaped medallion in the outer margin;
and Sura Hud, 11:1–15 native place of manufacture: Yemen, during the squares of interlace, although seldom found on
AKM 00814 period of Rasulid rule (1229 –1454). This Qur’an Mamluk Qur’ans, are known in Ilkhanid manu-
Unpublished is copied in a combination of three scripts: the scripts, however. The verses on this bifolium –
first and last lines are in muhaqqaq, the middle which is sequential – are separated by eight-pet-
line (5th line on the right page and 7th line on the alled gold rosettes, with each fifth verse identified
left page) is in gold thuluth, and the remainder of “in the margin by a gold pear-shaped device with
the text is written in black naskh. It is rare to find a floral motif in the centre and an irregular blue
Mamluk Qur’ans in different types of script, and border culminating in a long finial” (ibid.); the
none are known “with three styles on the same tenth verse is marked by a gold roundel with a
page” (James 1992, p. 160). Another unusual fea- blue border. AM
41
10 Qur’an folio in Bihari script This folio belongs to one of a very few Qur’an diacritical marks and interlinear Persian transla-
India, 15th century manuscripts that survive from the period between tions in red nasta³liq script. The first of every
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper Timur’s invasion of northern India in 1398-9 and three lines is alternately executed in gold or red
36.8 x 27.8 cm the founding of the Mughal dynasty in 1526. It ink, outlined in black, followed by two lines of
Text: Sura al-Isra² (The Night Journey), 17:74 – 80 has been a challenge to understand the general black script. The gilded and coloured lines do not
AKM 00252 development of the arts of the book in this region include text that varies in significance from the
Published: Falk 1985, p. 142 (no. 115); during the fifteenth century due to the diversity of following lines in black, but the formula creates a
AKTC 2007a, p. 41 (no. 9); AKTC 2007b, artistic styles corresponding to the cultural centres visual rhythm that brings a sense of order to a
p. 37 (no. 9); AKTC 2009a, p. 40 – 41; of independent Muslim sultanates. Manuscript somewhat overpacked page of text. Gold circular
AKTC 2009b, p. 40 – 41 production seemed to follow the Timurid tradi- pendants separate singular verses and the letter
tion in Iran and Central Asia, with one distin- ³ayn, standing for ³asharah (ten) to mark a group
guishing feature: the use of the bihari script, as of ten verses, appears in the left margin, sand-
shown here. A strange mutation of naskh script wiched vertically by glosses in black Persian
with obscure origins, bihari appears only in manu- nasta³liq. A clearly visible mistake in the six and
scripts predating the Mughals (James 1992b, p. seventh lines – additional words that do not ap-
102). It is characterized by an exaggeration of the pear in the Qur’anic verses have been circled and
sublinear letter forms through a thickening of the crossed out after it was too late – suggests that
letter’s curves and a sharpening of its end points. this particular Qur’an was not executed by a
On the present page, thirteen lines have been scribe of the highest calibre. LA
calligraphed in gold, red, and black, with black
42
11 Manuscript of a Mauritanian Qur’an One of the folios appearing at the end of this acteristic Saharan-Maghribi (or Sudani) script
Northwest Africa, Mauritania, 18th century Qur’an manuscript includes the name of a copy- style and a format recalling the square shape of
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; ist, Muhammad bin Musa al-Yusufi, and the date twelfth-century Maghribi manuscripts in a revival-
leather binding the copy was completed (1036 H / 1626 CE). The ist manner (Bayani, Contadini, and Stanley 1999,
folios 27.5 x 21 cm Qur’an’s illumination, which might be later than p. 43), likewise support a Northwest African
bound manuscript 29 x 21.7 x 3.4 cm the script, suggests an attribution to Mauritania in provenance. LA
AKM 00807 the 18th century. Other features, such as the char-
Published: AKTC 2008b, cat. no. 4;
AKTC 2009a, p. 41; AKTC 2009b, p. 41
43
12 Manuscript of an Ottoman Qur’an This manuscript is one of the greatest early Otto- sultan Bayezid II calligraphy while the latter was
Ottoman Empire (Turkey), ca. 1500 man Qur’ans. The colophon in Ottoman Turkish governor there. Thus began a lifelong relationship
Copied by Shaykh Hamdallah b. Mustafa on folio 278r identifies the scribe as Shaykh Ham- that continued throughout the entire reign of
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper dallah ibn Mustafa. Although the patron of the Bayezid II. The complete opening chapter of the
39.2 x 26.5 cm manuscript is not named, it may have been Sultan Qur’an appears on this elaborate double frontis-
Text: al-Fatiha (The Opening), 1:1–7 Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512). Shaykh Hamdallah (d. piece in naskh script, a specialty of Shaykh Ham-
AKM 00262 1520) was one of the most celebrated Ottoman dallah and a standard script for Ottoman Qur’ans.
Published: Welch 1979, pp. 92– 93 (no. 29); calligraphers. He revised the six canonical scripts The elongated letter sin (“s”) in the basmala and
Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 27– 29 (no. 4); of Yaqut and influenced generations of Ottoman the far-reaching nun (“n”) that wraps under the
Falk 1985, p. 133 (no. 105); AKTC 2007a, calligraphers. Nearly fifty Qu’rans and numerous gold roundel verse markers add rhythm to the cal-
p. 45 (no. 15); AKTC 2007b, p. 42 (no. 15); prayer books and single sheets of religious texts ligraphy and are hallmarks of Shaykh Hamdallah’s
AKTC 2009a, p.42– 43; AKTC 2009b, p. 42– 43 are credited to his hand. A native of Amasya, style. AF
Shaykh Hamdallah taught the future Ottoman
13 Manuscript of a Safavid Qur’an This manuscript is similar to Qur’ans produced in mid-line, this is only indicated on this page by a
Copied by ³Abdallah Shirazi workshops of Shiraz in the sixteenth century, al- slight space between the words (e.g., the eighth
Iran, Qazvin or Mashhad, Safavid, ca. 1550 –1565 though it was probably not done in that city. Such and ninth lines). Outside the written surfaces, me-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper Qur’ans stand out for their rich illuminations, of dallions punctuate the margins every five verses
Folios: 37.4 x 24.4 cm; binding: 38 x 25 x 6.5 which the best compositions are reserved for the (with blue rosettes) and ten verses (with gold ro-
Text: Sura al-Baqara (The Cow), 1:1–17 first and last pages of the volume. Thus, this man- settes).
AKM 00485 uscript does not start directly with the Qur’anic In the margins, there is a notation made in
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 124 – 25 (no. 42); text, but is preceded by two pages, each decorat- black ink; this is the Arabic expression waqf
AKTC 2009a, p.42-43; AKTC 2009b, p.42 ed with an inscribed rosette. The following bifo- which recalls the transformation of this manu-
lium carries the first Sura, al-Fatiha, which can be script into an inalienable good (ibid., n. 65). This
read on two polylobate mandorlas in the centre of mark is explained in the founding text which fol-
two completely illuminated bifolia. The last pages lows the Falnama and which declares that this
of the volume were also subject to special treat- manuscript was a gift from the Ottoman sultan,
ment. These are two additional texts; a final Selim II (r. 1566 –1574), to the mosque he found-
prayer (du³a² khatm) to be recited upon comple- ed in Edirne - the Selimiye. It is possible that this
tion of the reading of the Holy Book, and a Fal- luxurious manuscript was one of a number of dip-
nama, an abridged bibliomancy manual which in- lomatic gifts, presented in 1568 by the Safayid
dicates the divinatory values of the letters of the sovereign Shah Tahmasp to Selim II to mark the
Arabic alphabet (Makariou 2007, p. 139, n. 64). renewal of the peace treaty of Amasya, signed in
More modestly, an illuminated frontispiece lies 1555 with Selim II’s father, Süleyman the Magnifi-
above the first few verses of Sura 2 (al-Baqara), the cent (ibid., n. 66).
last Sura (al-Nas), and Sura 18 (al-Kahf), which is As with many sixteenth century Qur’ans, we
highlighted because it marks the beginning of the do not know the date of this manuscript’s copy,
second half of the Qur’anic text. but the calligrapher, or more likely the illumina-
The bifolium that is reproduced here corre- tor, ³Abdallah Shirazi, signed his name at the end
sponds to the beginning of al-Baqara, the second of the last Sura. Two miniaturists bearing this
and longest Sura in the Qur’an. The frontispiece name are identifiable: the first worked in the
(sarlaw) consists of a rectangular cartouche, sur- scriptorium of Shah Tahmasp in Qazvin around
mounted by four identical florets, with alternating 1550 –1560 and died in this same city in 1574
dark blue and gold backgrounds scattered with (ibid., n. 67); the second, who is better known,
fine flowery foliage. At the centre of the cartou- worked in the scriptorium of the Safavid prince
che, a polylobate medallion encircles the title of and governor of Mashhad, Sultan Ibrahim Mirza
the Sura, written in riqa³ in white ink on a gold (1540 –1587) in Qazvin. He died in Mashhad at
background. The text of the Sura starts beneath an unknown date while attached to the service of
this rich frontispiece and runs along in visual dis- the mausoleum of Imam Riza and of the tomb of
continuity; the text is divided into panels of un- his diseased protector. He contributed notably to
equal width, alternating between two writing the completion of the famous Haft Awrang cre-
styles, different inks and colour backgrounds. ated for Ibrahim Mirza and a divan for this same
Three then five lines of naskh are etched on a prince housed at the Aga Khan Museum. Only a
white scalloped edge demarcated by a gold back- close and careful analysis of the illuminations of
ground decorated with fine flowery foliage. These these manuscripts and their respective signatures
alternate with a longer line in muhaqqaq copied in could confirm that the decoration of the Qur’an
white ink against a blue background outlined in and of these manuscripts have been done by one
red, or against a gold background outlined in and the same person (ibid., n. 68). Whether it was
blue. Rectangular cartouches covered with flow- by the first ³Abdallah Shirazi or the second, this
ery foliage are on either side of the lines in naskh. sumptuous Qur’an could have been copied and
This visual discontinuity is purely aesthetic and illuminated in the royal and princely workshops
does not signify, for example, the transition from of Qazvin or Mashhad. CM
one verse to the next. If the end of a verse occurs
44
12
13
45
14 Manuscript of a Mughal Qur’an Unlike the embracing and open-minded attitudes including panels with gilded and inscribed car-
India, Mughal, dated 1093 H / May – June 1682 CE of his predecessors toward the diverse religions touches outlined in red against a blue background
Scribe: Muhammad Fazil practiced in the Indian sub-continent, the Mughal filled with small red and white flowers. The bands
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; tooled emperor Awrangzeb’s reign (1658 –1707) was of text are consolidated within a series of colour-
leather binding characterised by a strict and severe religious poli- ful and gilded ruled and floriated narrow frames,
Folios: 26.6 x 17 cm cy that showed little tolerance for opposing be- enclosed within a larger border containing poly-
Text: al-Kahf (The Cave), 18:75 – 80 liefs. It should come as no surprise, then, that the chrome vignettes and lotus blossoms among the
AKM 00319 heyday of illustrated manuscript and album pro- smaller red and white flowers. This pattern, along
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 44; AKTC 2009b, p. 44 duction enjoyed under the emperors Akbar with the green-and-gold outlined “hasp” extend-
(r. 1556 –1605), Jahangir (r. 1605–1627), and Shah ing from the frame on each side of the double-
Jahan (r. 1628–1658) came to an end under his page composition, is another design typical of
rule, especially in light of Awrangzeb’s embrace- seventeenth-century Indian manuscripts; it is re-
ment of Muslim orthodoxy, which exercised a peated in panels flanking each of the smaller text
more stern and restrictive attitude towards figural boxes containing black naskh script. A gold, flori-
representation. On the other hand, Awrangzeb ated scroll pattern fills the margins, surrounding
appears to have shown a greater interest in Qur’an the overall illuminated composition, its rhythm
production, especially those executed in naskh broken at one point by the gilded and poly-
script, before he even ascended the throne (Baya- chrome-bordered cartouche appearing on the
ni, Contadini, and Stanley 1999, p. 172). right margin of the right-hand page.
The present manuscript holds approximately Persian manuscripts of the fifteenth and six-
460 leaves and contains thirteen lines per page, teenth centuries appear to have been a great
with the majority of text copied in naskh and the source of inspiration for Qur’an illumination in
first, middle, and last lines written in the more seventeenth-century India, this manuscript, how-
monumental muhaqqaq. The margins are ruled in ever, being an exception (ibid., pp. 174, 194 –200),
black ink and gold and chapter headings are high- although the combination of small and large
lighted in gold muhaqqaq script, while small, mul- scripts on one page is reminiscent of Qur’ans pro-
ti-petalled and gilded rosettes mark verse divi- duced in Shiraz, Iran, in the sixteenth century.
sions. The two pages shown here constitute the A colophon provides information about the
middle pair of three sets of illuminated bifolia ap- scribe, a certain Muhammad Fazil who identifies
pearing in the manuscript. Similar to other himself as a shagird, or pupil, of Mulla al-Yas,
Qur’ans produced in the later Mughal period, along with the manuscript’s completion date, Ju-
text areas are divided into bands of varied widths, mada al-awwal 1093 H / May –June 1682 CE. LA
46
15 Manuscript of a Qajar Qur’an Thanks to the political stability brought about the first chapter and part of the second are high-
Scribe: ³Abd al-Mudhnab al-Khatti al-Jani ³Abdallah by the first Qajar ruler, Muhammad Khan, in lighted by frames created with gilded cloud forms
Iran, Tehran, Qajar, dated 1233 H / 1817-8 CE 1785, the early Qajar period witnessed a cultural while interlinear Persian translations appear in the
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; later revival lasting over a century, demonstrated in narrower bands in a dark pink nasta³liq. Central
leather binding particular by large-scale architectural and artistic cartouches above the text frame on each page
Folios 19.8 x 12.6 cm; patronage under the reigns of Fath ³Ali Shah provide the name and number of verses contained
bound manuscript 22.6 x 16.9 x 4.1 cm (r. 1798–1834) and his grandson, Nasir al-Din in each chapter in red naskh script (seven for al-
Text: Sura al-Fatiha (The Opening), 1:1– 7 and Shah (r. 1848 –1896) (Diba 1998, p. 169). The Fatiha and 286 for al-Baqara). A ruled pink lozenge
Sura al-Baqara (The Cow), 2:1– 4 production of illustrated manuscripts dwindled scroll frames the text and is surrounded by poly-
AKM 00287, fols. 1v – 2r as the taste for life-size painting rapidly increased, chrome gilded illumination composed of project-
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 45; AKTC 2009b, p. 45 never to recover from this decline (Diba 1998, ing polychrome half-medallions filled with heart-
pp. 169 –170). As this Qur’an suggests, however, shaped knots and orange, pink and blue floral
the production of illustrated and illuminated rosettes set against a blue background. The colo-
manuscripts did not come to a complete end. phon on folio 302r identifies “the humble scribe,”
The manuscript includes the entire text of the ³Abd al-Mudhnab al-Khatti al-Jani ³Abdallah and
Qur’an, copied in Arabic in a combination of gives the date of 1233 H / 1817- 8 CE, but it ap-
naskh and thuluth scripts. On the double-page pears that another colophon was added on the
illuminated frontispiece shown here, verses from verso of the same folio, with a later date. LA
47
16 Manuscript of a Sulawesi Qur’an Although the spread of Islam reached the Indian written in thuluth script with explicatory glosses
Scribe: Isma³il bin ³Abdallah al-Jawi of Makassar Ocean and Southeast Asia as early as the thir- added in naskh. The Sura heading appears at the
Indonesia, Sulawesi Island, Laiyaka (probably teenth century, the earliest surviving manuscripts top of the right-hand page in an oval cartouche
Laikang), dated 25 Ramadan 1219 H / 28 December of the Qur’an from the region date to the seven- painted in black, while the number of verses in
1804 CE teenth and eighteenth centuries. The present ex- the chapter (110) is given in the matching cartou-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on European ample has been identified as one of only three che at the bottom of the same page. The cartou-
paper, leather binding core exemplars in a group of eighteen Qur’ans ches on the opposite page provide the numbers of
Folios 35.5 x 20 cm illuminated in the “Sulawesi geometric style”; the verses (110) and words (1877) in the Sura, as well
Text: al-Kahf (The Cave), 18:1– 6 other fifteen represent localised variations. They as the number of letters (6360) in the chapter and
AKM 00488 are characterized by a few distinct features, in- its order of revelation to the Prophet (67th), re-
Published: AKTC 2008b, no. 28 (different folios cluding double illuminated frames formed from spectively. Some of the commentators who have
illustrated); AKTC 2009a, p. 46; AKTC 2009b, p. 46 geometric shapes and appearing on the manu- added explanations have been identified in the
script’s initial and ultimate bifolia as well as by a margin on the left-hand page.
bold and dark colour palette. The extraordinary amount of artistic variation
The Aga Khan Museum’s Qur’an is one of the among these manuscripts and the fact that they
most impressive of this group in size, quality, and reflect far-flung provenances and locations has led
condition; it survives in its complete form and some scholars to propose the existence of a di-
contains a full colophon identifying its scribe and asporic artistic idiom rather than one restricted to
attesting to a production in south Sulawesi. It was south Sulawesi. LA
17 Mother-of-pearl shell Using the natural shape of this shell and its lus- the liquid, pour it over his head, spray himself
India, Iran, or Turkey, 18th century trous mother-of-pearl lining, the artist has created with it or use it to massage parts of the body.
Mother-of-pearl a pleasing decorative programme of eight concen- Apart from the “magical writings” in the mid-
maximum Ø 14.5 cm tric circles engraved with verses from the Qur’an. dle circle, there is a Shiite supplication starting
AKM 00665 The delicate floral vinescrolls in the widest circle with “qul” (“speak”), followed by “ya ³Ali”, re-
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 47 (no. 17); recall Deccani painting as well as the spiral scroll- peated three times, on the second circular band.
AKTC 2007b, p. 43 (no. 17); Makariou 2007, pp. work backgrounds of Ottoman sultans’ tughras Within the medallions of the next, third, circular
132– 33 (no. 46); AKTC 2008a, pp. 20 and 64 – 65 (monograms, tubra in modern Turkish) and the band is to be found a series of extracts from the
(no. 12); AKTC 2009a, p. 47; AKTC 2009b, p. 47 cobalt blue decoration of early sixteenth-century Qur’an, each time introduced by the expression
Ottoman ceramics. The style of nasta³liq script, bismillah, which signals a change of Sura. Thus,
however, would suggest an Indian or Iranian starting with the medallion which we will number
hand. Gujarat was a major centre of manufacture 1, since it is the only one with the expression bis-
of mother-of-pearl and perhaps this object was millah in the first line, moving clockwise around
made for export to Turkey. No matter where it to medallion 11, we can find Suras al-Kafirun (The
was produced, the quality of skill demonstrated Unbelievers), 109, verses 1– 6; al-Tawhid (Pure
on this object suggests that it was made for a per- Worship), 112, verses 1– 4; al-Falaq (The Dawn),
son of high standing. 113, verses 1–5; al-Nas (Mankind), 114, verses
It is difficult to find an equivalent object that 1– 6; al-Qalam (The Pen), 68, verses 51–52, which
has been written about or even discovered. A shell are the last two of the Sura; finally, al-Isra² (The
of 14.3 cm in diameter bearing Qur’anic inscrip- Night Journey), 17, verse 81. Suras 109, 112, 113
tions and described as being Iranian, was sold re- and 114 are special in that they all start with “qul”
cently, but seems to have later origins (19th cen- and appear on the object in full. In the fourth,
tury). The structure of the decoration on the sixth and eighth circular bands, the inscriptions
inside is reminiscent of therapeutic magical cups. are engraved on lines radiating from the centre.
It consists of double concentric circles which de- Whereas, on the one hand, the inscription in
fine the areas for “magical writing”, engraved on nasta³liq of the fifth circular band, verse 31 of
marked lines in the middle circle. A motif with Sura Al ³Imran (The Family of ³Imran), 3, once
splayed beams starts in the third circular band again beginning with “qul”, is circular; on the oth-
from the bottom of the object and is recalled in er hand, the texts of the seventh circular band are
the seventh band, “in sun-like fashion”, revealing again to be found engraved on the medallions.
the medallions on which the texts are engraved. Among the latter, we find the beginning of Sura
Finally the eighth band bears concentric circles 48, al-Fath (Victory).
and lines of “magical writing”. Liquid can be Suras 109, 112, 113 and 114, as well as Sura
poured into the shell’s concave space, thereby 17, verse 81, the beginning of Sura 48 and Sura
coming into contact with all the inscriptions and 68, 51-52 appear in therapeutic magical cups, and
elements inside. Depending on the different often as well the first four Suras. Furthermore, the
known uses of these cups, the patient can drink same verses of Suras 48, 58 and 112 appear in the
shell that was recently sold. AF
48
49
18 Talismanic pendant A beautiful frame of rubies surrounds the circum- tangle, continuing in this manner towards the
Iran, 19th century ference of this oval-shaped pendant, which was centre of the pendant. The choice of Sura Ya Sin
Agate and rubies in silver-gilt mount; L 12.1 cm meant to be worn, as suggested by three loops emphasizes the talismanic nature of this object,
Text: Sura Ya Sin (the letters ya and sin, signifying added at its top for suspension. After the invoca- which would have been used to protect its wearer
“O Man”), 36:1– 83; two verses of Arabic poetry: tion of the shahada (“there is no god but God and from harm. The final lines of text suggest the pen-
“Call upon ³Ali, sign of miracles, you will find him Muhammad is His Messenger”), which appears in dant was probably made for a Shia Muslim. They
a help in time of crises / Every anguish and mis the centre, the entirety of the thirty-sixth chapter include two lines from a well-known Arabic poem
fortune will disappear, through your prophecy, of the Qur’an, generally reserved for recitation invoking the help and protection of the Prophet
O Muhammad, through your province / during challenging or difficult times (such as hun- Muhammad and his cousin and son-in-law, ³Ali,
O ³Ali O ³Ali O ³Ali” (trans. Abdullah Ghouchani) ger, adversity, illness, or impending death) has followed by the ninety-nine names of God, and
AKM 00668 been densely inscribed onto the surface. The ending with the names of Muhammad, ³Ali, and
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 48 (no. 19); chapter begins on the outer border and is followed ³Ali’s sons, Hasan and Husayn. LA
AKTC 2007b, p. 44 (no. 19); AKTC 2009a, p. 48; by text written in pairs of panels framing the rec-
AKTC 2009b, p. 48
50
19 Sweet chestnut leaf with calligraphy Qur’anic verses were applied to objects using an skeleton of the leaf. Related visually to Ottoman
Ottoman Empire (Turkey), 19th century astonishingly wide variety of techniques. cut-out work or découpage, the technique for leaf
Sweet chestnut leaf One of the most beautiful and unusual examples gilding was actually quite distinct. The inscription
28 x 13.5 cm is the gilded leaf, popular in nineteenth-century was either written or stencilled and sealed on both
Text: Sura al-Isra² (The Night Journey), 17:80 Ottoman Turkey. This example features a verse sides with a wax barrier. The leaf would be soaked
AKM 00538 from al-Isra² (The Night Journeyl, 17:80): “And in an alkaline solution long enough to yield only
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 49 (no. 20); say, ‘Lord grant me a good entrance and a goodly its skeleton and the inscription. The virtuosity of
AKTC 2007b, p. 44 (no. 20); Makariou 2007, exit, and sustain me with Your power.’” The cal- the present example is further highlighted since
pp. 134 – 35 (no. 47); AKTC 2008a, p. 70 (no. 15); ligrapher has made masterful use of his elegant its foundation is a sweet, or Spanish, chestnut leaf
AKTC 2009a, p.49; AKTC 2009b, p.49 thuluth murakkab script to create a calligraphic (Castanea sativa), a leaf more fragile than many of
composition resembling a boat filled with a crew, those employed for such compositions. AF
their long oars dipping into the water that is the
51
Two calligraphic lustre pottery tiles These two tiles were part of the same frieze, but the kept written documentation, but some of the
Iran, probably Kashan, early14th century not quite contiguous. The central inscription glazed tiles might have been produced in other
Fritware, painted in lustre, blue, brown and turquoise stands in moulded relief with elegant thuluth writ- parts of Iran. These two objects are probably
on an opaque white glaze ing, decorated in blue cobalt over a turquoise field parts of a frieze decorating the walls and tombs of
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 172–173; Falk 1985, of vine rolls, superimposed on small embossed a Shia mausoleum. According to Sheila Blair, they
p. 235 (no. 237); AKTC 2007a, p. 51 (no. 21); white canes over a golden background. The top were made to decorate the cenotaph of the Sufi
AKTC 2007b, p. 45 (no. 21); Makariou 2007, p. 120 and bottom inscriptions, made in naskh writing, master ³Abd al-Samad, in Natanz, Iran. Similar
(no. 40); AKTC 2009a, p. 50; AKTC 2009b, p. 50 appear on a raised section at the top and bottom objects are kept in public collections and others
part of the main decorative band. have appeared on the market over the past years.
20 17.5 x 38.1 cm Kashan is considered the most important cen- Such lustre-glazed ceramic tiles were also used to
AKM 00796 tre of tile and ceramic production, according to decorate mihrabs, and cenotaphs. AF / MB
Kindly lent by Princess Catherine Aga Khan
Text:
(Top) Sura al-Rahman (The Beneficent), 55:14 –19
(Centre) al-Jum³a (Friday) 62:8
(Bottom) Sura Saba² (Saba) 34:2– 3
21 18.6 x 43 cm
AKM 00565
(Top) Sura al-Rahman (The Beneficent), 55:32–35
(Centre) Sura al-Jum³a (Friday), 62:8
(Bottom) Sura Saba² (Saba), 34:7–9
52
22 Chinese ‘swatow’ dish Coarsely potted and covered with a thick, crack- peared in Indonesia and are believed to have been
China, 17th century led glaze, this dish belongs to a distinct group of commissioned by the powerful seventeenth-centu-
Porcelain, painted in overglaze green porcelain, the so-called ‘Swatow wares’. Swatow is ry Shia sultans of Aceh in northwest Sumatra, in-
and black enamels on opaque white glaze a Dutch mistranslation of Shantou, the port from cluding Sultan Iskander Muda (1607–1636)
Ø 35.1 cm which such ceramics were supposedly exported, (Canepa 2006, no. 40). The inscriptions on this
AKM 00591 although this port was actually not used until the dish include invocations to Allah, verses from the
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 46 – 47 (no. 16); Qing dynasty (1644 –1912). Recent archaeological Qur’an, including Sura al-Baqara (The Cow), al-
AKTC 2007b, p. 42 (no. 16); AKTC 2008a, p. 62– 63 research by Chinese scholars has established that Ikhlas(Fidelity) and al-Nas (The People), the Nad-
(no. 11); AKTC 2009a, p. 51; AKTC 2009b, p. 51 Swatow wares were produced in Zhangzhou pre- i ³Ali prayer and the word ‘Allah’ which is repeat-
fecture between the mid-sixteenth and mid-seven- ed along the cavetto of the dish. The inscriptions
teenth centuries for export to Europe, Japan and are talismanic, seeking protection and assistance
South East Asia. Dishes similar to this one ap- for the owner. AF
53
23 Carved beam with Qur’anic inscription A rare, intact survival from the Umayyad period tering star kindled from a Blessed Tree, an olive
North Africa?, 10th –11th century (756 –1031), this long, carved wooden beam is a that is neither of the East nor of the West whose oil
Wood work of austere beauty. The foliated motifs do not wellneigh would shine, even if no fire touched it;
16.7 x 427 cm seem to grow organically from the letters as they Light upon Light; God guides to His Light whom
AKM 00628 usually do in Fatimid (909 –1171) objects; rather He will. And God strikes similitudes for men, and
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 52–53 (no. 23); they act as added decoration. There are some exu- God has knowledge of everything. In houses God
AKTC 2007b, pp. 46–47 (no. 23); berant moments, however, in the decorative use of has allowed to be raised up and His name to be
AKTC 2009a, p. 52; AKTC 2009b, p. 52 letters. The word for God (Allah) is treated with commemorated therein.
special decorative significance the three times it is This famous verse from the Qur’an is often in-
repeated in the inscription. The wooden beam, scribed on mosque lamps, which thus become
which would most likely have been fitted in a symbols of divine light. One can imagine the
mosque, is inscribed with parts of the “Light present wooden beam in a mosque, its monumen-
Verse” from the Qur’an (Ayat al-Nur, 24:35–36): tal Kufic inscription softly illuminated by a nearby
God is the Light of the heavens and the earth; hanging lamp, both objects symbolising the pres-
the likeness of His Light is as a niche wherein is a ence of God. AF
lamp, the lamp in a glass, the glass as it were a glit-
54
24 Iznik tile frieze The growth of the ceramic industry in Iznik and an astounding relief red. This frieze, formed
Turkey, Iznik, Ottoman, ca. 1500 played a significant role in the codification of a from three separate tiles, might once have deco-
Fritware, polychrome underglaze painted distinctly Ottoman court aesthetic and ceramic rated part of a mosque. Its inscription, written in
15.5 x 75 cm technique (see cat. nos. 102 –106). Small square Arabic in a graceful naskh script, comes from the
Text: Sura al-Yusuf, 12:64 tiles produced in Iznik were transported to Istan- twelfth chapter of the Qur’an, and reads: “God is
AKM 00698 bul to decorate numerous palaces and mosques in the best guardian and He is the most merciful of
Kindly lent by Princess Catherine Aga Khan brilliant colours of blue, white, turquoise, green, the merciful.” LA
Published: AKTC 2008a, p. 72 (no. 16);
AKTC 2009a, p. 53; AKTC 2009b, p. 53
55
25 Qur’an on cloth This unusual Qur’an represents the fusion of Per- ed it on 5 Ramadan 1132 H / 11 July 1720 CE.
India, Mughal, dated 1130 –1132 H / 1718 –1720 CE sian and Indian art that flourished in eighteenth- The challenges involved in writing on a painted
Ink on green painted cotton cloth century Mughal India. The text of the Qur’an is cloth perhaps explain the amount of time it took
111.8 x 241.4 cm written in minute black naskh, termed ghubari, to make. This Qur’an was presented to the gover-
AKM 00487 while red and black roundels indicate the start of nor of Allahabad, Amir ³Abdallah. Although the
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 187 (no. C); each verse. In addition to chapter headings writ- Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556 –1605) designated
AKTC 2007b, pp. 26 – 27 and 48 (no. C); Doha ten in red thuluth, five large roundels contain the Allahabad as one of his capitals in 1583, its impor-
museum catalogue 2008; AKTC 2009a, pp. 54–55; basmala composed in black on gold and decorat- tance in the eighteenth century derived from its
AKTC 2009b, pp. 54–55 ed with gold and polychrome illumination. Ac- strategic location at the confluence of the Ganges
cording to the colophon, the scribe, Munshi ³Ab- and Yamuna rivers rather than from its former im-
dulghani al-Qadiri, began this Qur’an on 3 perial status. AF
Ramadan 1130 H / 31 July 1718 CE and complet-
56
57
58
Pilgrimage and prayer
Sheila Canby
Pilgrimage to Mecca, or hajj, plays an impor- the Great Mosque (cat. no. 27) and other key
tant role in Islam. The first two weeks of the sites visited, produced and sold in or near
Muslim calendar month, Dhu’l-Hijja, are de- Mecca and in the production of Iznik tiles
voted to it. In the modern world the hajj is depicting the Ka³ba and the stations of the
organised with great precision by the King- hajj (cat. no. 31). In Egypt, to this day, pil-
dom of Saudi Arabia, which sets quotas for grims paint scenes from the hajj on the exte-
the number of pilgrims allowed entry yearly rior of their houses. Although Shia muslims
from each country. Before the age of modern do perform the hajj to Mecca, they also travel
transport, the hajj was expensive, arduous to other shrine cities which are central to
and time-consuming, especially for Muslims their beliefs. As a result the shrine of Imam
travelling from the fringes of the Islamic ³Ali at Najaf and the shrine of Imam Husayn
world, Spain and the Maghrib in the West at Karbala, both in Iraq, draw Shia commu-
and Central Asia and India in the East. Often nities from all parts of the world. In Iran, the
the pilgrims, or hajjis, performed the hajj in Safavid shahs promoted the shrines of Fa-
old age and many of them did not survive the timeh Ma³sumeh at Qum and Imam Riza at
journey. However, dying while performing Mashhad as alternatives to Mecca in the late
the hajj was thought to ensure that the hajji sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when
would go to heaven. their Ottoman enemies controlled Mecca,
Because of the vagaries of politics in the Madina, and Jerusalem, the three holiest cit-
Islamic world, Muslims often did not have ies in the Muslim world.
the freedom of movement and required doc- In addition to the major Islamic shrines at
uments to ensure safe passage to Mecca. Mecca, Madina and the tombs of the Shia
While some of these were supplied by clerics Imams, smaller shrines developed around
at the point of departure, others in the form the graves of the children and descendants of
of diagrammatic pictures of the Ka³ba and the Shia Imams. Called imamzadehs, these
the Great Mosque at Mecca were produced centres were often lavishly decorated with
in the Hijaz to verify that pilgrims had per- tilework. Some of these shrines functioned as
formed the hajj. The desire to demonstrate satellites to the great shrines, while others
that one had performed the hajj resulted in were important focal points for local wor-
pilgrims returning from Mecca with plans of shippers.
© Henri Stierlin, Genf
Isfahan (Iran), Great Mosque
59
26 Pilgrim’s flask While pilgrim flask shapes can be traced in the pre-Islamic models; the outline format of the cal-
Greater Iran (Iraq or Iran) or Syria, 7th – 8th century pre-Islamic Iranian world to as early as the sec- ligraphy can be found on early ceramic dishes
Earthenware, with carved decoration and painted ond millennium BCE (Fehérvári 2000, p. 29), from this part of the world (see, for example, a
in a green lead glaze flasks covered in glaze date to the later pre-Is- dish in the David Collection, Copenhagen, pub-
H. 19 cm lamic Parthian (2nd c. BCE– 3rd c. CE) and lished in von Folsach 2001, p. 129 [no. 99, inv. no.
AKM 00540 Sasanian (2nd – 7th c. CE) periods. According to 50/1999]); and one in the British Museum, Lon-
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 58; AKTC 2009b, p. 58 Oliver Watson, in the early Islamic period, don, published in Pancaroblu 2007, p. 29 [fig. 14,
three distinct trends of glazed pottery appear, inv. no. OA1963.4-24.1]). The ceramic technique
including the continuation of pre-Islamic glazed and bird motif, however, pre-date the Islamic pe-
ceramics; the invention of new glazed ceramics; riod. Representations of birds in profile may have
and the addition of new glazes on previously been inspired by Sasanian prototypes of different
unglazed wares (Watson 2004, pp. 161–162). media (Auld 2005, p. 5; see Harper 1978, pp.
The present bottle falls within the first category; 63 – 65 [nos. 19, 21, 26, 49, and 77]). The shape of
it has an oval form, its surface decorated with the present flask is rare among the variety of Is-
impressed and carved patterns and featuring lamic pilgrim flasks; the closest parallel found for
the figure of a bird with a fish-like tail. The exit so far is also a one-handled vessel with a design
istence of an Arabic inscription in Kufic, pos- of birds carved in relief; it is housed in a private
sibly a blessing, distinguishes the flask from its collection in Japan. LA
60
27 Map of the Masjid al-Haram This map of the Great Mosque of Mecca (Masjid mosque are identified in Arabic in black naskh
Probably the Hijaz (Arabia), 18th century al-Haram) is part of the literary tradition sur- script. Similar maps are thought to have been pro-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and silver on paper rounding the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), includ- duced for Indian pilgrims in the eighteenth and
85 x 61.5 cm ing books of prayers, practical guides with sche- nineteenth centuries by draughtsmen working in
AKM 00529 matic depictions, and pilgrimage certificates. the Hijaz. AF
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 62– 63 (no. 31); Important locations within the precinct of the
AKTC 2007b, pp. 58 –59 (no. 31); AKTC 2009a,
pp. 58 – 59; AKTC 2009b, pp. 58 – 59
61
28 Prayer amulet and accompanying case This prayer amulet is a rare example of an early Ar- ters in the present example would indicate a Fa-
Egypt, ca. 11th century abic printing technique known as tarsh. The paper timid origin and no later, since this script was no
Paper amulet: 7.2 x 5.5 cm; lead case: 2.7 x 1.3 cm displays eighteen lines of Kufic text on the page longer used for manuscripts after the Fatimid pe-
AKM 00508 shown here and further lines on the reverse, which riod. The printing technique probably involved
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 61 (no. 30); may have been offset from the recto when the pa- metal plates or woodblocks. The history of early
AKTC 2007b, p. 58 (no. 30); Makariou 2007, per was folded inside its lead case, also a very rare printed amulets has yet to be written. What is
pp. 130 –31 (no. 45); AKTC 2008a, pp. 86 – 87 survival. The text, which has been translated by known about them is based on a small group of
(no. 23); AKTC 2009a, p. 60; AKTC 2009b, p. 60 Abdullah Ghouchani, contains excerpts from dif- extant printed amulets and literary sources. Bulli-
ferent Suras or chapters of the Qur’an, including ett cites poetry verses from tenth- and fourteenth-
al-An³am (6: The Cattle), Al ³Imran (3: The Family century authors referring to printed amulets from
of ³Imran), al-Hijr (15: The Rocky Tract), and al- wooden blocks and cast tin plates (Bulliet 1987).
Baqara (2: The Cow). The style of the Kufic charac- AF
62
29 Illustrated manuscript of the Dala’il The Dala’il al-khayrat of Muhammad ibn Sulay- gold, with landmarks and attributes rendered
al-khayrat (The Ways of Edification) man al-Jazuli (d. 869 H / 1465), a member of the clearly for immediate recognition; Medina is iden-
of al-Jazuli (d. 869 H / 1465 CE) Berber tribe of Jazula in southern Morocco, is a tified by a large courtyard and the Prophet’s min-
Turkey (Ottoman Empire), 1207 H / 1793 CE devotional prayer book comprised of a collection bar (pulpit), while the Ka³ba in Mecca is brought
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper of prayers for the Prophet, a description of his to the viewer’s attention as the focus of four
15.2 x 10.5 cm tomb, his names and epithets, and other devotion- mosques representing the cardinal directions.
AKM 00382 al material. Al-Jazuli compiled the material for the Covered in a black and gold cloth and set against
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 137–143; AKTC manuscript using books from the library of al- a blue backdrop with gilded floral decoration, the
2007a, p. 53 (no. 26); AKTC 2007b, p. 58 (no. 26); Qarawiyyin, the celebrated Marinid mosque and Ka³ba is framed by a geometric red and white cir-
AKTC 2008a, pp. 82– 83 (no. 21, ff. 110b –111a); University at Fas (modern Fez) in Morocco. The cular band that spills out into the bottom half of
AKTC 2009a, pp. 60 – 61; AKTC 2009b, pp. 60–61 Dala’il became the centre of a popular religious the painting where the Prophet’s minbar appears.
brotherhood, the Ashab al- Dala’il, the essential Views from multiple perspectives in both images
function of which revolved around the recitation result in stylized renditions of each city and priori-
of this book of religious piety. This manuscript is tize the inclusion of essential information over
an early nineteenth-century Ottoman copy of al- naturalistic representation; they recall a rich his-
Jazuli’s text, opened to two fully illustrated pages tory of geographic manuscripts with similarly ex-
containing depictions of Mecca and Medina. The ecuted illustrations in the Ottoman world, dating
images have been executed in black and painted back to the sixteenth century. LA / AF
in bright shades of red, blue, green, white, and
63
30 Chao jin tu ji by Ma Fuchu The Chao Jin Tu Ji is the travelogue of Ma Fuchu bian Peninsula. After performing the pilgrimage,
China, 1861 (Ma Dexin, 1794 –1874), considered the most em- he spent two years in Cairo, where he studied at
Woodblock on rice paper inent Chinese Hui scholar of Islam and Sino-Mus- Al-Azhar University, and thereafter travelled
15 x 26.5 cm lim philosophy during the Qing dynasty. Origi- throughout the Ottoman Empire before returning
AKM 00681 nally from the Yunnan, his travels covered to Yunnan. Ma Fuchu is also well-known for his
Published: AKTC 2007b, pp. 54 – 55 (no. 29); distances from China to Mecca and Cairo as well five-volume Chinese translation of the Qur’an and
AKTC 2008a, pp. 84 – 85 (no. 22); AKTC 2008b, as the Ottoman Empire; this book recounts his for writing over thirty-five works on metaphysics
no. 26; AKTC 2009a, p. 62; AKTC 2009b, p. 62 pilgrimage to Mecca from China. Ma Fuchu left and history in both Chinese and Arabic. This
China with a group of Muslim merchants, travel- scholar’s work attests to the several cultural net-
ling overland and by riverboat to Rangoon, where works existing between China and the Islamic
he boarded a steamship to take him to the Ara- world. AM / LA
64
31 Polychrome qibla tile This tile depicts the black-shrouded Ka³ba within guides, which were produced throughout the Is-
Turkey (Ottoman Empire), 17th century the Great Mosque of Mecca (Masjid al-Haram), lamic world, essential locations are labelled here
Fritware, polychrome underglaze painted the site of the annual Muslim pilgrimage (hajj). It for further clarity. Decorated with the characteris-
52 x 32 cm is inscribed with an excerpt from the Qur’an that tic Ottoman ceramic palette of turquoise, cobalt
Text: Sura Al ³Imran (The Family of ³Imran), 3:96 –97 reinforces the image: “The first House established blue, green, and red on a white ground, tiles like
AKM 00587 for the people was that at Bakka [Mecca], a holy this one were produced in the seventeenth cen-
Published: Falk 1985, p. 238 (no. 240); AKTC 2007a, place and a guidance to all beings. Therein are tury. They were often placed in an architectural
p. 57 (no. 25); AKTC 2007b, p. 52 (no. 25); clear signs – the Station of Abraham and whoso- setting such as a mosque’s south-facing wall to in-
Makariou 2007, pp. 202– 203 (no. 73); AKTC 2008a, ever enters it is in safety. It is the duty of all men dicate the geographical direction of Mecca and
pp. 80 – 81 (no. 20); AKTC 2009a, pp. 62– 63; towards God to make a pilgrimage to the House if one’s prayers. This plaque reflects the Ottoman
AKTC 2009b, pp. 62– 63 they are able.” The artist uses multipoint perspec- interest in topography and the long-standing Is-
tive – both plan and elevation – to give a sense of lamic tradition of depicting the holy shrine of
the overall form of the site. As in pilgrimage Mecca in various artistic media. AF
65
32 Chinese plate for ablutions Muslim merchants from the Middle East and (r. 1506 –1521) has been added to the base of the
China, Jiangxi province, Jingdezhen, Zhengde era, Central Asia settled in China’s Fujian province as dish.
1506 –21 early as the eighth century and continued to im- Ming China (1368 –1644) was marked by a
Porcelain migrate to various regions in that country after the period of xenophobia that stood in stark contrast
H 7.5 cm; Ø 41.8 cm Mongol invasions. Blue-and-white porcelain to the great amount of East-West exchange
Inscription (in Arabic): (central medallion) “Purity”; wares with Arabic inscriptions, such as the beauti- under the Mongol rule of the Yuan emperors
(cavetto medallions) “Blessed is he who purifies his ful dish shown here, may have been made either (1271–1368). In spite of this, the Ming did allow a
hand from wrongdoing”; (exterior) “Ablution upon for the Chinese Muslim community or for export certain level of foreign trade, and blue-and-white
ablution is light upon light” to foreign lands. The present object may have porcelain wares continued to be coveted by the
AKM 00722 come from one of the thousands of kilns around courts of Iran, Mamluk Egypt and Syria, India,
Published: Welch 1978a, pp. 211–212; AKTC Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, where several blue- and the Ottoman Empire. This dish may have
2008b, no. 27; AKTC 2009a, p. 64; AKTC 2009b, and-white porcelains have been excavated. The been produced for an Iranian market, where the
p. 64 centre of the dish includes an inscription in cobalt taste for Chinese art and khita²i (a Chinese-in-
blue of the Arabic word for purity, taharah, en- spired aesthetic) seems to have been most pro-
closed first within a circular frame, then within nounced, but blue-and-white porcelains and other
two squares and a larger circle. The interstices of Chinese ceramics were also exported to other
the circles and squares contain blue cloud scrolls parts of the Islamic world as well, both by land
and another scroll design that is repeated on the and by sea, particularly to Indonesia. Blue-and-
rim of the dish. Four small, square panels appear white Safavid and Ottoman Iznik wares attest to
at regular intervals along the rim and enclose Ara- a taste for the Far East, as shown in the efforts
bic inscriptions that collectively read, “Blessed is made by Islamic potters to emulate Chinese por-
he who purifies his hand from wrongdoing.” Six celain prototypes on a frit body. The present dish
panels arranged in a similar format on the exterior was previously in the Eumorfopoulos collection
together contain the Arabic inscription: “Ablution and included in the 1966 exhibition at the Quan-
upon ablution is light upon light.” The six-charac- tas Gallery, A Thousand Years of Chinese Art
ter reign mark of the Ming emperor Zhengde (Quantas Gallery 1966). LA
66
33 Manuscript of ³Ali’s Kalimat This manuscript contains a compilation of one materializes the central caesura. If the type of
Shaykh Mahmud Haravi hundred short maxims attributed to the caliph presentation in panels juxtaposed with the alter-
Greater Iran, possibly Baghdad (Iraq), and first Shia imam, ³Ali ibn Abu Talib, all ac- nating scripts is adapted to the translated texts or
869 H / 1464-5 CE companied by an anonymous Persian translation commentaries, it is equally acceptable in the fif-
Ink and coloured pigments on vellum; leather binding rendered in quatrain form (Makariou 2007, teenth-century Iranian world for copying
17.5 x 12 cm p. 158, n. 1). The first page of this nineteen-folio Qur’anic texts, giving scribes the opportunity to
AKM 00518 volume is decorated with an illuminated frontis- demonstrate their mastery of different types of
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 142– 143 (no. 49); piece containing the basmala and introducing the calligraphy (ibid., n. 2). In this copy of one hun-
AKTC 2009a, p. 65; AKTC 2009b, p. 65 text. The succession of Arab maxims and their dred maxims, the calligrapher wrote in the supple
Persian translations are executed in different and elegant tawqi³ script, which figures among the
scripts and at differently sized fonts, creating a six canonical scripts (aqlam al-sitta). For the Per-
visual rhythm that subdivides the surface of each sian text, the scribe chose nasta³liq (ibid., n. 3).
page. This fragmented organization mirrors the The ensemble was written on parchment and pa-
similar nature of the text, the development of per, which is unusual as parchment was no longer
which is simultaneously two-fold (first in Arabic, – or only rarely – used in the Islamic world after
then in Persian) and discontinued (the succession the eleventh century.
of words). The Persian quatrain is disposed in two Born in Herat, Mahmud Haravi entered the
separate panels that meet the first hemistich of service of the Qaraqoyyunlu prince Pir Budaq
each verse at left and the second of each at right. around 1458, at the time governor of Shiraz and a
The reader’s eye thus moves beyond the manu- great bibliophile (ibid., n. 4). The prince’s desire
script’s central fold and follows the same line to for autonomy soon paid off due to an open con-
read the complete bayt (distich). The use of a cen- flict with his father Jahanshah, that was rapidly
tral caesura in the middle of the verse and the sep- settled and which resulted in the compensatory
arate columns that result respond here to the nomination of Pir Budaq to be governor of Bagh-
rhythmic structure of Persian poetry; the bayt, dad in 1460. Haravi followed Pir Budaq to
composed of two hemistiches, constitutes a se- Baghdad and stayed there most likely until the
mantic unity, and the hemistich contains the metre death of his patron in 1466. He ended his career
of the poem and serves as its rhythmic measure. at the court of the Aqqoyunlu sultan Ya³qub
The end of the metre coincides with the end of a (r. 883– 896 H / 1478 –1490 CE) (ibid., n. 5). CM
hemistich, necessitating a pause in diction, which
67
34 Hadith manuscript Arranged in four sections, this manuscript is a 1682 and 1739. He is known to have copied nu-
Iran, dated 1130 H / 1717-8 CE book of ahadith or Traditions (sing., hadith) con- merous Qur’an manuscripts, prayer books, and
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper taining supplications to be recited after the daily calligraphy samples in a characteristic form of Ar-
20.7 x 13 cm prayers as well as during different days of the abic naskh script. Because of the popularity and
AKM 00527 week. The pages shown here refer to the Saturday prestige associated with al-Nayrizi’s style, his
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 58 – 59 (no. 28); and Sunday prayers as well as to the start of the works were sometimes copied in their entirety
AKTC 2007b, pp. 54 (no. 28) and 56 – 57; Monday prayer, which begins at the bottom of the – colophon included – by later scribes in the Qa-
AKTC 2009a, pp. 66 – 67; AKTC 2009b, pp. 66–67 left-hand page. The colophon suggests that this jar period (1794 –1925). As a result, it is some-
manuscript was copied by Ahmad al-Nayrizi, one times difficult to attribute works to his hand with
of the most important and prolific calligraphers of certainty, especially if the calligrapher copying his
the late Safavid period who was active between style were a talented one. AF
68
35 Calligraphic panel This oblong-shaped, lobed cartouche frames a The text is the second half of an Arabic couplet,
Iran, Safavid, 16th –17th century panel of calligraphy executed in gold nasta³liq the complete version of which appears in an angu-
Cardboard against a gold foliated background of cobalt blue. lar Kufic script at the Madrasa Chahar Bagh
15.5 x 36 cm The border is painted in pink and filled with green Mosque (Madrasa Madarshah) in Isfahan
Text: Al-Mustafa wa-l-Murtada wa-bnahuma and blue dots. The inscription on the panel names (Ghouchani 1985, p.157, pl. 143): I have five [per-
wa-l-Fatima (referring to the Prophet Muhammad, the celebrated panjtan, or “band of five”, which sons] whom by them I will smother the heat of
³Ali ibn Abi Talib, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn) included the Prophet Muhammad, his first cousin burned hell, (they are) al-Mustafa (the prophet) and
AKM 00521 and son-in-law ³Ali ibn Abi Talib, his daughter al-Murtada (³Ali) and their two sons (Hasan and
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 67; AKTC 2009b, p. 67 Fatima (³Ali’s wife), and his two grandsons (the Husayn) and Fatima. LA
children of ³Ali and Fatima), Hasan and Husayn.
69
36 Mihrab panel The set of eighteen tiles comprising this panel dis- mals. Still, the variety of animals – rabbits, flatfish,
Syria, Damascus, Ottoman, ca. 1575 –1580 plays numerous points in common with two simi- small quadrupeds, and ducks – is richer here
Fritware, polychrome underglaze painted lar mihrabs located on the north courtyard wall of (ibid., n. 3).
123 x 62 cm a mosque founded by Governor Darwish Pasha in In the centre of the panel, the Prophet’s san-
AKM 00585 Damascus in 1572–1575: the two candelabra, the dals occupy a place of paramount importance.
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 200 –201 (no. 72); Prophet’s sandals, the suspended lamp bearing The iconography of the Prophet’s sandals, which
AKTC 2008a, pp. 76 –77 (no. 18); AKTC 2009a, the shahada, and the false marble of the columns sometimes seems to be confused with the repre-
pp. 68 – 69; AKTC 2009b, pp. 68 – 69 inhabited by hidden creatures. At the Darwish sentation of his footprints, became widespread in
Pasha Mosque (Darwishiyya), one of the mihrabs the sixteenth century and is also present in Safa-
is topped by a ceramic tympanum bearing the vid Iran and in India (ibid., n. 5). The sandal is a
date 982 H / 1574-5 CE (Makariou 2007, p. 206, sign of distinction specific to the Prophet of Is-
n. 1). lam, in comparison to Moses; its protective shape
However, there are some differences between (mithal) “leads to life in both homes” (earthly
the Darwishiyya mihrabs and this panel, such as then eternal).
the number of tiles, the narrower set, and the fact This devotional context explains the singular-
that the two candelabra touch each other, which is ity of an image of a pair of sandals right in the
not the case on the Darwishiyya panels (ibid., n. middle of a space where all faithful believers are
2). Several clues, such as the design of the lamp’s required to remove their shoes. The sandals, be-
chains, which curve softly to the left, and the false lieved to have touched the throne of God, made
marble, indicate that these were probably pro- the Prophet of Islam the quintessential intercessor
duced in the same atelier. The false marble’s deco- par excellence and an example to be followed
ration serves as a refuge for a crowd of small ani- (ibid., n. 10). SM
70
71
Mysticism
Sheila Canby
In the Islamic world, mysticism has played an communal understanding of the Arabic lan-
important role in both Shia and Sunni con- guage.
texts. Mystics, known as Sufis, have sought to In association with their ascetic lifestyle,
achieve oneness with God through prayer a range of objects is associated with dervish-
and specific exercises, such as dhikr, the rep- es. These include begging bowls (kashkuls)
etition of sacred words or phrases. While and animal skin cloaks. In paintings of der-
some mystical thinkers, for example al-Hallaj vishes (cat. no. 40), small, lightweight beg-
in the ninth-tenth century, were considered ging bowls of metal or wood are often sus-
heretical, many others led lives as wandering pended from their belts or carried on a stick.
mendicants, seeking the company of other By contrast, most extant examples are made
dervishes or settled in dervish lodges in the of metal, ceramic, or nineteenth-century co-
presence of their spiritual advisors, or pirs. co-de-mer shells (cat. nos. 42 and 43). Even if
Mughal paintings depict dervishes alongside the coco-de-mer kashkuls were used by men-
their Hindu counterparts, sadhus – holy men dicant Sufis, the heavy metal and fragile ce-
in the Indian tradition. The Mughal emper- ramic versions must not have had a practical
ors and many Iranian and Central Asian rul- use as begging bowls. Rather, their function
ers before them employed religious advisors would have reverted to the original use of
and are portrayed in spiritual or philosophi- such vessels, that is, as wine bowls. Although
cal questions with the sages of their day (cat. wine is prohibited in Islam, it was one of the
no. 41). Even when political leaders did not aids used to achieving a mystical state.
sanction particular Sufi orders, the ideas that Finally, the works of the great mystical po-
they espoused were spread by the faithful ets such as Jalal al-Din Rumi, the originator
through pilgrimage to shrines and other holy of one of the best known Sufi brotherhoods,
sites. In the same way, the pilgrimage to Mec- have inspired Sufis for the past five hundred
ca (hajj) enabled Muslims from throughout years. Not only are his followers, the Mevlevi
the dar al-Islam, or Muslim world, to meet dervishes, famous for their whirling, but also
and exchange ideas, thus cementing a unity his poetry remains popular across the globe.
that depended on a shared faith and the
© akg-images, Gérard Degeorge
Samarqand (Uzbekistan),
Minaret of the Madrasa of Ulugh Beg
73
37 Manuscript of the Masnavi by Rumi The Masnavi-i Ma³navi is a poetic masterpiece of manuscript (shown at top right of the group of
Iran, Shiraz, dated 1011 H / 1602 CE around 25,000 couplets, written by Jalal al-Din four smaller reproductions) depicts a game of
Ink and opaque watercolour on paper; red Moroccan Muhammad Rumi (d. 1273) and concerned with chess. Two stories are embedded in this narrative
leather binding the main theoretical issues and themes of Sufi in order to bring its major points to light; the one
Folios 29.5 x 16.3 cm; doctrine. Although his nationality is debated illustrated here recounts an episode in which
leather binding 29.5 x 16.3 x 4.5 cm among Iranians, Turks, and Central Asians, Rumi Sayyid Shah Tirmidh is checkmated by his court
AKM 00376 is one of the most celebrated mystical poets in jester and reacts angrily by throwing the chess-
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 64 (no. 33); AKTC 2007b, Sufi and Persian literature and the originator and board at the courtier’s head. The next time the
p. 61 (no. 33); AKTC 2008a, pp. 92– 93 (no. 26); ultimate pir, or spiritual master, of the Mawlavi two sit down to a game, the jester anticipates the
AKTC 2009a, pp. 72–73; AKTC 2009b, pp. 72 – 73 (Turkish Mevlevi) dervish order. While illuminat- need to protect himself by covering his head with
ed manuscripts of Rumi’s writings, sometimes en- a turban of felt. The scene is identified both by
closed in elaborate bindings, are not unusual, il- the figures seated on either side of a chessboard as
lustrated manuscripts of this text are rare. well as by a caption just above the painting. Its
The image on the right-hand folio shown here depiction suggests the importance of this story,
illustrates the tale of the lover who had spent perhaps to the patron who commissioned the
many years searching for his beloved in vain. One manuscript; not only was the episode selected for
night, however, as the lover was running from a illustration, but it was also allotted most of the
night-watch, he accidentally ended up in an unfa- space on the page, leaving room for only three
miliar garden where, to his great surprise and de- lines of Persian text above and below the image. LA
light, he found his beloved. Another image in this
74
75
38 Shab-i qadr (“The Night of Power”) Amir Khusraw Dihlavi (d. 1325), one of the best “Night of Power” (Arabic laylat al-qadr and Per-
Folio from a dispersed illustrated known poets of Persian in Islamic India, was a sian shab-i qadr). The laylat al-qadr is mentioned
manuscript of the Khamsa (“Quintet") Turkish military aristocrat who served the Delhi in the Qur’an (al-Qadr, 97:1 – 5) and refers to the
of Amir Khusraw Dihlavi (d. 1325) sultanate under the Khalji and Tughluq dynasties. night when Muhammad was called to his mission
India, ca. 1350 –1450 His Khamsa, or Quintet, was composed for the through the first revelations from God. The paint-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; second ruler of the Khaljis, ³Ala al-Din Khalji ing appears to be a continuous narrative, at right
34.8 x 25.2 cm (r. 1296 –1316), in Delhi, between 1298-9 and illustrating the saint in his efforts to remain
AKM 00013 1301- 2. Amir Khusraw was also a Sufi mystic awake, and then, at left, after he has fallen asleep.
Published: Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 144 – 46 who followed the teachings of the Chishti shaykh Along with its narrow horizontal format, the satu-
(no. 48); AKTC 2009a, p. 74; AKTC 2009b, p. 74 Nizam al-Din Awliya (d. 1325) and is buried next rated pigments used to colour the image recall the
to him in his tomb in Delhi (Welch and Welch painting styles of both Mamluk Egyptian and
1982, p. 144). southern Persian (in particular, Shiraz) painting of
The present page depicts the eighteenth story the fourteenth century, but some scholars believe
recounted in the first section of the Khamsa, the that the script style of this manuscript dates it to
Matla³ al-anwar (“The Ascent of Lights”) story of the second half of the fifteenth century (see ibid.,
a saint who made a failed attempt to stay awake pp. 144 and 146). LA
until the 27th day of Ramadan, known as the
76
39 A young noble and a dervish A young man dressed in fine robes and a gold- has been effaced. Some dervish groups may have
in conversation edged turban gazes at a safina, the small oblong incited trouble, but late sixteenth-century Persian
Iran, ca. 1590 album in his hands. His seat is the trunk of a blos- sources also laud the personal qualities of dervish-
Opaque watercolour and gold on paper; soming tree, whose curving branches gently sur- es, calling them self-effacing, noble-minded and
Folio 32.2 x 20.2 cm; image: 19.9 x 12.7 cm round him. The tripartite division of the land- kindly. In this vein, Sheila Canby has proposed
AKM 00074 scape into a gilded sky full of scrolling clouds, a that the young dervish here may not represent an
Published: Canby 1998, p. 69 (no. 41); lilac mountain background, and a flower-filled actual dervish but a metaphor for the admired
AKTC 2007a, pp. 65 – 66 (no. 34); AKTC 2007b, dark grassy ground is typical of the Khurasan style ideals of a dervish. Although this painting is cur-
pp. 50 and 61 (no. 34); AKTC 2009a, p. 75; at the end of the sixteenth century. Opposite the rently mounted on an album page, its composi-
AKTC 2009b, p. 75 youth is a fresh faced young dervish with a shaven tion – that of a youth in conversation with a
head, accessorised by a white leopard skin, a dervish – was seen often on colophon pages of
kashkul or begging bowl, a purse, and a knife. manuscripts. AF
He holds out something, perhaps a cup, which
77
40 A gathering of dervishes Drawings intended for inclusion in albums be- of poetry, while at the right, another beats his
Iran, Khurasan, late 16th century came increasingly popular in the second half of tambourine.
Ink and watercolour on paper; the sixteenth century. Less expensive to produce The technique of drawing with the addition of
Folio 38.5 x 28.5 cm than paintings or illustrated manuscripts, draw- touches of colour was practised in this period by
AKM 00104 ings could be afforded by a broader market than Muhammadi of Herat, an artist with wide influ-
Published: Welch 1978a, pp. 98 – 99; AKTC 2007a, simply the court. As a result, artists expanded ence in the last quarter of the sixteenth century.
p. 68 (no. 37); AKTC 2007b, p. 65 (no. 37); AKTC their choice of subject matter to include dervishes, Although this work cannot be attributed to him,
2009a, pp. 76 –77; AKTC 2009b, pp. 76 –77 nomads, and working people. This scene depicts the jackdaws in the tree, the subject of dervishes,
six dervishes in varying states of dizziness and col- and the technique all derive from his works. The
lapse after whirling to induce a mystical state. Two empty rectangles at the upper right and lower left
bearded figures stand with the aid of young nov- suggest that this was an illustration to a text,
ices, while two others are seated on the ground. though it is more likely that these were added
At the lower left, a youth holds a book, perhaps long after the drawing had been completed. AF
78
79
41 A prince visits a hermit This colourful rocky landscape depicts a prince indigenous artistic styles. This combined aesthetic
Attributed to ³Abd al-Samad, also known visiting a hermit at his cave. The prince is seated was a reflection of the ruler’s great tolerance for
as Shirinqalam, or “Sweet Pen” pensively before the hermit while his eight attend- different religions; Akbar created the Din-i illahi
India, ca. 1585 –1590 ants wait on both sides of a small creek. His state- (“Divine Faith”), which borrowed ideas from Is-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper ly horse appears to be the focus of the painting, its lam, Christianity, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and
Folio 39.6 x 31.3 cm; image 34.5 x 22.8 cm grand and stocky figure occupying the major part Jainism (Canby 1998, p. 111).
AKM 00122 of the lower half of the painting and emphasised Welch has attributed the work on stylistic
Published: Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 160 –162 by a natural halo formed by the sandy-coloured grounds to the Persian painter ³Abd al-Samad, an
(no. 55); Canby 1998, pp. 111–113 (no. 81); ground upon which it rests. As Anthony Welch artist of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1732) who left
AKTC 2009a, pp. 78 –79; AKTC 2009b, pp. 78 –79 has observed, the stallion was a symbol of author- the court of Shah Tahmasp (r. 1524 –1576) to
ity and splendour but also one of “worldly imper- work first for Akbar’s father, the emperor Humay-
manence” (Welch and Welch 1982, p. 160). Along un (r. 1530 –1539 and 1555 –1556), and then for
with the brightly and colourfully dressed servants, Akbar (Welch and Welch 1982, p. 160). Welch
the great horse stands in stark contrast to the her- also believes that the prince represented in this
mit and his companion (perhaps a disciple), who image could be Akbar’s son Salim, the future em-
sits before the cave at the water’s edge; their gaunt peror Jahangir (r. 1605 –1627), based on the like-
figures indicate their renouncement of worldly ness of this figure to that of a seated prince in a
possessions in favour of following the path to en- tinted drawing identified as Prince Salim and
lightenment through mysticism. The top half of signed by the ³Abd al-Samad, also in the AKM
the painting evokes an air of meditation and som- collection (ibid., p. 162; for an image of this work,
breness that affects even the prince, who may see Canby 1998, p. 110, no. 80, although Canby
have come here seeking the guidance of a spiritual identifies this figure as Akbar). Sheila Canby, how-
advisor. ever, has suggested that the princely figure may
The relationship between a Sufi master (shaykh, represent Akbar if it can be linked to a hunting
murshid, or pir) and his disciple (murid or shagird) event (qamargha) in the Punjab ordered by the
was a popular theme in Persian poetry and paint- emperor in April – May 1578 at the alleged site of
ing. The master was charged with the task of lead- one of Alexander the Great’s successful battles
ing his student along the challenging path (tariqa) (Canby 1998, p. 111). According to Akbar’s histo-
towards enlightenment and the attainment of one- rian Abu’l Fazl (d. 1602), Akbar experienced an
ness with God. The transfer of knowledge between epiphany in the midst of the hunt, which led him
murid and murshid was seen as the transfer of to cancel the hunt and free all of the captured ani-
light from the heart of the teacher to that of the mals. Unaware of what had caused his change of
student. The combination of a Persian painting heart, Akbar’s close friends imagined a few differ-
style fused with the use of a more earth-toned pal- ent theories, one of which involved the ruler’s
ette and naturalistic rendering of figures and land- meeting with an anchorite who inspired him to
scape, however, suggest that the present painting adopt a more ascetic lifestyle, something he did,
was produced in India under the reign of the in fact, do for a while after the incident (ibid., pp.
Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556 –1605), a period 111 and 113). LA
marked by the synthesis of a diverse foreign and
80
81
42 Coco-de-mer kashkul (beggar’s bowl) This kashkul or beggar’s bowl made from half of kashkul is inscribed with the signature of a certain
Iran, probably Qajar, 19th century a coco-de-mer shell would have been carried by a Sufi mystic and the date 1028 H / 1618-9 CE; this
Carved nut shell (coco-de-mer ), with chain dervish who had renounced all worldly posses- date is probably optimistic, however, since the
as later addition sions, subsisting only on almsgiving from devout script and decoration are more characteristic of
L 24 cm Muslims. Beggars’ bowls were often highly deco- the Qajar period.
AKM 00640 rated and this one is no exception: intricate floral The Arabic prayer, inscribed in thuluth script,
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 70 (no. 40); motifs, Arabic prayers, and Persian verses cover reads: Help me with your hidden kindness, God is
AKTC 2007b, p. 67 (no. 40); AKTC 2009a, p.80; the entire surface of the shell. The upper band of higher than the fire of your torture O … with Your
AKTC 2009b, p.80 inscription includes the famous Nad-i ³Ali, the de- Mercy O You, Most Merciful of all those who are
votional prayer to ³Ali, the Prophet Muhammad’s merciful, God is my Lord, my aid comes from You
first cousin and son-in-law. The spout of the O … (trans. Abdullah Ghouchani). AF
82
43 Engraved brass boat-shaped kashkul Snarling dragon heads project from either end of Inscriptions, side 1:
(beggar’s bowl) this boat-shaped kashkul or dervish’s begging The prince of the two worlds, the seal of messengers
Iran, second half of the 16th century bowl, which contains a wide band of elegant in- He became the pride of the very first
Brass scriptions engraved in cartouches in Arabic He made his ascent o the throne and the seat,
L 61 cm nasta³liq script and several bands of floral inter- not to the sky,
AKM 00612 lace decoration. This brass kashkul is one of five The prophets and friends of God were in need
Published: Melikian-Chirvani 1991, pp. 3 –112 important Safavid examples from the end of the of him
(especially pp. 35–37, 69, n. 172, and 97– 98, figs. sixteenth century. The others are in the Topkapi His existence was spent in guarding the two worlds
60 – 63); AKTC 2007a, p. 63 (no. 32); Palace Museum, Istanbul; The Museum of Islamic The whole surface of the earth became his mosque
AKTC 2007b, p. 60 (no. 32); AKTC 2008a, Art, Qatar (ex-Khosrovani coll.); in a private col- The lord of the two worlds, the leader of mankind:
pp. 88 – 89 (no. 24); AKTC 2009a, p. 81; lection (offered at Christie’s, Islamic Art and Man- The moon was split by the tip of his finger.
AKTC 2009b, p. 81 uscripts, 27 April 2004, lot 97); and one formerly
in the Rothschild and Edwin Binney III Collec- Side 2 (in a different metre):
tions (A. U. Pope, A Survey of Persian Art, Lon- The one had for him the friend of the Beloved
don and Oxford, 1938, pl. 1386A; Welch 1973, While the other was the leader of the Pious bands
fig. 42, pp. 470 – 471). A.S. Melikian-Chirvani pre- (The servant of the Shah of Najaf, Shams al-Din)
sented this group in an article that demonstrates ... For this reason did they become friends of God
how the dervish’s begging bowl developed from The one was a fount of moral gentleness and spir-
the ancient, pre-Islamic royal wine-boat shape. He itual modesty in the world
notes that “... the idea [is] embodied in the shape: While the other was ‘The Gate of the City of
the crescent-moon out of which wine, seen as li- Knowledge’
quid sunlight, is poured.” (Melikian-Chirvani That envoy of Truth/God that was the best among
1991, p. 21). The Persian inscriptions on this ves- humans
sel have been read in full by the same scholar, who His immaculate uncle was Hamza son of ³Abbas.
comments that this kashkul once belonged to the
head of a khanqah or Sufi hospice. AF (Melikian-Chirvani 1991, pp. 35–36)

83
The Path of the Travellers
From Cordoba to Damascus
85
Bild Alhambra
Looking to the Orient
Fernando Valdés
It is commonly accepted that the process of direction. Soon, devout Westerners would
Islamisation of al-Andalus was over by the start going on pilgrimages to the East, but
end of the eleventh century: the majority of not only for religious reasons. One thing was
the population had converted to Islam, re- the official political attitude; another was the
gardless of the number of Arabs who arrived need to refresh their cultural tradition, some-
on the Iberian Peninsula, and Arabic had be- thing that could not be done by any means in
come the vehicular form of written and oral the West.
expression, regardless of creed. It does not There were diplomatic contacts with By-
appear that Latin and Hebrew played any zantium, which became very sustained dur-
role outside the private or religious sphere. ing the second half of the reign of caliph
As for Berber dialects, it is not even certain ³Abd al-Rahman [III] al-Nasir and that of
that they actually passed the Straits of Gi- al-Hakam [II] al-Mustansir’s. Also, new Byz-
braltar in any of the successive North African antine artists arrived in order to fill certain
migrations. Therefore, one can speak of al- Andalusian gaps – such as mosaic makers
Andalus as a land fully integrated in dar al- sent by Emperor Constantine VII to deco-
Islam, in its religious aspects as well as in its rate the maqsura of the third phase of the
linguistic and cultural ones. Cordoban Mosque (961). However, the in-
Immediately after the Arab conquest, eve- creasing appearance of floral patterns, clearly
rything new came from Damascus. There of Mesopotamian origin, in Western Umayy-
were a few well-known Andalusians in the ad decoration shows evident connections be-
East, but only after the eleventh century did tween what the Iraqi Abbasid artists and
they become an important presence – not their homologues in Egypt were doing at the
just a few devoted believers performing their time and testifies that each had a precise
hajj, but traders, scholars, academics, or knowledge of the other’s work.
sometimes all at once. The production of ivory caskets is the best
After 750, when the coup d’état of the Ab- testimony of the flagrant Cordoban interest
basids and the enthronement of an Umayyad in the East. Certain decorative elements and,
prince in this Western edge of Europe oc- above all, iconography, where it exists, have
curred, cultural exchanges between both their distant roots in Iran and close ties with
sides of the Mediterranean do not seem to Iraq and Egypt. But the mere presence of
have been interrupted, despite the obvious this industry, without known precedents in
emnity between the two dynasties. Some the peninsula, indicates that an oriental
valuable pieces from the treasury of the Ab- workshop was established in the capital of al-
basid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 – 809) Andalus. Its products, intended both for the
ended up in the hands of the emir ³Abd al- court and as diplomatic presents, were and
Rahman II through traders aware of the in- still are the best showpieces of the dynasty:
terest the court of Cordoba had in the novel- they returned to the East, in the form of cas-
ties that came from the East; indeed western kets, as reinterpreted versions of the artistic
sovereigns watched closely what was going influences they had received.
on in their enemies’ courts. In fact, the Ori- The collapse of the Umayyad State of al-
entalisation of the Andalusian State – which Andalus did not interrupt the cultural con-
was a Persianisation – was a phenomenon tacts that came with the pilgrims and traders.
© Lorenz Korn, Bamberg
that occurred at the same time that the pres- There are testimonies in manuscripts found
ence of Mesopotamian artistic forms in- in the still unfathomed depths of the genizah,
creased in the art of al-Andalus. Exchanges or storage room, of the old synagogue of Ben
with the East were intense, but were mostly Ezra in Cairo. Andalusian traders, mostly –
Seville (Spain), Patio del Yéso at the Alcázar from East to West rather than in the opposite but not only – Jewish, moved around the
87
Mediterranean easily, surmounting all politi- seafaring as well as, in some regions, the arbi-
cal or physical obstacles. That was the case of trariness of the governors. His biography is
the family of a so-called Ismael ben Isaac, also an example of how simple it was to initi-
from Badajoz, who carried out his activities ate hazardous voyages with sufficient finan-
between Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem in cial means. Faith, curiosity, thirst for profit,
the second half of the eleventh century. or all of them at the same time, pushed the
One of the most interesting testimonies restless from the West to look for knowledge
of Andalusian travellers to the East might in the East, and the only way of acquiring it
perhaps be the one of Yusuf b. al-Shaykh then was by doing so under their own steam.
(1132 –1207), who came from an affluent The 2nd of Rajab 725 H / 13th of June of
family in Malaga and lived during the Al- 1325 CE, a traveller from Tangier initiated a
moravid and Almohad rule. As a devout pilgrimage to Mecca. It was Shams al-Din b.
Muslim, he made the pilgrimage to Mecca Yusuf al-Tanji, better known as Ibn Battuta
and took the opportunity to attend lectures (1304 –1377). In his journey he visited Egypt,
by scholars in the cities on his way, which was Palestine, Syria and Mecca, and far from
not uncommon at a time when journeys ending there, continued to Iraq, Khazakh-
could be so time-consuming and dangerous, stan, Fars, Tabriz, Kurdistan and Baghdad;
that it was usual for travellers to plan stops in another time he travelled from Mecca to
their itineraries, which allowed them to stay Yemen, Aden and the eastern coast of Africa.
for longer periods in certain cities. Yusuf ar- In 1332, he made the pilgrimage again and,
rived in Alexandria in 561 H / 1165 CE and after living for three years in Mecca, travelled
stayed for two years. When he finished his through Egypt, Syria, Anatolia, the south of
pilgrimage and went back to al-Andalus, he Russia, Constantinople, Transoxania, Af-
decided to write a book to help his younger ghanistan, India (where he lived between
son’s education. The book, entitled Kitab 1333 and 1342) the Maldives, Ceylon, Ben-
Alif Ba’ (“The ABC Book”), contains materi- gal, Assam and Sumatra. Although he men-
als on arithmetic, physics, botany, zoology, tions going to China, there are serious doubts
anthropology, religion and philology, as well that this is true. In 1347, he was in Malabar;
as an invaluable description of the Pharos from there he came back by sea to Baghdad,
(light house) of Alexandria, the most precise Syria and Egypt and accomplished the pil-
description left by any Arab author. It was grimage for the fourth and last time. In 1349,
published in 1933 by the Spanish Arabist he went to Tunisia, and from there he went
Miguel Asín. Yusuf b. al-Shaykh would have on to Sardinia, then to Algeria, and finally to
never expected his testimony to be so useful Fez. He then crossed over to al-Andalus,
to archaeology. visit Granada, and travel to the remote Afri-
Abu ’l-Hasan ibn Jubayr (1145 – 1217), a can region of Mali.
Valencian contemporary of Yusuf, came from Ibn Battuta’s testimony, with its invaluable
an affluent family and had studied in Jativa, information on the regions he visited, not
before starting his hajj from Granada in only makes him the Arab traveller par excel-
1183. He took a boat from Tarifa to Ceuta, lence and a symbol of Islamic culture, but it
then to Sardinia, Sicily, Crete and disem- is also a trustworthy testimony of the perma-
barked in Alexandria. From there, he crossed nent interest of the western Muslims for the
to Cairo, navigated the Red Sea to Arabia, East and everything eastern. At the same
and accomplished his pilgrimage to Mecca. time, if one considers the relevance of what
He then moved on to Baghdad, Mosul, Alep- he wrote on al-Andalus, his testimony shows
po and Damascus, and from there, to Saint the brief role that this territory played in the
John of Acre, via Tyre. In this Palestinian Islamic world, only a century before the ex-
port, he embarked to Carthage, via Sicily. He tinction of the last Iberian Muslim state: the
lived in Granada until he received the news Nasrid Sultanate of Granada.
of the reconquest of Jerusalem by Salah al- There is no doubt that the Islamic West
Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin). He then undertook was always inclined to the East. However,
a second trip to the East (1189 –1191), but it once the caliphate of Cordoba collapsed at
seems that he did not leave any account of it. the beginning of the eleventh century, Anda-
It is surprising to read in his work how rela- lusian Islam stopped having, in some aspects,
tively easily one could transit through the the active role of importing the eastern
Mediterranean area, sometimes at war, as trends, specially the artistic ones. This does
long as one was willing to face the dangers of not mean, as can be deduced by the long voy-
88
ages mentioned above, that contacts ceased, chitectural buildings, most of them due to
but rather that they moved to other areas less the patronage of the political oligarchy, show
related to the arts. In order to legitimate their little impact of what was happening in the
own power and show their link with the central regions of Islam. And this, despite ex-
western Umayyads, successive western dy- tensive commercial trade exchanges with the
nasties limited those creations, with a few eastern Mediterranean, especially with
exceptions, to the – reinterpreted – repertory Egypt. Al-Andalus stopped being clearly
of the formal world created by them. part of the East and only the watchful eyes of
The East continued being the source of the travellers, whose stories have fortunately
Islamic intellectual contribution, but al-An- been kept, reflect the curiosity that anything
dalus did not take any more interest in East- Eastern generated. Actually, it was the long-
ern art. In some cases new techniques were ing for a past that was perceived as better
adopted for specific fields of industrial activ- and anguish at what was intuitively felt to be
ity – pottery, fabrics, etc. – but the great ar- the colophon of a world about to be lost.
89
Al-Andalus: The Orient in the West
Fernando Valdés
In 711 the Arabs (in the Iberian Peninsula, Instead, other arguments not completely ex-
“Arab” and “Muslim” are synonyms) arrived cluding this influence in certain matters,
in the western-most territory of Mediterra- should be taken into account. At the peak of
nean Europe. Within a short time, after very its power, the Umayyad dynasty, the main po-
few battles and some sieges that were nearly litical protagonist of the conquest, was creat-
all solved through negotiations, the Arabs ing at its epicentre an artistic world with Syr-
provoked the collapse of the Visigothic King- ian roots mixed with Roman-Byzantine and
dom of Toledo, and incorporated what has Iranian elements, to the extent that even
since then been known as al-Andalus, the po- Syria, where the dynasty settled, started cop-
litical territory under Muslim Arab domi- ying this method in its artistic tradition.
nance, into dar al-Islam. Such a quick expan- For years, the most western province of
sion would have been unimaginable without the Islamic Empire did not vary substantially
support from part of the Visigothic aristoc- with regard to the method implemented after
racy, a sector of the Church, the oligarchy of the conquest. However, three different pro-
Roman Hispanic landowners, and, appar- cesses started to occur slowly: Arabisation, or
ently, also from the large Jewish minority. change of vehicle of expression from Latin to
The same process that made the conquests of Arabic; Islamisation, namely the conversion
Syria and Egypt possible was repeated, al- to Islam of the majority of the population;
though with some differences. and Berberisation, the occupation of sparsely
In general, the history of the Iberian Pe- populated areas by people from the Maghreb,
ninsula, today incorporating Portugal and in line with Arabisation and Islamisation.
Spain, has since Prehistory experienced It could be the arrival of the last Umayyad
phases of Europeanisation and Orientalisa- Prince ³Abd al-Rahman [I] al-Dakhil (“The
tion – depending on whether the main cul- Emigrant”) (r. 756 –788), who had escaped
tural influx came from north of the Pyrenees, from the coup d’état of the Abbasids and was
the Italian Peninsula or the Eastern Mediter- the sole survivor of the massacre of his fami-
ranean, directly or through Northern Africa. ly, that caused a radical change. Al-Andalus
The Muslim Arab conquest was, beyond separated from the Islamic Middle-Eastern
doubt, the last of the big Orientalisation Empire, which in turn accentuated its Irani-
phases that affected this extreme tip of Eu- an character and moved its centre of gravity
rope. to Baghdad, which had been until not long
Spanish historiography, deeply influenced before, the epicentre of the Persian Empire
by ideological concepts that in some cases go of the Sassanids. Paradoxically, the western
back only to a few years after 711, has obsti- Umayyads did not initiate a Westernisation
nately insisted on emphasising, or maybe even process that would emphasize their Roman
inventing, the role that native tradition at the cultural features. On the contrary, they kept
time of the conquest – i.e. late Roman – an Umayyad appearance, especially with the
played on the origins, development and evo- claim for the right to the Empire that had
lution of the historic phenomenon known as been taken away from them, and they started
al-Andalus. Although the arguments have copying their enemies’ state structure in eve-
been very persistent, they have never been ry sense. The same occurred with culture and
© akg-images, Werner Forman
entirely convincing, except for those who art. Al-Andalus became more Iranian, in the
want to believe them. The similarities be- sense that they adopted rules that had some
tween the material culture – leaving religion resemblance to those of the Persians. This
aside – of the invaders and the conquered explains the building, in the middle of the
Cordoba (Spain), should not be explained or interpreted as eighth century, of the Almunia of al-Rusafa
Prayer hall of the Great Mosque mere influence of the latter over the former. (756), near Cordoba; and of the first phase of
91
the construction of the Great Mosque of the amples that arrived in Spain – e.g., the casket
Andalusian capital (786–787), thanks to the in the Cathedral of Gerona – give a precise
first monarch of the dynasty; and the con- idea of the image that the Cordoban caliphs
struction of the palatine city of Madina al- wanted to portray: following an already Ori-
Zahra (begun in 937) as well as the third ental tradition and adjusting it to the Ab-
phase of the Great Mosque in Cordoba basid artistic trends. Mesopotamian influ-
(961), thanks to the second and third caliphs ence is also reflected in other art expressions
of al-Andalus, ³Abd al-Rahman [III] al-Nasir like pottery, but it was not as developed in
(912–961) and al-Hakam [II] al-Mustansir technique or in iconography at that time.
(961–976). Even fashion and most of the tra- The collapse of the caliphate of Cordoba
ditions from the western Islamic court were did not end the courtly art, which was par-
subjected to an Orientalisation process, that tially taken over by the courts of the small
was represented by the famous musician Abu principalities known as the Taifa Kingdoms
’l-Hasan ³Ali Ibn Nafi³, known as Ziryab (muluk al-tawa²if) – from eleventh to begin-
(789 – around 857), who arrived in Baghdad ning of the twelfth century –, although in a
and played an outstanding role in the move- less monumental scale in its “imperial” ap-
ment that introduced Abbasid cultural nov- pearance and entrepreneurial ambition, and
elties. The indigenous population did not by the Almoravid sultanate – end of the elev-
participate in this long and complicated pro- enth to the mid-twelfth century –, which in-
cess, which was to some extent responsible troduced it in its new Maghrebian settle-
for the implosion of the Andalusian Umayy- ments and gave it a wider geographical range.
ad Dynasty, which disappeared leaving a Nevertheless, there was an almost radical
deep cultural and institutional legacy in the change in the conceptual point of view: An-
Mediterranean, in al-Andalus and in the dalusan art continued developing until well
Maghreb. after the Castilian conquest of the Granada
Immediately after the establishment of sultanate (1232 –1492), prevailing in the so-
the Umayyad dynasty of Cordoba in al-An- called “Mudejar style”. Although there were
dalus, all their achievements had a very east- some new influences from the Islamic East,
ern style. However, since the reign of ³Abd one can say that the development of Andalu-
al-Rahman II (822–852), this tendency is ob- san art after the eleventh century was, essen-
served not only in religious architecture – the tially, based on its own tradition. From then
Great Mosque of Cordoba (848) – but also on, it only used selected forms of vegetal and
on military constructions – the Alcazaba of geometric patterns and opted for a more styl-
Merida (Badajoz, Extremadura) (855). It was ised form of the palms, elongated and inter-
the proclamation of the caliphate (929) that twined. It was only during the Almohad pe-
would give a clear Orientalisation process, riod – from the mid-twelfth to the
based on the formal characteristics of the mid-thirteenth century –, that palms without
Syrian Umayyad tradition and the incorpora- much detail, or even plain ones, were pre-
tion of other traditions that came from Iraq, ferred for official monuments. The plastic
as can be witnessed in what has been pre- arts were a way of disseminating the political
served from the palatine city of Madina al- and doctrinal differences of the new western
Zahra and from the third phase of the Great Sunni caliphate that considered itself, de-
Mosque of Cordoba (961), sponsored by ca- spite its Berber origins, successor and fol-
liph al-Hakam II. lower of the Umayyad caliphate of Cordoba.
Iranian heritage becomes even more evi- It cannot be denied that the Nasrid sul-
dent in the iconography of ivories, probably tanate of Granada reached a highly refined
created by non-native specialists, during the level in its artistic endeavours and that it de-
reign of ³Abd al-Rahman III, not long after veloped an autonomous evolution of the An-
he proclaimed himself Prince of the Believers dalusian style, nearly untouched by Middle
(929). Made for the court and, above all, as Eastern currents, despite intense commercial
diplomatic presents, the ivories constitute a exchanges with Egypt.
paradigm of western Umayyad decorative The Andalusian artistic heritage contin-
style and a defining feature of what was be- ued in al-Maghrib al-Aqsa, nowadays Morro-
coming an authentic dynastic art. The ico- co, and it even reached sub-Saharan areas –
nography of ivories – e.g., the casket from Mauritania and Mali to the South; and the
Leyre in the Museum of Navarra – and its eastern border of Tunisia to the east, thanks
vegetal patterns, as well as the rare silver ex- to artisans that prolonged it for several more
92
centuries with remarkable technical ability from what was left of al-Andalus. Although
nourished by stylistic means which came all their roots were identical, these artisans had
the way from Umayyad Cordoba. a more developed style. In other cases, peo-
The Mudejar phenomenon started in ple coming from newly conquered territories
some parts of the peninsula as they were ab- settled in places where Islamic tradition had
sorbed militarily by the northern Christian disappeared or had never existed, and new
kingdoms. It was not univocal, as it extended manifestations, classified as mudejares, ap-
and diversified with time, dividing itself into peared, which had no connection to previous
different schools depending on the conquer- local traditions. It should also be taken into
ing states – Portugal, León, Castilla and account that Crusades and cultural exchange
Aragon – and chronologically. Considerable brought new Islamic trends that mixed with
colonies of Muslim craftsmen, called mude- the local ones, especially in Aragon. Whether
jares, stayed, especially in some cities, and the authors were local artisans, experts on
continued working with the artistic tradition what was being done in the Middle Eastern
inherited from their Andalusian ancestors. In Islamic states, or foreigners established in the
most cases these artisans would stay isolated peninsula thanks to the tolerance from which
from their colleagues from Islamic territories they benefited, the fact is that certain fea-
and would repeat, or rather fossilise, the style tures, such as polygon-base towers in many
of the place where they were living. On some Aragon churches, can only be explained as
occasions, royal patronage, aristocratic or ec- an imitation of the Ayyubid, Mamluk, or even
clesiastic, would refresh the tradition and fa- Ottoman minarets from the same period.
vour works from foreign artisans coming
93
44 Silver-inlaid brass planispheric astrolabe Everything about this astrolabe indicates that it and furthermore is the only one with inscriptions
Spain, probably Toledo, 14 th century came from Spain: the rete (³ankabut, or “spider”), in Arabic, Latin and Hebrew, the latter in the
Engraved copper alloy inlaid with silver representing part of the celestial coordinate sys- form of scratches, more than engravings, on one
Ø 13.5 cm tem; the fixed stars form a network ornamented of the tympani.
AKM 00611 with openwork, the line of which is characteristic The ring topping the openwork “throne”
Published: King 2005, pp. 831– 914; Makariou 2007, of Maghribi and Andalusian instruments. Indeed, (kursi) bears an Arabic inscription: “Its owner [is]
pp. 28 –29 (no. 3); AKTC 2008a, pp. 200 – 201 (no. on the ecliptic circle, which bears the names of the poor Mas³ud confident in Him who should be
76); AKTC 2008b, no. 1; AKTC 2009a, p. 92; the zodiacal constellations in Latin and Arabic, adored”. Moreover, the last tympan, which prob-
AKTC 2009b, p. 92 the cut-outs are in the form of half quatrefoils; ably dates to the second phase of execution of the
they end in three openwork rings and a long astrolabe, is marked ³Ard al-Jaza’ir (latitude of Al-
curved point. The point indicates the exact posi- giers or the Balearic Islands); on the back is a tym-
tion of the star whose name is engraved on the panum corresponding to the latitude of Mecca,
base in Arabic and Latin; other star names are in- which is not mentioned by name. It is possible
scribed on the outer circle and the segment of the that the inscriptions on the ring and the last tym-
median circle (equator). There are four tympani, panum were done by the same hand, namely that
each bearing a projection of the celestial coordi- of Mas³ud.
nates onto the given terrestrial coordinates. Three On the back, the centre of the mater bears a
of them, which date back to the first phase of the double shaded square and, on the circumference,
instrument’s history, are for latitudes ranging from the signs of the zodiac in Arabic (to the outside)
Jerusalem to the north of Paris. and the names of the solar months (to the inside),
While many astrolabes made in al-Andalus in inlaid and engraved silver cartouches. The in-
(Arab-controlled Spain) during the eleventh laid silver cartouches are unique on a western as-
through fifteenth centuries have been preserved, trolabe. In any case, there are a number of mis-
only five astrolabes from pre-fifteenth-century takes in the Arabic, which is probably evidence of
Christian Spain are extant. Four of them are from a vernacular Arabic – and therefore, of the survival
Catalonia. This one does not come from there, of Arabic in Spain long after the Reconquista. SM
94
45 Carved marble capital This composite capital, with two lines of acanthus room, before its destruction in the eleventh cen-
Spain, al-Andalus, Umayyad period, ca. 950– 970 leaves, represents a brilliant phase of Andalusian tury, only eleven remain in their original position.
Marble architectural sculpture. The model of Corinthian Had they been worked from cubic or nearly cubic
28 cm in each direction capital, which can be found in numerous Roman blocks, the final result would have been very dif-
AKM 00663 ruins in Spain, as well as in later Visigothic inter- ferent from what we can see here. From their
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 177 (no. 153); pretations, reaches here a very refined elegance. shape, the capitals from that room are not cubes.
AKTC 2007b, p. 177 (no. 153); Makariou 2007, The general structure of Corinthian capitals is re- Our object relates more to a capital from Segovia
pp. 90 – 91 (no. 28); AKTC 2009a, p. 93; spected, rendered livelier by two rows of deeply dated 349 H / 960 -1 CE; both capitals are drawn
AKTC 2009b, p. 93 carved foliage sprouting in a bee’s nest arrange- from a perfect 28cm cube. Aesthetically they are
ment and a base of plain stalks where the second very close, although the one shown here shows
row of leaves starts. Over the bead-and-reel band, cleaner craftsmanship, undoubtedly due to its
an equinus, also with a bee’s nest arrangement, is good state of conservation.
topped by four projecting volutes, demarcated by Composite capitals reappear during the reign
curling acanthus leaves; on top, there are four da- of ³Abd al-Rahman III. One from Loja dated
dos, also with vegetal motifs. 340 H / 951-2 CE, represents a good and early
The Aga Khan Museum capital is similar to the example. Another, from the collection of Al-Sa-
ones made for the reception room of ³Abd al- bah (362 H / 972-3 CE, is a bit more decorated
Rahman III in the royal palace at Madinat al-Zah- than the one here (Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyya, LNS
ra, six kilometres from Cordoba, which date from 2 S). Thus it is reasonable to date ours between
between 342 and 345 H (952 -3 and 956 -7), ac- 340 and 362 H (951- 2 and 972-3 CE). During the
cording to inscriptions found on the bases. The fitna (revolution) of 1010 and the plundering of
same composite type, with two rows of acanthus, Madinat al-Zahra the same year, and later during
have been found there. The bead-and-reel pattern the collapse of the caliphate of al-Andalus in
is also used, as well as the overall sculpture of the 1031, objects were disseminated. Even architec-
set, with rectilinear carving, and identical decora- tural elements were affected; for this reason,
tion of the volutes. From the forty capitals which many Andalusian capitals were reused elsewhere,
originally crowned the marble columns of the even in Italy. SM
95
46 Manuscript of Mi’a layla wa-layla (“One This manuscript contains the earliest extant copy about trade routes and commodities traded in the
Hundred and One Nights”) and the Kitab of al-Zuhri’s Book of Geography, followed by what western Islamic lands and sub-Saharan Africa, as
al-jughrafiya (“Book of Geography”) of is probably the earliest version of the famous sto- well as about the expansion of Islam. The second
al-Zuhri (d.1154 –1161) ries of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, A oldest copy is housed in the Bibliothèque Nation-
Copied by ³Abd Allah ibn ³Abd al-Mawla al-Nujum Thousand and One Nights, thought to have been ale, Paris, and is dated 1410 CE. The version of A
Spain, Al-Andalus, dated 632 H / 1235 CE adapted from a Persian source. The Book of Geog- Thousand and One Nights in this text is written in
Ink and opaque watercolour on paper raphy was written as a companion for a map of the maghribi script and entitled A Hundred and One
19 x 26.5 cm world commissioned by the Abbasid caliph al- Nights, establishing its antiquity within the larger
AKM 00513 Ma³mun. It provides a description of the world at “Nights” tradition. AF / LA
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 156 (no. 122); the time, including important new information
AKTC 2007b, p. 155 (no. 122); AKTC 2009a, p. 94;
AKTC 2009b, p. 94
47 Wooden scribe’s cabinet This scribe’s wooden cabinet is a rare survival elaborate inlays of ivory, bone, metal, wood and
Spain, Al-Andalus, Nasrid, 15th century and an extraordinary example of luxury wood- mother-of-pearl. The decorative programme of
Walnut wood inlaid with bone, metal, work production in Spain under the Nasrids this cabinet includes large eight-pointed stars
wood, and mother-of-pearl (1232 –1492). The tradition of inlaying walnut formed from interlocking squares; these motifs
22 x 49 x 33 cm dates back to the Umayyad period in Spain appear on many of the extant Nasrid wooden
AKM 00634 (756 –1031), and may be seen in extant mosque pieces in Granada museums and at the Alhambra.
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 125 (no. 93); minbars (pulpits), doors and a variety of objects. The cabinet contains a lidded interior compartment
AKTC 2007b, pp. 128 – 29 (no. 93); AKTC 2009a, The hallmarks of Nasrid era woodwork include which probably contained writing implements. AF
p. 94; AKTC 2009b, p. 94
96
48 Bronze lamp holder This rare lamp stand, of which there is a similar only surviving member of the family fled to the
Spain, al-Andalus, Umayyad, 10th century example in the David Collection, Copenhagen, Iberian Peninsula and founded a new branch of
Inscription (Arabic): Baraka (“blessing”), repeated was produced under the Spanish Umayyads the dynasty. Although the object includes a typical
Cast bronze, with openwork, engraved, and (756 –1031), descendants of the first Muslim Islamic inscription in Arabic Kufic script, its form
punched decoration Umayyad dynasty based in Damascus. When the and decoration reflect the Byzantine culture that
H 52.5 cm Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 749, the preceded Umayyad rule in Syria. LA
AKM 00593
Published: AKTC 2008b, no. 2; AKTC 2009a, p. 95;
AKTC 2009b, p. 95
97
A group of Mudéjar The Mudéjar style of the Iberian Peninsula grew panic Society of America, New York (Ecker 2004,
wooden corbels and beams out of a synthesis of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish pp. 64 – 65 and 147– 48 [no. 56, inv. no. D51– D60]).
artistic idioms beginning in the twelfth century Heather Ecker notes that the combination of the
49 Six carved wooden corbels and continuing through the end of the fifteenth curved palmette motif (which “sweeps back from
Spain, Toledo, 13th –14th century century, when the Mudéjars, i.e. Muslims who had the top volutes like the prow of a ship, in Spanish,
Carved oak remained in the region after the Reconquista but canecillos de proa or quilla, between two vine ten-
Max. L 42 cm who continued to practice their own religion were drils that project outwards as points”) and the ap-
AKM 00719 forced to convert to Christianity. During the me- pearance of multi-petalled rosettes distinguish these
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 96; AKTC 2009b, p. 96 diaeval period, Mudéjar artisans excelled in the examples as typical of Toledo rather than Granada
crafts of woodwork, plaster work, pottery, metal- as a place of production (ibid., p. 147). Further com-
50 Three carved wooden corbels work, and textile production (Ecker 2004, p. 58). parative examples can be found in the David Col-
Spain, Toledo, 13th –14th century The beautifully carved wooden corbels and beams lection, Copenhagen (von Folsach 2001, p. 271 [fig.
Carved oak in this group contain design combinations remi- 437, inv. no. 46 a-b /1999]). Traces of polychrome
L 72 cm niscent of other architectural elements attributed decoration on some of the works in this group (i.e.,
AKM 00720 to Toledo. Split and curved palmettes, for exam- cat. 48) suggest that these architectural elements
Published: AKTC 2009a, pp. 96 – 97; ple, appear in corbels in the collection of the His- were once painted in colour. LA
AKTC 2009b, pp. 96 – 97
51 Wooden beam
Spain, Toledo, 13th –14th century
Carved oak
L 160 cm
AKM 00721
Published: AKTC 2009a, pp. 96 – 97;
AKTC 2009b, pp. 96 – 97
52 Wooden beam
Spain, Toledo, 13th –14th century
Carved oak
34.5 x 73 cm
AKM 00723
Published: AKTC 2009a, pp. 96 – 97;
AKTC 2009b, pp. 96 – 97
50
51
98
49
52
99
100
53 Three triangular ceiling panels The long tenure of Nasrid dynasty (1230 –1492) in modification from a pattern based on the eight-
with interlacing geometric designs the Andalusian state of Granada was remarkable pointed star, produced from the superimposition
Spain, al-Andalus, Nasrid, 14th –15th century considering the frequency of political and military of two interlocking squares at a 45 degree angle
Wood, carved and painted challenges that existed in the region while they that appears as wall decoration at the Alhambra
each panel 151 cm were in power. As the centre of authority in the fortress of the Nasrids in Granada. Heather Ecker
AKM 00730 Islamic lands shifted from the central more to- has described this design principle, known as the
MWNF 2000, 285; AKTC 2009a, pp. 98 – 99; AKTC wards the eastern Islamic lands in the Middle “lazo of eight”, which consists of geometric de-
2009b, pp. 98 – 99 Ages, the western regions began to develop their signs built from various interlocking combinations
own more uniquely regional styles; Spain and involving the eight-pointed star. This design ap-
North Africa were no exception. In Spain, the co- pears on several different media during the Nasrid
existence of Muslims, Christians, and Jews led to period, including wood, stucco, and textiles (for
a synthesized style which would distinguish the textile and wood examples, see Ecker 2004, pp.
art and architecture of this region from that of the 47–51 and 139 –140, cat. nos. 42– 44, from the
rest of the Islamic world. Hispanic Society of America, New York, although
The three architectural panels shown here there are several more in other collections). Each
probably originally belonged to a ceiling made of panel includes a floral or foliate design painted on
wood, a popular medium for the representation of a brown ground and divided from other panels
interlacing geometric designs appearing in the with borders in high relief, painted in light blue
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Each equilat- outlined by bright yellow and red. Although
eral triangular panel is subdivided into smaller wooden ceilings from Islamic Spain often survive
panels that form a radiating design starting from in fragments, it is rare to find a coherent group of
an nine-pointed star shape at the centre. This is a ceiling elements, such as these three panels. LA
101
54 Calligraphic wood beam This skilfully carved, long rectangular wooden even in contemporary North Africa in a variety of
Spain, Al-Andalus, Nasrid, 14th century beam includes an inscription in Kufic of an Arabic media. In Spain, it shows up in the stucco decora-
Wood couplet framed between two horizontal bands. tion of the “Hall of the Two Sisters” at the Alham-
29.8 x 146 cm The inscription is intertwined with an intricate bra, built in the fourteenth century (see Barru-
AKM 00725 vegetal design composed of interlacing vine scrolls cand 2002, pp. 202– 203). Similar motifs involving
Published: AKTC 2009a, pp. 100 –101; ending in single leaves and split palmettes. Vegetal calligraphy juxtaposed with vegetal carving can
AKTC 2009b, pp. 100 –101 and epigraphic ornament are differentiated from also be observed in a wooden beam from Toledo
one another by the addition of an increased dated 1360 and in a carved stucco panel from
amount of detailing carved into the foliate pat- thirteenth- or fourteenth-century Spain or North
tern; this helps highlight the inscription carved in Africa, both in the David Collection, Copenhagen
the bevelled technique against the dense back- (von Folsach 2001, p. 270 [no. 434, inv. no. D
ground. The overall carving style seems to have 14 /1986] and p.251 [no. 400, inv. no. 35/1978,
been common in Nasrid Spain (1238 –1492) and accidentally printed in reverse], respectively). LA
54
55
102
55 Polychrome wooden beam Two carved, painted and partially gilded pine than a century later, to a dialogue between the
Fes, Morocco, Almohad period, 12th century friezes have successively appeared on sale. Both most illustrious of poets, historians and viziers of
Pine, carved and painted come from the same Almohad palatial collection Nasrid Spain, Lisan al-Din ibn al-Khatib (d.
30.8 x 313 cm in Spain. The use of pine rather than cedar clearly 1374), and the greatest historian of Islam, Ibn
AKM 00631 leads us back to al-Andalus. The preserved parts, Khaldun (d. 1406), on the preservation of the ves-
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 189 (no. E); 6.26 metres long, are decorated with an inscrip- tiges of the literary glory of the Arabs at the end
AKTC 2007b, p. 191 (no. E); Makariou 2007, tion in tawil meters reproducing an ode of pre- of Arab Spain, whereas in the rest of the Arab
pp. 192 –193 (no. 70); AKTC 2008a, pp. 252–253 Islamic Arabia. The equal lengths of the two world, where history is still being written, a tech-
(no. 99); AKTC 2009a, pp. 100 –101; AKTC 2009b, parts, of over three metres, and the sequence they nical and practical language has been born.
pp. 100 –101 form, indicating how they would fit in a square The inscription is couched in angular writing
room of just over 9 meter squared. One could link without any diacritic signs. The letters are re-
Inscription (in Arabic): them to later constructions, such as the Tower of duced to a third of the available height on the
“We are a people who do not find shame the Captive at the Alhambra, which was square, base-line, strongly contrasting with the long
at death in combat with a section of a qasida inscribed on each wall. downstrokes. The crossed lam-alif on panel A are
Even when we consider [the tribes of] Amir The two friezes were placed on two perpen- characterized by a polylobate motif in the upper
and Salul. dicular walls, probably at the base of the ceiling. third. Lastly, the loop of the lam rises and curls
Love of death brings us closer to our fated time Indeed, the two texts follow each other, contrary around the downstroke. The size of the down-
Whereas they hate the moment and drag out to the information that was given on the two suc- strokes rules out the possibility that the inscrip-
the hours. cessive sales. Panel B, which was sold first and tion belongs to the Almoravid period. Nonethe-
None of us has died in his bed presented here, follows panel A. They both be- less, the contours of the torus and several
And no one was killed without being avenged. long therefore to a qasida of the jahiliyya poet epigraphic marks make it more similar to an un-
Our lives are run on the steel of our swords Samaw’al ibn ³Adiya, who died in circa 560. The dated Qur’anic inscription at the Batha museum
On nothing but our blades do they meet text differs in parts from the edited text of the di- in Fès or a prismatic stele in the same museum
their end.” van; notably, in the first hemistich of the last verse, dated 580 H / 1184 CE. The form of the ha (panel
the subject changes; the “I” becomes “we”; in one A), made with two embedded spherical triangles
of the verses, the word dhibat is substituted with (or twisted ha) is a specific marker of this inscrip-
suyuf (the swords); lastly, an entire distich has tion; it was present in the East at the end of the
been displaced to later on in the text. However, as eleventh century and is to be found on two funer-
each distich constitutes a complete sense unit, this ary inscriptions in Badajoz dated respectively 539
shift hardly affects the flow of the text. H / 1144 CE and 556 H / 1160 CE. Equivalents
The use of pre-Islamic poetry deserves to be can also be found in the Marinid and Nasrid in-
highlighted: it indicates a particularly literate envi- scriptions, however, it is the plant-like decoration,
ronment replete with memories of original Arab the simplicity of which contrasts with the Marinid
poetry. This sensitivity underscores once more woods, which suggests an assignment to a much
Spain’s role as the land of the preservation of earlier date, in the course of the twelfth century.
classical Arab poetry. This in turn gave way, more SM
103
56 Incense burner in form of a bird Incense was used in the Islamic world to scent cense burner is a representation of a variety of pi-
Islamic Mediterranean, probably Sicily, people and air alike with a fragrant mix of aloes geon called “scandaroon”, a distortion of the
11th –12th century (wood), frankincense and ambergris. According name of the Turkish town Iskenderun, itself de-
Bronze to the historian al-Mas³udi, guests of the ninth- rived from the name Iskandar (Alexander the
17 x 25.5 cm century caliph al-Ma’mun (r. 813-33) were offered Great). This species originated in Iraq and spread
AKM 00603 an incense burner to perfume themselves before westward across the Mediterranean. While the
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 30 and 122 –123 meeting with him (Bloom and Blair 1997, p. 120). present object is close in shape to contemporary
(no. 42); AKTC 2008b, no. 6; AKTC 2009a, p. 102; Metalwork incense burners were made in a variety Khurasan-style bird incense burners, its casting is
AKTC 2009b, p. 102 of shapes, including animal forms such as lions heavier and more sculptural, the pierce-work
and birds, which were associated with paradise holes are larger, and the colour and patination are
and good fortune. The head and neck of this different. It has been suggested that this bird in-
piece are hinged to facilitate the placement of the cense burner may have been produced in Sicily in
incense, which when burned would emit fragrant the late eleventh or early twelfth century under its
smoke through the body’s pierced decoration. A Arab and Norman governors, although further
masterpiece of medieval bronze casting, this in- research may yet indicate a different source. AF
104
57 Bowl with bird The peacock is associated with Paradise and roy- to Central Asia, over a long span of time. The
North Africa, ca. 11th –12th century alty; it is depicted on a wide range of Islamic ob- bird’s shape fits neatly within the cavetto and the
Fritware, painted and glazed jects, from ceramic bowls to textiles, metalwork tail feathers are often curved back toward its
Ø 23.8 cm and book arts. Some believe that the peacock was head. The decorative motifs, technique, and pal-
AKM 00579 ejected from Paradise with Adam and Eve, ex- ette of this bowl are typical of North African ce-
Published: Fehérvári 2000, p. 75; AKTC 2007a, plaining its mournful cries. The peacock is a very ramic production: a large bird with incised details
p. 82 (no. 52); AKTC 2007b, p. 80 (no. 52); popular motif for the decoration of ceramic bowls is painted in green, yellow, and manganese against
AKTC 2009a, p. 103; AKTC 2009b, p. 103 throughout the Islamic world, from North Africa a dark yellow ground. AF
105
58 Rectangular cut-glass box The technique of cut glass in the Islamic world boni and Whitehouse 2001, p. 155). While the
Probably Italy (Sicily) or Spain (al-Andalus), became most popular in the ninth and tenth cen- technique is associated more closely with the
10th –11th century turies, appearing in a variety of forms, including eastern Islamic lands, the form of this object is
Glass; free-blown and cut; bronze hinges and clasp relief patterns created from wheels made of stone, reminiscent of caskets produced in Islamic Spain
L 11.3 cm metal, or wood, and drills for incision made of and Sicily (see, for example, Dodds 1992, p. 192
AKM 00652 stone or diamond points (Carboni 2001, p. 71). [no. 2], or von Folsach 2001, p. 255 [no. 407]).
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 104; AKTC 2009b, p. 104 This rectangular box, revealing some polychrome A taste for the Middle East had already existed
iridescence, consists of two parts joined together, since the earliest Umayyads of Spain experienced
both free-blown and wheel-cut; the top includes a nostalgia for their homeland in Syria and the east-
design of two circles containing lozenge motifs ern Mediterranean region, which had been lost to
and the bottom includes one of two kite-shaped the Abbasids who overthrew them. However, it is
motifs. The bronze hinges and clasp each end in a possible that the arrival of a certain Ziryab – a
pair of rams’ horns. freedman of the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–
The wheel-cutting technique predates the Is- 785) who is credited with introducing Abbasid
lamic period as it was used widely by the Romans court traditions of music, dress, food, and proper
and the Sasanians. Around the fourth or fifth cen- etiquette to the Umayyads of Spain (Dodds 1992,
tury, the practice appears to have declined p. 42) – may also have inspired the transmission of
throughout the Mediterranean; it then resurfaced artistic tastes and techniques that spread through-
in the eighth and ninth centuries in the eastern out the rest of the western Islamic world. LA
Islamic world, particularly in Iran and Iraq (Car-
106
59 Marble funerary stele There is a long tradition of inscribed marble fu- town, is mid-Jumada II 377 H / 15 October 987
North Africa, dated 377 H / 987 CE nerary steles in the Islamic world. This stele is a CE, which means he was interred some ten
Carved marble dignified example of North African production, months after he died. The city of death has been
H 59.7 cm typically Tunisian, during the tenth and eleventh read as Cairo (Misr) but also as Mansuf.
AKM 00662 centuries. The fifteen-line Kufic inscription in- The stele was not made from a ‘new’ piece of
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 72–73 (no. 42); cludes the name of someone who was possibly a marble, but fom a Roman baluster with large
AKTC 2007b, pp. 68 – 69 (no. 42); AKTC 2009a, leather merchant (jallad, although this could also scrolling acanthus leaves carved in deep intaglio.
pp. 104 –105; AKTC 2009b, pp. 104 –105 imply the profession of a torturer, according to It probably dates back to around 300 CE and
Abdullah Ghouchani). Mid-Sha³ban 376 H / 29 must have lain unused with architectural debris
December 986 CE is the date given for his death for seven hundred years before being turned into
and for the collection of his body by his brother a funerary stele. Such examples of reuse of pre-
from the city in which he died. The date inscribed cious materials point to the scarcity of materials in
for his burial in another city, most likely his home- areas such as North Africa. AF / LA
107
Egypt and Syria
Ladan Akbarnia
After the 750 rebellion of the Abbasids Din’s death in 1174, he conquered Syria as
against the first Islamic dynasty, the Umayy- well. During its tenure from 1169 to 1250,
ads, the core of the Islamic world moved the Ayyubid dynasty ruled over the Yemen,
from Damascus to Baghdad. The Abbasids’ the Hijaz, and parts of Mesopotamia in addi-
success was fuelled by the assistance of slave tion to Egypt and Syria. The Ayyubids were
soldiers called mamluks (Arabic for “slaves”) eventually overtaken by members of the same
who ultimately gained increasing power them- mamluk slave soldiers who had once served
selves and actually contributed to weakening the Abbasids and later served under the Buy-
Abbasid control in favour of independently ids (934 –1062) and Ayyubids. The Mamluks
ruling provincial dynasties who paid lip ser- would go on to establish their own dynasty
vice to the Abbasid caliph for legitimacy. In instead of serving other rulers in 1250 and
the meantime, in North Africa, the Tulunids rule until the Ottoman conquest of 1517.
broke away from the Abbasid caliphate and Because of the several cultural and politi-
established themselves as the first independ- cal currents that ran through Egypt and Syria
ent dynasty in Egypt (865 –
909). Egypt between the tenth and sixteenth centuries,
gained even more importance under the Fa- the art produced in these countries during
timids, who claimed descent from the Proph- that period exhibits a combination of artistic
et Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima, and her motifs, styles, and techniques that borrowed
husband ³Ali, Muhammad’s first cousin. The from Abbasid court culture but also reflected
Fatimids entered Egypt in 969, created the new developments under each new dynasty.
capital of Cairo, near the old city of Fustat Lustreware technology, for example, is be-
along the Nile, and ruled most of North Af- lieved to have been developed for glass deco-
rica, Sicily, the Yemen, the Hijaz, and parts ration in eighth–ninth-century Egypt and
of Syria at the height of their power. Syria, translated to ceramics in ninth–tenth-
The Fatimid dynasty fell in 1171 to Salah century Iraq, and then reintroduced for ce-
al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub, known to the West ramic decoration in Egypt under the Fatim-
as Saladin. The Ayyubids were of Kur - ids (Bloom and Blair 1997, p. 251). At times,
dish origin and had served the Turkic similarities in styles and techniques among
Zengids, descendants of a slave to Malik the artworks produced under these dynasties
Shah (r. 1072 –1092), the last Great Seljuq makes it difficult to attribute undated or un-
ruler of Iran. In the twelfth century, the tested objects specifically to one court (see
Zengids took control of parts of Iraq and cat. no. 66). Nevertheless, as the quality and
Syria and turned their sights on Egypt, where prolific amounts of art and architecture pro-
Salah al-Din claimed victory as an officer to duced in this region testify, this period con-
Nur al-Din Zengi. Salah al-Din had greater tributed significantly to the visual culture of
plans, however; in 1169, he usurped control the Islamic world.
of Egypt from his master and, after Nur al-
© akg-images, Werner Forman
Damascus (Syria),
Courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque
109
Two “Tell Minis” lustre bowls Given the central location of Syria along numerous motif, such as the peacock in cat. no. 60, or a non-
routes of cultural exchange, it is no surprise that figural motif, such as the circular medallion with
60 Bowl with a peacock excavations of mediaeval kiln sites in this country radiating spokes in cat. no. 61. These motifs can
Syria, 12th century have yielded ceramic wares produced in a variety hold auspicious meanings; in the Greater Iranian
Fritware, lustre painted over an opaque white glaze of techniques and exhibiting diverse motifs and world, for example, the peacock is associated with
Ø 24.3 cm styles. As a result, the identification and classifica- royalty and, on a mystical level, with paradise (as
AKM 00550 tion of this material are particularly difficult (see suggested by the Sufi poet Farid al-Din ³Attar
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 82 (no. 51); discussion of Raqqa ware in cat. no. 62). The two (d. 1220) in his Mantiq al-tayr, or Conference of
AKTC 2007b, p. 80 (no. 51); AKTC 2009a, p. 108; lustre painted dishes shown here, however, can be the Birds). Similar bowls are found in other col-
AKTC 2009b, p. 108 grouped stylistically among the so-called “Tell lections, such as in the Harvey B. Plotnick Collec-
Minis” wares, named after a village site near tion, Chicago. One bowl of that collection in-
Ma³arrat al-Nu³man in western Syria and distin- cludes a central peacock like the one in cat. no.
61 Bowl with radiating design guished by their fine frit bodies and a unique lustre 60, while the other contains the auspicious Seal of
Syria, 12th century painting style. As Oya Pancaroblu has noted, there Solomon in which the Arabic word for “blessing”
Fritware, lustre painted over an opaque white glaze is not enough evidence about the discovery of the (baraka) has been inscribed in a manner not un-
Ø 23.5 cm “Tell Minis” hoard or the site itself to allow for a like the word “glory” appearing in cat. no. 61.
Inscription (Arabic): (in central roundel) “Glory”; confident attribution of this location as a centre of Furthermore like in the latter, both of the Chicago
(exterior) min san³ Abi Mashhur khass (“one of the production (Pancaroblu 2007, p. 63). At the very dishes have exterior Arabic inscriptions identify-
works of Abi Mashhur, special [royal?] commission”) least, works categorised as “Tell Minis” can be ing the workshop or artist, followed by the word
AKM 00551 spotted by their inclusion of vegetal ornament khass, which can be translated to “special” or
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 108; AKTC 2009b, p. 108 composed of three- or five-lobed leaves with point- “prívate,” perhaps meant to indicate royal or spe-
ed tips, often surrounding a large central figural cial commissions (see ibid., pp. 62– 63 [nos. 20
and 21]). LA
110
62 Tile with star-shaped central aperture This moulded tile is decorated with split-palmette that city and then travelled to other regions, such
Syria (Raqqa ware), Ayyubid, early 13th century scrolls radiating from a central aperture in the as Anatolia, Iran, and Egypt (for a summary of
Fritware, moulded with a transparent turquoise glaze form of an eight-pointed star, while a tri-lobed previous scholarship on Raqqa ware, see Jenkins-
36.5 cm square palmette motif marks each of its four corners; the Madina 2006, pp. 7– 8). More recently, Oliver
AKM 00702 entire decoration is framed within a border Watson suggested that a similar range of ceramic
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 109; AKTC 2009b, p. 109 formed by a raised line. The tile has been covered wares were produced at other sites throughout
with a transparent turquoise glaze and resembles Syria and that there is strong evidence that Egypt
other moulded wares made in the same technique was a centre of production for wares of equal or
and attributed to Syria in the twelfth and thir- higher quality, with the exception of lustreware
teenth centuries. Connections may also be made (Watson 1999 and Watson 2004, p. 289). The lat-
to ceramics produced in the neighbouring Iranian est study of Raqqa ceramics was conducted by
world, as suggested by a moulded tile in the Dav- Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, who examined a group
id Collection, Copenhagen, covered with tur- of ceramics of this type found in Konya alongside
quoise glaze and including sixteen small, evenly- the Raqqa wares in the collection of The Metro-
spaced, eight-pointed star-shaped apertures (von politan Museum of Art. Jenkins-Madina con-
Folsach 2001, p. 167 [no. 208], inv. no. 5 /1980). cludes that these works were produced in the first
So-called Raqqa ware – which, over time, has three decades of the thirteenth century while the
come to refer to a wide range of pottery, including Ayyubid dynasty was in power (1169 –1260), a pe-
certain kinds of lustreware, underglaze painted riod which corresponds specifically to the resi-
wares, monochrome-glazed wares, and Laqabi dence of the Ayyubid prince al-Malik al-Ashraf
and “Tell Minis” wares (see cat. nos. 60–61) – has Musa in Raqqa and his patronage of an extensive
been the subject of several studies, especially in building program for the city (Jenkins-Madina
recent years. The city, located on the left bank of 2006, pp. 186 –187). Soon after this time, Raqqa
the Euphrates River in Syria, is one of the first ar- was occupied by the Rum Saljuqs and the
chaeological sites for the excavation of Islamic ce- Khwarazmshahs and it was eventually destroyed
ramics. It was once assumed that wares resem- by the Ilkhanid Mongols in 1265. LA
bling the ones found at Raqqa were produced in
111
63 Carved beam with Qur’anic inscription Between the two smooth ends, which have holes Qur’an most often used in a funerary context or
Syria, late 12th – early 13th century for fasteners, extends a long cartouche with a for decorating mihrabs. The script is highly repre-
Carved wood; 11.2 x 122 cm raised inscription that stands out from the finely sentative of the Ayyubid naskh script, a form of
Text: al-Baqara (“The Cow”), 2:255 sculpted background consisting of plant foliage, cursive marked by its elegant simplicity and com-
AKM 00632 punctuated by small whorls, bifid leaves or pal- pact, dynamic nature. The same combination of a
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 118 –119 (no. 39); mettes with a long, curved tip, fairly typical of the softly rounded letters standing out from slender
AKTC 2008a, p. 73 (no. 17); AKTC 2009a, Syrian repertoire. This epigraphic carved wooden foliage is found in some Syrian and Egyptian piec-
pp. 110 –111; AKTC 2009b, pp. 110 –111 beam may have belonged to the small side of a es. A fragment of an epigraphic frieze preserved
cenotaph. The inscription contains part of verse in the Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo (David-Weill
255 of al-Baqara (The Cow), the second chapter of 1931, pp. 34 –35, no. 2118, pl. 21), which was dis-
the Qur’an: “[His is what is in the heavens and covered in Imam al-Shafi³i’s mausoleum and cer-
what is in] the earth! Who is it that intercedes tainly comes from a cenotaph, is very similar to
with Him save by His permission?” Known as the this piece. CJ
“Throne verse”, this is one of the passages of the
64 Capital with mythical creatures A scrolling vegetal design of palmette and split- suspension in the Nasser D. Khalili Collection, Lon-
Eastern Syria or Mesopotamia, palmette motifs, surrounding a pair of addorsed don (Rogers 2008, p. 101 [no. 111]); a carved
first half of the 13th century birds and a pair of animals resembling a cross be- wooden storage chest in the David Collection, Co-
Marble tween a sphinx and a griffin (facing opposite direc- penhagen (von Folsach 2001, p. 266 [no. 428, inv.
H 33 cm tions), has been carved in shallow relief onto each no. 3/1993]); and a candlestick in the Museum of
AKM 00731 of the four largest panels of this capital, which is Islamic Art, Doha (Allan 2002, pp. 42–43 [no. 8]).
Published: AKTC 2009a, pp. 110 –111; composed of an octagonal base and a square top. Similar animals embedded in scrolling ornament
AKTC 2009b, pp. 110 –111 The decoration, in low-relief, covers all four sides can be found on objects produced in the eastern
of the capital. The interstitial triangular panels Anatolian region, as suggested by sphinxes depict-
contain a more abstract interlacing scroll design. ed in the roundels of a canteen in the Freer Gallery
Similar vegetal ornament appears on works of di- in Washington, D.C. (Atıl, Chase, and Jett 1985,
verse media, including a cast bronze element for pp. 124–136 [no. 17]). LA
112
113
Egypt and Syria The Fatimids
Sheila Canby
By the late ninth century, the hegemony of diers, the Fatimids eventually suffered from
the Abbasid Caliphate had weakened. Re- internal dissensions that took both ideologi-
gional governors in Egypt and Iran exercised cal and political forms. Exacerbating the
near-total control of their territories, paying power struggles within the military, drought
lip-service to the caliph through the mention led to economic woes in the 1060s and the
of his name in the Friday sermon (khutba) inability of the Fatimid caliph to pay his
and in coinage and tiraz textiles produced at army. In 1067, during the reign of al-Mustan-
official manufactories. Some Islamic dynas- sir, the soldiers ransacked the Fatimid treas-
ties, such as the Umayyads of Spain, operated ury. While this was a disaster for the Fatimid
entirely outside the caliphate, while local ruler, it has proved to be a boon for histori-
leaders in parts of Syria and Arabia espoused ans of Fatimid art because of the descriptions
Shiism. by the historians, Ibn al-Zubayr and Maqrizi,
In 267 H / 909 CE a new Shia leader, ³Ab- of the objects dispersed from the treasury.
dallah al-Mahdi, conquered Tunisia and While the Fatimid dynasty survived until
founded a new capital at Mahdiyya. He fol- 1171, its territories in Sicily, Syria and Pales-
lowed the Ismaili doctrine of Shiism which tine fell to its rivals and finally Saladin deliv-
claimed a new era of history would be her- ered the coup de grâce with his conquest of
alded by the arrival of the Mahdi (the messi- Egypt.
ah), who would be descended from ³Ali and The historical descriptions of the Fatimid
Fatima through Isma³il ibn Ja³far al-Sadiq. treasury corroborate the tangible evidence of
³Abdallah and his successors, the Fatimids, the luxury and refinement of this court.
set themselves up as rivals to the Abbasids Carved rock crystal vessels designed to con-
and within seven years of Imam al-Mahdi’s tain precious substances such as perfume,
conquest of Tunisia they had established a gossamer-thin textiles inscribed with the
governor in Sicily. name and titles of the caliphs, and jewellery
In 969 an exceptional general, Jawhar, oc- made of the finest filigree and enamel reflect
cupied Egypt, and in 973 the fourth Fatimid the Fatimid court’s opulence. Fatimid art
Imam-caliph, al-Mu³izz, relocated the Fa- shows a loose influence of Abbasid and Byz-
timid capital to Cairo (al-Qahira, the Victori- antine prototypes. While some elements of
ous), the new town he built on the Nile next Fatimid lustreware pottery derive from Ab-
to the pre-existing city of al-Fustat. Although basid lustrewares, the iconography of large
the Fatimids maintained their capital at Cai- hares, figures engaged in sports such as cock-
ro, they taught their vision of Islam by pros- fighting, and the combination of foliated
elytizing through a broad regional organisa- epigraphy and geometric ornament are more
tion, the da³wa. At the height of their power typical of the Fatimids than the Abbasids.
in the late tenth century the Fatimids con- The descriptions of the Fatimid treasury call
trolled Mecca and Madina, Yemen and parts attention to how much was lost, but the few
of Palestine and Syria. Supported by an army items that remain are witness to a period of
of North African, Turkish and Sudanese sol- great cultural wealth.
© akg-images, Andrea Jemolo
Cairo (Egypt), Mosque of al-Hakim
115
65 Tulunid beam with Qur’anic inscription Islamic woodwork is known through surviving l-sudur. A-la ya³lamu man khalaqa wa-huwa l-
Egypt, Tulunid, 9th century examples starting from the seventh century; its lat[if] … ).
Carved wood; L 120 cm history has been traced most comprehensively in Only two other Tulunid beams with calligraphic
Text: Sura al-Mulk (“The Sovereignty”), 67:12–14 Egypt (Contadini 1998, pp. 111–112), where the decoration are known to have appeared on the
AKM 00701 woodworking tradition was first practiced among market (see Sotheby’s London, 24 October 2007,
Published: AKTC 2009a, pp. 114 –115; the Christian Copts and the Tulunids, the first in- lot 56), one dated 898 and measuring 200 cm
AKTC 2009b, pp. 114 –115 dependent Islamic dynasty in that country. It is (“Art from the World of Islam, 8th – 18th Century,”
believed that Fatimid woodwork developed out of Louisiana Revy 27/3 [March 1987], p. 65, no. 10)
the Coptic and Tulunid traditions (ibid., p. 112). and the other appearing in fragments. One of
This square-sectioned beam contains mortice and these fragments was exhibited at the Musée d’art
tenon joints and bears a Kufic inscription contain- et d’histoire in Geneva in 1988–89 and is now
ing verses from the sixty-seventh chapter of the housed in the David Collection, Copenhagen
Qur’an: (Musée d’art et d’histoire 1988, pp. 52– 53, pl. 1);
“13 And whether ye hide your word or publish it, other fragments can be found in the Museum of
He certainly has (full) knowledge, of the secrets of Islamic Art, Cairo. The present beam was previ-
(all) hearts. 14 Should He not know, – He that ously in the collections of Baron Elie de Roth-
created? and He is the One that understands the schild and Jean-Paul Croisier, the latter of whom
finest mysteries (and) is well-acquainted (with lent it to the Institut du Monde Arabe, Paris. LA
them)”. (… [i]jharu bihi innahu ³alimun bi-dhati
116
66 Rock crystal support for inkpots There exist numerous doubts with respect to the were then carved by employing the same method.
Egypt or Syria, 10th –11th century origin of these pieces, whose total number so far The object presented here, which was certainly an
Rock crystal is in excess of 200. Most of the authors who have inkwell, is carved from a small block of transpar-
L 9.3 cm studied them agree that they are Egyptian in origin, ent rock crystal. The quality of the raw material
AKM 00653 and date them between the ninth and twelfth cen- used is somewhat inferior to the known standard,
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 92 (no. 60); turies. However, the theoretical possibility exists, presenting as it does brown spots in its interior.
AKTC 2007b, p. 90 (no. 60); AKTC 2008a, at least for now, that some of them may have been Its edges are damaged in some places, particularly
pp. 130 –131 (no. 44); AKTC 2009a, p. 115; produced somewhere in Iraq during the first Ab- in the alveoli. This seems to suggest that a handle
AKTC 2009b, p. 115 basid Period, following a Sasanian Persian artistic was attached to it in order to pull something up
tradition. The main problem in assigning a date and, as a result, that it was partially encased in a
for objects of this kind of rock crystal rests in the metallic casing, almost certainly made of gold or
fact that, with very few and insignificant excep- silver, which has completely disappeared. This
tions, there is no archaeological context for them would explain the damage produced when it was
and they have been classified only by means of pulled out. The bottoms of the central wells are
stylistic criteria, sometimes very questionable, or very smooth and contain very few scratches. They
by basing their classification on historical prec- were perhaps also encased in metal.
edents too closely related in time to their arrival in An almost identical piece is housed in the
the places where they are currently deposited, Victoria and Albert Museum of London
which prevents attributing a post quem date to (No. Cat.: 330 – 1880), with the same hollows in
them. the upper part. It seems it was acquired in Spain
Nearly every known example is characterized in 1880, although as is the case of all those from
by being manufactured from raw materials of high this country – 40 in all – it was not originally from
quality and purity. A large number contain neither there and must have been brought to the country
veins nor internal impurities of any kind. The geo- by trade during the Islamic period, or perhaps by
logical form of rock crystal, which takes the shape some anonymous pilgrim who had traveled to the
of needles, confirms that a majority of these types Middle East. The majority of the objects crafted
of products may have been bottles or flasks, small from rock crystal was acquired by cathedrals and
receptacle of some kind or chess figures, although churches and ended up being used as reliquaries.
there are also some relatively large examples as Their manufacture seems to have stopped after
well, which always tend to be cylindrical, elliptical the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir (1036 –1094) was
or spherical in shape. Rectangular blocks, like the forced by his Turkish guards to sell a large collec-
one presented in this catalogue, are rare. tion of them (1060 /1062), which would have
The manufacturing process was complex and caused the collapse of the market.
required great skill and patience. Carving was be- Because of its external characters, and given
gun by grinding away the crystal with its own the chronological uncertainty mentioned, the
powder in order to hollow out the interior; the piece could be dated from between the late tenth
form and external decoration of the receptacle century and the beginning of the twelfth. FV
117
67 Jar with calligraphic decoration This type of jar, with an ovoid belly extending the Cairo Museum of Islamic Art, discovered in
Egypt or Syria, mid-12th century, displaying into a short, fairly wide neck and rolled mouth, is Fustat and subject to a similar technique, present
Fatimid influence a well-known Fatimid style used into the twelfth the same type of epigraphy (ibid. nn. 31–32). It is
Fritware, painted in lustre on an opaque white glaze and thirteenth centuries. Nevertheless, this is an a very special type of angular writing, whereby the
H 29 cm exceptional piece because of the quality of the de- long downstrokes have a sort of midway hook or
AKM 00548 sign and the excellent state of preservation. The elbow, while the split bevels at the ends are pre-
Published: Riyadh 1985, pp. 134 –135; technique used and the decorative style place it ceded by a double horizontal line. In the lower
AKTC 2007a, p. 90 (no. 56); AKTC 2007b, among the ceramics known as “Tell Minis”, frieze, one in two downstrokes ends with a half-
pp. 6 and 88 (no. 56); Makariou 2007, pp. 186 –187 named after a village in northern Syria, close to palm leaf pattern. This type of writing style is ex-
(no. 67); AKTC 2008a, pp. 128 –129, no. 43; Maj³arrat al- Nu³man, where a collection of some tremely unusual. Apart from the above-mentioned
AKTC 2009a, pp. 116–117; AKTC 2009b, one hundred pieces were reportedly discovered in fragments, this kind of downstroke with a cro-
pp. 116 –117 1957. Some of these pieces were purchased by the cheted projection can be seen on two fragments
David Collection in Copenhagen, in particular a found in Fustat; one decorated with metallic lus-
cup decorated with an intertwined ribbon form- tre (ibid., n. 33), the other with glazed champlevé,
ing polylobe motifs punctuated by fine re-en- and also on a cup published by Porter and
graved spirals, very similar to the design on the Watson, as well as on the so-called “Fada” ceno-
present jar (Makariou 2007, p. 197, n. 29). This taph in Homs, Syria, possibly dating back to the
production, termed “Tell Minis” by Venetia Por- thirteenth century (ibid., nn. 34 – 36). These exam-
ter and Oliver Watson, includes siliceous clay ples illustrate well the difficulty of unequivocally
wares finished with a metallic lustre or glazed af- attributing this production to any one centre.
ter incision (Makariou 2007, p. 197, n. 30). The The inscriptions are a set of vows commonly
discovery of many similar pieces in different parts found on objects. In the medallions are the words:
of Syria (Damascus, Hama) has corroborated the baraka wa / kamila wa / kafiya bara[ka] / kafiya
thesis of a Syrian production, very influenced by wa (“blessing, perfect, complete, blessing, com-
Fatimid Egypt, and possibly dating back to the plete”). The same words can be found around the
middle of the twelfth century. base, in a different sequence: baraka kamila kafiya
In fact, three fragments of a cup kept in the kafiya kafiya kafiya kamila kafiya wa. CJ
Benaki Museum, and a single fragment housed in
118
68-76 Nine gold Fatimid coins Manufactured in state-run mints, the coins of the in Palermo, Sicily (central item, third row). The
North Africa and Egypt, 10th –11th century Fatimids were a means of visual communication central inscriptions on the reverse and obverse are
Gold; various dimensions to a vast public and a vehicle for enhancing the arranged within segments so as to divide the sur-
AKM 00680 way people viewed the caliphate’s power and face into a star-like pattern.
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 91 (no. 58); prestige. Their high gold content and purity – sus-
AKTC 2007b, pp. 88 – 89 (no. 58); AKTC 2009a, tained throughout the Fatimid period – testified The coins of the following Fatimid imam-caliphs
p. 118; AKTC 2009b, p. 118 to the economic and monetary wealth of the state. are presented:
Inscribed with the names and titles of the Fatimid
imam-caliphs, the coins are also usually dated. ³Abd Allah al-Mahdi bi’llah (r. 909–934)
They serve as important historical documents, Al-Qa³im bi³Amr Allah (r. 934–946)
while the mint and place names they bear illus- Al-Mansur bi’llah (r. 946–953)
trate the geographical extent of Fatimid rule. Al-Mu³izz li-Din Allah (r. 953–975)
These coins are known for their fine, elegant epig- Al-³Aziz bi’llah (r. 975–996)
raphy, and the myriad stylistic variations of their Al-Hakim bi³Amr Allah (r. 996–1021)
design. One example of this is the unusual and Al-Zahir li-I³zaz Din Allah (r. 1021–1036)
distinctive design that appears on coins produced Al-Mustansir bi’llah (r. 1036–1094) (two coins). AF

119
Fatimid jewelry Precious objects such as this miniature Qur’an vol. 4, pp. 211–12).
case (cat. no. 85) and jewellery, including neck- The miniature Qur’an case is a beautiful example
77-79 Three enamelled gold pendants laces of biconical and spherical beads, pendants, of Fatimid-style granulated filigree decoration,
Egypt or Syria, 10th –11th century and a variety of rings, all made from gold filigree exposing the goldsmith’s skill with different pat-
Gold and cloisonné enamel; L 3.2 cm, work and embellished with gold granulation, were terns on each side. The front has dense foliate
2.9 cm, and 2.6 cm, respectively produced in tenth- and eleventh-century Fatimid scrollwork formed into a programme of circles
AKM 00594 Egypt and Greater Syria. The objects in this and triangles around a central panel (with missing
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 91 (no. 63); group reflect the superb craftsmanship of the inset), while the reverse exhibits a geometric lattice
AKTC 2007b, p. 91 (no. 63); AKTC 2008a, goldsmiths who made them. As the pendants sug- based on interlocking hexagons. The case would
pp. 134–135 (no. 46); AKTC 2009a, p. 119; gest, the crescent (hilal) shape was particularly have contained a miniature Qur’an and hung
AKTC 2009b, p. 119 popular. Semi-precious stones or pearls may have around the wearer’s neck, suspended by two
been suspended from the loops on each pendant, loops (one is missing here). The wrought amulet
which was made using a typical Fatimid box con- case (cat. no. 84) must have been worn in a similar
struction featuring filigree and gold strips embel- way. The notched band in the middle and the style
lished with granulation. The rings and biconical of the Kufic inscription are characteristic of Egyp-
bead exhibit typical Fatimid filigree arabesques tian-Fatimid metalwork. The inscription reads
and al-mulk li-llah (“The Dominion is of God”).
S-shapes with granulation. This filigree work was The influence of the Fatimid goldsmiths’ work
called mushhabbak (latticework) in twelfth-centu- extended far and wide; the goldsmiths’ decorative
ry trousseau lists from the Cairo Geniza docu- vocabulary was adapted later by the Mamluks
ments, which are an important source for the (1250 –1517) and in Spain by the Nasrids
study of medieval Mediterranean history (Jenkins- (1230 –1492). AF
Madina 1997, pp. 419 – 20, citing Goitein 1967–83,
120
80-82 Three gold filigree rings
Egypt, 10th –11th century
Gold
H 3.4 cm, 2.5 cm, 3.1 cm, respectively
AKM 00596; AKM 00595; AKM 00597
AKTC 2007b, p. 92 (no. 65); AKTC 2008a,
pp. 136 – 37 (no. 48); AKTC 2009a, p. 120;
AKTC 2009b, p. 120
83 Biconical gold bead

Egypt or Syria, 11th century
Gold
H 2.9 cm; L 7.2 cm; weight 18 grams
AKM 00618
AKTC 2007b, p. 92 (no. 64); AKTC 2008a,
pp. 136 –137 (no. 47); AKTC 2009a, p. 121;
AKTC 2009b, p. 121
84 Gold amulet box

Egypt, 11th –12th century
Gold
4,2 x 3,7 cm
AKM 000599
85 Miniature Qur’an case

Egypt, 11th century
Gold
L 4.7 cm
AKM 00598
AKTC 2007b, pp. 92 – 93 (no. 66); AKTC 2009a,
p. 121; AKTC 2009b, p. 121
121
86 Tiraz textile Tiraz refers to inscribed textiles, such as the robes one makes it difficult to identify their specific con-
Egypt, late 10th – early 11th century of honour distributed by a ruler. It may also refer text or function. The foliated Kufic inscription of
Linen, tapestry woven silk to the band of inscription on the textiles as well as this textile fragment includes blessings to the
151 x 51 cm the state workshops where they were produced Prophet Muhammad and the Fatimid imam-ca-
AKM 00670 (dar al-tiraz). The importance of clothing in Fa- liph al-Mu³izz li-Din Allah (r. 952– 75).
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 93 (no. 62); timid ceremonies created a constant demand for The Arabic inscription on the textile reads:
AKTC 2007b, p. 91 (no. 62); AKTC 2009a, complete new wardrobes. The caliph regularly “In the name of God the Beneficent, the Merciful;
pp. 122 –123; AKTC 2009b, pp. 122 – 123 outfitted his entire court with lavish new clothing may God’s blessing be upon Muhammad, Seal of
for religious, civil, and military ceremonies. Egyp- the Prophets, and his family… from God… for
tian weavers were kept busy making tiraz robes the servant of God and His believer, Ma³ad Abu
for both Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs at the same Tamim, the Imam al-Mu[³izz]” (trans. Abdullah
time. Few complete inscribed garments survive Ghouchani). AF
and the fragmentary nature of extant tiraz like this
122
87 Silk-embroidered linen panel with birds, This silk-embroidered textile fragment blurs the practice of weaving in silk and gold might be re-
human faces, and hares typical stylistic, chronological, and geographical lated to the cross-cultural exchanges resulting
Egypt, 10 th –11th century boundaries in the study of Islamic art. The ground from trade (and sometimes war) between Egypt,
Linen, dyed with indigo and embroidered fabric, woven in an indigo-dyed linen, is embroi- the Near East and Central Asia during this time.
with silk, and silk wrapped in gold thread dered in silk and gold thread (wrapped around a The appearance of animals on a medieval Egyp-
43 x 62 cm silk core) with decorative elements comprised of tian textile is also not uncommon; confronting
AKM 00671 confronting pairs of birds flanking a human face, and addorsed animal pairs, in particular, have a
Published: AKTC 2008a, pp. 132– 133 (no. 45); small running hares, and ornamental rosettes. The rich history in the Ancient Near East. The inclu-
AKTC 2009a, p. 123; AKTC 2009b, p. 123 use of silk thread wrapped in gold recalls the lux- sion of a human face without a body, however, is
urious nasij (an abbreviated form of the Arabic unusual. On a technical level, given the linen
nasij al-dhahab al-harir, “cloth of gold and silk”), ground of the fabric and even its figural decora-
from the Arabic textiles woven in Iran and Cen- tion, this skilfully woven panel relates to Fatimid
tral Asia before and during the medieval period, and Coptic textiles produced in Egypt during the
after the Mongol invasions. It is possible that the tenth and eleventh centuries. LA
123
Egypt and Syria The Mamluks
Ladan Akbarnia
After Salah al-Din’s death in 1193, disputes Fatimids. It also prevented the possible con-
over who should ascend the throne ensued fiscation of properties they had collected
among his descendants, resulting in divided over their lifetimes by passing on much of
rule throughout Egypt and Syria. Ironically, their acquired wealth through endowments
the Ayyubids’ ultimate demise came at the naming their descendants as trustees. The
hands of one of their own elite military caste largest structures built during this period
of slaves, a Mamluk (Arabic for “slave”) were domed mausoleums, which attested to
bowkeeper named Baybars. The Mamluk’s the secular power of the Mamluks and glori-
rule of Egypt and Syria, which lasted from fied the individuality of each ruler. The mon-
1250 until 1517, was divided between the umental size of these buildings, which boast-
reign of two ethnic groups: the Bahri Mam- ed massive domes and minarets, also reflected
luks (“Mamluks of the Sea”), who were inspiration from the Mamluks’ rivals to the
mostly Kipchak Turks (1250 –1390), and the east in Iran and Central Asia, the Ilkhanid
Burji Mamluks (“Mamluks of the Citadel”), Mongols (1256 –1353), and their successors,
who were of Circassian origin (1382 –1517). the Timurids (1370 –1526). Complexes were
One of the distinguishing characteristics of additionally endowed with Qur’ans as well as
the Mamluks is that they never became a dy- mosque lamps, candlesticks and other ob-
nasty in the true sense of the word, as ruler jects. Objects often reflected the rank and
succession depended not on family ties but status of their patrons, with epigraphic em-
on the requirement that one had to have been blems identifying sultans and blazons repre-
born a slave. This ruled out the freeborn off- senting amirs, or generals (cat. nos. 89 and
spring of Mamluk sultans, although in prac- 90). Cairo became the capital of the Mam-
tice there were some exceptions. For the luks and a destination for artists and crafts-
most part, however, this non-dynastic system men fleeing the Mongols from Mosul and
contributed to an art and architectural style other parts of Iraq and the Iranian world.
reflecting the individualized tastes of various Mamluk art therefore includes features
Mamluks and their legacies. shared with the arts of Iran. In addition, it
Initially, Mamluk style paralleled that of reflects inspiration from China, with whom it
the Ayyubids, which itself borrowed aspects also enjoyed maritime trade relations, as sug-
of Fatimid artistic and architectural styles. gested by the blue-and-white tile panel de-
The Mamluks came to be known by the great picting an architectural structure (cat. no. 91),
charitable foundations and complexes they as well as an awareness of European tastes
commissioned, which allowed them to prop- for the exotic east, as evidenced by albarelli
agate orthodox Sunni Islam in a land once made for the European market (cat. nos.
dominated by the heterodox Shiism of the 95–97).
© akg-images, Andrea Jemolo
Cairo (Egypt), Mausoleum of Sultan Barsbay
125
88 Candlestick Thanks to the active patronage of Mamluk sultans appear to have held associations with some Mam-
Egypt or Syria, Mamluk, early 14th century and amirs, the art of Mamluk metalwork between luks, including al-Nasir al-Din Muhammad. The
Brass, incised and inlaid with silver and niello the late thirteenth and the mid-fourteenth centu- motif is repeated six times in a six-petalled form
H 35 cm; maximum Ø 31.5 cm ries reached its apex, distinguished by a flourish- on the neck, enclosed within and between three
Inscription (Arabic): ing of the figural style and the development of an large roundels filled with foliate scrolls and bor-
Around the socket: “The High Authority, the Lordly, epigraphic one (Atıl 1981, p. 51). This period falls dered by an abstract design of stylised overlap-
the Possessor, the Diligent, the Leader, the Holy under the relatively long reign of Sultan al-Nasir ping leaves. The largest inscription appears on the
Warrior, [an officer of] al-Malik al-Nasir” al-Din Muhammad (r. 1293–1341, with interrup- body against a dense background of foliage com-
Around the shoulder: “The Honourable Authority, tions), a particularly enthusiastic patron of art and posed of spiralling leaf scrolls and bordered by
the High, the Lordly, the Possessor, the Learned, architecture. The present candlestick may have raised ridges above and below. A tughra inscribed
the Diligent, the Just, the Conqueror, the Holy been made for one of al-Nasir’s amirs, as suggest- on the object’s interior indicates that it was later
Warrior, the Defender, [an officer of] al-Malik al- ed by the inscriptions around the socket, shoul- in the possession of another individual, perhaps
Nasir” der, and neck; the predominance of the bold and an Ottoman official, in the mid-fifteenth century,
Around the body: “The Honourable Authority, monumental thuluth, the preferred script under when Egypt and Syria came under Ottoman con-
the High, the Lordly, the Possessor, the Learned, the Mamluks, represents the epigraphic style that trol. Similar candlesticks may be found in the col-
the Diligent, the Holy Warrior, [an officer of] evolved during this period. The truncated conical lection of the Musée du Louvre, Paris (inv. no.
al-Malik al-Nasir” socket includes a band of inscription interrupted AO 5005), as well as in the Museum of Islamic
Interior: (later Ottoman ownership inscription by whirling eight-petalled rosettes. Although the Art, Cairo (inv. nos. 4043 and 3982). LA
incised in tughra) “For the needy Ahmad ibn whirling rosette motif was not a blazon, it does
al-Sarim in the year 961 [1553 –1554 CE]”
AKM 00736
Published: AKTC 2009a, pp. 126 –127;
AKTC 2009b, pp. 126 –127
126
127
89 Bowl with calligraphic decoration The inlaid silver inscription on this Mamluk brass mosque lamps, during the Mamluk period
Egypt or Syria, Mamluk, first half of the 14th century bowl reads, “For the High Excellency, the Lordly, (1250 –1517). Mamluk society thrived on em-
Brass, inlaid with silver the Great Amir, the Learned, the Just, the Valiant, blems and symbols. The interior of the brass bowl
Ø 18 cm the Supporter, the Succour, the Sparkling, the is decorated with a sun disc and six fish. When
AKM 00610 Help, the Orderly, the Responsible, the [officer] the bowl was filled with water, the fish and sun
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 182 (no. 158); of al-Malik al-Nasir.” This is a typical formulaic would appear to shimmer. The image of the sun
AKTC 2007b, p. 185 (no. 158); Makariou 2007, inscription, meant to bring glory and prosperity may be seen as symbolising the ruler as well as
pp. 188 –189 (no. 68); AKTC 2008a, pp. 292 – 293 to the owner, and it is seen on a variety of artistic wealth and the source of life. AF
(no. 117); AKTC 2009a, p. 128; AKTC 2009b, p. 128 media, from ceramic bowls to enamelled glass
128
90 Star-shaped panel with a coat of arms The use of coats of arms in the Islamic world is chitectural element bear resemblance to other
Egypt, Mamluk, 1470s unique to the Mamluks (1250 – 1517), whose sta- carved ivory door panels produced during this sul-
Ivory, wood, and metal; carved tus in society could not be inherited. Pictorial bla- tan’s reign, one of which is housed in the Museum
and mosaic technique zons representing recognized images, such as a of Islamic Art, Cairo, and is inscribed with his
Ø 22 cm stemmed cup or napkin, identified the rank of an name (Atıl 1981, p. 210 [no. 105, inv. no. 2334]).
Inscription (Arabic): centre: al-sultan al-malik al- amir that served as cupbearer or master of robes. That panel has been attributed to around 1470,
ashraf (“the Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf”); Epigraphic heraldic emblems, such as the one in around the time Qaytbay’s funerary complex was
above and below central panel, with top this wood and ivory panel, were destined to mon- under construction in Cairo’s Northern Cemetery
inscription upside-down: ³azza nasruhu (“May archs or rulers, although other composite panels (1472 – 79).
his victory be glorious”) were not uncommon (see Meinecke 1974; Mayer The sultan’s epigraphic blazon appears
AKM 00703 1933). While several Mamluk sultans used the ep- throughout the structure, and it is possible that
Published: AKTC 2008b, no. 9; AKTC 2009a, ithet al-malik al-ashraf, it is likely that the inscrip- these ivory and wood panels were meant for this
p. 129; AKTC 2009b, p. 129 tion carved into the tripartite blazon on this panel building or another structure commissioned by
refers to Sultan Qaytbay (r. 1468 –1496), a ruler him. The present panel once belonged to the col-
who brought about the revitalisation of the arts in lection of Ernst and Marthe Kofler-Truniger in Lu-
Cairo. The form and style of the star-shaped ar- cerne (inv. no. K 493 H / 1 CE). LA
129
91 Decorative architectural tile The blue and white decoration of this tile is char- cut to be embedded into a set of hexagonal tiles.
Syria or Egypt, 15th century acteristic of ceramic production at the end of the The other one is also quadrangular and of very
Fritware, blue underglaze painting Mamluk period which drew inspiration from Chi- similar dimensions. There are other common ele-
20 x 20 cm nese porcelain. Some pieces are faithful reproduc- ments, such as the diagonal band strangely cover-
AKM 00570 tions of Chinese models but others, like this one, ing the facade of the central edifice, the dome
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 88, 92– 93 (no. 29); present more original and charming compositions. framed by two triangular leaves, and the grilled
AKTC 2009a, p. 130; AKTC 2009b, p. 130 The decoration is symmetrical without being windows reminiscent of the mashrabiyya win-
rigid. The central two-level edifice, surmounted dows. Another decorative architectural tile can be
by a bulbous dome and the two small pavilions found embedded in the stonework of the minaret
(or gates) flanking it, stand against a landscape of of the al-Qal³i Mosque, in Damascus, dated about
sinuous bushes ending in broad leaves. The varia- 1470. Placed very high and difficult to observe, it
tions in proportion, the leaning horizontals and seems to represent a mosque (a building with a
wavy lines suggest that this drawing was done dome topped with a crescent and flanked by a
freehand, spontaneously, lending a sort of naive minaret). One rediscovers the theme designed on
but extremely lively touch to the composition. this tile on a blue-and-white-decorated bottle,
Could it be a religious building, mosque or mau- linked to Iznik production at the end of the fif-
soleum - the Gothic arch shapes of the two small teenth century – an absolutely unique work that
structures recall the form of certain tombstones – boasts a design of pavilions set against a land-
or a palace, a pleasure pavilion in the middle of scape. However, the two pieces differ in the archi-
a garden? It conjures up images of luxuriant or- tectural and plant-decoration details.
chards of the Ghuta in Damascus and architectural Finally, a connection can be established with a
landscapes of the mosaics of the Great Mosque of small group of gilded enamel glasses decorated
the Umayyads. architecturally. A bottle from this small group can
Two tiles housed at the Islamic Art Museum in be dated back to the Ayyubid domination, but the
Cairo, of unknown origin, present the same tri- entire set of objects is more closely related to the
partite architecture with soaring domes surround- production from the second half of the thirteenth
ed by vegetation. One of them seems to have been century or beginning of the fourteenth century. CJ
130
92 Hexagonal tile with floral motif Under the Mamluks (1250 –1517), the major cen- (“Cathayan”) idiom was prevalent in Iran, par-
Egypt or Syria, Mamluk, 15th century tres of ceramic production were Damascus and ticularly from the Ilkhanid Mongol period
Fritware, underglaze painted in cobalt blue, Cairo. Perhaps because they were produced un- (1256 –1353) forward. The present tile depicts a
black, and aubergine der a single authority, the wares produced in these central stylised lotus-like flower with five cobalt-
19.4 x 17 cm regions are still difficult to distinguish from each blue floral sprays radiating towards an aubergine
AKM 00581 other, although underglaze painting seems to have scalloped frame bordered by a black line. Hex-
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 131; been practiced more widely in Syria (Fehérvári agonal tiles of comparable dimensions with simi-
AKTC 2009b, p. 131 2000, p. 246). However, it appears that some new lar and varied motifs appear in other collections,
styles and techniques were introduced to both of including the Tareq Rajab Museum in Kuwait (Fe-
these regions between the thirteenth and sixteenth hérvári 2000, pp. 250–251 [no. 311,
centuries. One of the most noticeable changes in CER1728TSR]) and the David Collection in Co-
the aesthetics of Mamluk ceramic production was penhagen (von Folsach 2001, p. 165 [no. 203]).
the addition of a Chinese-inspired aesthetic ap- However, the tiles in these collections display a
parent in blue-and-white colour schemes and cela- colour palette of cobalt blue, black, and turquoise
don glazes meant to imitate Chinese porcelains in contrast to the cobalt blue, black, and auber-
and celadon wares, as well as the use of Chinese gine of the present tile. Géza Fehérvári has attrib-
motifs such as lotuses or peonies. The taste for the uted these tiles to the fifteenth century but reiter-
Far East may have arrived directly through con- ates John Carswell’s conclusion that a place of
tacts between the Mamluks and China and/or production for these works remains uncertain (Fe-
through an Iranian “filter” overland; the khita’i hérvári 2000, p. 251; and Carswell 1972, p. 75). LA
131
93 A blood-letting device In the year 1206, Badi³ al-Zaman ibn al-Razzaz rising level of blood and indicates the amount of
Folio from an illustrated manuscript of al-Jazari’s al-Jazari wrote his treatise on mechanical devices blood loss on the tablet in 10-dirham (about one
Kitab fi ma³rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya (“Book of for the Artuqid sultan Nasir al-Din Muhammad ounce) increments up to the maximum of 120 dir-
Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices”, (reigned 1201–1222), who had a great fascination hams. The second recorder sits exactly in the mid-
also known as “The Automata”) for such devices. The resulting book, which was dle of a large red spool that turns on its axis in
Scribe: Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Izmiri often copied and widely distributed throughout synchronicity with the rising level of liquid. The
Egypt, Mamluk, dated Safar 755 H / February – the entire Middle East, contains descriptions and pole in his hand also records the amount of
March 1354 CE illustrations of machines developed by al-Jazari. drained liquid on a scale. The largest illustrated
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper In the third chapter of his work, he describes vari- “Recorder” sits in the middle of semicircular mer-
39.3 x 27.2 cm ous devices that are meant to measure the amount lon-decorated alcove. With his left hand, he
AKM 00011 of blood loss during bloodletting. The inventor strokes his beard. As soon as 10 dirhams of blood
Published: Blochet 1929, pl. 36; Welch 1972a, thus perceived himself to be a scholar in the tradi- have flowed into the bowl, he raises his right arm
pp. 28 – 32; Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 24 – 26 tion of the Greek mechanopoioi (“machine con- and props it up on the ledge of his perch. This
(no. 3); AKTC 2008a, pp. 198 – 99 (no. 75); structors”), as these were developed based on an- occurs every time ten dirhams flow into the bowl,
AKTC 2009a, pp. 132–133; AKTC 2009b, tique traditions of mechanics (Müller-Wiener, in and with each unit, he raises another finger. VD
pp. 132–133 preparation). This page displays the seventh pic-
ture of the corresponding section (Jazari 1974, pp. This folio comes from an Egyptian copy dated
143–145; Sezgin 2003, p. 35). It is the “Measuring February–March 1354, made for the Mamluk
Bowl for a Phlebotomist”, a brass contraption amir Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn Tulak al-Hasa-
shown in the picture in gold. On the approxi- ni al-Malik al-Salih at the time of Sultan Hasan’s
mately handbreadth-high base rests a bowl that second reign (r. 1354 –1361). The Arabic descrip-
contains a closable aperture at its deepest point. A tion at the top of the page reads: “And I am show-
channel that points towards the bottom left di- ing an illustration of the shape of the basin, the
rects the liquid into a cylinder containing a float stand, and the cylinders”) (transl. Abdullah
which is tied to a counterweight attached outside Ghouchani). While most of the extant folios from
the cylinder. Incoming liquid lifts the float, which this codex, including its colophon, are in the Sül-
causes the counterweight to sink and thereby indi- eymaniye Library in Istanbul (Aya Sofya 3606), a
cates the amount of blood that has been drawn. number of the original illustrated pages remain
The thread that connects the float and weight dispersed. Anthony Welch has alluded to the hu-
winds into coils in the upper part of the machine. mour that may have been intended to accompany
Two “Recorders” sit on a square platform that is some of these illustrations (Welch and Welch
decorated with red battlements and which rests 1982, p. 26). Perhaps this followed in the foot-
on four pillars. The left recorder holds a brass bar steps of al-Hariri’s (d. 1122) witty Maqamat, or
that is flattened at the top and resembles a writing Assemblies, illustrated copies of which were cir-
tablet. The bar is fed through one of the pillars culated widely in the thirteenth century. LA
and connected to the float so that it rises with the
132
133
94 Mosaic arches This type of mosaic or inlaid stonework seems to such as the Maridani mosque or that of Emir
Egypt, 15 th –16th century (?) have appeared for the first time in the decoration Husayn ibn Haydarbak al-Rumi (1319 –1320) in
Marble and coloured-stone mosaic; L 2.235 m of the mausoleum of Sultan Qala²un, built in Cairo. The star-within-a-hexagon motif was fairly
AKM 00571 1284-5 in Cairo. Throughout the Mamluk period, common and is therefore not a very reliable crite-
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 94 – 95 (no. 30); it was used in religious buildings, such as the rion for affirming specific dates. As for the point-
AKTC 2009a, p. 133; AKTC 2009b, p. 133 Mosque of Altunbugha al-Maridani (1339) or the ed rectangular elements around the edges of the
Mausoleum of Sultan Barsbay (1432), as well as in Gothic arches, they can be observed on a fountain
private residences. It would again become wide- basin which still exists in the reception room
spread under Ottoman rule in Egypt. Consequent- (qa³a) ³Uthman Katkhuda, in Cairo, dateable
ly, this panel and a fountain decoration, which was from the fifteenth century, as well as on other later
sold in 1993, supposedly come from a palace dat- designs, such as the one housed at the Victoria
ing back to Qaitbay’s reign (1468 –1496). This tri- and Albert Museum attributed to seventeenth-
ple-arch architectural design can be seen in a century Syria, or those to be found at the Manzil
number of monuments from the end of the Mam- Suhaymi in Cairo. One finds on that last example
luk period. As of the fifteenth century, it would be the same geometric bands knotted at the corners.
often used for the loggia or the internal mural de- This type of highly elaborate and costly design
sign of the maq³ad – the reception room of wealthy with alluring colour variations had become indis-
Cairo residences. However, the small number of pensable in reception halls, for the use of the ur-
decorations which we have got, with constant re- ban elite. Important people would meet there for
curring geometric designs, offer little in terms of parties, lulled by the swish of water fountains and
establishing precise dates. the chanting of musicians. CJ
The geometric bands knotted at the corners
recur in the decoration of a number of buildings,
134
135
95-97 Three albarelli Two albarelli from this group obviously come Mamluk sultans and emirs used it until the fifteenth
Syria, 15 th century from the same workshop; they have the same size, century. It is to be noted that, on monuments at
Fritware, underglaze painted in blue and black; similar concave cylindrical belly, horizontal shoul- least, the motif appeared essentially within a Syrian
H (a) 31.7 cm; (b) 30.7 cm; (c) 30.7 cm der and wide truncated neck, ending in a thick context. A version that is surprisingly close to our
AKM 00567 (a), AKM 00568 (b), and AKM 00569 (c) mouth and with very similar designs painted in vases (but without the flowery outgrowths) can be
Published (a): AKTC 2007a, p. 133 (no. 101); cobalt blue under transparent glaze. Registers of discerned on the marble decoration of the
AKTC 2007b, p. 136 (no. 101); Makariou 2007, foliage, separated by horizontal double lines, cov- Maristan Nuri hospital in Damascus. This is due to
pp. 190 –191 (no. 69); AKTC 2008a, pp. 204 – 205 er the two vases in their entirety, mixing rosettes, the embellishments effected in 1283 by the sultan
(no. 78); AKTC 2009a, pp. 134 –135; AKTC 2009b, lotus flowers and small bent or dentate leaves. On Qala’un (who used the fleur-de-lys as a blazon) af-
pp. 134 –135 the central, wider register are crests with a fleur- ter he had been cared for in that institution. This
Published (b): AKTC 2007a, p. 133 (no. 101a); de-lys alternating with large rolled stems, punctu- distinctive design can be seen on gourds with
AKTC 2007b, p. 136 (no. 101a); Makariou 2007, ated with florets and leaves, shielding a large cen- moulded designs found in Syria and probably dat-
pp. 26 – 27 (no. 2); AKTC 2009a, pp. 134 –135; tre flower on one of the vases, and a crane in flight ing back to the end of the thirteenth or fourteenth
AKTC 2009b, pp. 134–135 on the other. The third vase, however, has large century. It would be tempting to assume that there
Published (c): AKTC 2007a, p. 133 (no. 101b); inscriptions painted in black and blue and written is a link between these albarelli and the highly re-
AKTC 2007b, p. 136 (no. 101b); Makariou 2007, in thuluth style with very slender downstrokes spected Nuri hospital, which was still very reputa-
pp. 26 – 27 (no. 2); AKTC 2009a, pp. 134 –135; against a background of fine, rolled stems with ble in the fifteenth century. A jar bearing a blazon
AKTC 2009b, pp. 134–135 foliage sparser than that found on the albarelli with a fleur-de-lys design, though a very different
mentioned above. design, possibly of the fourteenth century, bears an
This type of high, narrow cylindrical vase seems inscription which indicated that it had been made
to have appeared in Iran in the eleventh or twelfth by the same Maristan Nuri and supposedly con-
century before spreading around the Near East. tained a waterlily-based preparation.
This elegant hourglass-shape profile was readily However, the shield-like shape of the blazon is
adopted by the end of the twelfth-century in Syria. not frequently found among the coats of arms of
It is generally thought that these albarelli were the Mamluks who used a medallion that was either
used to store pharmaceutical substances or per- circular or almond-shaped. It could be seen, how-
fumes and could be exported – especially to Eu- ever, on Mamluk incrusted metal objects intended
rope – with their contents. Various French, Span- for the European market, sometimes left white for
ish and Italian inventories of the fourteenth and the purchaser to later engrave his own coat of arms
fifteenth centuries mention ceramic items “from thereon. Moreover, these albarelli were part of a
Damascus”. Indeed, the Medicis archives indicate blue and white design production, with borrowed
the presence of albaregli damaschini in Florence. Chinese references, which developed in Syria, but
These three vases were recently rediscovered also in Egypt, probably from the end of the four-
in Italy and two other similar albarelli, bearing the teenth century on, under the influence of mostly
same crest, were recently sold in London. A piece imported Yuan porcelain. The Syrian production
comparable to the calligraphic vase is known and is exemplified in a small blue and white plant-
housed at the National Ceramic Museum in decorated bowl, kept in the Louvre museum,
Sèvres. It is an albarello with a thicker shape, dec- which bears on its underside “Made in Damascus”.
orated in blue and white only and presenting the Fragments with plant motifs that are fairly compa-
same kind of writing stretched in length adapted rable to the decoration on these two vases were
95 to the vertical form of the base. The inscription found in that same city, near Bab Sharqi, where
was deciphered by L. Kalus who suggested that it potters’ workshops were located in medieval times.
was a text relating to impotence and erection, no The Fustat excavations also unearthed a significant
doubt in connection with the pharmaceutical con- number of blue and white fragments, sometimes
tent of the vase. It might be that the inscription – with the addition of black, often bearing signatures
unread – on this albarello was also related to the of potters. This sort of blue and white Chinese-
substance which it contained. type decoration is also often seen on wall tiles in
Another albarello, housed among the collec- Syria, Egypt and Anatolia, taken from monuments
tions of the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris, dated between 1425 and the end of the fifteenth
presents a very similar design to cat. no. 94 and century, which help to establish a date for this
cat. no. 95, blending coats of arms with fleur-de- work.
lys and cranes in flight. These five blazon-decorat- It should be noted, however, that the calli-
ed vases thus form a highly coherent set. The par- graphic albarello exhibits a colour scheme that in-
ticular design of the fleur-de-lys, with its two cludes black in addition to the blue and white
flowery outgrowths in the upper corners, has been present on the other two albarelli. Ceramic wares
associated with the coat of arms of the city of decorated in these colours have a history of pro-
Florence. It is tempting to make this attribution, duction in Iran during the Ilkhanid period
but it is not entirely convincing. One could cer- (1256 –1353). While also almost certainly inspired
tainly imagine an “adapted” version, based on the by Chinese blue and white porcelain wares, the
Florentine coat-of-arms model, made by the East- use of black appears to be an Iranian addition to
ern potter, which was more in keeping with his the decorative scheme, found on numerous ceram-
ornamental repertoire. Italian merchants – and ics as well as in the architectural decoration of
those from Florence, in particular – were present some Ilkhanid tombs in Yazd. With the close con-
in Cairo, Damascus and Beirut and it is possible tact existing between the Mamluks and the Ilkha-
that one of them could have ordered these vases nids in both times of war and diplomacy, it would
96 for a Florentine apothecary. not be far-fetched to suggest the additional pos-
The fleur-de-lys nonetheless did form part of sibility of Chinese inspiration through an Ilkhanid
the Islamic repertoire as a symbolic crest. Several filter. CJ / LA
136
97
137
138
Anatolia and the Ottomans
Sheila Canby
The works in this section mostly date from the Ottomans preferred to illustrate historical
the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the manuscripts either chronicling their own his-
period of large, powerful empires which tory or that of the prophets. Foreign trade
dominated the Middle East, North Africa, and the extent of the Ottoman empire, which
and India. Known as the Gunpowder Em- included Arabia, the Levant, parts of Eastern
pires, the Ottomans (r. 1299 –1924), Safa- Europe and Egypt, led to stylistic changes in
vids (r. 1501– 1722), and the Mughals (r. painting, architecture and ceramics. Nonethe-
1526 –1858) ruled in an age of increasing glo- less, in all the lands under Ottoman control,
bal trade, not only between Europe and Asia distinct artistic and architectural forms rein-
but also with Africa and the Americas. With forced their presence.
the wealth gleaned from trade and conquest, In the second half of the sixteenth century
the sultans and shahs of these dynasties were the Ottomans extended their version of
directly involved in forging distinct artistic ‘branding’ to portraiture. Ottoman portraits
styles of architecture, ornament and painting (cat. nos. 98–100) depict the sultan dominat-
through which they broadcast their imperial ing his surroundings and accompanied by at-
message. tributes specific to himself. Series of portraits
In the sixteenth century, following the Ot- of the Ottoman sultans were produced for
toman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, albums where their sheer numbers placed
the sultans supported the formation of an them in marked contrast to the Safavids,
imperial Ottoman style in the arts. In textiles Mongols and Uzbeks, all dynasties that came
and ceramics a penchant for non-figurative to power in the sixteenth century. Although
decoration manifested itself in designs based distinct artistic styles developed at different
on floral and vegetal forms (see cat. nos. 101- Muslim courts, the aim of using art to present
106). Unlike Iran, where poetic and epic the ruler as regal, cultured and powerful was
texts were most often chosen for illustration, common to all of them.
Istanbul (Turkey), Süleymaniye Mosque
139
98 Portrait of Sultan Selim II This large album portrait of Sultan Selim II and the arts of the book. The painter, poet, and
Attributed to Haydar Reis, called Nigari (r. 1566 –1574) reveals much about his reign. It naval commander Haydar Reis depicted Selim II
Turkey, Istanbul, ca. 1570 was Selim’s father, Sultan Süleyman the Magnifi- as larger than life; the robust sultan in his luxuri-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; cent (r. 1520 –1566), who solidified the geographi- ous fur-lined and brocaded gold garment dwarfs
44.2 x 31.2 cm cal borders of the Ottoman Empire and refined both the page boy and the interior in which he sits
Later inscription in window panes: “sultan” (right); the central administration of his government, al- in a cross-legged position on a carpet. This com-
“[ya] kabikakh” (left) (an invocation against lowing his son and successor to pursue more sed- position was one of a number of conventions for
bookworms) entary pleasures such as literature, art and wine- Ottoman royal portraiture developed in 1570s
AKM 00219 drinking. Nicknamed “Selim the Sot” for his and is similar to portraits in Loqman’s Kiyafetü’l
Published: Canby 1998, pp. 97– 99 (no. 70); affection for wine, the sultan was nonetheless a Insaniye fi Semailu’l-Osmaniye, a study to record
5
Carboni 2006, pp. 142 and 297; Carboni 2007, great bibliophile and patron of architecture, music, the physiognomy of the Ottoman sultans. AF
pp. 142 and 297; AKTC 2007a, pp. 98-99 (no. 68);
AKTC 2007b, pp. 94 and 96 (no. 68); AKTC 2008a,
pp. 138, 140 –141 (no. 50); AKTC 2009a, p. 138;
AKTC 2009b, p. 138
140
99 An Ottoman official This portrait depicts a large, grey-bearded gentle- and right hand (which is raised in a pontificating
Turkey, Istanbul, ca. 1650 man wearing a lilac bulbous-shaped Ottoman tur- gesture), all suggest this figure is a person of
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper ban and a fur-lined, gold-embroidered burnt or- high standing, perhaps a court official. The por-
Folio 29 x 17.9 cm; image 22.3 x 13 cm ange robe. He carries a blue tooled and gilded trait was once mounted in an album and may date
AKM 00217 leather-bound manuscript, perhaps a divan, under to the reign of the Ottoman sultan Mehmet IV
Published: Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 36 – 38 (no. 8); his left arm. His grand stance, stern expression, (r. 1648 –1687). LA
AKTC 2009a, p. 139; AKTC 2009b, p. 139
141
100 Portrait of Sultan Selim III Royal portrait series bound into albums provided ground highlighted with gold details. Canby sug-
Turkey, Istanbul, ca. 1805 an important way for Ottoman sultans to gests that the buildings in the distance may be the
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper record their lineage and statecraft. The portraits of new army barracks built by Selim III at Haydar-
54.1 x 40.5 cm Selim II (cat. no. 98) and Selim III (r. 1789 –1807) pasha in Istanbul or restorations of Mevlevi com-
AKM 00220 are examples of this venerable tradition. This im- plexes. In either case, this depiction reflects the
Published: Canby, 1998, p. 103 (no. 75); age of Selim III represents a different format for Ottoman interest in topographical representations
AKTC 2007a, p. 99 (no. 69); AKTC 2007b, Ottoman royal portraiture. It demonstrates the and maps. Continuing this story of cross-cultural
pp. 96 – 97 (no. 69); AKTC 2008a, pp. 144 –145 profound effect of European painting, particularly influence, the series to which this portrait belongs
(no. 52); AKTC 2009a, pp. 140 –141; AKTC 2009b, French, on Ottoman art by the nineteenth cen- subsequently provided the inspiration for a Lon-
pp. 140 –141 tury. Of note is the attention to shading and a gri- don printed version of Ottoman Sultan portraits
saille, blue, and gold palette, as well as the paint- published in 1815 by John Young, A Series of Por-
ing’s presentation as an oval window set on an traits of the Emperors of Turkey: Engraved from
allegory of the Sultan’s reign, framed on a black Pictures Painted at Constantinople. AF
142
101 Yorgan yüzü (quilt cover) The pattern on this yorgan yüzü (quilt cover) re- lel stems or vines, some of which form ogival
Turkey, Ottoman, late 17 th century calls typical seventeenth-century Ottoman designs frames around grape clusters or tulips. The de-
Silk; 209 x 137 cm on silk and velvet textiles. Whereas earlier pat- signs may also reflect Florentine tastes resulting
AKM 00706 terns include lattice designs enclosing floral mo- from cultural exchanges with Italy. LA
Published: AKTC 2008b, no. 7; AKTC 2009a, tifs, later ones such as this panel show wavy paral-
pp. 144 –145; AKTC 2009b, pp. 144 –145
143
Iznik pottery Ottoman visual culture reached its apex under parent glaze onto a white, frit body. The tulips,
the reign of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent rosettes, carnations, saz leaves, grape designs, and
102 Dish with a lion (r. 1520 –1566). Like his predecessors, Süleyman wave patterns on the dishes in this group com-
Turkey, Iznik, second half of the 16 th Century used art and architecture to legitimize his power prise some of the aspects of this distinctive new
Fritware, polychrome underglaze painted on an and authority; unlike them, however, he initiated genre, which was canonized through architectural
opaque white glaze the creation of a royal aesthetic that would be- decoration. What is unusual, however, is the de-
Ø 36.5 cm come understood as uniquely Ottoman. In addi- piction of a lion on a deep plate with black-bor-
AKM 00811 tion to continuing the practice of royal portrai- dered cobalt blue, viridian green and pastose red
Related pieces, see Ribeiro 1996, 248–249, no. 88 ture, which could be transported via medals and underglaze painting. The animal is surrounded by
(Gulbenkian Museum no. 853); Hitzel – Jacotin albums throughout the empire and to foreign tulips and hyacinths and an abstract spiral pattern
2005, 282, no. 417 (Musée National de la Renais- lands, the court’s design atelier, or nakkarhane, adorns the flat rim (cat. no. 102).
sance, Paris); Atasoy – Raby 1989, 257, nos. 543 developed an imperial style that visually unified The dating of these beautifully painted dishes
and 545 (ceramic in the Museum für Kunst und the Ottoman realm and distinguished it from is based on sources that attest to a move of ceram-
Gewerbe, Hamburg, and Metropolitan Museum of neighbours and rivals. Before the 1550s, the Otto- ic production from Istanbul (where the ceramic
Art, New York) man court had relied on an eclectic court culture industry was declining in the shadow of a growing
that drew from both the Iranians to the east and textile industry of kemha, or silk brocade) to
103 Dish with central flower the Europeans to the west. By the mid-sixteenth Iznik, where potteries thrived from their close
Turkey, Iznik, ca. 1575 –1580 century, however, these foreign artistic models proximity to wood and other materials needed for
Fritware, polychrome underglaze painted on an were synthesized into a classical Ottoman style, kilns and ceramic production. The symmetrical
opaque white glaze which coincided with the replacement of Persian organisation of geometric and floral ornament
Ø 29.2 cm with Ottoman Turkish as the official language of seen on many of these wares has been compared
AKM 00586 the court. to other ceramics produced during the reign of
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 204–205; Falk 1985, This new artistic vocabulary was immediately Sultan Murad III (r. 1574 –1595) and attributed to
pp. 244 – 245 (no. 248); AKTC 2008a, pp. 142–143 recognisable in the medium of ceramics, where a his patronage based on stylistic and technical
(no. 51); AKTC 2009a, p. 142; AKTC 2009b, p. 142 selection of floral, vegetal, geometric and Chinese- comparison to datable architectural tiles from this
inspired elements (arriving via the Timurids in fif- period (Atasoy and Raby 1989, pp. 246 – 249;
teenth-century Iran) were painted under a trans- AKTC 2007b, p. 96). LA
104 Dish with red roses
Turkey, Iznik, ca. 1575 –1580
Fritware, polychrome underglaze painted on an
opaque white glaze; Ø 28.5 cm
AKM 00686
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 202 – 203;
AKTC 2007a, p. 76 (no. 45); AKTC 2007b, p. 72
(no. 45); AKTC 2009a, p. 142; AKTC 2009b, p. 142
105 Dish with a representation of a garden

Turkey, Iznik, circa 1575 –1580
Fritware, polychrome underglaze painted
on an opaque white glaze
Ø 29.8 cm
AKM 00737
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 208; AKTC 2009a,
p. 143; AKTC 2009b, p. 143
106 Dish with tulips and roses

Turkey, Iznik, ca. 1575 –1580
Fritware, polychrome underglaze painted
on an opaque white glaze
Ø 34.3 cm
AKM 00687
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 204 – 205; Falk 1985,
pp. 244 – 245 (no. 248); AKTC 2007a, p. 97 (no. 67);
p. 143; AKTC 2009b, p. 143
144
145
The Path of the Travellers
From Baghdad to Delhi
The Persianised East and the Royal Tradition
Michael Barry
Although dimly perceived by Spanish and The towering Islamic scholar Tabari (832 –
North African Muslims (for whom “Islamic” 923), composer of the most authoritative of
has almost always been equated with “Ara- all glosses on the Qur’an, deliberately inter-
bic”), the rise or rather resurrection of the twined the histories of the ancient Persian
Persian language, by the mid-eleventh cen- emperors with the traditions of the Prophet-
tury, to equal cultural if not liturgical status Kings of the monotheistic Scriptures in his
with Arabic throughout the Eastern Islamic Tarikh or “World Chronicle” so that the
world, was no historical accident. gradual convergence of their twin lines by
The Persian-speaking lands constituted, the will of God until Muhammad’s birth in
not some remote eastern frontier, but the de- Arabia (570) should coincide, precisely, with
mographic core of the early Arab empire, the rule in neighbouring Iran and Iraq of
which through a civil war shifted its capital Khusraw I the Just, the model Sasanian Per-
from Damascus to Baghdad by the middle of sian monarch by virtue of his wise laws and
the eighth century precisely in stark political humane administration. Through the influ-
recognition of young Islamic civilization’s ence of scribes like Tabari, the caliphs of
now inescapably Iranian centre of gravity. Baghdad, and all Muslim princes who either
The Muslim Arab conquerors of the sev- owed them allegiance or politically vied with
enth century swept across large portions of them, became ideally perceived, or at any
the Christianized Roman or “Byzantine” rate praised, as legitimate heirs to both com-
Empire, but overran the totality of its erst- bined lines: symbolic successors at once to
while rival, the former Zoroastrian Persian Khusraw and the other heroic kings of an-
Empire of the Sasanian dynasty. Thus, for a cient Persian lore, and to Solomon son of
few generations, before inevitable dynastic David from among the Prophet-Kings.
break-ups, the twin military road networks Christian writers had in fact long argued a
of both far-flung domains, were combined similar God-willed convergence between the
into a single politically united territorial band reigning lines of Rome and Judah, with Christ
running from the Tagus to the Indus. born by Divine choice under the just world-
While the caliphs adopted artistic and rule of Caesar Augustus: hence both lines
other cultural aspects from Byzantium (in- should merge through Emperor Constan-
cluding the legacy of Greek science and phi- tine’s conversion in 313 CE and all succeed-
losophy), they also borrowed the old Persian ing Christian monarchs be regarded as com-
system of administration: to such extent that bined successors to both Rome and Judah
the caliphate as ruled from Baghdad, with its (like Charlemagne crowned as an “Augus-
many converted Iranian ministers, scribes tus” and anointed as a “David”). Byzantine
and officers, almost appears as an Islamicized Christian precedent probably influenced,
metamorphosis of the ancient empire of the and in any case illuminates, the similar retro-
Sasanian Persians. Imperial Islamic culture’s active justification and hence “Islamiciza-
underlying Persian heritage was clearly per- tion” of ancient Persian imperial history,
ceived by Muslim authors in eighth and ninth with decisive effect on the representation of
century caliphal Iraq, often of Iranian origin the Iraqi caliphs and all subsequent Muslim
themselves although they now expressed rulers in medieval Islamic literature and art.
their thoughts in Classical Arabic. Prestig- The tenth-century Samanid emirs of
© Lorenz Korn, Bamberg
ious Iranian authors in Iraq (meaning as far Bukhara in Central Asia, Sunni princes of
west as Spain) transcribed into Arabic the Iranian stock, professed vassals to the caliph
chronicles of the ancient Persian kings and but autonomous in their own domains, re-
Samarqand (Uzbekistan),Great Mosque of Timur even their favourite animal fables, as models stored the Persian language (now written in
(“Bibi Khanum”), southern lateral dome of political conduct for the caliphs. Arabic script) to full administrative parity
149
with Arabic as their dari, or “royal”, tongue. Mahmud), from the eleventh-century down
By no accident, the first book they chose for to the collapse of the traditional Islamic
transcription into neo-Persian prose was state-systems in the course of the nineteenth.
Tabari’s “World Chronicle”. The next and Even the thirteenth-century Mongol con-
even higher literary stage of the Persian re- querors of Iran and Iraq, upon converting to
naissance was attained under Sultan Mah- Islam in 1295, intermarried with local Turk-
mud of Ghazna (r. 998 –1030), ruler in what ish aristocrats, adopted Persian as their court
is now southeastern Afghanistan. language, and sponsored an especially fa-
Mahmud, a Central Asian Turkish military mous manuscript of the Shahnama in which
adventurer who became the first Muslim newly fashionable Chinese aesthetic models
prince to sport the title sultan (literally, in the depiction of dragons, clouds, trees and
“power”), overthrew the rule of his Samanid rushing streams were permanently assimilat-
overlords to establish his own widespread ed into the region’s Byzantine-inspired tech-
West Asian empire, using plundering raids niques of illumination and incorporated into
deep into India to finance his ambitions to the traditional allegorical code of Persian
conquer Baghdad itself. But Mahmud most royal representation.
importantly sponsored the poet Firdawsi, Imperial houses between the Bosphorus
who put the entire epic record of ancient and Bengal commissioned costly illuminated
Persia into majestic neo-Persian verse as the manuscripts of Firdawsi’s epic – the most
Shahnama, or “Book of Kings”, composed as splendid was illustrated for Iran’s Shah Tah-
a heroic model for the perceived Muslim suc- masp in the 1520s and 1530s – as part of their
cessor to the world-rule of the Sasanian em- royal regalia. Political rivalry fanned by sec-
perors – that is, Sultan Mahmud himself. tarian tension may have pitted against each
Sultan Mahmud may have poorly reward- other in wars the three great sixteenth- and
ed his epic poet financially, but the cultural seventeenth-century Islamic empires – that
impact of his patronage of Firdawsi cannot is, the Sunni Ottomans in the Near East, the
be overemphasized. Mahmud’s fellow Turks, Shiite Safavids in Iran, and the (more tepid)
the Seljuqs, outfought his successors and en- Sunni Mughals in India – but all three states
tered Baghdad themselves as de facto lords (equally founded by Turkish princes) de-
and protectors over the now politically help- fended similar pretensions to world-rule:
less caliphs in 1055, launching almost nine based on the same Islamicized Persian cul-
centuries of Turkish political supremacy in tural heritage symbolized by Firdawsi’s epic
the Near East. But the Seljuqs followed Mah- Book of Kings.
mud’s precedent both imperial and cultural: For all the evolution of successive histori-
the defence and spread of Islam through cal styles under changing dynasties, the Per-
military conquest; and the promotion of the sian royal key still unlocks the meaning of
Persian language and the Persian epic at much of Islamic figurative art, beginning
court – much like, say, twelfth century Cru- with stylized representations on metal or ce-
sading Norman kings and knights spread the ramic discs of the Baghdad caliphs and then
use of French from England to Sicily to the their Seljuq lords protectors, and even in the
Holy Land. Nor was nationalism, either Nor- elaborately carved ivories of the tenth- and
man or Seljuq, in any modern sense involved: eleventh-century rival Fatimid and so-called
rather, the Seljuq Turks laid claim to the im- Spanish Umayyad caliphs in Cairo and Cor-
perial inheritance of ancient Persian world- doba.
rule as legitimized by Islam and sung by the Drawing on ancient Iranian (and ulti-
poet Firdawsi. Again, this parallels the way mately even ancient Mesopotamian) prece-
their Norman contemporaries portrayed dents, artists until the middle of the nine-
themselves as heirs to Roman world-rule as teenth century normally depicted the
sung by the poet Virgil, read in a Christian- traditional Muslim ruler curbing or racing
ized light. his horse as a mighty hunter and the domi-
This dominant cultural pattern – Islam nant conquering lord over a dominated vig-
defended by Turkic dynasts portrayed in lit- orous animal, slaughtering wild beasts as
erature and art as heirs to the ancient Persian both protector and food-provider of his peo-
cosmocrators – remained unbroken through- ple, and shooting arrows that symbolized the
out the subsequent history of the Near East shafts of light of his solar power. Otherwise
and notably also in Islamicized northern In- the Muslim ruler was shown enthroned,
dia (ever since its initial conquest by Sultan cross-legged and in majestic, rigid frontal
150
position (although the Mughals in sixteenth- almost certainly derived from the ancient Ro-
and seventeenth-century India preferred man mappa, or white cloth brandished by the
their portraits in three-quarter view or pro- consuls to signal the opening of the circus
file), and adorned with all, or some, of the games, and still shown clutched by Byzantine
following emblems: officials and even emperors as late as the
a) A halo shining around the head. This was twelfth century as an emblem of their legal
the ancient Persian farr or light of royal glory, power. This symbolic strip of cloth also en-
the sign of a just and legitimate ruler. The Ro- dured tenaciously in Islamic art, still seen not
mans actually adopted this emblem of impe- only dangling from princely left fists in late
rial portraiture from the Sasanian Persians in twelfth-century Iraqi manuscript paintings
the fourth century CE, and only in the fifth or tucked into the royal sash in fifteenth-cen-
century began transferring it to depictions of tury Herati illuminations, but as a visible at-
Christ and the saints. According to Firdawsi tribute of all Ottoman rulers from Mehmed
and other authors of the Persian epic, the farr the Conqueror of Byzantium in the fifteenth
fades away from around the head of a tyrant, century to Selim II in the sixteenth and even
which is one reason why Islamic royal por- Selim III (who holds one stitched with jewels
traiture insisted on showing this farr in the in this exhibition) at the outset of the nine-
ninth to eleventh centuries. Twelfth century teenth.
art sometimes used the halo for purely deco- e) A throne upheld by twin monstrous
rative effect, and it dropped from artistic beasts, normally lions but sometimes griffins
fashion in the fifteenth century, but the farr or dragons. The mythological reference here
was deliberately revived as a royal emblem in was to the throne of the fifth-century Sasani-
the art of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- an Persian King Bahram, who according to
tury Mughal Emperors in India. Iranian legend won his crown by ordeal as
b) A stylized crown derived from the Sasa- the only prince of the blood royal, among
nian royal headdress bedecked with designs various pretenders, that dared snatch the re-
of the outstretched wings of the mythical galia from between two unchained lions –
vâragna sunbird (a variant of the simurgh whom he heroically overpowered. From
sunbird), a crescent moon, and the morning Sasanian royal art, depictions of such a ruler
star, proclaiming the Sasanian Persian King sitting in glory upon a twin-lion throne
as brother to the sun, moon and stars. Iraqi passed into Islamic heraldry and appear as
caliphal art of the eighth to eleventh centu- far west as early eleventh-century caliphal
ries persists to show recognizably Sasanian- Spain. Explicit reference by the twelfth-cen-
type crowns, albeit increasingly simplified tury Sicilian Muslim writer Ibn Zafar, in his
ones. Later medieval Islamic stylization fur- Sulwan al-Muta³ (“Nectar for Princes”), of
ther reduced its design to the familiar star- which a rare fourteenth-century Iraqi illumi-
and-crescent motif that became the Imperial nation appears in this exhibition), further
Ottoman standard. testifies to the legend’s popularity even in the
c) A cup held tight in the right fist against farthest Arabic-speaking Occident: man
the heart. This symbolized the magic cup of akhadha l-taja wa-l-zaynata min bayna l-asa-
the mythical Persian King Jamshid, in which dayn, fa-huwa bi-l-mulki awla (“He who seiz-
this cosmocrator was supposed to have mira- es the Crown and Regalia from between the
clously beheld as in a mirror the seven climes twin lions, he is of Kingship the most wor-
of the world he ruled. Medieval Eastern Is- thy!”).
lamic tradition assimilated King Jamshid to The late twelfth-century Seljuq Persian
King Solomon, and attributed to both mon- poet Nizami of Azerbaijan, in his Haft
archs an identical magic cup. Actually the Paykar, or “Book of the Seven Icons”, be-
cup represents the monarch’s own heart and loved by generations of medieval Iranian,
in some depictions can even be omitted, with Central Asian, Indo-Muslim and also Otto-
the ruler simply shown pointing, rather sig- man princely readers, richly embroidered
nificantly, to his own breast. Seventeenth- upon this symbolism: his heroic King Bah-
century Mughal Indian art added the Em- ram’s Solomonic intellect overpowers the
peror’s contemplation of his own signet-ring, twin lions signifying lust and wrath, and Bah-
another Solomonic emblem signifying the ram’s crown itself is the moonlike pearl of
gem-sealed ring of the monarch’s heart and a eternal life, set between these same twin
further sign of his world-rule. beasts as if between the twin dragon jaws of
d) A kerchief grasped tight in the left fist, the constellation Draco: taj-i zar dar miyan-i
151
shir-i siyah / chun bi-kam-i u azhdaha durr-i spiritual hero – like King Bahram himself,
mah (“The golden crown between these lions one of the many solar dragon-slaying prince-
sable / Like the moon’s pearl, within twin ly warriors of the Iranian epic. In symbolic
dragons’ maw”). Nizami tapped here into the equivalence to King Bahram’s twin throne-li-
deepest universal mythological motif of the ons, twin heraldic dragons frame holy verses
twin heraldic beasts, mirroring the dual na- in sixteenth and seventeenth-century Iranian
ture of the magic monster who protects the military standards for the king’s armies as
divine treasure from the unworthy, but be- well as ornamented bowls meant for dervish-
stows it upon the conquering and deserving es begging included in this exhibition.
152
Mesopotamia
Ladan Akbarnia
Under the Umayyads (661–750), the Islamic Near Eastern culture was understandably
world grew to a territory stretching from more apparent, whether in visual motifs, ves-
Spain and North Africa to the borders of sel shapes, or artistic mediums or techniques.
China and India, with Damascus as its centre The art of this region includes metalwork, a
of government. In 750, however, the Umayy- craft partly inherited from the Sasanians
ads were overthrown by the Abbasids, who (gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead, and iron
transferred the capital to Baghdad on the were mined in Mesopotamia and the Iranian
river Tigris. The heart of the Islamic world lands) [cat. no. 108]). Ceramics were pro-
was now situated in the “cradle of civilisa- duced from porous earthenware and covered
tion”, the land known as Mesopotamia in alkaline glaze to render them impermeable
(Greek for “land between the rivers”). This (Blair – Bloom 1997, pp. 104 –105); their sur-
region is comprised of the land around the face decoration ranged from inscriptions of
Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern Iraq blessings or aphorisms in the Kufic Arabic
as well as parts of northeastern Syria, south- script prevalent in the Abbasid period to
eastern Turkey, and southwestern Iran. Bagh- blue-and-white or vibrant and colourful
dad was situated only 56 kilometres away splash-decorated works inspired by Chinese
from Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sasa- porcelain and ceramic wares (cat. no. 109).
nian dynasty (224 – 651), which controlled an The Abbasids’ taste for the “exotic” was en-
empire that once encompassed Mesopota- couraged by cultural exchanges with the
mia, Armenia, Iran, Central Asia, and even east; Chinese artists are even known to have
parts of the Arabian Peninsula. In 836, in- been present in Baghdad in the eighth cen-
creasing tensions between mamluks, the slave tury. Book production also flourished, as
soldiers who served the Abbasids, and the seen in extant manuscripts of scientific trea-
citizens of Baghdad resulted in the creation tises such as Dioscorides’ Materia Medica,
of a new capital, Samarra, which became a translated from Greek to Arabic in manu-
major centre of court culture and inspired scripts with illustrations based on classical
motifs such as the “bevelled” style in the art models (cat. nos. 112–115), as well as belles
and architecture of the Islamic world. lettres literature and mirrors for princes,
It is well known that Graeco-Byzantine which often consisted of fables or tales em-
and Sasanian cultures contributed to the de- bedded with lessons that served as hand-
velopment of Islamic art and architecture, books for rulers-in-training (cat. no. 117).
but in Mesopotamia, the influence of ancient
153
107 Ewer This ewer exhibits a bulbous body, the bottom off the coast of the Indonesian island of Belitung –
Iran or Mesopotamia, 8th – 9 th century portion of which appears to have been made from the first archaeological evidence of an Arab or In-
Earthenware, moulded, impressed, and covered in a mould containing an overall pattern of spiral dian ship found in Asia and the first to found with
a monochrome mustard or light brown transparent circle, rosette, and heart motifs. Teardrop shaped a complete cargo – has yielded additional infor-
glaze; H 33 cm leaf forms pointed in alternating vertical direc- mation about these connections during the late
AKM 00539 tions and framing five-lobed foliate motifs have antique period. One bowl found on the ship is
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.154; AKTC 2009b, p.154 been impressed onto the upper portion. Most of said to be inscribed with a date equivalent to 826
the flared portion of the neck, which ends in the CE, a date confirmed (to the century) by Carbon
object’s mouth, is missing, but the applied handle 14 analysis (Wade 2003, p. 20). When more infor-
is still intact. Multi-petalled rosettes are also ap- mation about this cargo comes to light, it may
plied throughout. The variations in colour created lead to new conclusions about artistic transmis-
by the arbitrary spreading of the glaze in thinner sion between the Near and Far East. In the mean-
and thicker portions around the body create a time, the body on the present example also bears
polychrome effect similar to that of Tang Chinese resemblance to numerous Islamic metal wares
splashed wares, but the decoration here was made in Iran or Iraq in the eighth to ninth cen-
formed from a single colour. Iranian artists would tury, wares that, in fact, reflected a continuation
certainly have been aware of Chinese designs due of forms used during the Sasanian period
to cross-cultural exchanges between these regions, (226 – 651). The ewer may therefore be given a
which date to at least the first millennium BCE. similar attribution. LA
A discovery in 1997 of a Tang period shipwreck
154
108 Ewer with inscribed blessings The earliest datable metalwork from the Islamic Several metal ewers from the early Islamic period
Iran or Iraq, Abbasid, 9 th century world consists of ewers made in a variety of shapes, reveal shapes and decorative programmes used in
Brass, engraved and punched; H 32.8 cm sometimes including spouts and sometimes with- the pre-Islamic Iranian world. The ones with pear-
Inscription (Arabic): baraka wa-[yumn wa-…] sa³ada out. The present example has an ovoid body, a shaped bodies, no spouts, and handles ending in
wa-salama wa-ghibta wa-ni³ma wa-rahma wa-… narrow, raised foot, a narrow and short tubular a palmette motif are considered to be the earliest
li-sahibihi wa-… (“Blessing and [good fortune and… spout, a wide shoulder decorated with scrolling metal wares and are believed to have been pro-
(restored)] happiness and well-being and felicity palmettes, and a round, trumpet-shaped mouth, duced in Khurasan and Transoxiana in the eastern
and [God’s] grace and mercy and… to its owner the latter framed almost entirely by two bodiless Iranian (including modern Afghanistan and Uz-
and…”) eagle or falcon heads. The birds’ heads appear to bekistan) world (ibid., pp. 62 – 63). Their shapes
AKM 00718 grow out of the join between the ewer’s mouth and designs, which sometimes display engraved,
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.154; AKTC 2009b, p.154 and a long, serpentine handle. The tail of the han- carved, or repoussé real and mythical animals, re-
dle ends at the top of the bottle in a palmette- flect a close relationship to the artistic idiom seen
shaped thumb-rest similar to extant examples dat- in Sasanian metalwork, which even includes repre-
able to the eighth or ninth century and attributed sentations of single-handed pear-shaped ewers in
to Iraq or Iran (for examples, see Atıl, Chase, and some silver gilt plates (ibid., p. 63, figs. 23 – 24).
Jett 1985, p. 14, fig. 4 and p. 63, fig. 23). An in- This ewer, which contains a somewhat varied
scription invoking blessings upon the owner ap- shape with a more angular mouth, may have been
pears in Kufic Arabic script just below the shoulder produced in the Greater Iranian world or Mesopo-
and above a pair of ten-petalled rosette medallions tamia at a slightly later period. LA
engraved on opposite sides of the lower body.
155
109 Dish with variation This large, shallow dish has been decorated using These are believed to be the so-called sancai wares
on “splashed” decoration a variation on the “splashed” technique, an effect produced specifically for export; these, perhaps,
Iran or Iraq, Abbasid, 9 th century achieved when pigments added to the surface of a may have provided points of creative departure
Earthenware with a white slip and controlled ceramic object run when fired under a lead glaze. for their Near Eastern counterparts (see Rawson,
“splashes” of brown, yellow, green, and manganese Splashed wares, which can include splashed deco- Tite and Hughes 1987–88; Fehérvári 2000,
in a transparent glaze; Ø 37 cm ration only or additional incised (sgraffiato) de- p. 47; and Watson 2004, p. 199). The present dish
AKM 00734 signs, have been the subject of much debate was tested using thermoluminescence analysis,
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 156; AKTC 2009b, p. 156 among scholars. It was first assumed that the tech- which provided a date of last firing consistent
nique was inspired by Tang period (618 – 907) with a ninth century date of manufacture; this is
Chinese ceramic splashed wares, but this theory also consistent with the absence of incised or
was questioned as no verified Chinese originals sgraffiato decoration, which first appeared in the
for the Near Eastern objects were identified and tenth century (Watson 2004, p. 201). However, a
the funerary function of the Tang wares made it carefully painted abstract design in manganese
unlikely that they would have travelled outside of evoking the image of a blossoming flower with a
China. However, certain Chinese splashed wares large scalloped rim distinguishes this dish from
were later found in Samarra, in modern Iraq. straightforward “splashed” wares. LA
156
110 Socrates and Aristophanes The two turbaned figures are labelled Suqrat and 450 – 386 BCE). Their depiction is similar to what
Illustrated manuscript of the judgements Aristajanis in this folio from an Arabic manuscript one finds in illustrations of Dioscorides’ De Mate-
of the Greek philosophers based on the judgements of Greek philosophers. ria Medica and other Greek manuscripts produced
Style of Baghdad (Iraq) or Damascus (Syria), 13th –14 th The figures may be identified as the Greek phi- under the medieval Baghdad or Damascus schools
century, with 19 th-century additions losopher Socrates (469 – 399 BCE) and the con- of painting. AF
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold temporary Greek playwright Aristophanes (ca.
on paper; 20.6 x 15 cm
AKM 00283
AKTC 2007b, p. 133 (no. 99); AKTC 2009a, p.158;
AKTC 2009b, p.158
157
111 Manuscript of the fifth book of the Qanun Ibn Sina’s Qanun fi l-tibb (“Canon of Medicine”) the body, general pathology, fevers, leprosy, sur-
f i l-tibb (“Canon of Medicine”) of Ibn Sina is the most important encyclopaedic corpus of gery, dislocations, and fractures. Born near
Iran or Mesopotamia, dated 444 H / 1052 CE medieval medical knowledge in the Islamic world. Bukhara in 980 to a Samanid government official,
Ink and watercolour on paper; 21.2 x 16.4 cm With the transfer of knowledge to the Latin west Ibn Sina received a proper education and was, at
AKM 00510 in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it became age 18, a talented physician who had mastered all
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 128 (no. 96); the most used of all medieval references in the the sciences and made a great number of medical
AKTC 2007b, pp. 122 and 131 (no. 96); medical schools of Europe, almost until the begin- discoveries and observations that remain relevant
AKTC 2008a, pp. 194–95 (no. 73); AKTC 2009a, ning of modern times. The Qanun is organised today. The page shown here is the title page,
p.158; AKTC 2009b, p.158 into five books. The present manuscript is a copy which announces in large thuluth script that the
of the fifth book, on compound drugs and phar- manuscript contains the fifth book of the Qanun,
macopoeia. Copied only fifteen years after the also known as al-Anqarabadhin. It is followed im-
death of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), it is one of the earli- mediately by Ibn Sina’s name, al-Shaykh al-Ra²is
est, if not the earliest, manuscript of this work. Abi ³Ali Sina, written in naskh. Names of previous
The other books cover topics including anatomy, owners of the codex appear in naskh and nasta³liq
the humours, the temperament, the effects of en- scripts around the page (trans. Abdullah
vironment on health and disease, materia medica, Ghouchani). AF
specific pathology and diseases of various parts of
158
159
Four folios from a manuscript of the One of the earliest scientific manuscripts to be the second illustrated page (verso), two different
Khawass al-ashjar (De Materia Medica) translated from Greek to Arabic was Dioscorides’ plants from the Doronicum plant are depicted,
of Dioscorides De Materia Medica, as it is called in Latin. Pedan- also with their roots included (cat. no. 113). The
Iraq, ca. 1200 ius Dioscorides, a Greek physician, wrote his trea- upper plant with the red roots has spade-shaped
Ink and opaque watercolour on paper tise on medicinal plants in the first century CE. leaves, and two pedicels emerge from the foliage.
Published: Welch 1972a, p. 21; Falk 1985, p. 40 The manuscript was initially translated into Syri- The lower plant is annotated with the caption
(AKM 00001); AKTC 2007a, pp. 130 –131 (no. 100) ac, and then into Arabic in Baghdad in the ninth “this is a species of Doronicum (darwanj)”. Two
(AKM 00001, 00002); AKTC 2007b, pp. 134 –135 century (Guesdon and Nouri 2001, p. 118). It be- further plants, including their bulbs, are shown on
(no. 100); AKTC 2008a, pp. 202 – 203 (no. 77) came the foundation for Islamic pharmacology the third page (recto). The plant on the right has
(AKM 00004); AKTC 2008b, no. 12; AKTC 2009a, and was copied widely. The four present folios long, narrow leaves, and out of the bulb sprouts a
p. 160; AKTC 2009b, p. 160 belong to a rare dispersed thirteenth-century Ara- long stem that is studded with dark-gray buds.
bic copy of the text and depict various medicinal The caption reads “bulb” (basal). The left plant,
112 Bittercress (Barbarea) herbs and roots with an accuracy characteristic of with the caption “another type of sea onion” (nau³
24,8 x 16,8 cm Arab scientific texts produced during this period. akhar min basal al-³ansal), consists of five lancet-
AKM 00004 The illustrations follow the Greek model closely. shaped yellow leaves and belongs to the hyacinth
Although the paintings do not lack artistic sensi- family. Its bulb is used to treat cardiac insufficien-
113 Doronicum plant bility, they are very accurate. Each specimen is cy (cat. no. 114). The fourth page (verso) shows a
Inscription: darwanj depicted in its entirety from tip to root against the plant sprouting from a light red tuber. This plant
25 x 17,2 cm plain paper ground. has five large leaves, out of which protrudes a
AKM 00002 The first page (verso) shows a plant “that sturdy-looking stem that supports a large, red
grows on river banks” and belongs to the Bitter- flower with pointed petals. The two-lined caption
114 Onion (Allium cepa) cress genus (Barbarea) (cat. no. 112). The leaves of labels this as a “plant for the treatment of ulcers,
and sea onion (Drimia maritima) the yellow-blossomed plant function as an appe- pustules, and itching” (cat. no. 115). AF / VD
Inscription: basal and basal al-³ansal tite stimulator, blood purifier, and diuretic. On
24,9 x 16,8 cm
AKM 00003
115 “Plant for the treatment of ulcers, pustu-

les and itching”
24 x 16,8 cm
AKM 00001
112 113 114
160
115
161
116 Basin This exceptionally large, almost hemispherical the same bevelled engraving can be sharply distin-
Mesopotamia or Iran, 13 th century bowl bears on its outer face an engraved decora- guished on the inscriptions of both pieces. How-
Cast white bronze, engraved decoration; Ø: 55 cm tion, split into three superimposed registers. The ever, the signs of the zodiac are represented differ-
AKM 00607 upper border displays an alternation of passing ently. Of particular significance here is the
Published: Melikian-Chirvani 1982, pp. 138 -139 animals against a flourish backdrop and cursive Capricorn, represented in its most ancient form:
(fig. 45a); AKTC 2007a, p. 172 (no. 144); script inscriptions. Below, a wider banner is the goat fish, a feature rarely found on the many
AKTC 2007b, pp. 172 (no. 144); Makariou 2007, marked out by the relief of a twisted ribbon which Khorassan astrological iconography metals, though
pp. 184 –185 (no. 66) ; AKTC 2009a, p. 162; knits together circular medallions, filled with geo- related forms can be observed in Jezireh.
AKTC 2009b, p. 162 metric patterns each different from the other. Be- It is also interesting to compare the decoration
tween the medallions, epigraphic cartouches dis- on our bowl with contemporary pieces from Kho-
play an alternation of cursive and animated (that rassan (northeastern Iran / Afghanistan): for in-
is, topped by human heads) Kufic scripts. In addi- stance, with a bucket with an inlaid decoration be-
tion, the downstrokes of the Kufic inscriptions longing to the Keir collection, displaying the same
form interlacing bows. The lower register shows type of circular medallions shaped by interwoven
medallions containing the 12 signs of the zodiac. ribbons and containing the signs of the zodiac. In
Between these medallions, the ribbon knits to- the interstices separating the medallions, the oval
gether small diamonds and complex bows from bows shaped by the ribbons are framed by identi-
which seem to be escaping floweret-covered stems. cal symmetrical floweret-covered stems.
The twelfth and thirteenth-century production On the upper register, the inscription in ani-
of Iranian white bronzes is not linked to a specific mated script reads: al-³izz al-da²im al-iqbal al-za²id
centre. The examples preserved in Iran’s National al-dawla al-baqiya al-salam al-³ali al-jidd al-baqiya
Museum in Tehran were the subject of a fairly real-salam al-³ali al-dawla al-baqiya al-salam (“ever-
cent publication. Among them, a small bowl is lasting glory, growing prosperity, enduring wealth,
reminiscent of this piece with its horizontal regis- ultimate peace, sustained fortune, perfect peace,
ter decorations showing an epigraphic border enduring wealth, peace”). On the middle register,
over passing animals against a flourish backdrop in cursive script, the inscriptions reads: al-³izz al-
and, more importantly, a wide central register da²im al-iqbal al-za²id al-dawla al-baqiya al-salam
with a very similar pattern of medallions contain- (“everlasting glory, growing prosperity, enduring
ing the signs of the zodiac, separated by small dia- wealth, peace”). And, on the middle register, an
monds from which coiled stems are escaping. inscription in Kufic script reads: al-³izz al-da²im
Whilst the technique used to mat the background al-³umr al-salim wa-l-iqbal al-za²id (“everlasting
of the decorations is different from the one used glory, long life and growing prosperity”). CJ
on this bowl (small slanted lines instead of dots),
162
117 Three young hunters Three young men dressed in sumptuous garments vation of power and leadership. A. S. Melikian-
Frontispiece from the Sulwan al-muta³ embellished with gold tiraz bands (see cat. no. 86) Chirvani’s facsimile publication and discussion of
fi ³udwan al-atba³ of Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli on their arms and turbans are ready for a hunt. the manuscript demonstrates its value as a sharp
(d. 1170) One has a bow in a brown case and arrows (left); commentary on “injustice, social exploitation and
Mosul (Iraq), ca. 1330 the central figure carries a brown and white hawk; political oppression”, as well as the manuscript’s
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; and the figure on the right holds a blue long- importance for the history of Arab painting (Me-
page: 24.7 x 16.9; image: 13.7 x 11.2 cm necked bird. This painting is the right side of a likian-Chirvani 1985). The text was composed
AKM 00012 double frontispiece from a manuscript of the Sul- in 1159 by Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli (“the Sicilian,”
Published: Falk 1985, p. 41 (no. 11); AKTC 2007a, wan al-muta³ fi ³udwan al-atba³ (“Comfort of Rul- d. 1170), an Arab philosopher and prolific author
p. 147 (no. 114); AKTC 2007b, p. 151 (no. 114) ; ers when Faced with the Hostility of their Follow- who travelled extensively and was probably born
AKTC 2009a, p.163; AKTC 2009b, p.163 ers”). The work uses Qur’anic verses, sayings and in Norman-ruled Sicily in 1104. The frontispiece
traditions of the Prophet (hadith), animal fables, belongs to a copy of the manuscript in the Freer
and princely characters from ancient Persian his- Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. AF
tory to advise princes on conduct and the preser-
163
164
Iran in the Middle Ages
Ladan Akbarnia
The Islamic conquest of Iran was sealed in and the Rum Seljuqs (1077–1307), a branch
651 with the assassination of Yazdigird III, of the Great Seljuqs that settled in Anatolia
the last ruler of the Sasanian empire (224 – in the eleventh century. In the twelfth centu-
651). Greater Iran – which at various times ry, Seljuq ceramic production witnessed a
included modern Iran, Iraq, Armenia, as well significant transformation with the develop-
as parts of Turkey, Syria, Afghanistan, Paki- ment of fritware, a technique involving the
stan, some Central Asian countries, and even addition of powdered quartz to the clay body
some coastal regions of the Arabian penin- and requiring a higher firing temperature.
sula – became part of the Abbasid caliphate, The result was a finer, white body (in con-
which in turn inherited much of Iran’s rich trast to the buff colour of earthenware) that
legacy of kingship and courtly culture along- facilitated surface decoration and contribut-
side that of the Byzantines. Among the ened to the imitation of Chinese blue and white
during pre-Islamic Iranian artistic and cul- porcelains as well as to a proliferation of fig-
tural traditions were glass production, metal- ural imagery based on the illustration of
work, stucco wall painting, and a thriving courtly pastimes and specific episodes from
silk industry. Ancient Near Eastern motifs the Shahnama.
such as paired parrots or griffins, lions, and Fritware was also lustre painted in medi-
pearl borders would also be translated into eval Iran under the Seljuqs and the Ilkhanid
the Islamic visual repertoire. One of the most Mongols, who overthrew the Abbasid cali-
significant artistic contributions, however, phate in 1258 and ruled Greater Iran from
came from the literary legacy of pre-Islamic 1256 to 1353 (cat. nos. 140–144). The Ilkha-
Iran, best represented in the Shahnama nids’ close connections with their Mongol
(“Book of Kings”), the national epic recount- counterparts in Yuan China contributed to
ing the legends of Iran’s ancient kings and the development of the khita’i idiom, which
heroes. The Shahnama’s stories would be il- became more standardised under the Timu-
lustrated profusely in the art of later Islamic rids (1370 –1506) and Safavids (1502 –1736)
dynasties in Iran, India, and the Ottoman (Akbarnia 2007); it featured significantly in
empire. the development of the arts of the book,
Although rooted in oral tradition, the which flourished from the Ilkhanid through
Shahnama was put to verse around 1010 by the Safavid periods in Iran. This Chinese-in-
the poet Firdawsi (d. ca. 1020) as a commis- spired aesthetic was apparent in certain mo-
sion for a ruler of the Samanid dynasty tifs such as the lotus or peony and the dragon
(819 – 1005), which rose to power as Abbasid or phoenix, as well as in techniques that were
control over the Islamic world weakened. translated into different media once they
Based in Khurasan and Transoxiana, the Sa- reached the Iranian context, such as Chinese
manids were responsible for some of the fin- lacquer carving and Ilkhanid and Timurid
est ceramics produced in Greater Iran, in woodcarving and manuscript illustration. By
particular black and white slip-painted epi- the Safavid period, the fascinating combina-
graphic wares containing blessings and aph- tion of pre-Islamic, Islamic, and far eastern
orisms (cat. nos. 122–124). As an indigenous inspired artistic traditions in the art of early
Iranian dynasty, the Samanids were admired and mediaeval Iran had become fully synthe-
by later foreign rulers of Iran, including three sized into a highly refined artistic idiom that
important Turkic dynasties: the Ghaznavids would eventually incorporate European ele-
(975 –1187); the Great Seljuqs (1038 –1194); ments as well.
Herat (Afghanistan), Great Mosque
165
A group of glass vessels decorated in Islamic glassmaking grew out of a tradition begun of similar shape and decoration (see ibid., p. 95,
various techniques in the first century BCE in the Syro-Palestinian no. 25a, and p. 154, no. 3.5c). Cat. no. 122 may be
region, where molten glass was inflated with a given a similar attribution based on comparisons
118 Cut-glass beaker with handle blowpipe and manipulated into desired forms to other glass bottles of cylindrical form with ar-
Iran, 10 th century with special tools. Craftsmen had discovered how cade cut and faceted decoration (ibid., pp. 93– 95,
Glass; free blown, tooled, and linear cut, to create glass through the transformation of raw nos. 23a & 25a [around the neck]). The inverted
handle applied; H 11 cm, Ø 12.2 cm materials prior to this period, as early as the third teardrop motifs on this object’s shoulder resemble
AKM 00650 millennium BCE; however, until about 50 BCE, the upper row of a two-tiered teardrop pattern on
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.167; AKTC 2009b, p.167 they were forming glass around a removable core a bottle in the al-Sabah Collection in Kuwait,
or using casting moulds, which required much which has been compared to the “Style C” orna-
time and labour and thus resulted in less overall ment type identified at Samarra (Iraq) and sug-
production. The bottles in this group represent gests the cross-cultural connections between Iran
some of the various techniques used to decorate and Mesopotamia during this period.
Iranian glass in the centuries after Islam. The han- The remaining bottle in this group represents
dled ewer (cat. no. 118), made of a flattened glob- the mould blown glass technique, to which
ular body with a low circular foot, a slightly flared threads of glass are applied and trailed (cat. no.
cylindrical neck, and a fan-shaped thumb-rest, 121). The technique of blowing glass in a mould is
recalls similarly shaped pitchers attributed to Iran known to have been popular in the eastern Medi-
or Central Asia in the tenth or eleventh century terranean region under the Roman Empire by the
and believed to have been used as measuring ves- first or second century CE (see cat. no. 123). The
sels (see, for example, Carboni 2001, pp. object has a compressed globular form with a
148 –149, no. 36b). The object also exhibits a moulded pattern created in a dip mould (see Car-
wheel cut design of waves and chevron patterns boni and Whitehouse 2001, pp. 81– 85, nos.
around the neck and body bordered with double 10 –11 and 121). Cat. no. 121 contains a trellis
lines. pattern of concentric rounded rhomboids. Its
Glass cutting began in Iran under the Sasani- neck has been embellished with three bands of
ans (226 – 651) and continued uninterrupted until trailed glass threads, while two tiers of trails re-
at least the eleventh century. Most of the time, ob- sembling those applied on seventh–eighth-century
jects were decorated using the intaglio technique, Syrian cage flasks have been applied to the shoul-
where the glass surface is incised beneath the sur- der (see ibid., pp. 112–113, nos. 29 – 32). Globu-
face, or through relief cutting, where the surface is lar-shaped long-necked bottles became a standard
ground away around the desired pattern in relief for glass production in early and medieval Iran
(ibid., p. 71). The ewer exhibits a shallow linear and probably inspired parallel forms produced in
relief cut pattern while the cylindrical turquoise the ceramic medium under the Seljuqs (Carboni
bottle with a narrow flared neck (cat. no. 120) and 2001, p. 237 and no. 66). Coloured and mould
another cylindrical clear glass bottle with a long blown glass has generally been attributed to
tubular neck (cat. no. 122) display designs en- northeastern Iran between the twelve and four-
graved in higher relief. Cat. no. 120 may be attrib- teenth centuries (Carboni and Whitehouse 2001,
uted to the Iranian region in the ninth or tenth pp. 98–99, nos. 25 – 26; and Carboni 2001, pp.
century based on stylistic comparison with works 236 – 237, no. 66). LA
166
119 Glass bottle Glass vessels designed for everyday use did not the Syrian region, as examples of this shape can
Syrian region or Greater Iran, 8th–9th century normally include surface decoration; at most, they be found in late Roman glass produced in the
Inscription (Arabic): “the work of Abu Ja³far” might receive handles or suspension loops, as in eastern Mediterranean (coasts of modern Syria,
Glass, free blown, applied, and impressed; Ø: 22.5 cm the present example. This bottle is particularly Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt) before the Umayyad
AKM 00644 interesting; while it appears to exhibit a rather period (661–750) (Carboni 2001, pp. 15 –16,
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.166; AKTC 2009b, p.166 simple aesthetic, it provides a good example of 26 –27, and 39 – 42). However, the practice of
the great difficulties involved with the attribution stamping vessels may have been a continuation of
of early Islamic glass. The vessel has a globular a Sasanian tradition in the Iranian lands. It is dif-
shape with a narrow neck and lipped rim, with ficult to determine whether this bottle, which
three loops applied at even intervals around the combines aspects of the two major pre-Islamic
body, each impressed at the base with a circular traditions in the Islamic lands with the most origi-
medallion containing a three-line Kufic inscrip- nal feature of Islamic art – the Arabic script – was
tion identifying the artist as Abu Ja³far. Vessel produced in Greater Iran by an artist from the
stamps with Kufic inscriptions exist in other col- Syrian region; if an Iranian artist may have imi-
lections, such as the al-Sabah Collection in the tated a work exported to Iran from the Syrian or
Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyyah, Kuwait (Carboni Mesopotamian region; or if it were made in Syria
2001, p. 282, nos. 3.49a – c); one, like the medal- by an artist familiar with and interested in incor-
lions on the present bottle, bears an inscription porating some elements of the Iranian artistic tra-
identifying “the work of” a different artist (ibid., dition into his work. Regardless of where, when,
no. 3.49b). Stefano Carboni has attributed these and by whom it was made, this bottle is important
stamps to the Syrian region in the eighth or ninth because of its great condition and for the ques-
century. The globular shape of this bottle sup- tions it continues to raise. LA
ports an early Islamic date and an attribution to
167
120 Turquoise bottle
Iran, 9 th –10 th century
Glass; free blown, tooled,
and relief cut; H 14.1 cm
AKM 00657
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.167; AKTC 2009b, p. 167
121 Turquoise bottle with applied and trailed

decoration
Iran, 12 th century
Glass; mould blown, applied,
and trailed; H 23 cm
AKM 00661
122 Long-necked botel

with relief cut decoration
Probably Iran, late 9 th – 10 th century
Glass; free blown, tooled,
and facet cut; H 19.1 cm
AKM 00646
120
121 122
168
123 Bottle This unusual honey-yellowish coloured mould- and creativity (see Carboni 2001, p. 197 for com-
Greater Iran, 10th –11th century blown glass bottle has two main panels of decora- plete discussion of this technique).
Glass; mould blown and applied; H 28 cm tion featuring an omphalos pattern, palmettes, No full-size metal moulds for Islamic ceramics
AKM 00648 and concentric heart or chevron-shaped forms. are known to exist from the mediaeval period, but
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 93 (no. 61); There are two small loop handles applied to the two metal dip moulds do survive and were exhib-
AKTC 2007b, pp. 86 and 90 (no. 61); shoulder. Mould blowing was a Roman technique ited in 2001 to 2002 (Carboni and Whitehouse
AKTC 2009a, p.169; AKTC 2009b, p.169 that was later adapted by glassmakers across the 2001, pp. 84 – 85, nos. 10–11). The present bottle
mediaeval Islamic world. The steps involved in was probably produced using a two-part mould
the production of mould blown glass begin with that would have been initially fastened together
the creation of a mould (in bronze, terracotta, or and then reopened after the glassmaker blew the
clay) with the final object’s decoration in reverse parison inside the mould to impress the mould’s
on the interior of the mould. Next, the glassmaker pattern; then the design would be finalised out-
introduces a glass gob (parison) on the blowpipe side the mould. In shape, this object bears a small
into the mould and inflates the glass until it reach- amount of resemblance to a series of much small-
es the recesses of the mould’s pattern. Once taken er one-handled pear-shaped bottles attributed to
from the mould, the object is re-blown (so-called the Mesopotamian region in the ninth century.
optic blowing), manipulated, transferred to the The omphalos and leaf patterns, on the other hand,
pontil, and finished. Thus, although mould blow- can be found on glass bottles of varying colours
ing has been described as a cost-effective, simple that have been attributed to the Iranian lands be-
procedure in comparison to cut decoration, it was tween the tenth and twelfth centuries (see Carboni
actually an involved process that required skill 2001, pp. 210 – 229, nos. 53a, 59, and 62). AF / LA
169
Three epigraphic ceramic wares The vase and two bowls in this group represent vessels. While most of the ceramic wares attrib-
fine examples of ceramic wares produced in the uted to the workshops of this region in the ninth
124 Vase workshops of Khurasan and Transoxiana during and tenth centuries display white slips with dark
Eastern Iranian world, Khurasan (Nishapur, Iran) the ninth and tenth centuries, the period during brown calligraphy, examples such as cat. no. 126,
or Transoxiana (Samarqand, Uzbekistan), which Samarqand, Nishapur, and Bukhara en- which show the inverse form of this decoration
late 9 th– early 10 th century joyed economic and cultural prosperity under the (white inscription on a dark slip-covered ground)
Inscription (Arabic): baraka li-sahibihi (“Blessing Persian Samanid rulers (819 –1005) (Makariou also exist (Makariou 2007, p. 197, n. 6). Added to
to its owner”) 2007, p. 197, n. 1). The Samanids oversaw a wide the sobriety and sophistication of the epigraphic
Earthenware, white slip with black slip decorati- variety of ceramic production. Epigraphic slip- ornament, the colour contrast heightens the beau-
on under a transparent glaze; H 19.8 cm wares such as the ones shown here have been as- ty of these vessels.
AKM 00544 cribed to centres of production such as Nishapur Samanid artists excelled in the mastery of the
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 174 (no. 148); and Afrasiyab (old Samarqand) and were for local void in an era when surface decoration on objects
AKTC 2007b, p. 174 (no. 148); AKTC 2008a, consumption; they are not found in excavations exhibited a wide variety of ornament (ibid., n. 7).
pp. 274 – 275 (no. 107); AKTC 2009a, p.170; west of central Iran or at Rayy. In the case of cat. Simple, functional wares were turned into stunning
AKTC 2009b, p.170 nos. 124 and 125, a white slip formed from semi- works of austere beauty meant for a distinguished
fluid coloured clay was used to cover the ceramic clientele. The inscriptions on these objects are
125 Dish body and create a blank surface on which the or- typically pious aphorisms addressed to the owner
Tashkent, 9 th–10 th century namental inscription could be written. Calligra- and give a glimpse into a genre of Arabic litera-
Inscription (Arabic): (in dark brown) al-jud min phy, traditionally thought of as the highest Islamic ture that does not survive in manuscript form
akhlaq ahl al-janna (“generosity is the disposition art form because of its power to transmit the word from this period. The shapes of the wares may de-
of the dwellers of Paradise”); of God, provides the sole adornment for these rive from contemporary Iranian silverware. AF / LA
(in red) al-sala[ma] (“good health”)
Earthenware, white slip with black and red slip
decoration under a transparent glaze; Ø 34.9 cm
AKM 00546
AKTC 2007b, p. 175 (no. 149); Makariou 2007,
pp. 176 –177 (no. 62); AKTC 2009a, p.171;
AKTC 2009b, p.171; Ilyasova – Imamberdyev
2005, 93 fig. 4
126 Dish
Eastern Iranian world (Khurasan or Transoxiana),
9 th–10 th century
Inscription (Arabic): iyyaka wa-l-ahmaq la
tu³ashiruhu wa-I-ta²ih al-mu³jab la tujawiruhu /
bi-l-baraka (“Be aware of the fool, do not associ-
ate with him, and do not trust the bewildered
admirer; with blessing”)
Earthenware, black slip with white slip decoration
under a transparent glaze; Ø 33.5 cm
AKM 00545
AKTC 2007b, p. 175 (no. 150); Makariou 2007,
pp. 178 –179 (no. 63); AKTC 2009a, p.171;
AKTC 2009b, p.171
124
170
125
126
171
Three slipware ceramic dishes Similar to the monochrome and bichrome speci- with the AKM peacock not only the border in
mens, the polychrome slipware of the 10 th and 11th pseudo-Kufic script but also the portrayal of a
127 Dish centuries is of extraordinary quality. This Central similar bird (Ilyasov 2008, p. 8, figs. 10 and 11).
Eastern Iranian world, ca. 10 th century Asian ceramic group is characterized by its brown The main motif of the calligraphy-adorned dish
Earthenware, polychrome slip decoration under a or various grey-tone backgrounds, upon which fig- (cat. no. 128) forms an epigraph on the sides of
transparent glaze; Ø 28 cm urative, epigraphic, and abstract motifs produce a the dish that is concentrically arranged with an
AKM 00543 dense and colour-rich pattern. The dominant abstract knotted pattern on the inside bottom. In
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 139 (no. 106); shades are yellow, brown, and red. Another char- this case too, a similarity to the dish from Budrach
AKTC 2007b, p. 141 (no. 106); AKTC 2009a, p.172; acteristic element is the white (see cat. no. 127), – especially because of the script – can be deter-
AKTC 2009b, p.172; Ilyasov 2008, 7 Fig. 3 red, or olive-green dots (see cat. no. 128) on a con- mined. It may have been produced in Chaghani-
trasting background as well as areas and patterns yan, the capital of the eponymous region south of
128 Dish kept completely in white. While animals seldom Samarqand which the Muhtajids ruled as gover-
Eastern Iranian world, ca. 10 th century occur, and humans never occur on Samanid mono- nors for the Samanids in the tenth century and for
Inscription (Arabic): al-jud min akhlaq ahl al-janna and bichrome wares (cat. nos. 124–126), in this the Ghaznavids in the early eleventh century, dur-
(“Generosity is the disposition of the dwellers of polychrome group, animal representations are ing which time they fostered a substantial eco-
Paradise”) found most frequently, followed closely by epi- nomic and cultural boom (Ilyasov 2008, p. 9). The
Earthenware, polychrome slip decoration under a graphic patterns. The unique fragment depicting a last piece from this group (cat. no. 129) is related
transparent glaze; Ø 32.8 cm lute player from the al-Sabah Collection probably to the richly-ornamented, three-colored Samanid
AKM 00541 also belongs to this group (Watson 2004, pp. 240 – wares of the tenth century (c.f. Watson 2004, p.
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 174 (no. 147); 241). Central Asia, perhaps in the area around 225 cat. Gb.8). The flattened conical dish with the
AKTC 2007b, pp. 170, 173 (no. 147); AKTC 2009a, Maymana in North Afghanistan, is thought to be narrow circular base is covered with white slip
p.172; AKTC 2009b, p.172; Ilyasov 2008, 7 Fig. 4 the group’s place of origin (Watson 2004, p. 223). and painted over with motifs in green, dark or-
129 Archeological discoveries from Budrach in south- ange, and dark brown. The decoration consists of
Bowl east Uzbekistan, however, could undermine these four ornamented palm leaves that alternate on the
Northeastern Iran, ca. 10 th century presumptions (Ilyasov 2008, p. 7); a plate from the inner flare of the bowl with abstract Kufic script
Earthenware, polychrome slip decoration under excavation exhibits the same black border pattern (which probably reads “good luck”), as well as a
a transparent glaze; H 11.5 cm; Ø 31 cm with white pseudo-Kufic script as the plate with circular braid with abstract spiraling tendril mo-
AKM 00542 the large stylized peacock (cat. no. 127). The Ar- tifs on the inside bottom. Stylized leaves and pear
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.172; AKTC 2009b, p.172 cheological Museum in Termez has a pitcher that shaped motifs fill in the remaining space, while a
also originated in the province of Surkhandarya in border of evenly-spaced semi-circles completes
southeast Uzbekistan, and which has in commen the decoration around the rim. VD
127
172
128
129
173
130 Beam with Kufic inscription This beam recalls similar carved wooden panels the ruler were carved into a vegetal background of
Northwest of Iran, 12 th –13 th century that formed architectural elements for mosque palmette and split-palmette leaves, often in the
Inscription (Arabic): l-il-malik (“for the ruler”) minbars (pulpits) or mihrabs in the Seljuq Iranian bevelled style associated with Samarra in modern
and li-l-mulk (“for the kingdom”) or al-mulk world. In such cases, the inscription usually reads Iraq. Many examples were also signed by the art-
(“sovereignty”), repeated “sovereignty belongs to God”. Foliated Kufic in- ist. LA
Carved wood; 239 x 20.8 cm scriptions containing Qur’anic verses or praising
AKM 00630
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 189 (cat. F);
AKTC 2007b, p. 191 (cat. F); AKTC 2008b, no. 14;
AKTC 2009a, p.174; AKTC 2009b, p.174
131 Mongol robe This robe, with its fitted waist, flared hips, and panni tartarici. These luxurious fabrics were docu-
Iran or Central Asia, Mongol period, 13 th–14th century tiny-button closure is a remarkable example of mented between 1295 (St. Paul’s Cathedral, Lon-
Silk brocade or lampas; H 140 cm luxury clothing of the mid-Islamic period. Its long don) and 1380 (inventory of Charles V).
AKM 00677 sleeves and right-hand fastening evoke numerous Unfortunately, the inventories are sparing in de-
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 186 –187 (cat. B); comparisons with drawings on the scattered pages tails, so that assigning a piece to a specific manu-
AKTC 2007b, frontispiece and p. 190 (cat. B); of Mongolian manuscripts. The sleeves extend facturing centre proves difficult nonetheless. This
Makariou 2007, pp. 48 – 49 (no. 13); AKTC 2009a, beyond the length of the arms and, thus, were robe fits into the medallion decoration group.
pp. 174 –175; AKTC 2009b, pp. 174 –175 worn pleated. This detail invariably appears on These textiles, which exhibit panels of repeated
the pages of Ilkhanid manuscripts, whether from geometric patterns, appear in inventories between
the pages of the great Mongolian Shahnama, now 1311 (inventory of Pope Clement V) and 1361 (in-
dismembered, or from the “Albums Diez”, or il- ventory of the Vatican). However, it differs on a
lustrations from the “Universal History” by number of points. First of all, the usual figurative
Rashid al-Din, among others. This long-sleeved decoration is missing in this set; secondly, there is a
robe is an undergarment, always worn beneath a pseudo-inscription around the large lobed circles.
coat with sleeves covering the shoulders only, A six-petal rosette is woven into the centre of these
knotted on the right with ribbons. The model is wheels in a contrasting greyish-green thread. The
likely to have its roots in China. It appears in pseudo-inscription could indicate an origin from
Yuan works (Yuan was an older, allied dynasty of the Iranian coast or Islamic Central Asia, which
the Ilkhans), especially on a mandala done on a would have to be confirmed with a technical analy-
kesi (silk tapestry) on which Emperor Yuan Togha sis.
Temur (1328 –1332) and his brother Khoshila The panni tartarici count among the treasures
were represented (Makariou 2007, p. 55, n. 75). of Western churches, but this is the only model
Very rarely was the robe depicted without an which has retained its original cut. A short coat
overcoat, and indeed, this is how it features in was discovered in Urumqi (Xinjiang) in 1960
mourning scenes as well as on a page of the great (ibid., n. 79). The arrival of these fabrics among
Mongolian Shahnama housed in the Louvre (ibid., civil and religious treasures had an impact on Ital-
nn. 76 –77). ian Gothic silk designs (ibid., n. 80).
Undoubtedly this is a ceremonial garment Thus, this garment tells the tale of Chinese in-
(ibid., n. 78). The complex weave of the fabric – fluence on the Islamic world and, in turn, the sig-
seemingly a lampas – assigns this piece to a set nificant influence of the latter on the beginnings of
(which is in turn subdivided into several subsets) luxury fabric manufacture in Europe, particularly
that medieval European inventories refer to as in Lucca. SM
174
175
Two Bamiyan ceramics These objects belong to a distinct group of ceram- the rims of both wares to provide pleasing accents
ics known as “Bamiyan” wares. Their ceramic to the moulded white background. A band of cur-
132 Moulded bowl decorated with a star make-up is characterised by a particularly fragile sive script, also part of the mould, fills the walls of
Eastern Iranian world, 12 th –13 th century frit fabric that results in several cracks during fir- cat. no. 132 (perhaps containing poetic Persian
Fritware, with moulded decoration and blue ing, and their decoration tends to include mould- verses), while a row of abstract leaf motifs spans
and purple under a transparent glaze, Ø 25 cm ed linear designs and inscriptions in low relief un- most of the walls of cat. no. 133 underneath veg-
AKM 00553 der a transparent coloured or colourless glaze, etal frieze. The three interior spur marks on cat.
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.176; AKTC 2009b, p.176 sometimes with the addition of coloured accents no. 132 are a common feature in Bamiyan wares,
(Watson 2004, p. 327). Both bowls contain geo- evidence that they were stacked using tripods.
metric central designs, one displaying an interlac- Numerous intact Bamiyan wares have appeared
133 Moulded bowl decorated with a medaillion ing, radiating star (cat. no. 132), and the other ex- on the international art market in recent years and
Eastern Iranian world, 12 th –13 th century hibiting a woven pattern in the form of a medallion a large collection may also be found in the Nasser
Fritware, with moulded decoration and blue and (cat. no. 133). Splashes of cobalt blue and manga- D. Khalili Collection, London. LA
purple under a transparent glaze; Ø 18.8 cm nese have been applied at regular intervals around
AKM 00563
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.176; AKTC 2009b, p.176
176
134 Moulded ceramic bottle with horsemen This round-bellied bottle, with narrow, elongated bottle and were subject to the same technique but
Iran, 12 th century neck ending in a dome shape, presents an extraor- display an even more sophisticated design. Here,
Siliceous ceramic ware, glazed moulded design dinary embossed design. The fine, white siliceous the thick glaze reduces certain spectacular effects
with running glaze; H 35.5 cm clay, which appeared in Iran at the turn of the elev- of the decoration.
AKM 00552 enth and twelfth centuries, was covered with trans- The tip of the neck, treated as a polylobe dome
Published: Tokyo 1980, no. 221; AKTC 2007a, parent glaze and later topped with cobalt blue and decorated with embossed faces, can be observed
p. 149 (no. 117); AKTC 2007b, p. 152 (no. 117); turquoise running glaze. on several Iranian pieces of the pre-Mongolian pe-
Makariou 2007, pp. 64 – 65 (no. 18); AKTC 2008a, On the belly is a dense decoration depicting a riod (ibid., n. 11). The faces motif is reminiscent of
pp. 234–235 (no. 91); AKTC 2009a, p. 177; lion hunt scene. Several horsemen form a frieze, embossed representations of crowned personali-
AKTC 2009b, p. 177 while footmen are struggling with wild animals. ties, such as the small, glazed ceramic figurines
The design is completed with birds and plant mo- sculpted in high relief, or moulded, unglazed low
tifs scattered among the various groups. The lion relief figurines, such as those that were found in
hunt theme – a princely hunt, par excellence – is to the Shushan excavations (ibid., nn. 12–13).
be found on a cup recently acquired by the Louvre The beautiful, lively vigour of the decoration
Museum and on another similar one housed in the makes this vase a remarkable milestone in pre-
Reza Abbasi museum in Tehran (Makariou 2007, p. Mongolian ceramics, although the narrative content
87, nn. 9 –10). Both pieces are contemporary to this of this hunting episode is unknown to us today. CJ
177
135 Monumental jar This large jar demonstrates the technical expertise ters and includes benedictory wishes in a moulded
Central Iran, 13 th century of Iranian potters and belongs to a small group of band of Arabic naskh script around the neck and
Fritware, decorated with a turquoise glaze; comparable pieces, all distinguished by their great a moulded frieze of running animals on a vine
H 71 cm size, plain opaque turquoise glaze, and combina- scroll ground around the shoulder. Incised bands
AKM 00566 tion of moulded and incised decoration. The deco- of bevelled motifs and scale-like motifs complete
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 78 –79 (no. 48); ration of the jar is organised into horizontal regis- the exterior decoration. AF
AKTC 2007b, pp. 76 –77 (no. 48); AKTC 2008a,
pp. 114 –115 (no. 37); AKTC 2009a, p. 178;
AKTC 2009b, p. 178
178
Inkwell and pen box with gold Elaborately decorated metalwork pen boxes and and divine grace”) and on the flat part: al-³izz wa-l-
and silver inlay inkwells are amongst the finest objects associated iqbal wa-l-dawla wa-l-sa³ada wa-l-salama wa-l-
with writing from the medieval Islamic world. Pen ³inaya (“glory and prosperity and good fortune
136 Gold and silver inlaid pen box boxes held both practical and symbolic functions and happiness and salvation and divine grace”).
Northwest Iran or Anatolia, ca. 1300 at Islamic courts. They served as compact and of- On the body of the object, the composition is ar-
Bronze, inlaid with gold and silver; 9.4 x 4.5 cm ten beautifully decorated containers for scribes’ rayed on three superposed levels: votive formulas
AKM 00609 tools, but they they were also used to represent in cursive Arabic, interrupted by hanging rings,
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 124 (no. 90); specific court offices or, more generally, the power surround a frieze with figures. The blessings are
AKTC 2007b, p. 127 (no. 90); Makariou 2007, of kingship. Profusely decorated with precious repeated twice according to the following formula,
pp. 166 –167 (no. 59); AKTC 2008a, pp. 188 gold and silver inlay and engraved geometric, flo- similar to the one cited above: al ³izz wa-l-iqbal wa-
(no. 69); AKTC 2009a, p. 179; AKTC 2009b, p. 179 ral and vegetal designs, this luxury pen box would l-dawla wa-l-sa³ada (“glory and prosperity and /
have been carried by a high-ranking individual good fortune and happiness”). The receptacle con-
and perhaps even a ruler. tained a glass bottle for the ink, with black ink be-
137 Gold and silver inlaid inkwell Along with the reed pen, the inkstand, called ing the colour most often-used. Three main types
Iran, Khurasan, second half of 12 th century dawat (Baer 1981, pp. 203 – 204) or mihbara, is of black ink were made in the medieval Islamic
Moulded copper alloy, chased decoration inlaid the quintessential tool of the scribe and calligra- world, which have been identified thanks to texts
with silver; H 8.5 cm; Ø 10.4 cm pher. Here, form and function are in harmony, as written by calligraphers or copyists, who gave the
AKM 00604 writing (khatt) is also the main decorative theme recipes. The first type of ink had a carbon base, the
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 162–163 (no. 57); of this object. The edge and top of the lid are dec- second, a base of oak galls and metal, and the
AKTC 2008a, pp. 188 –189 (no. 70) ; AKTC 2009a, orated with an inscription in Kufic script and an third, a mixture of the other two (Déroche 2000,
p. 179; AKTC 2009b, p. 179 inscription in a cursive form expressing various p. 120 ff.). Traditionally, inks of the first type were
blessings in Arabic. On the edge of the lid can be called midad and of the second type, hibr (ibid., p.
read, twice, al-yumm wa-l-baraka (“good fortune 121). AC
179
138 Incense burner Just like the pigeon-shaped incense burner from The object is curious in that it has a second head
Iran, 11th century Sicily (cat. no. 56), this bronze Khorasan-style coin lattice-work on its tail, perhaps an indication of
Bronze, inlaid with copper querel served the purpose of perfuming rooms strength. The burner is technically innovative: the
H 28 cm with incense smoke. The eyes of this typical fight- incense cup is a hemispherical bowl suspended un-
AKM 00602 ing cockerel are inlaid with small turquoise beads. der the bird’s belly, allowing the bowl to be filled
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 84 – 85 (no. 54); Turquoise was thought to protect the owner but remaining concealed when the bird is set
AKTC 2007b, pp. 82– 83 (no. 54) against bad luck and ensure his protection. standing. AF
180
139 Goblet with globular body This small brass jug or goblet is made of a com- a relative overall proportion similar to the AKM
and vocative inscription pressed globular body, octagonal flared neck, and ewer, including a wide, flared neck, but does not
Yahya ibn Yusuf a hexagonal faceted foot. Two bands of Arabic share its angular and fluted characteristics; this
Greater Iran, 14th century (?) inscriptions in naskh script border a series of pal- work has been attributed to Iran in the twelfth
Inscriptions (Arabic): (upper band) al-³izza mette motifs around the neck, while the body dis- century (Atıl, Chase, and Jett 1985, p. 85, fig. 32).
ad-da²ima wa-l-iqbal al-³izza ad-da²ima plays a diagonal fluted mould with alternating Fluted and faceted bodies were also not unusual
wa-d-da²ima ... wa-d-da²ima (“eternal glory and bands decorated with spiral and split-palmette in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the
prosperity, and eternal, eternal, eternal glory...”); ornamentation. Vegetal design also embellishes Greater Iranian (especially northwestern Iran, in-
(central band) al-baraka al-kamila an-ni³ma each facet on the foot, the base of which contains cluding modern Iraq) and Syrian regions (Baer
al-shamila wa-l-³izza ad-da²ima (“complete a six-pointed interlacing star recalling the Seal of 1983, p. 291). They appear in metal ewers (Atıl,
benediction, total favour, and eternal glory”); Solomon. The base is incised with the artist’s Chase, and Jett 1985, pp. 120 –121, figs. 46 and 49
(lower band) al-baraka al-kamila an-ni³ma name, Yahya ibn Yusuf. A blank inverted tear- [with a faceted foot]), and certainly in thirteenth-
al-shamila wa-l-³izz (“complete benediction, drop form has been engraved on opposite sides of century Iranian candlestick bases (ibid., p. 113,
total favour, and glory”); the neck, perhaps meant to decorate the points of figs. 42– 44; and von Folsach, p. 319, no. 509). El-
(on base) Yahya ibn Yusuf al-[...] (“Yahya ibn Yusuf attachment for handles that may never have been ements of the surface decoration can also be
the [?]”) applied. found in the decorative programme of certain
Brass, cast, hammered, and engraved with niello; The ewer was previously attributed to Nasrid wares from northeastern Iran in the twelfth and
H 14.5 cm; Ø 10 cm Spain in the fourteenth century, a calculation thirteenth centuries, where a couple bands of in-
AKM 00735 based on the calligraphic style of the inscription scription appear on the neck and (near) shoulder
Published: Geneva 1985, p. 284 (no. 295) (published as well as on the form of the half-palmette motif region, and medallions or repeated floral or veg-
as Nasrid Spain, 14th century); AKTC 2009a, used to decorate its surface (Geneva 1985, p. etal motifs are engraved around different parts of
p. 180; AKTC 2009b, p. 180 284). However, extant Nasrid metalwork is rare, the body, with some nielloed background but
and no comparable objects are known to exist mostly left blank (see, for example, a jug in the
that would confidently support this attribution. Muzim-i Rawza, Ghazni, Afghanistan, in Melikian-
Instead the jug seems to have more features in Chirvani 1982, p. 65, no. 2). While most of the fea-
common with Greater Iranian metalwork from tures present in this jug appear in medieval Ira-
the mediaeval period, most strikingly in terms of nian metalwork, the combination of features that
its form; and yet, even here, it is difficult to locate are individually but never collectively found in
any close parallels. From the eleventh century, Ira- works of different periods and regions makes at-
nian metal wares reflect a composite form that tributing the work to an exact time and place par-
continued to be refined in the centuries that fol- ticularly challenging. More research must be con-
lowed; decoration seems to have gradually ducted on the identity of this object’s maker, as
evolved from sparse to denser epigraphic and or- results might yield information about the cultural
namental programmes in mediaeval and pre-mod- context in which this very interesting work, once
ern times. A partially gilt and nielloed silver jug in in the collection of Jean-Paul Croisier in Geneva,
the Museum für Islamische Kunst, Berlin, exhibits was made. LA
181
Lusterware ceramics Beginning in the twelfth century, ceramics in Iran containing stock figures and compositions that
were produced with a frit body that provided a could either depict genre scenes or refer to a spe-
140 Lusterware bowl with riders and camels clean, light surface for painting. In addition to the cific text. Given their concave surface, however,
Iran, late 12 th – early 13 th century many transparent and opaque coloured glazes, an different conventions were used to fill the back-
Fritware, lustre painted on an opaque white glaze; impressive metallic sheen could be achieved by ground of a figural scene on bowls and deep dish-
Ø 17 cm adding lustre to the ceramic decoration, painting es. In the bowl depicting camels, for example (cat.
AKM 00557 over the glaze after firing, and then firing a second no. 140), the horse and rider in appear against a
Published: AKTC 2008a, pp. 232 – 233 (no. 90); time. Most of the stunning works in this group be- background of curving stems, dotted on either
AKTC 2009a, p.182; AKTC 2009b, p.182 long to a larger group of pre-Mongol lustre wares side to suggest the presence of leaves. A band of
with decoration that can be classified as illustrative vine scrolls borders the base image and is topped
141 Lusterware bowl with riders or pictorial (see Lentz and Lowry 1989, ch. 2) and by the caravan frieze, where chequered trees add
Iran, ca. 1170 –1200 exhibit the “miniature” and “monumental” styles pauses to the steady rhythm created by the mov-
Fritware, lustre painted on an opaque white glaze; of Persian lustreware coined by Oliver Watson ing camels. These types of wares may be com-
Ø 17 cm (Watson 2004). The “miniature” wares include two pared to the highly figural mina’i or haft-rangi
AKM 00558 bowls in the AKM collection (cat. nos. 140 and (“seven-colour”) wares, also attributed to pre-
141), one with a central figure riding a horse at the Mongol Iran, a period that witnessed an intensive
142 Lusterware dish with enthronment scene base and with a caravan of camels following an- proliferation of figural art (often depicting royal
Iran, Kashan style, late 12 th – early 13 th century other figure around the wall below the rim; the pastimes), especially in the production of ceram-
Fritware, lustre painted on an opaque white glaze; other depicting horses and riders moving in a circle ics. While not as figural in their design, the seven-
Ø 17 cm framing a central mounted rider. Another dish (cat. part dish and the bottle (cat. nos. 143–144) never-
AKM 00559 no. 142) represents the more “monumental” style theless share characteristics of the “miniature”
Published: AKTC 2007a, 182 (no. 159); AKTC identified by the larger scale of the subject matter, and later Kashan styles in Persian lusterware. The
2007b, 186 (no. 159); Makariou 2007, 66 – 67 (no. which is in this case a seated royal figure, shown at bottle is decorated with bands of panels filled
19) centre in a robe with uninscribed tiraz bands; he is with foliate forms and lozenges alternating with
flanked by two attendants or officials, their lower bands of pseudo-calligraphic and calligraphic in-
143 Lusterware mince dish status suggested by their depiction on a smaller scriptions, and the background or negative space
with seven hollows scale. As usual, all three people are depicted with on the surfaces of both wares is filled in the same
Iran, late 12 th – early 13 th century halos. Corresponding with the tradition of classic comprehensive manner as the other objects in this
Fritware, lustre painted on an opaque white glaze; Kashan luster style, the figures fill the entire surface group. The seven hollows in the dish (cat. no.
Ø 31.1 cm of the plate. They are painted in negative on a 143) suggest that this piece may have been used to
AKM 00739 dense background of coiled tendrils. The artist hold seven fruits or the seven items that begin
Kindly lent by Princess Catherine Aga Khan masterfully bestowed the vestments with extensive with the letter ‘s’ of the traditional sofra-yi haft sin
Published: Welch, Vol II p. 128; ; AKTC 2009a, floral decoration, which is especially apparent on (literally, “seven-‘s’ spread”) at Nowruz, the Per-
p.182; AKTC 2009b, p.182 the knees of the middle figure. The decoration on sian New Year that begins with the spring equi-
these objects resembles manuscript illustrations nox. LA
144 Lusterware bottle
Iran, late 12 th – early 13 th century
Fritware, lustre painted on an opaque white glaze;
H 21.5 cm
AKM 00560
140 141
182
142 143
183
A group of architectural elements These ceramic pieces aptly illustrate the mutations Central Asia in the tomb of Ahmad Yasavi (located
of architectural vocabulary in the Islamic world, in Yasi, corresponding to modern Turkestan in
145 Architectural tile the models for which were initially inherited from Kazakhstan). Two of the architectural elements in
Central Asia, late 14th – early 15 th century the classical and ancient Near Eastern (Sasanian) this group (cat. nos. 146 and 147) are units that
Carved and glazed terracotta worlds. The builders, whether they worked in the might have once belonged to a muqarnas vault.
Panel: 56 x 39 cm east or west of the vast territories of the Islamic Along with the third (cat. no. 145), these pieces
AKM 00572 lands, conceived and diffused original solutions could have once been affixed to the exterior fa-
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 176 (no. 152a); for ceramic coating and the transition from çade of a mosque or mausoleum, a large group of
AKTC 2007b, p. 176 (no. 152a); AKTC 2008a, squared based vaults to circular ones. To do so, which can be found in the Shah-i Zinda complex
pp. 278 – 279 (no. 110); AKTC 2009a, p. 185; they invented the muqarnas, an architectural ele- at Samarqand, one of the great Timurid capitals.
AKTC 2009b, p. 185 ment whose genesis has been a topic of academic Timur (r. 1370–1405), a Barlas Turk who founded
debate. Attributed to Egypt in the Fatimid period the Timurid dynasty, was a fierce ruler, but he and
146 Muqarnas as well as to the Iranian Seljuqs, the muqarnas his successors were also grand patrons of the arts.
Greater Iran (Central Asia), 14th –15 th century have also evolved from an essential architectural The brilliant turquoise vaults and elaborately pat-
Carved and glazed terracotta; 30 x 18.5 cm module used for transition areas, with an impor- terned façades of Timurid buildings are a familiar
AKM 00574 tant role in construction, to a purely decorative site in cities such as Samarqand. Along with the
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 177 (no. 152c); element. The muqarnas was then used in groups, use of muqarnas, builders used a range of other
AKTC 2007b, pp. 176 –177 (no. 152c); Makariou so that the repeated figures formed a stalactite- techniques such as banna’i (glazed brick patterns),
2007, pp. 96 – 97 (no. 31); AKTC 2009a, p. 185; like architecture element; the most brilliant exam- carved and glazed terracotta, tile mosaic, cuerda
AKTC 2009b, p. 185 ples are found in the sixteenth century in the seca (dry cord), underglaze painted relief mould-
vaults of the Alhambra (that is, the Hall of the ing, and even lustre, all of which reveal the vir-
147 Muqarnas Two Sisters and the Hall of Abencerrajes) and in tuoso talents of these craftsmen. AF / SM
Greater Iran (Central Asia), 14th –15 th century
Carved and glazed terracotta; 31.5 x 23.5 cm
AKM 00573
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 177 (no. 152b);
AKTC 2007b, pp. 176 –177 (no. 152b);
AKTC 2009a, p. 185; AKTC 2009b, p. 185
146 147
184
145
185
148 Carved wood panel with verses by Hafiz This two-tiered wooden panel, divided into six First register:
Iran, 15 th–16 th century (?) sections, closely resembles carved thuluth inscrip- “In the eyes and brows of my beloved I confided
Carved wood; 52 x 138 cm tions from Mazandaran, a northern province of heart and soul
AKM 00635 Iran. Two published examples bear the signatures Come, come contemplate the arch and the window!
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 159 (no. 129); of two sons of the master carpenter, Ustad Ah- Say to the guardian of paradise: the dust of this
AKTC 2007b, p. 160 (no. 129); Makariou 2007, mad-i Sari. One is dated 1468 and signed by meeting place [...]”
pp. 194 – 195 (no. 71); AKTC 2008a, pp. 250 – 251 Husayn, son of Ustad Ahmad (Welch 1979, pp.
(no. 98); AKTC 2009a, p.186–187; AKTC 2009b, 130 –131); the other is dated 1494 CE and signed Second register:
p.186–187 by Shams al-Din, son of Ustad Ahmad (Bivar and “ [...] do not falter in your task, pour the wine into
Yarshater 1978, pl. 65). Even if this panel is not the cup!
the work of one of these woodcarvers, the exam- Beyond your hedonism, your love for moon-faced
ples share the manner in which vertical letters rise beings,
and intersect letters above the text line and words Amongst the tasks that you accomplish, recite the
within each panel are written on upper and lower poem of Hafiz!”
levels. Unlike the comparative examples, however, (trans. C.-H. de Fouchécour 2006, pp. 971– 972).
this panel contains verses by the celebrated Per-
sian poet Hafiz (d. 1389-90):
186
As the panel is fragmentary, it may have been
part of a frieze that ran around the walls of a
room. Because classic Persian poetry allows
for both secular and religious interpretations,
it can be assumed that this inscription panel
probably dates back to one of the many
wood-decorated holy sites in Mazandaran. AF
187
149 Pair of Timurid carved doors One of the finest examples of its kind, this object teenth-century woodcarvings have been found in
with geometric and floral motifs bears the characteristic features of Timurid carved that region (Bronstein 1938, p. 2622). The doors
Iran, Mazandaran (?), Timurid, 892 H / 1487 CE wooden doors: deep, intricately carved floral de- share design elements with other doors from this
Inscription (Persian): amal-i Ustad bin Hajji Najjar signs inherited from the preceding Ilkhanid pe- period surviving in public and private collections:
ba […] Darvish ‘Ala²uddin, kar dar sana-yi 892 riod and reminiscent of Chinese lacquer wares; a cenotaph in the Khalili Collection, signed by
(“the work of Ustad … bin Ustad Hajji Najjar with geometric patterns formed by the tongue-and- Shams al-Din Sari and dated 902 H / 1496 CE
the … of Darvish Ala²uddin, work [completed] in groove technique; plaited borders; and panels in- (London 2001, pp. 218 – 219); and pairs of doors
the year 892”) scribed with prayers as well as information about in the Art and History Trust Collection, Houston,
Carved wood; 189 x 106 cm patrons, craftsmen, and dates of production. (Soudavar 1992, p. 94, no. 34), and in the Nation-
AKM 00707 Mazandaran, located in northern Iran, is known al Museum of Iran, Tehran, signed and dated 846
Published: AKTC 2008b, no. 16; AKTC 2009a, for its dense forests and sweetly scented khalanj H / 1442 CE (London 1976, p. 292, no. 458). LA
p.188; AKTC 2009b, p.188 wood; several examples of fourteenth- and fif-
188
189
Iran and Central Asia The Safavids
Sheila Canby
The Safavid shahs of Iran were not only the potters relied on Chinese prototypes for their
first native Iranian dynasty to unite the coun- inspiration. Indeed, foreign influences had an
try for nearly a millennium, but they also in- impact on the all the arts of the Islamic world
troduced Shia Islam as the state religion. The in this period.
impact of this institutionalized faith was An interest in portraiture intensified in
wide-reaching. It instilled Iranians with an the seventeenth century in Turkey, Iran, and
intensified sense of religious and national India, in part reflecting the increased impor-
identity that set them from apart from their tation of European prints including portraits
Sunni rivals, the Ottomans and Uzbeks. of kings and other notable people. Different
While Safavid painters of the early six- conventions for royal portraiture developed
teenth century synthesised the styles they had at different courts. The Safavid shahs of Iran
inherited from the Turkman court at Tabriz were portrayed at official gatherings greeting
and the Timurids at Herat, the later sixteenth foreign diplomats in works on paper and on
and seventeenth centuries saw a new empha- the walls of the Chihil Sutun, a royal palace
sis on single-page paintings made for inclu- built in the 1640s in Isfahan. These scenes
sion in albums. New styles in metalwork in- emphasise the shah’s supremacy and magna-
cluded openwork steel plaques (cat. nos. 151 nimity.
and 152) and small objects, while Safavid
Isfahan (Iran), western iwan of the Shah Mosque
191
150 Standard (³alam) Although steel, which is an alloy of iron and cared three times: at the end of the two curved exten-
Iran, late 16 th century bon, is a metal essentially used for the production sions at the base of the standard; at the end of the
Pierced steel plate with moulded iron adjuncts of weapons and armour, in the Safavid period it two pieces of metal which are set in the pear-
H 81.5 cm; W 32.5 cm was often used as a raw material for etching plates shaped part of the standard and are affixed to it in
AKM 00679 (cat. nos. 151 and 152) and openwork standards. several places; on either side of the top element of
Published: Thompson and Canby 2003, p. 222; This standard from the Aga Khan Museum was which the middle axis is made of two symmetrical,
AKTC 2007a, pp. 178 –179 (no. 154a); AKTC 2007b, made from a pear-shaped sheet of steel ending in separated sheets of metal between which another
pp. 180-181 (no. 154a); Makariou 2007, pp. two divergent outgrowths alluding to the two tips element could be inserted and attached. The
148 –149 (no. 52); AKTC 2008a, pp. 282– 283 (no. of the dhu’l-fiqar sword. The largest openworked dragon motif, the meaning of which could here be
112); AKTC 2009a, p. 192; AKTC 2009b, p. 192 area presents a mirror inscription which can thus protective, was highly appreciated in the Islamic
be read from different angles. The inscription is world and often used on metal objects. During
engraved on a stylised foliated background re- the Safavid period and in Mughal India, it would
peated symmetrically along a central axis. The fol- decorate the stern and prow of boat-shaped bowls
lowing text can be read from top to bottom: ya or kashkuls. Pear-shaped standards with dragon
Allah, ya Muhammad, ya ³Ali (“Oh God, Oh Mu- heads often appeared in Safavid miniatures where
hammad, Oh ³Ali”). The two invocations of ³Ali they were associated with battle scenes or repre-
meet on the axis to form a stylised face, perhaps sented inside sanctuaries, attesting to both their
that of a lion, to which the first imam is often warlike and religious functions at the time (Maka-
compared because of his courage and strength. riou 2007, pp. 158 –59, n. 14). The still current
The lam and the ya of “³Ali” outline the contours, practice of taking out these standards during pro-
the ³ayn (the name of the letter but which also cessions associated with Shia religious calendar
means “eye” in Arabic) form the eyes, and the two celebrations was confirmed by European travel-
vocative particles ya are joined to form a muzzle. lers since the seventeenth century, but it does not
Several related elements are nailed to this seem to have been represented in the sixteenth
openwork sheet of metal, ornately decorated with century manuscripts (ibid., p. 159, n. 15). CM
stylised dragon heads. This animal motif is repeat-
Two steel plaques These steel plaques were most likely created as plates in this group tell us something about how
part of larger assemblies of plates that would to- they might originally have been assembled (two ad-
151 Multi-lobed steel plaque gether form a composition around a central car- ditional plates from a private collection have re-
Iran, second half of 17 th century touche with openwork decoration. One is shaped cently been published in Melikian-Chirvani 2007,
Incised iron alloy; H 34.8 cm like a multi-lobed almond and bears the Shia pro- pp. 260 – 261, cat. nos. 61 and 62).
AKM 00617 fession of faith, la ilaha illa llah wa-Muhammadun The second plate, executed almost entirely in
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 152–153 (no. 54); rasulu llah wa-³Aliyun waliyu llah (“There is no openwork and with Arabic thuluth inscription
AKTC 2008a, pp. 66 – 67 (no. 13); AKTC 2009a, God but God and Muhammad is His prophet and standing out against a background of three spiral-
p. 193; AKTC 2009b, p. 193 ³Ali is His companion”). The surface is done in ling scrolls bearing stylised plant elements, is simi-
openwork, with the exception of the plain plate lar to the first in general design. It differs, however,
that outlines the shape of the sconce. The three- in its oblong shape and a few ornamental details,
152 Oblong steel plaque line inscription is written in Arabic thuluth script such as the more developed design of plant ele-
Iran, late 17 th century that stands out from a background of delicate spi- ments: symmetrical and more complex florets and
Openwork iron alloy; L 22 cm rals of foliage. These twining plants have bifid leaves with two, three, and four lobes. The general
AKM 00616 leaves and stylised florets in a flowing and dynam- effect evokes the multi-lobed medallions common
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 154 –155 (no. 55); ic design. Their precision and fineness are remi- in illuminated decoration and that contain the title
AKTC 2008a, pp. 68 – 69 (no. 14); AKTC 2009a, niscent of the meticulous work of illumination. of a work or its subdivisions. Here, the inscription
p. 193; AKTC 2009b, p. 193 The sconce’s shape also evokes book art from the is limited to the name of Fatima, the Prophet Mu-
Safavid era: multi-lobed mandorlas at the centre hammad’s only daughter and the wife of ³Ali, fol-
of the binding plates and medallions inscribed on lowed by the distinctive epithet al-zahra’ (“the bril-
the heart of the initial carpet pages of Qur’ans or liant one”). While its provenance is unknown, this
literary works. This plaque belongs to a group of object can be related to a set of ornamental
other such multi-lobed plates based on shape, de- plaques that are comparable in design, though
sign, and calligraphic style; in the absence of defi- longer (between 38 and 39 cm). Each of these in-
nite clues about the circumstances of their crea- vokes one or more of the Fourteen Immaculate
tion, it is difficult to assert that they were Ones (chahardah ma³sumin) revered by the Twelver
produced at the same time for the same usage. Shia: the Prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fa-
However, it seems well established that they were tima, and the twelve Imams. CM
made as decoration for a door, and three of the
192
193
153 A manuscript of the Khamsa (“Quintet”) The Khamsa (“Quintet”) is a posthumous collec- rin”), the first of the five narratives in the collec-
of Nizami (d. 1209) tion of five narrative poems composed by Nizami tion and composed by Nizami between 1171 and
Scribe: Pir Husayn ibn Pir Hasan al-Katib al-Shirazi of Ganja (a city in present-day Azerbaijan) (d. 1181. The text is composed of some 7,000 cou-
Artist: Qiyath al-Mudhahhib 1209) and is one of the greatest romantic poets of plets relating the adventures of the Sasanian king
Iran, Shiraz, dated 20–30 Rabi³ al-awwal Persian literature. The present copy of the text is Khusraw Parviz (r. 590 – 628) and his romance
933 H / 25 December 1526 – 4 January 1527 CE composed of 401 folios with a four-column, gold- with the beautiful Shirin, an Armenian princess
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; ruled text format containing 19 lines of nasta³liq who later became his wife after the king subdued
contemporary gilt leather binding Persian script; headings appear in blue nasta³liq his rival, the sculptor Farhad, in the quest for Shi-
Folios 33.5 x 20.2 cm; against a gilded background of spiral scrolls and rin’s love. Khusraw first learns of Shirin from his
leather binding 33.4 x 21.5 x 5.5 cm; are embellished with orange, yellow, and green companion, the painter Shapur. The king falls in
AKM 00270 flowers. Twenty-seven miniatures illustrate selected love with the princess without ever having met her
Published: Welch 1978b (Ms. 15); Welch episodes from each of the five poems, the final one and asks for Shapur’s aid in pursuing her and win-
and Welch 1982, pp. 74 –76 (no. 22; different folio) ; signed by the artist, tasvir-i Qiyath al-Mudhahhib ning her hand in marriage. Shapur travels to Ar-
AKTC 2009a, pp. 194–195; AKTC 2009b, (“the reproduction of Qiyath the Gilder”). This menia, where he paints a picture of his king and
pp.194 –195 painting appears on folio 382 verso of the manu- posts it strategically in an outdoor setting fre-
script as part of the fifth book, the Iskandarnama quented by Shirin and her companions. Shirin is
(“Book of Alexander”). Although the colophon struck by the image; intrigued by its subject, she
names a scribe, Pir Husayn ibn Pir Hasan al-Katib finally demands to know who the portrait repre-
al-Shirazi, it does not identify a patron. Anthony sents and how she may find the man depicted: this
Welch has suggested that this book may have is the moment illustrated in the present painting.
been produced for a wealthy individual of high Shapur reveals the identity and love of his master
standing or perhaps for the governor of Shiraz, as to Shirin and instructs her to meet Khusraw half-
no Safavid prince lived in Shiraz during the pe- way between Armenia and Iran. All of the illustra-
riod of production for the manuscript (Welch and tions in this manuscript of the Khamsa are be-
Welch 1982, p. 76). The dark leather gilded bind- lieved to have been executed by the same painter,
ing is contemporary with the codex and includes Qiyath al-Mudhahhib (“Qiyath the Gilder”), and
verses in praise of Nizami on its spine. build from a tradition of painting and calligraphy
The present image depicts a scene from the developed in Shiraz in the fourteenth and fifteenth
story of Khusraw u Shirin (“Khusraw and Shi- centuries (ibid., p. 74). LA
194
195
154 An illustrated manuscript of the Anvar-i The paintings in this manuscript depict stories consulted his advisors on how to retaliate and ulti-
Suhayli (“Lights of Canopus”) of Husayn from the Anvar-i Suhayli (“Lights of Canopus”), mately followed the counsel of the advisor who
ibn ³Ali al-Wa³iz al-Kashifi (d. 1504) a selection of fifteenth-century fables based on suggested finding out who the owl king’s closest
Scribe: Na³im Muhammad al-Husayni al-Tabrizi a twelfth-century version of the Kalila wa-Dimna advisors were and turning them against each other
Artist: Sadiqi Beg (“Kalila and Dimna”) collection. The text’s ori- through deceit and duplicity. Once they were di-
Iran, Qazvin, dated 13 Safar 1002 H / 8 November gins are thought to lie in the oral traditions of In- vided through dissent, the crows could conquer
1593 CE dia and to have been first recorded in writing their enemy. The history of the Panchatantra’s
Ink and opaque watercolour on paper; 30.1 x 20.3 cm around 300 CE as the Panchatantra (“Five Occa- transmission to the Islamic world is recalled in
AKM 00289 sions of Good Sense”), a book of five chapters on its various recensions into Persian and Arabic, as
Published: Welch 1976, pp. 125 –144, figs. 42–55 statecraft (arthasastra) (De Blois 1991, p. 10). Its the story of Kalila wa-Dimna was first translated
(fols. 10r, 17r, 38r, 28v, 20v, 52r, 309r, 55v, 85r, 227v, stories are held together by the framework of an into Pahlavi (Middle Persian) by the physician
40v, 313r, 83v, and 22r); Welch and Welch 1982, Indian king, Dabshalim (or Dabishlim), consult- Burzoy in the sixth century; then into Arabic in
pp. 100 –105, cat. no. 32 (fols. 22r, 139v, and 198r); ing his court philosopher Bidpai (or Pilpay, both the eighth century by Ibn al-Muqaffa; later into
Canby 1998, pp. 70 –72 (no. 43); AKTC 2007, p. 136r corrupted versions of Bidnag and later, in Arabic, neo-Persian in the mid-twelfth century by Nasral-
(no. 103); AKTC 2007, p. 138v (no. 103); Melikian- Bindna) about proper ruling conduct in a variety lah Munshi. Husayn ibn ³Ali al-Wa³iz al-Kashifi
Chirvani 2007, pp. 446 – 447 (fol. 22v) ; AKTC 2009a, of situations. Bidpai responds to each question (d. 1504), the court chaplain of Herat at the end
p.196; AKTC 2009b, p.196 with a fable featuring animal protagonists, each of the fifteenth century, created a new, completely
fable in turn framing other stories and sub-stories revised Persian translation at the suggestion of the
and eventually returning to the king’s conversa- court official Ahmad Suhayli. In his honor, he
tion with Bidpai in order to lead to the next of the named his translation Anvar-i Suhayli (“Lights of
five main fables. Canopus”), where the word “suhayl” is a pun on
The present image refers to one of the five the court official’s name and the Arabic name for
chapters on strategies of statecraft, “Of Crows Canopus, the second-brightest star in the south-
and Owls.” The tale involves a longstanding en- ern sky. The stories enjoyed great popularity in
mity between the owls and the crows, each group the Persian-Indian region up until the beginning
led by their respective king. The crows lived in a of modern times and were printed in their entirety
tree while the owls lived in cave, and the owl king for the first time in London in 1836. These texts
made it a point to have any crow he ever saw leave were used to test British officials being sent to In-
the tree killed as a pre-emptive measure. Con- dia on their knowledge of Persian. LA / VD
cerned about his shrinking flock, the crow king
196
197
155 Manuscript of the Guy u Chawgan or This mystical poem by ³Arifi (d. ca. 1449) uses the In the painting a dervish on the edge of a rocky
Halnama (“Book of Ecstasy”) of ³Arifi concept of the polo ball and mallet as a metaphor horizon observes a princely polo player who is ac-
Iran, ca. 1580 for yearning for and being spurned by the belov- companied by an attendant carrying a mallet. The
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; ed. Classic Persian poems allow for both secular illustration is stylistically close to the work of ³Ali
21.3 x 13.1 cm as well as religious interpretations. Thus, the be- Asghar who worked in Qazvin in the 1570s and
AKM 00522 loved acts as a metaphor for God, whom the pi- 1580s and joined the kitabkhana of Shah Abbas I
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 146 (no. 113); ous man loves unconditionally and for whom he is upon his accession in 1587. ³Ali Asghar illustrated
AKTC 2007b, p. 150 (no. 113); AKTC 2008a, consumed by longing because he cannot reach two manuscripts of Guy u Chawgan and one of
pp. 228 – 229 (no. 87) ; AKTC 2009a, p.198; Him. At the same time the poem can refer to the Shah u Darvish of Hilali that all include polo-play-
AKTC 2009b, p.198 profane love for a human. The polo mallet, curved ing scenes (Robinson 1988, p. 126). The jutting
at the end like a lock of hair, thus symbolizes the rocks, sharply bent elbows and treatment of the
beloved’s locks, which caress the lover’s head, hair of the dervish recall these equally small-scale
symbolized by the ball. works by ³Ali Asghar. VD /AF
198
199
156 Lacquer book covers The use of “lacquer” painting, which was made seemingly undisturbed by the prospect of any
Iran, late 16 th century waterproof and very shiny by applying a varnish, predators, an opportunity for drink and play. Two
Lacquer with powdered gold and mother-of-pearl; for papier mâché binding boards may be traced to flowering trees, which occupy most of the avail-
27.7 x 16.7 cm the last quarter of the fifteenth century. The devel- able surface area, spread their branches, overlap-
AKM 00637 opment of this technique for binding manuscripts ping each other. On their branches, a sparrow and
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 74 –75 (no. 43); produced in Herat during the rule of Husayn two pheasants seem to be exchanging vehement
AKTC 2007b, p. 70 –71 (no. 43); Makariou 2007, Mirza (1470 –1506), seems to have resulted from words, while in the restricted space of the upper
p. 70 –71 (no. 21); AKTC 2008a, pp. 106 –107 the importation of Chinese lacquered objects corners two ducks fly hastily amid swirling clouds.
(no. 32) ; AKTC 2009a, p. 200; AKTC 2009b, p. 200 whose vitrified appearance and the rich contrast Between the branches, the dark background is
of golden decoration on a dark background in- punctuated by small tufts of grass and flowery
spired imitations. From the last years of the fif- grebes leaving space at the top to small spiralling
teenth century on, colour ranges became richer clouds, suggesting the end of the earth. This piece
for the treatment of the background and decora- of sky in the top part of the landscape is a com-
tion through the use of a deep red colour and mon feature in Persian miniatures. Similarly, all
pearl or shell dust, covered with red varnish to the elements of the scene have their match in nu-
accentuate the coloured background. merous pages of miniatures and marginal decora-
Polychromy continued to evolve during the tions. These are some of the recurring elements of
sixteenth century, whilst animal scenes, sometimes an idealised nature which is characteristic of Ira-
involving humans, could cover the entire outer nian miniatures. Moreover, the principal elements
board until they gradually came to resemble a of this landscape are presented in pairs (twin
miniature page. This style was reserved for bind- trees, two deer, and two pheasants); their dou-
ing boards used for poetic or literary works. This bling, like the replication of the same composition
sample from the Aga Khan Museum shown here, on each of the two boards, could represent the
which is decorated with an animal theme picture mirror and doubling theme that was so dear to
repeated on the two outer boards, reflects this de- mystic Persian poetry. The whole picture gives an
velopment while maintaining a colour assortment impression of balance and serenity, which is not
restricted to yellow, orange, and red on a black the most sought-after effect in the animal scenes
background. These colours were emphasized with of binding boards, which are usually divided into
gold and pearl dust, and the contours outlined several dynamic sketches depicting animal fights
with a gold line that contrasts with the dark back- and predators chasing their prey.
ground. The undulating frieze framing the pic- Related lacquer bindings of the mid-sixteenth
ture, achieved through the juxtaposition of ‘chi’ century are found in the Bibliothèque Nationale,
clouds painted in black on a gold background, Paris (Mss. Or. Suppl. Pers. 1962 and 1171
could be seen on all the early lacquer bindings and 129; see Stanley 2003, pp. 190 –191; Richard
produced in Herat and continued to be frequently 1997, pp. 169, 179, and Bernus-Taylor 1989,
used as a border motif throughout the sixteenth pp. 165 – 166) and in the Victoria and Albert Mu-
century. Inside the central field, a primary register seum, London (Haldane 1983, no. 94). CM / AF
depicts a pond whose banks offer two deers,
200
201
The Shahnama of Firdawsi
The (“Book of Kings”) is a Persian epic that the inserted into their turbans). He also named his
great poet Abu ’l-Qasim Firdawsi finished on ex- sons – Tahmasp, Bahram, and Sam – after charac-
actly the 25th of February, 1010 (as Firdawsi ters from the epic and commissioned the poet
writes, “on the Ard day of the Sefandarmed Mirza Qasim Gunabadi to compose a versified
month, as five times eighty years had passed since account. The panegyric biography was titled
the Hijra”). He had worked for over thirty years Shahnama-i Isma³il. Such moves were probably
on this epic that tells the story of Iranian kings motivated by a studied populism. Although inter-
starting with the first ruler Gayumars and con- est in Firdawsi’s Shahnama had dwindled at royal
tinuing to the last king Yazdigird. It bridges the courts, the Shahnama retained its value in Safavid
time between myth and recorded history (of the society, as reflected by the recitation of the epic by
Parthian and Sasanian dynasties, 247 BCE – 651 storytellers to their publics. A yet stronger indica-
CE). Fearful that Iran’s history would be forgot- tion of the status and utility of Firdawsi’s Shahna-
ten and overwhelmed by an Arab culture brought ma for the Safavids, however, was the commission
there in the 600s, Firdawsi set about composing and production of an illustrated copy initiated by
an epic that also integrated existing written ac- Shah Isma³il and continued by his son Shah Tah-
counts and orally transmitted tales. The result was masp (r. 1524 – 1576). The completed book of 759
a work spanning many generations, organized ac- folios and 258 paintings was unprecedented in the
cording to the regnal cycles of fifty kings (shahs). history of making illustrated copies of Firdawsi’s
Valued in its time as a work of history and for its epic at the royal courts of Greater Iran. In scale of
ethical content (as a mirror for princes), the major ambition and quality of execution, Shah Tah-
themes of the Shahnama include the full range of masp’s Shahnama bested all precedents and would
human traits evidenced by rulers, their wise and not be surpassed in later epochs.
foolish actions, the inevitability of human destiny, Making such a book required the talents of
and the endemic jealousy of peoples living beyond artists, calligraphers, illuminators, and others ex-
Iran’s borders. Stories about each king’s life and pert in ruling, gold sprinkling, and binding. As in
rule, of the dilemmas and challenges they con- earlier royal workshops (kitabkhanas), a director
front, alternate with those of heroes, such as Rus- coordinated the effort by overseeing production,
tam, who dedicate their service to the kings. The requisitioning materials, maintaining quality con-
kings’ reigns are assigned by God (Yazdan); so trol, and presumably delivering progress reports
long as God’s appointed king rules Iran, in theory to the patron. The Shahnama project held a mo-
at least, Iran’s security and prosperity will be pre- nopoly over the material and human resources of
served. the royal workshop in the Safavid capital city of
The earliest illustrated Shahnamas appear Tabriz for almost twenty years, between approxi-
Abu ’l-Qasim Firdawsi around 1300, and Firdawsi’s epic – as well as epics mately 1522 and 1540. As the Shahnama took
Detail from the Shahname of Shah Tahmasp composed by other poets – retained its cultural form, the Safavid idiom of painting and art of the
(fo. 7r; cat. no. 162) currency in royal and princely-sponsored book- book – seen in Shah Tahmasp’s later copy of the
making workshops from the 1300s through the Khamsa of Nizami (1539 – 1543) – was steadily
1440s. Three illustrated copies of Firdawsi’s epic crystallized through a synthesis of local-cum-dy-
were produced for the Timurid princes Ibrahim nastic artistic traditions developed under the pre-
Sultan, Baysunghur, and Muhammad Juki be- ceding Timurid and Turkman dynasties. Some art-
tween 1430 and the 1440s. The text seems to have ists involved in making the Shahnama, chiefly
lost some of its appeal after then – with the excep- Kamal al-Din Bihzad (d. 1535-6), were already ma-
tion of a Shahnama made for Sultan Mirza ³Ali ture at its inception, while a younger generation of
Karkiya in 1493-4 at Gilan – as royal patrons and artists reached majority working on it.
their artists shifted their attention to other literary Earlier illustrated copies of Firdawsi’s Shahna-
works. ma, as well as tales depicted from it in other me-
The salience of Firdawsi’s Shahnama was re- dia such as ceramics, had been used to give form
newed in the early 1500s under the Safavid dy- to the political ideologies of ruling elites in Iran.
nasty, founded by Shah Isma³il (r. 1501–1524). This was true of the Mongol Ilkhanid and Timu-
Shah Isma³il frequently invoked characters from rid dynasties, which used the epic to lay claim to a
the Shahnama in his poetry, where he claimed a land and a culture, and to link the present reality
similarity to the likes of Faridun, Khusraw, Jam- of their rule to a history of former rulers. Though
shid, and Zahhak, and issued challenges to these external evidence is lacking, it seems that Safavid
kings as a means of inciting passion and support patrons chose Firdawsi’s Shahnama not only as a
from his followers, who were dubbed the Qizil- historical work but also to suggest a comparable
bash (lit. “redheads,” after the color of the baton symmetry between kings, present and past. Par-
202
ticular ideological meanings are generally identi- 934 H / 1527-8 CE. It is thought that these two
fied in manuscripts through the choice of stories paintings, done on thicker paper were added later,
for illustration or the increased emphasis given to between 1535 and 1540, when the manuscript was
an individual king’s reign. The evidence of Shah close to completion (Welch 1979b, pp. 39 and
Tahmasp’s Shahnama, however, suggests that this 90). The paintings of this manuscript not only re-
conception was not operative across the whole flect the work of several major painters of the six-
book. What is striking about Shah Tahmasp’s teenth century, but also plunge us into the daily
Shahnama is the preponderance of illustrations in Safavid court life. Indeed, although the Shahnama
the first 438 folios, where 201 paintings occur, depicts the legendary and pre-Islamic history of
with only 57 paintings illustrating the remaining Iran, the artists represented the characters in
321 folios. Though one could account for this pat- clothing from the period of Shah Tahmasp within
tern as a specific repurposing, or inflection, of their context. In some cases, architecturally deco-
Firdawsi’s epic in Safavid hands, one could also rated objects or elements represented in these
argue that Shah Tahmasp’s Shahnama succumbed miniatures have lasted to this day. The style of the
to the very burden of its conceptual and artistic miniatures was the subject of a major study (Dick-
ambition. As its makers embraced the opportunity son and Welch 1981), but the aspects of Safavid
to make a Shahnama that abrogated all past ver- court life that these paintings reveal are also wor-
sions, its artists fully aware of the history of their thy of interest.
art practices, their energies and capacities – and Despite what the book represented as an in-
perhaps the patron’s interest – may have dwindled vestment of talent and resources, Shah Tahmasp
over time. It was not possible to sustain an equal made a gift of his Shahnama to the Ottoman sul-
level of craft across the whole book. tan, Selim II (see cat. no. 98), in 1568. The
Shah Tahmasp’s Shahnama is one of the most Shahnama still lay in the treasury of the Ottoman
remarkable Persian manuscripts which was start- palace in the 1800s, when its illustrations were
ed when Shah Tahmasp returned to Tabriz from provided with Ottoman Turkish glosses. Baron
Herat in 1522. Over a dozen painters, at least two Edmund de Rothschild purchased the Shahnama
calligraphers, two or more miniaturists, book- in 1903 and it was sold to Arthur A. Houghton in
binders, persons responsible for polishing, gold 1959. The manuscript was broken up for sale, be-
stippling and margin creation, with a whole team ginning in the 1970s, its paintings distributed
of assistants, pooled their talents in a kitabkhana, among a number of private and public collections
or book workshop, to design the most sumptuous and the textblock, with many paintings, returned
manuscript ever produced in Iran. In the twenti- to the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1996. Today, the
eth century, the manuscript lost its colophon and two largest parts of the manuscript belong to the
a large part of the research work done by art his- Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and to
torians focused then on the identification of the the Islamic Republic of Iran. The AKM collec-
workshop chefs and painters. Before it was dis- tion, with nine pages of the highest quality, is
mantled in the 1970s, the complete manuscript deemed to be the third most important group.
consisted of 380 folios, including 258 miniatures. Isolated illustrations can be found in many private
The manuscript bears two signatures – of both and public collections in Europe and North
Mir Musavvir and Dust Muhammad – and a date: America. DR
203
Five illustrations from different Boldly leading his troops, the youthful Shah structed for all three manuscripts (Simpson 1979;
Shahnamas dating to the 13 th to 17th Shapur of Iran rides out at dawn in black armour Simpson in: Hillenbrand 2004, pp. 9–24).
centuries on a white horse, before the crenellated fortress in According to Simpson, each manuscript fol-
Yemen, where the Ghassanid Arab chieftain Ta’ir lows an individual series of paintings, and are not
157 Shah Shapur besieges the fortress of the is besieged in retreat. Ta’ir and three courtiers duplicates of one another, in spite of their obvious
Arabian chieftain Ta²ir in Yemen watch with concern from the ramparts above. similarities in format and style. For example, the
Folio from the dispersed “Second Small Ta’ir’s beautiful daughter Malika and her nurse equivalent painting of Shapur in the ‘First Small
Shahnama” manuscript also look out from a fortress window: Malika is Shahnama’ depicts the hero riding an elephant
Tabriz or Baghdad, Ilkhanid, ca. 1300 descended from Sasanian royalty, her mother hav- instead of a white hores (Dublin Chester Beatty
Opaque water colour, gold and ink on paper ing been abducted by Ta’ir from Ctesiphon years Library Per106.54: Simpson 1979, p. 44, fig. 1).
26.5 X 18.9 cm before. Here, the painter has indicated this Ira- Although significant, the ‘Small Shahnama
AKM 000017 nian bloodline by depicting Malika wearing a group’ is not the earliest known illustrated works
Published: Welch 1972a, p. 49; Simpson 1979, Sasanian-style crown. On seeing her cousin of narrative literature in the Islamic Middle East
p. 98; Canby 1998, p. 23 Shapur for the first time, the princess falls in love – other texts such as Ayyuqi’s Warqa wa-Gulshah,
with him, and soon betrays her father (Davis Hariri’s Maqamat, and Ibn al-Muqaffa³’s Kalila
2006, 580–581). wa-Dimna have survived in lively illustrated man-
The ‘Small Shahnama’ manuscripts are a group uscripts from before 1300, as have other works of
of four densely-illustrated copies of Firdawsi's history and science, written in Arabic or Persian.
Shahnama (“Book of Kings”). Without surviving The narrative complexity of Firdawsi’s epic of-
colophons, no copy is dated, but three may be at- fered painters and patrons an unprecedented
tributed to early fourteenth century Iran or Iraq, wealth of subject-matter, to which they responded
and the cultural orbit of the Mongol Ilkhanid dy- with detailed illustrations of great panache. Stylis-
nasty. Although they are not necessarily royal tically, the ‘Small Shahnama’ paintings show an
commissions, they may indicate the Mongols’ in- enduring pictorial tradition also related to late
tended affiliations with Persian culture (Simpson twelfth and thirteenth century paintings on ce-
1979; Hillenbrand 2002, pp. 150–154; the fourth ramic, as well as the lively compositions and close
‘Small Shahnama’ is in The Metropolitan Museum horizontal formats of contemporary inlaid metal-
of Art, New York, and is attributed to Isfahan ca. work (Simpson 1985; Canby 1998, p. 22). Many
1330). features of the paintings are, however, definitely
However fragmentary, these three are there- products of the new cultural environment of the
fore the earliest known illustrated copies of Ilkhanids, such as the distinctive armour and hel-
Firdawsi’s great epic poem. The detached folios of mets worn by Shapur and his forces.
the so-called ‘First’ and ‘Second’ Small Shahna- Other folios from this dispersed manuscript
mas are dispersed in art collections around the are in the following museum collections: Aga
world: this folio belongs to the latter manuscript. Khan Trust for Culture (Geneva), British Museum
The codex and binding of the third is in the Freer (London), Brooklyn Museum of Art (New York),
Gallery, with many further folios also dispersed. David Collection (Copenhagen), Freer Gallery
The group has been closely analysed and studied (Washington DC), Cincinnati Art Museum, Mu-
by M.S. Simpson, where the original pagination seum of Fine Art (Montreal), McGill University
and programme of illustration are carefully recon- Library (Montreal). MC
204
205
158 Shah Kay Kavus attempts to fly Never a paragon of the perfect ruler, the gullible This painting belongs to a dispersed manu-
to heaven Shah Kay Kavus was tempted by a demon to pur- script that was produced in 741 H / 1341 CE, and
Folio from one of the three Inju-Shahnamas sue a preposterous and dangerous plan – to fly to is one of three well-known and densely-illustrated
Shiraz, Iran, 741 H / 1341 CE heaven, and conquer the secrets of the celestial Shahnama manuscripts made for the court envi-
Opaque water colour, gold and ink on paper spheres. Having considered his options, the king ronment of Inju Shiraz, a governorship in the Ira-
AKM 00030 proceeded as follows: he ordered his servants to nian province of Fars (the other two are dated
Published: Welch 1972a, p. 72 collect live eagle chicks, and hand-rear them in 1330 [Istanbul, Topkapi Palace Library, H.1479]
the palace on fresh meat. Once fully grown, the and 1333 [St Petersburg, National Library of Rus-
tame eagles were formidable, “as strong as lions”, sia, Dorn329]). Like many a valuable manuscript
and Kavus then ordered his servants to harness handled by Western art dealers in the early twen-
four of the birds to a specially-constructed throne, tieth century, this Shahnama codex was taken
with slabs of raw meat suspended just above the apart and sold page by page on the art market,
eagles. Next, the foolish king sat into his contrap- thus scattering the folios to public and private col-
tion, and the straining eagles soon had him air- lections around the world. After thorough study,
borne, as they struggled to reach the dangling the original pagination of 180 extant folios was
food. This is the moment depicted here: hoisted reconstructed and 36 collections were identified
away by the giant birds, Kay Kavus points up in which currently own folios (Simpson in: Hillen-
excitement towards the approaching heavens – brand 2000, pp. 217–247). Remarkably, among
where the first sphere of the fixed stars or constel- these farflung fragments, there survive not only
lations may be seen, with the sun beyond. Eventu- the dedication pages from the front of the book
ally of course the birds grew tired, and the king’s (Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, S1986.110v and
upward trajectory came to an end. The plummet- S1986.111r), but also the final folio containing the
ing throne crashed to the ground, tipping out the colophon statement (AKTC IRM06Iv). This is
royal passenger in a remote region. He survived how it was discovered that the manuscript was
the failed adventure, but was greatly humiliated made for the Inju wazir (minister) Hajji Qawam
by the contemptuous reproaches of his noblemen al-Dawla wa-l-Din Hasan, and the calligrapher
when they came to rescue him (Davis 2006, 184– was Hasan b. Muhammad b. ³Ali b. Husayni al-
186). Mawsili. MC
206
207
159 Rustam rescues Bizhan This is one of the most famous episodes in the great rock covering over the pit, and Bizhan is fi-
from the pit (fol. 218v) Book of Kings. The adventure begins when nally freed. This is the moment of triumph illus-
Folio from the Na³im al-Din Shahnama produced Bizhan, a young and brave noble at the Iranian trated here: Rustam lowers a rope to the starving
for Sultan Abu ’l-Nasr Qasim Khan court of Kay Khusraw, rides out to rid the king- and shackled Bizhan, while weary Manizha hides
Calligrapher: Na³im al-Din “al-Katib al-Shirazi” dom of a marauding herd of wild boar, which her face with emotion and relief.
(the scribe from Shiraz) have crossed into Iranian territory from neigh- The quality of this manuscript’s 43 paintings is
Iran, Shiraz, 898 H / 1492- 3 CE bouring Turan. Wandering across the border, Bi- typical of Turkman Shiraz style, an idiom refresh-
Opaque watercolour, gold and ink on paper; zhan meets Princess Manizha, the daughter of ingly distinct from contemporary illustration in
19 th-century lacquer binding Iran’s sworn enemy Afrasiyab (Davis 2006, 306– late Timurid Herat, at the court of Husayn
AKM 000269 345). The couple fall in love, but are discovered: Bayqara (Robinson 1979; Robinson 1991). Both
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 23-31 vengeful Afrasiyab has Bizhan enchained and im- Turkman and Timurid styles were to have a fun-
prisoned alive in a deep pit, and his wretched damental influence on Safavid painting of the six-
daughter is cast out of the palace for her familial teenth century. The calligrapher, Na³im al-Din
disloyalty. Meanwhile, Kay Khusraw learns what Shirazi b. Sadr al-Din Mudhahhib, is known to
has happened in Turan, and decides to send for have copied several other extant manuscripts, dat-
Rustam, Iran’s greatest hero. Rustam duly under- ing from the 1480s to 1500s, so this Shahnama
takes the rescue mission, and leads a group of comes midway in a long career. His patron’s name
warriors disguised as merchants into the enemy’s is written in gold in the colophon statement at the
territory, where they meet the destitute Manizha. end of the manuscript – Sultan Abu ’l-Nasr Qasim
At nightfall, she leads Iran’s warriors to Bizhan’s Khan – but he has not been identified further. MC
rescue. Only Rustam is strong enough to shift the
208
160 Kay Khusraw surveys his forces Once again, the mighty armies of Iran prepare for mode in the early seventeenth century, and al-
Safavid Isfahan, Iran, battle, against their perennial enemies, the neigh- though other Indian and European vogues were
dated 29 th Jumada II 1064 H / 16 th May 1654 bouring Turanians. King Kay Khusraw is en- becoming current as the century progressed, un-
Illustrator: Mu³in Musavvir throned upon a majestic white elephant, review- swervingly Mu³in continued to work in his teach-
Opaque watercolour, gold and ink on paper ing his troops. The Iranian champions on er’s – by now – traditional style (Soudavar 1992,
37,9 x 23,5 cm horseback bow their heads to their shah, with 263–364).
AKM 00274 pennants fluttering gaily from their lances, ready A considerable corpus of Mu³in’s work sur-
for battle. The ox-headed mace held by Kay vived, including single-page drawings and illus-
Khusraw is associated with Faridun, the shah’s trated manuscripts (Farhad 1990, n. 10; Canby
ancestor. Following many long years of warfare 1998, 82–89), and also lacquered pen-boxes
with the Turanian king Afrasiyab, Kay Khusraw is (Khalili – Robinson – Stanley 1996, pp. 38–43).
finally and conclusively victorious over his enemy, He had at least two Safavid courtiers as portrait-
but this victory does not ultimately bring content- sitters – ‘Mirza Muhammad Baqir and his son
ment: Kay Khusraw’s great military successes Mirza Husayn’ (AKM 00081), and ‘The royal phy-
cause him to withdraw from the world rather than sician Hakim Shafa’i’ (Collection of Princess
embrace it. Depicted here at the height of his Catherine Aga Khan IRM95; Canby 1998, pp. 87–
power, this ambitious king will eventually aban- 88) – but yet there seems to be no evidence that
don worldly pursuits for spiritual concerns baf- he ever worked for the Safavid shahs, as he is not
fling the military heroes at his court. mentioned in the written sources. Almost in com-
Dated 1654, this fine codex is the first of a pensation for this, many of his drawings and
two-volume copy of Firdawsi’s Shahnama, richly paintings are signed and dated, and sometimes
illustrated by Mu³in Musavvir, a prolific artist of inscribed with yet further information regarding
the seventeenth century, active from the 1630s to the precise location and circumstances of the
1690s. The second volume is dated 1066 H / work. For example, a series of drawings made in
1655-6 CE, and is now in the collection of the 1672 serve as record of a shocking event at the
Chester Beatty Library in Dublin. Mu³in Musav- Safavid court when a diplomatic gift for the royal
vir had been trained by the painter Reza ³Abbasi menagerie went out of control.
(d. 1635), who had dominated the Safavid visual
209
161 Rustam slays the Turanian warrior Alkus The enduring rivalry between Iran and neigh- al arts in Iran had entered an uncertain period fol-
Folio from the Shahnama produced for Safavid bouring Turan is a major theme of the Book of lowing the gradual disaffection of Shah Tahmasp
Shah Isma³il II (r. 1576 –1577) Kings, and surfaces in this short episode. Along (Isma³il’s father, r. 1522 –1576) in the 1540s and
Iran, Qazvin, ca. 1576 with some fellow Iranian chieftains, Rustam un- 50s. This was to the certain benefit of other mem-
AKM 000101 dertakes an impromptu hunting excursion into bers of the royal family: unwanted, the painters
Reproduced: Welch 1978a, p. 89; Canby 1998, rival Turanian territory. Soon enough, the Tura- filtered away to join more enthusiastic princely
no.35 nian king Afrasiyab rides out with his army to ateliers, such as that of Tahmasp’s nephew Sultan
challenge the trespassers, and a skirmish ensues. Ibrahim Mirza, based mainly in Mashhad, and lat-
Two Turanian champions, Alkus and Pilsam, are er recalled to Qazvin. By contrast, Isma³il II spent
particularly formidable on the battlefield, at least much of his father’s reign incarcerated on Tah-
until Rustam enters. Alkus is easily slain by the masp’s direct orders, so as to contain his unscru-
great Iranian warrior, while Pilsam escapes (Rob- pulous ambitions for power. On Tahmasp’s death
inson 2002, p. 32). Recognisable in the throng, in 1576, Isma³il emerged to inherit the throne,
Rustam is dressed in his classic costume of a tiger- and also the royal atelier of calligraphers and
skin doublet and snow leopard helmet, delivering painters – for whom this manuscript may have
a mortal blow to Alkus with an ox-headed mace. been their first big commission for the new shah.
This dispersed manuscript is associated with Isma³il II was paranoid for his new political su-
the third Safavid shah, Isma³il II, whose brief premacy, and ordered the executions of almost all
reign lasted from June 1576 to November 1577 his male relatives – including Sultan Ibrahim Mir-
(Canby 1999, pp. 80–91). As the 49 extant paint- za, who died in 1577. Many of the artists who had
ings occur towards the first half of the text, it has long served this exceptionally cultured patron and
been suggested that this manuscript is incomplete collector now found themselves working for Shah
because of the unpopular shah’s premature death Isma³il II. Before long, Isma³il himself was also
by poisoning in 1577 (Robinson 1976a). The visu- murdered, under mysterious circumstances. MC
210
211
Five illustrations from the Shahname The first illustration shows Firdawsi, the author of duction of the Shahnama. As a member of a dis-
of Shah Tahmasp the text of the Shahnama, with the three poets of tinguished sayyid family (recognised descendants
the court of Mahmud, the sultan of Ghazna, a city of the Prophet Muhammad) of Isfahan, Aqa Mi-
162 Firdawsi and the three court poets which is now in modern-day Afghanistan. Firdaw- rak was described by Dust Muhammad as being
of Ghazna (fol. 7r) si left Tus, his native city, in northeastern of Iran, “unique in his time, the confidant of the Shah and
Attributed to Aga Mirak to seek out the patronage of the sultan for his unequalled as a painter and portraitist” (Binyon,
Iran, Tabriz, ca. 1532 Shahnama. Before meeting with the sultan, he was Wilkinson and Gray 1933, p. 186). S. C. Welch
Watercolour, gold and ink on paper; confronted by three poets of the court who cor- has suggested that Shah Tahmasp might have
page: 47 x 31,8 cm; image: 26.7 x 23.2 cm nered him before finally acknowledging his supe- granted his friend the honour of painting the first
AKM 00156 rior talent. In this picture, a small black servant picture of the manuscript, which depicts Firdawsi,
Published: Canby 1998, pp. 47– 48 (no. 24) (with roasts a bird on a spit while young fine-faced boys and the three poets of the court of Ghazna. Re-
previous bibliography); AKTC 2007a, p. 157 bring wine and delicacies to the three Ghazna po- turning the compliment, Aqa Mirak might have
(no. 126); AKTC 2007b, p. 159 (no. 126); Makariou ets, seated in the centre of the picture on the included a portrait of the Shah, the young man in
2007, pp. 73 -75 (no. 22); AKTC 2009a, p. 202; grassy bank of a stream of water. Firdawsi’s isola- the golden turban in this illustration (Welch
AKTC 2009b, p. 202 tion is emphasized by his position to the extreme 1979b, p. 43). Basing his theory on Tahmasp’s age
left of the main group, just where the composition at the time and the relative youth of Aqa Mirak
spills over into the margin. The role of the young compared to Sultan Muhammad and Mir Musav-
man to the right of the picture, his head elegantly vir, the first and second persons responsible for
wrapped in a golden turban topped with the Safa- the Shahnama project, Welch dated the picture to
vid red ‘taj’, is not at once clear, but identifying around 1532, approximately ten years after work
him is key for the broader interpretation of this on the manuscript began. SC
illustration and the role of Aqa Mirak in the pro-
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213
163 The court of Gayumars This is the first painting to appear after the prefa- Though the painting lacks a signature, it is one of
Attributed to Sultan Muhammad tory matter introducing Firdawsi’s Shahnama. It very few mentioned by a contemporary. In his
Iran, Tabriz, ca. 1522–1525 depicts the first king, Gayumars, enthroned before treatise on art history, written in 1544 –1545, Dust
Opaque watercolor, gold, and ink on paper his community – its members clad in leopard furs Muhammad praises Sultan Muhammad for his
47 x 31.8 cm and skins – his son Siyamak seated to his left, and creations, calling him “the rarity of the age”, and
AKM 00165 grandson Hushang standing to his right. Though singles out “The court of Gayumars” as a painting
Published: Canby 1998, 48–49; Grabar 2009, 77; the composition implies the just succession be- that humbles all artists who see it. It is easy to un-
Melikian-Chirvani 2007; Welch 1976b, 36–39 tween father and son, signified by the spatial posi- derstand why. His painting combines an ingenious
tion between them (where left is favored), we composition with a broad palette dominated by
know that this will never take place, emphasizing cool colors, each element minutely and precisely
the inherent tragedy of the tale. The angel Surush rendered in a technique that defies comprehen-
informed Gayumars that the Black Div, son of the sion. Though the painting is large and even spills
demon Ahriman, would murder Siyamak. Even at out into the gold-flecked margins, Sultan Muham-
the beginning of human time, forces of good con- mad populates the scene with countless figures,
tend with forces of evil, inaugurating a struggle animals, and details of landscape, but in such a
without end. This sense of loss is heightened by way that does not compromise legibility. The level
an idyllic landscape, where human beings gather of detail is so intense that the viewer is scarcely
alongside pacific animals of various species; even able to absorb everything, no matter how closely
the rocky landscape is constructed to suggest the he looks. DR
harmony between human and natural order.
214
215
164 The death of Zahhak This painting concludes the cycle of King Zahhak, walls of the cave, a dark, terrifying hole – the
Attributed to Sultan Muhammad which is illustrated by a number of scenes. Zah- pictorial narrative is treated with a complexity
ca. 1535 hak gained his throne by making a pact with the equal to other paintings in Shah Tahmasp’s
Opaque watercolor, gold, and ink on paper devil, Iblis, who brought about the premature Shahnama. Firdawsi’s Shahnama often involves
47 x 31.8 cm death of King Mardas, Zahhak’s father. Early in enthronements, battles, and feasting, which yield-
AKM 00155 Zahhak’s reign, Iblis arrives at the court disguised ed a recurring typology in illustrated versions.
Published: Canby 1998, p. 50; Welch 1976b, as a cook. His dishes satisfy Zahhak so much that “The death of Zahhak”, a story concerned with
pp. 44 – 47 the king grants his cook anything that he would the execution of justice and the inauguration of
like. The cook asks if he might kiss Zahhak’s Faridun’s enlightened reign, is expanded into a
shoulders. Two serpents sprout from the spots scene of al fresco courtly life, highlighting some of
kissed by Iblis; thereafter, in order to maintain his the Iranian ruler’s prerogatives. Faridun and his
own life, Zahhak is required daily to feed human courtiers have dismounted from their horses and
brains to the serpents. A tyrannical rule ensues explore the landscape, as if taking a pause from
and the only hope for justice rests with Faridun, a hunting. The presence of a musician emphasizes
hero entrusted in infancy to the cow Birmaya. De- the courtly ambience. The tranquility of the lower
spite Zahhak’s efforts, Faridun eludes capture, half of the painting is contrasted with the upper
rises up against the king, and overthrows him. half, where one finds Zahhak imprisoned in the
“The death of Zahhak” depicts the moment when cave and swirling clouds, some assuming biomor-
Zahhak has been brought to Mt. Damavand and phic forms as dragons, encircling the bare and
is suspended in a cave, per the advice of the angel rocky mountain. Again, landscape is used not sim-
Surush, where he will suffer until death. ply as a setting but to heighten the drama of the
Though one cannot fail to see the primary con- event. DR
tent – a frail, white-haired Zahhak chained to the
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217
165 Rustam hunts the onager Div In response to the complaints of a herder whose This early work of Muzaffar ³Ali, the grand-
Assigned to Muzaffar ³Ali horses had been attacked by a vicious onager, Kay nephew of Bihzad, radiates exuberance. However,
Iran, Tabriz, ca. 1530 –1535 Khusraw called on the hero Rustam for help in his style was never as simple and accurate as his
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold on paper flushing out and killing the beast. According to great uncle’s. Muzaffar ³Ali, one of the rare artists
47 x 31.8 cm the description, Kay Khusraw suspected the ona- to have worked for Shah Tahmasp throughout his
AKM 00162 ger of being an avatar of the destructive div (de- entire reign, was trained as a calligrapher and
Published: Canby 1999, pp. 51– 52 (no. 27); Digard mon), Akvan. Rustam mounted his gallant steed gilder as well as a painter. In addition to compil-
2002, p. 233 (no. 198); Makariou 2007, pp. 80 – 81 Rakhsh and departed post-haste to look for the ing a muraqqa³ (album), he helped illustrate Ni-
(no. 25) onager. On the fourth day, a golden onager ap- zami’s Khamsa, executed between 1539 and 1543
peared, galloping across a plain; Rustam and Ra- and preserved in the British Library in London;
khsh took up the chase. But scarcely had Rustam Jami’s Haft Awrang (“Seven Thrones”) compiled
touched the animal’s neck with his snare when the between 1556 and 1565 for Shah Tahmasp’s neph-
div vanished in smoke. In this painting, Rustam is ew; and Asadi’s Garshaspnama (“Book of Gar-
on the point of seizing the onager, which is turn- shasp”), executed in 1573-74. He also produced
ing its head to look back at its pursuer without murals for the royal palace in Qazvin, which was
slackening its speed. Horses are running in all di- built between 1544 and 1562 to receive the shah
rections, terrified by the div-onager. in his new capital. SC
218
219
166 The story of Haftvad and the worm In this tale, the daughter of Haftvad is spinning Shahnama, is among the last added to the book.
Signed by Dust Muhammad cotton with her female companions one day out- A signature, reading savvarahu Dust Muhammad
Iran, Tabriz, ca. 1540 side the village when she discovers a worm in her (“Dust Muhammad painted it”), combined with
Opaque watercolor, gold, and ink on paper apple. She decides to keep the worm, regarding it written sources identifies the artist as Dust Mu-
47 x 31.8 cm as a lucky charm, and places it in her spindlecase hammad Musavvir, or Dust-i Divana. Though the
AKM 00164 for safekeeping. She asserts that the worm will implications of the signature remain unclear – did
Published: Canby 1998, pp. 52– 54 help her to spin greater quantities of cotton than he design the composition and/or execute the
she ever has before, and to her friends’ amaze- painting in whole or in part? – the painting is one
ment her boast is realized. With each day, she of the strongest in Shah Tahmasp’s Shahnama.
spins greater quantities of cotton and nurtures the The vignette of Haftvad’s daughter spinning cot-
worm by feeding it pieces of apple. When her fa- ton at the lower left activates the pictorial narra-
ther, Haftvad, learns of this, he takes the worm to tive, but the remainder of the painting is con-
be a good omen and over time it grows to fill a ceived as evidence of Haftvad’s good fortune. The
custom-made chest, and then a stone cistern; after village, an aggregate of many finely made build-
five years, it is as large as an elephant and has to ings, bustles with the activities of daily life. A mu-
be housed in a fortress. As the worm grows, so do ezzin makes the call to prayer as two figures sit
Haftvad’s fortunes. When King Ardashir learns of atop a building consulting books with the tools of
this, he becomes jealous and suspicious and plots a scribe set down beside them. Elsewhere in the
to kill the worm. Eventually Ardashir succeeds in village, figures transport bundles of wood gath-
penetrating the fortress and kills the worm by ered from the countryside and carry sacks of
pouring molten lead down its throat. The tale goods, while a butcher serves a customer. The
ends with the deaths of Haftvad and his sons, van- painting is replete with many other details of the
quished by Ardashir’s army. everyday and depicts the elements of its extra-ur-
This painting, one of a few signed works in the ban landscape with equal depth and complexity. DR
220
221
167 Safavid blue and white dish with flowers Since the ninth century, the Islamic world has ob- their imitations. The Chinese model boasts a num-
Iran, 17 th century served and admired the production of Chinese ber of features which fit in perfectly with orna-
Fritware body with blue underglaze painting potters. In its classification of different peoples, mentation in the Islamic world: the wave and rock
Ø: 46.6 cm the mastery of the arts and various techniques was design on the wing is static and the wavy writing
AKM 00588 the domain of the Chinese. This is a model dating less skittish, compared to fourteenth century dish-
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 101 (no. 71); back to the beginning of the fifteenth century es. On the Chinese original, the curly lines of the
AKTC 2007b, p. 100 (no. 71); Makariou 2007, which has been faithfully copied. No fewer than waves remain fluid, though repetitive. By contrast,
pp. 20, 50 – 51 (no. 14); AKTC 2009a, p. 206; 34 similar dishes are still to be found among the on the Safavid model, the waves fold up into geo-
AKTC 2009b, p. 206 collections of the Ardebil sanctuary, the founding metrically organized bands. It is here a different
site of the Safavid dynasty (Makariou 2007, p. 55, universe of transcription at play, dominated by a
n. 81). They present slight variations; with or steadily maintained rhythm. The centre bouquet
without wings. However, the winged model, deco- copies the Chinese model almost down to the mi-
rated with waves and rocks and cavettos with nutest detail. However, these transcription details
small bouquets of flowers, has two examples change the design, accentuating a simple contrast
among the Ardebil collection (ibid., n. 82). It is between the spindly lines and the excessive colour
unusual for an imitation to be so faithful to the on the petals from which the monochromes have
original, yet this dish copies almost detail for de- disappeared (ibid., n. 83). On the underside, the
tail the decoration of waves and rocks on the undulating foliage replete with flowers from the
wings and the bouquets embellishing the cavetto. Chinese model has been simplified, or “ornamen-
Nevertheless, the Safavid piece is bigger than the talised”. The thick, oily and shiny glaze spread
Chinese examples that have been preserved. Some over the piece lends warmth to the copy. The Ot-
of them bear the mark of Shah Abbas, which toman world also liked Chinese ceramics; the
leads us to date the Safavid copy back to the first Topkapı Palace holds one of the most extensive
quarter of the seventeenth century. However, the collections of Chinese ceramics outside of China.
Chinese model probably goes back to the begin- However, the Ottoman pastiches of Chinese ce-
ning of the fifteenth century. This poses a problem ramics most often elicited transcriptions more dis-
for these objects’ reception and the gap between tanced from the model. SM
their approximate date of fabrication and that of
222
168 Emerald-green Safavid bottle The Islamic world’s fascination with China most 1876]); also, a similar bottle can be found in the
with a lion tamer likely reflects an interest in the Far East which has Gemeente Museum, The Hague (Pope 1938, pl.
Iran, early 17 th century existed in the entire region, and in particular in 808B). The pear shape seems to have been popu-
Fritware, moulded under an opaque green glaze; Iran, since Antiquity. However, in the Islamic pe- lar in the early seventeenth century, as several bot-
H 37 cm riod a concerted effort was made to imitate Chi- tles with this form exist in other collections but
AKM 00732 nese blue-and-white porcelain and monochrome with a different decorative programme (see, for
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 207; AKTC 2009b, p. 207 celadon wares. Artists and craftsmen from China example, bottles with a white body, black out-
are known to have worked in Kufa (Iraq) as early lines, and leafy grounds depicting hunters and
as the eighth century, during the Abbasid period, their prey, in the Brooklyn Museum, New York,
so that cultural transmission occurred through the and the State Hermitage Museum, St. Peters-
movement of technicians as well as through trade burg).
and diplomacy. The present bottle is an excellent The image of the lion tamer and lion also ap-
example of moulded monochrome glazed ware pears in drawings of the period; these probably
imitating Chinese celadon. Two images created by served as models for ceramic decoration as well as
a mould appear on the body of the bottle: a for the surfaces of other media. This very scene is
winged bull and a Chinese qilin on one side, and depicted by the well-known sixteenth-century Sa-
the figure of a lion tamer and a lion on the other. favid artist Sadiqi Beg (see cat. no. 154), whose
A virtually identical bottle is in the Victoria and drawings sometimes reflect the influence of his
Albert Museum, London, suggesting that the two contemporary, Reza ³Abbasi, known for his ex-
objects were produced from the same mould traordinary “calligraphic” drawing style. LA
(Pope 1938, pls. 807B & 808A [inv. no. 1339-
223
169 Panel with irises The fragment highlights the stems darting off to conduce to assign these two tiles, fragments of a
Iran (or India?), 17 th century the right. The bold shades of blue, turquoise, larger piece, to India. The technique, however, is
Earthenware with white glaze overpainted with white and yellow create a strong colour contrast rigorously similar to that applied to tiles still to be
coloured glazes and black lines; 47.8 x 24 cm with the mustard-coloured background. A touch found in Isfahan. The terra cotta is entirely coated
AKM 00590 of green at the base of the irises adds richness to with a white opaque glaze; on this background a
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 42 – 43 (no. 10) ; the array. Similarities with the most graphic tradi- black line traces the contours; the composition is
AKTC 2009a, p. 208; AKTC 2009b, p. 208 tion of European engraving are rapidly obvious. undetermined but the difference of mortar be-
Plates of botanical books were, as already tween the black line and the glaze ensures effec-
stressed, a likely source of inspiration for designs tive insulation between the layers of coloured
on ceramic pieces for pleasure pavilions in Iran glaze. The decoration is subsequently painted
and for Mughal residences in India. The work with coloured glaze which practically covers the
that was best received was “Hortus floridus” underlying white glaze. The white petals, visible
(1614) by Crispin de Passe (Makariou 2007, p. 55, here, are therefore reserves. The black line re-
n. 61). However, artists of the great modern Is- stores the design element to the piece and allows a
lamic empires made their selection recomposing more finely rendering of the outpouring of the
from among this vast repertoire; the same theme petals which are just about ready to fall off their
was often transformed into an entity which was petiole. The term ‘naturalism’ has been overused,
ornamentalised through repetition, as for instance but sensitivity to nature did nonetheless express a
unreal meadows storming over the brick walls of preoccupation of the literate elite of the time. SM
the Isfahan pavilions. The colour scheme could
224
170 Shepherds in a landscape Two wistful-looking shepherds loll on a hillock as riou 2007, p. 55, no. 51). Apparently he aban-
Signed by ³Ali Quli Jabbadar their sheep and a goat graze at the left and their doned making armour in favour of painting,
Iran, ca. 1675 dog lies watchfully at the right. In the background though his eclectic style, neither wholly European
Watercolour on paper, image 12.2 x 16.9 cm a hamlet with onion-domed towers and low build- nor Persian, may indicate that he was never thor-
AKM 00078 ings set in a grove completes the composition. oughly trained in either mode. The painting of the
Published: Canby 1998, pp. 89 – 90 (no. 62) (with Not only do the hat of the piping shepherd, his shepherds is one with very few Persian elements
previous bibliography); Makariou 2007, pp. 38 – 39 contraposto pose and the transparent pantaloons and should be dated near the beginning of his ca-
(no. 8); AKTC 2009a, p. 209; AKTC 2009b, p. 209 of both figures give a decidedly un-Persian im- reer in the mid-1670s shortly after his earliest dat-
pression, but also the painterly treatment of foli- ed work of 1084 H /1673- 4 CE (ibid., no. 52).
age and the shading of the gullies in the middle ³Ali Quli may have worked in several centres
ground indicate the presence of strong European since one of his paintings is inscribed ‘Qazvin’
influence. and another ‘Isfahan’. Several paintings by him in
By the 1670s European artists had been active an album in St Petersburg have Georgian inscrip-
in Isfahan for at least fifty years, and the europe- tions, prompting Soucek to propose that a Geor-
anising, or ‘farangi’ style had been established gian official commissioned these portraits of Shah
since the middle of the century. According to the Sulayman (ibid., no. 53). His career lasted until at
eighteenth century writer Lutf ³Ali Beg Adar, ³Ali least 1129 H / 1716-7 CE, the year of his latest
Quli Jabbadar was a European convert to Islam. dated work (ibid. no. 64), and his son, Muham-
His name suggests that he had come to Iran to mad ³Ali Beg, become head of the painters under
work as an official in the Safavid armoury (Maka- Nadir Shah (ibid., no. 54). SC
225
171 Safavid polychrome doors These well-preserved polychrome painted doors painted in green and surrounded by a stylized
with Sufi inscription are carved with floral and foliate motifs in high vine scroll painted in red. The text, which speaks
Iran, 17 th –18 th century relief, enclosed within a strapwork design of ob- on behalf of the person who would stand on the
Wood, carved and painted; 161 x 84.5 cm long star-shaped frames and bordered by narrow outer side of the doors, appears to carry a more
Inscription: dar-i shadi bi-sahib-i in bab / and shallow-carved bands of vegetal scrolls and spiritual significance characteristic of Sufi-inspired
bighushay muffatih al-abwab (“Doorman, open the rosettes. Their floral ornamentation is typical of Safavid culture: “Doorman, open the door of hap-
door of happiness for the owner of this door”) the dynamic vegetal designs of the Safavid period piness for the owner of this door”. While their
AKM 00704 and probably originated in manuscript illustration original context remains unknown, these doors
Published: AKTC 2008a, pp. 148 –149 (no. 53); and bookbinding. Two frames located above the might have once opened into a Sufi hospice or a
AKTC 2009a, p. 210; AKTC 2009b, p. 210 star-shaped panels on each door include an in- palatial retreat. LA
scription in Persian, carved against a background
226
227
228
Iran and Central Asia The Zand and the Qajars
Sheila Canby
The Qajar dynasty, which ruled Iran from produced lifesize portraits of him in oil on
1779 to 1925, was descended from a Turk- canvas for installation in palatial dwellings.
man tribe that rose to prominence under the While Fath ³Ali Shah looked to the past to
Safavids (r. 1501–1722). In the second half of validate his reign, Nasir al-Din Shah (r. 1848 –
the eighteenth century Karim Khan Zand 1896) (see cat. nos. 186 and 187) embraced
and his heirs controlled Fars province in new artists and technological ideas from Eu-
southern Iran but could not bring the rest of rope. The shah developed an interest in pho-
the country to heel for any extended period tography, taking pictures himself of members
of time. In this period the Qajar heir, Agha of his household. Painting styles changed to
Muhammad, was kept under house arrest at reflect this new preoccupation
the Zand court where he was castrated. A de- The Qajar period was also the heyday of
sire for revenge fuelled Agha Muhammad’s Persian lacquerware, which had been used
eventual rebellion against the Zands and his for pen boxes, book covers and caskets in-
consolidation of power. Upon his death in creasingly since the late fifteenth century (see
1797, his nephew Fath ³Ali Khan, acceded to cat. no. 186). Bird and flower motifs were
the throne. especially popular on Qajar lacquers, though
Fath ³Ali Shah began his reign on shaky portraits and vignettes after European print
political ground and did not experience un- sources also found their way onto them.
qualified military success. Yet he master- Politically the Qajars could not withstand
minded the promotion of his imperial image the pressure to open markets to European
to a far greater extent than earlier kings of countries; this monopolised lucrative indus-
Iran had done. His long black beard and nar- tries and weakened the shahs’ economic con-
row waist emphasised his manliness and trol of the country. Culturally, the Qajars en-
made his image instantly recognizable (see couraged traditional arts such as calligraphy
cat. no. 173). In addition, Fath ³Ali devised a while showing a curiosity about the outside
new Kayanian crown which stressed his royal world. This sometimes contradictory combi-
connection with the ancient Achaemenid nation resulted in an immediately recognisa-
emperors of Iran. Numerous portraits of ble artistic style that frequently served the
Fath ³Ali Shah were produced for wide dis- shahs’ political purposes.
semination; at the same time, court artists
Isfahan (Iran), Great Mosque
229
172 Karim Khan Zand and his courtiers In contrast to the Qajar imperial enthronement he brought to Iran. Diba has attributed the work
Attributed to Muhammad Sadiq scenes of Nadir Shah (r. 1736 –1747) and Fath³Ali to Muhammad Sadiq based on a portrait sketch of
Iran, Shiraz, after 1779 Shah (r. 1798 –1834; cat. no. 173) both of whom Karim Khan Zand signed by the artist as well as
Oil and metal leaf on canvas; 129.5 x 276.8 cm are decoratively depicted in full regalia, there are details such as the heavily shaded faces, turbans
AKM 00501 few indicators that this is an imperial image. Ka- and small-scale floral patterns, all also found in
Published: Diba 1998, pp. 152–153; rim Khan, the Zand regent who ruled for one of the artist’s signed portrait of Rustam Khan Zand.
AKTC 2007b, cat. D p. 188; AKTC 2009a, p. 215; the last Safavids, wears a Zand turban but no of- She has suggested that the present painting may
AKTC 2009b, p. 215 ficial regalia. The informality of this casual smok- have been a commemorative portrait commis-
ing portrait relates to the style of his rule. Karim sioned after the ruler’s death, based on her obser-
Khan Zand’s strong shoulders, the deferential vation that the serious tone of the courtiers con-
posture of his courtiers, the monumentality of the tradicts the reportedly coarse humour and
columned porch and the sheer size of the painting jocularity of Zand’s actual court (Diba 1998, pp.
itself convey the power of his rule and the stability 152–153). AF
230
231
173 Fath ³Ali Shah seated on a throne In order to extensively distribute his portrait, Fath Standing in contrast to his sumptuous accoutre-
decorated with precious stones ³Ali Shah (r. 1798 –1834) had countless miniature ments, his slender figure, which is emphasized by
Miniature pictures made of himself. All of these images show his tailored robes, allows Fath ³Ali Shah to seem
Iran, Qajar, early 19 th century him either seated on a throne, cross-legged on a almost ascetic and demonstrates the self-discipline
Watercolour and gold on paper; 33.2 x 21.1 cm pedestal, or standing either clothed in armor or of a ruler who is still active in the militarily. Fath
AKM 00504 holding a large scepter (Diba 1998, pp. 173 –188). ³Ali Shah’s name and title are on a medallion in
Published: ; AKTC 2009a, p. 217; This watercolor portrait is a work by Mir ³Ali, the upper right corner of the picture. Under that,
AKTC 2009b, p. 217 one of the greatest painters of the early Qajar a six-sectioned gold frame contains a two-verse
period, who was known for his large-format por- eulogy on the ruler. With the rigid and linear
traits of Fath ³Ali Shah as well as for his introduc- painting style of the second and third decades of
tion of iconographic innovations such as the throne the nineteenth century, a break with the naturalis-
in this painting (Raby 1999, p. 11). Fath ³Ali Shah tic, soft modeled portraits of the Zand dynasty
sits in three-quarter view on his “Naderi” throne, was deliberately executed (see cat. no. 172). Ex-
which he designed himself and which is decorated cept for the size of royal portraits, European
with precious stones and pearls. His luxurious red painting conventions were not utilized from then
robes, his crown, and his sword are richly adorned on. Instead, painters reverted back to old-Persian
as well. He also designed his Achaemenid-inspired Achaemenid and Sassanid models found in the
“Kayani” crown, which is decorated with heron rock reliefs of Kermanshah or Persepolis. Stiff
feathers. The lack of an architectonic frame that poses, frontal views, and lush colours and gold
is usually present in his portraits strengthens the that contrast with the pale complexion of the sub-
picture’s feeling of royal grandeur and almost ject dominate the stern compositions. The attrib-
iconic aloofness. The rigid and almost impassive utes of the new standard of beauty included the
posture of the subject parallels the position of sharply contoured nose, almond-shaped eyes with
authority and regal majesty that he seemingly highly accentuated eyebrows, henna-dyed nails
wanted to project. The delicately painted facial and feet, and, as a sign of masculinity, a long,
features and the dainty hands and feet, however, black, meticulously groomed beard (Diba 1998,
still lend the picture a certain degree of elegance. 170). VD
174 Album (muraqqa³) of portraits This album (muraqqa³) opens in concertina-style dallion inscribed with his name and the date 1234
and calligraphies format to reveal twelve Persian ruler-portraits and H / 1819 CE. The album may have been commis-
Iran, Tehran, early 18 th – early 19 th century eighteen calligraphy specimens mounted onto sioned by Fath ³Ali Shah or presented to him by
Sixteen hinged folios; ink, opaque watercolour, and decorated pages. The calligraphy pages are written an attentive courtier. According to Robinson, the
gold on paper, in a contemporary lacquer binding; in shikasta, thuluth, naskh and nasta³liq scripts, album is perhaps a “portable” version of the large
29.2 x 19.5 cm set within finely illuminated floral borders. The oil paintings commissioned by Fath ³Ali Shah
AKM 00275 twelve portraits include three of the most impor- from the artist Mir ³Ali for the Imarat-i Naw pal-
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 98 –119; Welch and tant kings of the Shahnama, Jamshid, Kay Khus- ace in Isfahan (Ekhtiar in Diba 1998, p. 176). Like
Welch 1982, pp. 132–134 (no. 45); Diba 1998, raw, and Kay Kavus. Portraits of Genghis Khan, the life-size portraits of past and contemporary
pp. 176 –178; AKTC 2007a, p. 110 (no. 76); Timur, and rulers from the Safavid, Zand, and rulers, this album represents another way the Qa-
AKTC 2007b, pp. 110 –111 (no. 76); AKTC 2008a, Qajar dynasties also appear. A painting of Fath jars used the visual arts to convey imperial power
pp. 162–163 (no. 59) ; AKTC 2009a, p. 217; ³Ali Shah (r. 1798 –1834) in opulent imperial fin- and dynastic legitimacy. AF
AKTC 2009b, p. 217 ery on the Sun Throne on fol. 3v contains a me-
232
233
A group of Qajar gold coins and objects This eclectic group reflects the range of small-scale The miniature Qur’an case and both amulets
but high-quality objects that were made from the contain inscriptions of verses from the Qur’an
175 -180 Six gold coins issued by Agha valuable medium of gold under the Qajars. (cat. nos. 181 and 182). The amulets may have
Muhammad Khan Qajar (r. 1794 –1797) The six presentation coins provide the only contained rolled pieces of paper with Qur’anic
Iran, Tehran, Qajar, 1210 and 1211 H / 1795 and exact dates of production, minted in either 1795 verses or even an entire Qur’an written in minis-
1796 CE or 1796 under the reign of Agha Muhammad cule ghubar (“dust”) script, so-called because the
Gold; various dimensions, ranging from Shah (r. 1794 –1797), the founder of the Qajar dy- minute letters were thought to be as small, fragile,
approximately 80 to 400 grams nasty. Some of the coins, including one that is and transient as grains of powder. The Qur’an
AKM 00621 square-shaped, contain inscriptions with invoca- case might have once housed a miniature Qur’an
Published: AKTC 2009a, p.218; AKTC 2009b, p.218 tions to God, Muhammad, and ³Ali, the Prophet’s or a section of a Qur’an made in the same shape
cousin and the first Shia imam. Others exhibit fig- as the case. The amulet in cat. no. 182 also names
ural images such as the peacock, a symbol associ- the Shia ahl al-bayt, or “people of the house [of
ated with royalty in Iran but also with paradise, or the Prophet]”, which include Muhammad, ³Ali,
the lion and sun, both well-recognised symbols of Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn. The amulets and
kingship and authority in Iran since pre-Islamic case were meant to be worn, their inscriptions and
times. One of the coins contains a pearl border, a contents meant to invoke God’s power and pro-
motif that also stems from pre-Islamic, in particu- tection of the wearer. The Qur’an case also in-
lar Sasanian, imagery. It is possible that the coins cludes an Arabic quatrain in addition to excerpts
struck in 1210 AH celebrated the coronation of from al-Baqara (“The Cow”) and al-Qalam (“The
the king, while those struck in 1211 AH com- Pen”).
memorated his first anniversary of rulership. Objects made of gold not only reflected Islam-
These massive gold coins formed part of the in- ic and pre-Islamic indigenous tastes, but also
demnity of 10 kurur, or 5 million tomans, paid by sometimes incorporated European designs and
Iran to the Russians under the Treaty of Turkman- influences, as is demonstrated by the rare and
chai, in 1928, following a disastrous war. Reports beautiful enamelled gold compendium seen in cat.
from the period state that about 1,600 mules were no. 183, which includes an equinoctial sun dial;
needed to transport the money (Raby 1999, p. this form of sundial was invented in England
22). The treaty also ceded the Khanates of Erivan around 1600 and used in Europe into the nine-
and Nakhichvan to Russia in perpetuity and also teenth century. This object reflects the Qajar rul-
forbid Iran from having any armed vellels in the ers’ taste for personal luxury objects as well as
Caspian Sea. their interest in scientific knowledge and trade
with Europe. AF / LA
234
235
181 Amulet
Iran, Qajar, 19 th century
Gold; L 8.3 cm
Text (Arabic): (amulet) al-Qalam (“The Pen”), 68:51–52;
(roundels) ya ³Ali madad (“O ³Ali, help”)
AKM 00623
182 Miniature Qur’an case and amulet

Gold; Ø of case 5.3 cm; L of amulet 8.5 cm
Text (Arabic): (both Qur’an case and amulet)
al-Baqara (The Cow), 2:255
AKM 00624
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 48 (no. 18); AKTC 2007b,
p. 44 (no. 18); AKTC 2009a, p. 220; AKTC 2009b,
p. 220
183 Equinoctial sun dial

Enamelled gold; Ø 9 cm
AKM 00625
AKTC 2007b, p. 112 (no. 77); AKTC 2008a,
pp. 164 –165 (no. 60) AKTC 2009a, p. 221;
AKTC 2009b, p. 221
236
237
184 Official letter from Crown Prince
³Abbas Mirza to Napoleon I
Iran, dated 1808
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold; 120 x 58 cm
AKM 00251
Published: Falk 1985, pp. 193 –194 (no. 182);
AKTC 2007a, p. 113 (no. 80); AKTC 2007b,
p. 114 (no. 80); AKTC 2009a, p. 222;
AKTC 2009b, p. 222
Diplomatic relations between the Qajars and the

West began to open up again during the reign of
Fath ³Ali Shah (r. 1798 –1834). The period be-
tween 1805, when Napoleon inaugurated ex-
change with the Qajars, and 1808 – the date of
this letter – saw a number of intense diplomatic
exchanges and treaties between the Qajars and
the French and British, as loyalties shifted in the
context of the Perso-Russian wars. Crown Prince
³Abbas Mirza (1789 –1833), son and heir appar-
ent of Fath ³Ali Shah, was governor of Azerbaijan
and based at Tabriz, where he organised military
campaigns – with the latest French military tech-
nology and training – for the control of Georgia
and Azerbaijan. This letter, which arrived in Paris
on 17 February 1809 according to an inscription
on its reverse (“Lettre du Prince ³Abbas Mirza à
S. M. Impériale, écrite à la fin de l’année 1808, et
arrivée à Paris le 17 février 1809”) was written by
nineteen-year-old Prince ³Abbas Mirza to the
French emperor Napoleon I. The prince remarks
upon the emperor’s two-year silence, describes
how the Russians have been breaking their treaty,
and asks Napoleon what he plans to do about it,
since the Prince’s troops are ready for battle (see
Layla Diba in Falk 1985, pp. 193–194, with fur-
ther references). It was a British envoy, Sir John
Kinneir Macdonald, who helped arrange the final
treaty of Turkmanchai with Russia in 1828 and
financially supported Prince ³Abbas Mirza after
the loss of Tabriz to the Russians. AF
238
185 Lacquer bow
Iran, Zand or Qajar, late 18 th century
Wood, painted and varnished; L 92 cm
AKM 00641
Published: AKTC 2007a, pp. 144 –145 (no. 110);
pp. 220, 222 – 223 (no. 84); AKTC 2009a, p. 222;
AKTC 2009b, p. 222
The archer’s bow was a symbol of kingship as

well as a tool of the hunt. This elaborate lacquer
bow has been painted and covered by a clear
sandarac-based varnish that protects the painting
and imparts luminescence. Persian literary sourc-
es from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries re-
fer to the varnish as rawghan-i kaman, or “bow
gloss”. This reference, coupled with the fascinat-
ing fact that the Timurid Sultan Husayn’s keeper
of books (kitabdar) and manager of manuscript
production Mirak Naqqash (d. after 1507) pro-
duced bows and came from a family of Herati
bow-makers, has led Stanley to suggest that the
earliest lacquer book covers may have been pro-
duced by him using bow gloss (Stanley in
Thompson and Canby 2003, p. 189). AF
239
186 Lacquer pen box The visual arts flourished under Qajar patronage Nizami are illustrated; and there are six portraits
Signed: Isma³il (Muhammad Isma³il) in the nineteenth century and lacquer painting of Sufi dervishes. This important pen box is signed
Iran, dated 1282 H / 1865 CE was a particular speciality (see cat. nos. 156 and by the Qajar painter laureate (naqqash bashi), Mu-
Papier-mâché, painted and lacquered; 185 for examples of bookbinding and a bow). The hammad Isma³il, who was active in the mid-nine-
L 26.8 cm scribe’s humble pen box was often transformed teenth century and famous for his lacquer paint-
AKM 00643 into a work of beauty and this box is no excep- ings. On the inside of the drawer, it contains a
Published: Robinson 1989, figs. 1 and 10; tion: it is highly decorated with images of familiar miniature self-portrait of the artist wearing an As-
Karimzadeh Tabrizi 1990, vol. 1, p. 457; political, legendary, literary, and mystical themes. trakhan hat, paintbrush in hand, in an oval car-
AKTC 2007a, p. 111 (no. 78); AKTC 2007b, It shows, in a central cartouche, the Qajar ruler touche. A couplet above and below identifies the
p. 112 (no. 78); AKTC 2008a, pp. 166 –167 (no. 61); Nasir al-Din Shah (r. 1848 –1896) holding court; artist’s name, Isma³il. AF
AKTC 2009a, p. 224; AKTC 2009b, p. 224 legendary kings are crowned; poems of Sa³di and
187 Manuscript of Gulshan-i Raz of Shabistari The Qajar ruler Nasir al-Din Shah (r. 1848 –1896) in gold on a dark ground. The roots of Qajar lac-
Iran, Tehran, dated Shawwal – Dhu ’l-Qa³da appears in a central portrait medallion on this lacquer bookbinding are very deep and are found
1310 H / April – May 1893 CE quer binding decorated with scrolling vine-plants within the Timurid traditions of fifteenth century
Painting and varnish on pasteboard; binding: 18.5 x in gold. The second half of the nineteenth century Herat, which then continued into the Safavid pe-
12 x 2.2 cm; page: 18.2 x 11.4 cm; text: 13.6 x 7 cm saw an increasing European influence and Nasir riod (see cat. no. 156). The Gulshan-i Raz (“Rose
AKM 00276 al-Din Shah responded with a combination of Garden of Secrets”) is a Sufi poem composed in
Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 120 –123; AKTC 2007a, conservatism and modernity. The Dar al-Funun, 1311 by Shaykh Sa³d al-Din Mahmud b. ³Abdul-
pp. 114 –115 (no. 81); AKTC 2007b, p. 115 (no. 81); Iran’s first polytechnic (1851), was modelled on Karim b. Yahya al-Shabistari (d. 1320 – 21), ar-
AKTC 2009a, p. 224; AKTC 2009b, p. 224 western institutions. This lacquer binding likewise ranged in a format of fifteen rhetorical questions
combines modernity with conservatism: a Europe- posed by Amir Husayni of Khurasan, with lengthy
an-style portrait medallion of Nasir al-Din Shah is answers by the author. AF
set within a more traditional vegetal composition
240
241
188 Calligraphic painting by Isma³il Jalayir Seeming to emerge from a strange landscape Hasan and Husayn, the second and third Shiite
Signed: Isma³il Jalayir written in red horizontally bathed in ethereal light, the letters of an invoca- imams. This “spiritual investiture” scene certainly
at the bottom (raqamaha al-haqir Isma³il tion to ³Ali ibn al-Husayn, better known as Zayn throws light on other scenes: the two sufis to the
al-musavvir al-katib sana ...) al-³Abidin, the fourth Shiite imam, stand out. The right of the word ³Ali, the hunting and beat
Iran, ca. 1860 –1870 ha and the sin of his father’s name, Husayn, the scenes which could also depict a symbolic pursuit.
Inscription (Arabic): second Shiite imam, who was martyred in Karbala In the timeless and vaporous landscape, a sun ris-
At top, in red: first line: huwa al-³aziz al-wahhab (Iraq) in 680, divide the page in two with their es directly above the letter lam of ³Ali. The letters
Second line: ya murtada ya ³Ali ³alayhi al-salam long diagonal. The “cuts” of the ya of ³Ali and the appear to be basking in the glow of that light. Ja-
Centre of the page, starting from the bottom, final nun of ibn and Husayn form a perfect line layir’s style is vaporous, impalpable, with delicate
in black: ya ³Ali ibn al-Husayn ³alayhi al-salam alternating with three alifs. On the lower line, the superimpositions, as photographic images. He
Ink and gouache on paper; 35 x 53 cm dance of the pen tips – two and one and two was trained in the Dar al-Funun, in Tehran, and
AKM 00534 again – marks the cadence of the writing. Unfor- learned calligraphy from Master Mirza Ghulam
Published: Falk 1985 (no. 177); Blair 2006, tunately, the page has been trimmed slightly so Riza. The mark of this progressive institution is
pp. 454–455; Makariou 2007, pp. 156–157 (no. that the date (on the bottom line to the left) is clearly felt here: photography, proudly adopted by
56); AKTC 2009a, p. 226; AKTC 2009b, p. 226 missing. This page could be likened to another the sovereign Qajars, was taught as of 1860, along
calligraphy attributed to Isma³il Jalayir based on with lithography. The signature of this hearth of
the same model of an inscription in nasta³liq writ- new technologies and styles which was Dar al-Fu-
ing style on a blurred background, illustrated with nun, is visible in Jalayir’s work through the skilful
a number of sketches. mix of calligraphy – archetypal Islamic art – and
At the top of the page is an almost unreal ar- painstakingly precise miniature painting, to the
chitecture that transmutes the models of classical extent that its vaporous appearance resembles
Western architecture: columns, domes and porti- contemporary photographs developed on albumin
cos could conjure an ideal city or an earthly or paper. On the other side, one can see the floating
heavenly palace. In the “cut” of the ya of “³Ali”, image of a bearded man wearing an Astrakhan
nestled in an ovum, is³Ali, facing front and carry- hat, painted with light strokes in grey mono-
ing on his knees the Dhu ’l-fiqar sword given to chrome, recalling the lithography that became
him by the Prophet, flanked by his two sons, fashionable under the Qajars. SM
242
243
244
India and the Moghuls
Sheila Canby
The first Mughal emperor of India, Babur, ans at his court resulted in an emphasis on
was born in Central Asia, the descendant of realism and the adoption of illusionistic tech-
Timur (Tamerlane) and Chinghiz (Genghis) niques in painting. This tendency was height-
Khan. Despite his pedigree, he failed to real- ened during the reign of Jahangir (r.
ise his ambition of conquering Samarqand, 1605 –1627). Portraiture gained in impor-
and from 1514 until 1526 he turned his ener- tance while paintings of the flora and fauna
gies to Afghanistan and then to India. In of India were produced, a subject of pro-
1526, Babur defeated the Lodi Sultan of found interest to Jahangir. Like his father,
Delhi at the Battle of Panipat and thus began Shah Jahan (r. 1628 –1658, see cat. no. 191)
to rule northern India. Following Babur’s commissioned many portraits of members of
death in 1530, his son and heir, Humayun, the Mughal dynasty and lavish illustrations to
struggled to hold onto power in India. After the history of his reign, the Padshahnama.
a period of exile in Iran and delay in Afghan- One of Shah Jahan’s sons, Dara Shikuh,
istan, however, he regained Delhi and Agra demonstrated a broadminded interest in art
in 1555. Humayun brought artists with him and mysticism. However, his brother, Aw-
from the Safavid court of Iran, whom he had rangzeb, proved to be militarily more power-
invited to work in his library. His untimely ful and not only had Dara Shikuh murdered
death in 1556 meant that his son, Akbar, but also deposed Shah Jahan.
benefited from these émigrés far more than In his long reign, from 1658 to 1707, Aw-
his father did. Chosen because of their more rangzeb pushed the Mughal conquest of In-
naturalistic painting style, the Persian artists dia southward but abandoned the tolerant
at the court of Akbar worked on numerous, attitudes of his predecessors. The wars and
ambitious illustrated manuscripts alongside rigid attitudes of Awrangzeb ultimately
native Hindu and Muslim painters as well as weakened the Mughal empire so that the
some from Central Asia. eighteenth century saw a long decline and a
Akbar’s policy of engaging with all the nostalgia for the heyday of the dynasty under
populations of India and welcoming Europe- Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan.
© akg-images, Bildarchiv Monheim
New-Delhi (India), domes of the Great Mosque
245
189 Four-sided standard (³alam) This ³alam (standard), imposing in appearance A standard identified by Allan blends these two
Iran or Deccan, 17 th –18 th centuries and size, is one of the most sophisticated stand- writing styles. The ³alams are represented on a ce-
Cast, welded and riveted iron; cut-out decoration; ards in the James Allan classification. This four- ramic mosaic piece, dated 1611, in the royal Shia
H 102 cm branched type, in the shape of successive almonds tomb, the Badshahi ³ashurkhana, built between
AKM 00620 of increasing dimensions, with inscriptions on an 1593 and 1596 by Muhammad Quli in Hy-
Published: Makariou 2007, pp. 150 –151 (no. 53); extensive arabesque openwork background, is re- derabad. No standard of this type seems to have
AKTC 2009a, p. 230; AKTC 2009b, p. 230 portedly of Safavid Iranian origin, particularly appeared during that period, so the standard pre-
from Isfahan. In his study, Allan lists a few, only sented here might date back to the second half of
two of which are dated: one, 1069 H / 1658-9 CE the seventeenth or beginning of the eighteenth
and the other, 1117 H / 1705 CE. The ³alam from century, like those mentioned by Allan.
the Aga Khan Museum could be from South In- The commemoration of the martyrdom of
dia, from one of the Shiite kingdoms of the Dec- Husayn, son of ³Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the
can which were established following the weaken- Prophet, who died in the Battle of Karbala, on
ing of the Bahmanid dynasty (1347–1527) 10 Muharram 680, was a major milestone for Shi-
between the end of the fifteenth and beginning of ism and brought about several important events.
the sixteenth century. Indeed, the detailed nature In the Deccan, since the end of the sixteenth cen-
of the openworked metal, mixing arabesque and tury, during the month of Muharram, poems in
calligraphic designs, is an indication of the close honour of the Shia martyrs, marsiyas, were recited
links these kingdoms maintained with Shiite Safa- in assemblies that met at specific venues called
vid Iran. Many artists, men of letters and religious ³ashurkhanas. Unused standards were also stored
personalities from the Iranian world settled in that here. During the processions, they were carried
part of India. Only an in-depth study of the differ- with a representation of Husayn’s cenotaph
ent inscriptions on this standard, which seem to (tabut) as well as an image of Buraq, the white,
be in thuluth style could perhaps confirm the ori- winged mount of the Prophet, and a candelabrum
gin of this piece. Mark Zebrowski highlights cer- of incense. At the end of the procession, the tabut
tain features of the thuluth style which are par- was buried or immersed in a river, according to
ticular to that region, as well as the absence of the Hindu tradition where the image of the goddess
nasta³liq, widely used in Safavid Iran, and some Durga was thrown into a river. MB
examples of which are known in northern India.
246
247
190 Pictorial genealogy Genealogical portraits and histories were used by and recomposed at some point. This
of the descendants of Jahangir the Islamic dynasties, particularly the Mughals and is not unusual considering Jahangir’s other refur-
India, Agra, ca. 1623 –1627 Ottomans, to reinforce their legitimacy and power bishments of historical paintings, such as the
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; (see cat nos. 98 and 100). In this album page, the Princes of the House of Timur (British Museum),
page: 36.2 x 24.2 cm Mughal Emperor Jahangir (r. 1605 –1627) is located which was probably a painting of a garden party
AKM 00151 at the top of his “family tree.” He is linked to four of the Mughal emperor Humayun (r. 1530 –1556,
Published: Canby 1998, pp. 145 –147 (no. 108); of his sons (from left, Khusraw, Jahandar, Shahriyar, with interruption) and his friends before Jahangir’s
AKTC 2007a, p. 117 (no 83); AKTC 2007b, p. 118 and Sultan Parviz) and their sons. His Timurid an- artists refashioned it into a Timurid-Mughal
(no. 83) ; AKTC 2009a, p. 232; AKTC 2009b, p. 232 cestors are pictured beneath him in a reversal of ge- dynastic portrait. AF
nealogical order. The genealogies were rearranged
248
191 Portrait of Shah Jahan The emperor sits in haloed profile upon a gold- their maternal grandfather, Asaf Khan, on the
and his three sons footed throne under a high white canopy, flanked right. It was not unusual for the Mughals to refur-
India, ca. 1628 or later by his three young princes who stand on the left. bish earlier works (see cat. no. 190) for propagan-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; All are resplendent with opulently bejewelled tur- da reasons. The inscription at bottom left reads,
page: 35.8 x 24.2 cm; image: 24.8 x 14.7 cm bans, necklaces, qatar daggers, and sashes (patkas) “Work of the most humble of the house born,
Inscribed (Persian): “Work of the most humble of against a rounded backdrop of turquoise, perhaps Manohar.” Sheila Canby notes that the painting is
the house born, Manohar”; suggesting a globe, as golden light appears on the characteristic of Manohar’s style from about 1615
“Portrait of Nur al-Din Jahangir and his sons” right. The inscription on this Mughal painting except for the refurbished faces, and that the
AKM 00124 identifies it as a portrait of Emperor Jahangir and composition follows the conventions of intimate
Published: Canby 1998, pp. 147–148 (no. 119); his three sons, but what we see today are the faces royal portraits from Akbar’s reign, which, under
AKTC 2007a, p. 119 (no. 85); AKTC 2007b, of Shah Jahan (r. 1628 –1657) and his three eldest Jahangir and Shah Jahan in the 1610s –1620s, de-
pp. 116 and 129 (no. 85); AKTC 2009a, p. 233; sons – Dara Shikuh (1615 –1659), Shah Shuja³ veloped to include a more psychological focus. AF
AKTC 2009b, p. 233 (1616 –1659) and Awrangzeb (1618–1707) – and
249
192 Portraits of Jahangir Framed within elaborately painted and illuminat- Muzaffar Muhammad Shihab al-Din Shah Jahan
and Shah Jahan ed borders and mounted on an album page filled Padshah-i Ghazi Sahib Qiran-i Thani. Sheila Can-
Portrait of Jahangir: signed by Balchand with vegetal design in gold, these portraits of two by has suggested that the last title, Sahib Qiran-i
Portrait of Shah Jahan: signed and dated of the greatest Mughal emperors illustrate the Thani (“the Second Lord of the Astral conjunc-
by Abu’l-Hasan contrast in the artistic conventions under each of tion”), refers to Timur (r. 1370 –1405), the found-
India, Mughal, 1628 their reigns. The painted bust of Jahangir (r. er of the Timurid dynasty from which the
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; 1605–1627), the fourth ruler of the dynasty and Mughals were descended (Canby 1998, p. 143).
55.1 x 34.5 cm; Jahangir portrait within the son of Akbar (r. 1556 –1605), represents the This connection to the greatest Timurid ruler
borders: 5 x 4.1 cm; Shah Jahan portrait within miniature portraits that became fashionable for would have helped Shah Jahan legitimise his right
borders: 18.2 x 13.9 cm important figures to wear during this emperor’s to the throne following his father’s death. The
AKM 00135 reign. The trend began after 1615, when minia- iconic, idealized courtly style of Shah Jahan’s era
Published: Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 215 – 216 ture portraits were introduced to India from Eng- is already apparent at the start of his reign; the
(no. 71); Falk 1985, p. 165 (no. 143); Goswamy land by Sir Thomas Roe (Welch and Welch 1982, painting is signed and dated in the first year of the
and Fischer 1987, pp. 96 – 97 (no. 43); Canby 1998, p. 215; Canby 1998, p. 143). The artistic style un- emperor’s rule to the left of the portrait by Nadir
pp. 142 –144 (no. 106); AKTC 2008a, pp. 170 der Jahangir is well represented by the artist Bal- al-Zaman, known as Abu ’l-Hasan: “It was paint-
and 172 –173 (no. 65); AKTC 2009a, p. 235; chand, known for his ability to capture the more ed at the beginning of the blessed ascension / Pre-
AKTC 2009b, p. 235 emotional and “human” qualities of subjects in sented for the appraisal of the most pure / The
his paintings (Welch and Welch 1982, p. 215). work of the humblest of servants, Nadir al-Za-
Balchand identifies himself through a Persian in- man.” The emperor is shown in strict profile, star-
scription on Jahangir’s left shoulder: rasm-i Bal- ing blankly ahead while covered in precious, easily
chand (“the drawing of Balchand”). identified jewels. In contrast to the naturalistic
The portrait of Shah Jahan (r. 1628 –1658), Ja- rendering of his father, whose facial features are
hangir’s son and successor, provides a stark con- carefully modelled and suggest a three-dimension-
trast to the image of his father. While both sitters al appearance, Shah Jahan’s image has become
are shown in profile view and are illuminated by iconic and creates a greater distance between the
the golden halo around their heads, the standard viewer and the sitter. These disparities demon-
convention for representing Mughal emperors, strate the varying uses of art by Jahangir and Shah
Shah Jahan’s larger, oval-shaped portrait com- Jahan, the latter of which was known for his active
mands a more public viewing audience. The illus- involvement in the conception of artistic and ar-
tration of the later emperor’s torso allows the art- chitectural projects (Koch 1997). Using the paint-
ist to show Shah Jahan holding attributes that ed portrait in different ways, one ruler preserves
symbolize his power, such as his sword and the his royal status while evoking his human charac-
official seal in his hand. The seal inscription, deter, while the other dehumanizes himself by creat-
liberately made legible (in reverse mirror image) ing an iconic image that will emphasize his power
for the viewer, lists the emperor’s titles: Abu ’l- and authority and render awe in his subjects. LA
250
251
193 Humayun defeats his rebellious brother During the earlier years of his reign, manuscripts uted the various provinces of the empire he had
Kamran at Kabul commissioned by the Mughal emperor Akbar inherited to each of his four brothers, soon Kam-
Folio from a dispersed copy of the Akbarnama Abu (r. 1556 –1605) included adventure texts, such as ran had banded together with another brother,
’l-Fazl ³Allami (d. 1602) the Tutinama or Hamzanama, or literary narra- Askari, and seized control of the Punjab from Hu-
Inscribed: “Painting by Mahish, principal faces by tives, such as the Anvar-i Suhayli (“Lights of Can- mayun. Humayun was exiled between 1539 and
Padarath”; opus”); in the 1580s, however, royal commissions 1555, during which time he sought refuge at the
(later annotation on the bottom left margin): shifted to historical texts. Some of the historical Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp (r. 1524 –1576).
razm nimudan-i hazrat‑i jannat-ustani [badshah‑i] manuscripts produced under Akbar include the With Tahmasp’s support, Humayun led a Mughal-
Jahangir (“the fight of His Majesty [the emperor] Tarikh-i Alfi, a history of the first thousand years Persian force into Qandahar and Kabul, where he
Jahangir, whose province is paradise”) (transl: Ste- of Islam; the Timurnama, a history of Timur, the entered an eight-year war with Kamran until he
phan Popp) founder of the Timurid dynasty from which the finally seized Kabul in 1553; that moment is de-
(top right margin) “5” Mughals descended; and the Akbarnama, a his- picted here. Kamran was taken captive and pun-
India, Agra, ca. 1597 tory of Akbar (Beach 1987, p. 83). The emperor ished by blinding (Richards 1993, pp. 9 –11).
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; commissioned his close friend and advisor Abu Most of the pages from the earliest manuscript of
37 x 25.2 cm ’l-Fazl ³Allami (d. 1602) to write the Akbarnama, the Akbarnama (including 116 miniatures) are
AKM 00133 an official account of his reign, in 1590-1. housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum, Lon-
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 236; AKTC 2009b, p. 236 The first volume, which was completed in 1596, don. Folios from the other well-known copy of
covered the years up to 1592 and also recounted this manuscript are divided between the British
the founding of the Mughal empire as well as its Museum, London (39 illustrations of vol. 1), and
loss under Babur (r. 1526 –1530) and Humayun the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (66 illustra-
(r. 1530 –1539 and 1555–1556); the remainder was tions from vols. 2 and 3). Some recently discov-
finished in 1598 (ibid., p. 112). This painting illus- ered additional Akbarnama folios appear related
trates a scene from the first volume. It refers to to the Victoria and Albert copy of the text (Leach
the reign of Humayun, who encountered much 2004); the AKM painting likewise seems to belong
resistance from his rival brothers, especially Kam- to the same manuscript as the folios in the Victo-
ran, the governor of Kabul and Qandahar in mod- ria and Albert Museum. LA
ern Afghanistan. Although Humayun had distrib-
252
253
194 The Emperor Jahangir at the jharoka Jharoka scenes such as the one shown in the present The darshan ceremony took place at the jharoka-i
window of the Agra fort example are common in Mughal painting, illustrat- darshan, or the “balcony for viewing,” pictured
Folio from a dispersed copy of the Jahangirnama ing the importance of the darbar ceremony, where here at top right, where Akbar’s son, the emperor
(“Memoirs of Jahangir”) rulers give public audiences. Such audiences regu- Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) appears in profile view,
Attrubuted to Nadir al-Zaman (Abu’l-Hasan) larly followed another ceremony known as darshan, and the darbar would follow just after. The struc-
India, Mughal, ca. 1620 which emphasized the idea of the divinely illumi- ture in which the jharoka window appears resem-
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; nated ruler through ritual performance. Akbar bles and is probably meant to represent the Shah
page 56 x 35.2 cm; image 31.4 x 20.4 cm (r. 1556 –1605) initiated this ritual during his reign; Burj (Royal Tower), which was an octagonal tower
AKM 00136 the emperor would appear before his subjects each with a white marble pavilion located at the Agra
Published: Delhi 1912, p. 92 (cat. No. 508, morning before sunrise, so he could see and be Fort. Sheila Canby notes that such scenes became
pl. XXVIII [a]); Martin 1912, vol. 2, pl. 216 left; seen by them, as suggested by the name darshan popular under the reign of Jahangir and even
Beach 1978, pp. 64 and 91; Welch and Welch 1982, (Sanskrit for “sight” and “beholding”) (Necipoblu more so under Shah Jahan (r. 1628 –1658), when
pp. 212 – 215 (no. 70); Welch 1985, pp. 185 –186 1993, p. 314). As Abu ’l-Fazl, Akbar’s close friend, court rituals became even more codified (Canby
(no. 116); Goswamy and Fischer 1987, pp. 86 – 87 advisor, and biographer, described: 1998, p. 141). In this image, numerous figures
(no. 37); Canby 1998, pp. 141–142 (no. 105); have been identified by inscriptions appearing on
AKTC 2009a, p. 238; AKTC 2009b, p. 238 Royalty is a light emanating from God, and a their skirts; Nadir al-Zaman (Abu ’l-Hasan), the
ray from the sun, the illuminator of the uni- artist to which the painting is ascribed, appears
verse.... Modern language calls this light farr-i below the sage. Whether the audience illustrated
izadi (the divine light), and the tongue of antiq- in this painting actually occurred or not, the sig-
uity called it kayan khurra (the sublime halo). It nificance of the ceremony and the role it played
is communicated by God to kings without the for both ruler and subject is certain: “As the em-
intermediate assistance of anyone, and men, in peror stood framed by the jharoka-i darshan that
the presence of it, bend the forehead of praise overlooked the river, his gaze emanating from
towards the ground of submission (Abu l-Fazl above assured the multitudes gathered below of
1977, 1:3). his continuing existence, without which they
feared the universe might collapse, while their up-
ward gaze convinced him of the adoring devotion
of his subjects” (Necipoblu, p. 314). LA
254
255
Music in India The rise of the Mughal Empire (1526 –1858) called did not seem to adopt this form of painting, per-
for the subjugation of numerous small states that haps because of their greater interest in Persian
195 Tambura, or tampura had existed in India before the sixteenth century. music coming from Iran and Central Asia (ibid.,
India, Rajasthan, ca. 1800 Some of these principalities were already Muslim, p. 96). Nevertheless, ragamala illustrations exhib-
Teak wood, a calabash, while others, like those ruled by the warrior Ra- iting a Mughal aesthetic suggest that some paint-
metal and bone; L 126 cm jput caste in northern India, belonged to a native ings might have been produced by Mughal artists
AKM 00700 Hindu heritage. Situated at the foothills of the for non-Mughal clients, or by non-Mughal artists
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 165 (no. 138); Himalayas, the Rajputs’ were known for their mil- who integrated Mughal tastes with indigenous
AKTC 2007b, p. 166 (no. 138); AKTC 2008a, itary might, but even they, like many other indig- subjects. The painting of ascetics in a landscape
pp. 256 – 257 (no. 16); AKTC 2008b, no. 23; enous groups in India, eventually faced Mughal (cat. no. 196) provides an example of the latter.
AKTC 2009a, p. 240; AKTC 2009b, p. 240 domination. The Rajputs came to an agreement Mughal shading and modelling techniques as well
with the Mughal conquerors; the Mughals would as the subject of dervishes or ascetics gathering in
allow them to rule their individual territories in a landscape are combined with indigenous Bundi
exchange for their participation in Mughal military elements, such as the bright orange sky and the
campaigns and their sending of an important mem- inclusion of indigenous birds and flowers.
ber of their family to be raised at the Mughal court. The yogis’ master sits in front of the modest
In spite of their military talents, the Rajputs cabin in which the group is staying. He is playing
also cultivated the arts, producing distinctive a veena and has covered his face with ashes in the
painting styles, one of which included a bright customary practice used to emulate Shiva, the As-
yellow colour (made from the urine of mango-fed cetic God. The two figures in patched robes are
cows) and a stylised, flat quality, seen in this paint- Hindu yogis, who frame the group of four ascet-
ing with two figures seated on a tilted carpet ics. On the right, a male yogi is identifiable be-
against a plain, bright yellow backdrop. This may cause his hair is up in a bun, and, on the left, a
have corresponded to the fact that Rajput paint- yogini (a female ascetic) has her hair braided, as
ings sought to illustrate an ideal world (Cummins was common for women. The woman is convers-
2006, p. 93). One of the most popular subjects in ing with a dervish, who is identifiable as such be-
Rajput painting was the depiction of ragas, or mu- cause his long hair is down. As a sign of their con-
sical modes, indigenous to the northern Indian nection to the spiritual world, all of the people
region. These modes eventually became described have a “third eye” (tilak) on their foreheads in the
through a new genre of writing and, later, through form of a red dot or stripe. The dervish also has a
illustration, gathered into what came to be called tilak, which means that the picture must have
ragamalas, or “garlands of ragas.” The paintings, been intended for a Hindu audience because it
one of which is featured here (cat. no. 197) were would have been inappropriate for a dervish to
meant to evoke the multilayered quality of the wear a symbol of Hindu spirituality in a Muslim
musical modes through visual representation and context. Yogi gatherings with dervishes are also
sought to create a similarly complex sensory expe- objects of ragamala paintings, which do not, how-
rience for the viewer. Ragas were classified into ever, portray a raga and his raginis as equals. The
family groups, headed by the raga or patriarch, members of the yogi-dervish group in this Bundi
and followed by his wives (raginis), sons (ragapu- picture, however, appear to be informally interact-
tras), and (occasionally) daughters (ragaputris) ing as equals (Canby 1998, p. 172). While the pic-
(ibid., pp. 95 – 96). This image, in which a man ture of the Kausa ragaputras (cat. no. 197) por-
and woman are seated facing each other, each trays an allegory of the ragaputra, the apparent
with a bird delicately perched on their hand, is an situation in the picture of the four ascetics (cat.
expression of the Kausa ragaputra, which belongs no. 196) is that a particular raga (possibly bhairavi,
to the Malakausika raga family, performed after a raga of the morning) is being played.
midnight; the man in the painting is understood The instrument played by the yogi musician in
as the personification of the raga (Canby 1998, p. cat. no. 196 is most likely a veena, a Southern In-
167). Both people in the picture are nobly dressed dian string instrument comprised of a pair of
and wear precious jewelry. The woman is espe- gourd resonators connected by a vertical wooden
cially lavishly adorned with pearl necklaces. Judg- shaft. It consists of four main and three subsidiary
ing by the décor, this scene could portray a pair of drone strings. The tambura in cat. no. 195 is an-
Rajasthan aristocrats who had just sat down on a other example of an Indian plucked drone lute,
valuable carpet. It is an example of a ragamala il- but it requires four strings instead of three. The
lustration that is romantic in nature, inspired by tambura is traditional to both northern and south-
the amorous side of Rajput culture (when not at ern India but the present object demonstrates the
war) and belonging to other such paintings that northern variety. Such instruments resemble the
express the diversity of love, whether joyful or sitar (lit., “three strings” in Persian), another
heartbreaking (Cummins 2006, p. 99). plucked string instrument common to India and
It is believed that ragamala illustration existed Iran and played in a similar manner. LA / SP
before the Mughal period. The Mughals, however,
256
257
196 Ascetics in a landscape
India, Rajastan, Bundi, third quarter
of the 18th century or later
Ink and opaque watercolour on paper;
page 45.8 x 33.9 cm; image 21.4 x 14.2 cm
AKM00175
Published: Canby 1998, p. 172 (no. 131);
AKTC 2009a, p. 243; AKTC 2009b, p. 243
197 Kausa Ragaputra:

music for after midnight
Folio from a dispersed ragamala series
India, Punjab Hills, Mankot, Rajput, ca. 1700
Opaque watercolour on paper; borders cut down;
glued to card
14.8 x 16.5 cm
AKM 00194
Published: Canby 1998, pp. 166 –167 (no. 125);
AKTC 2008a, pp. 264 – 265 (no. 104); AKTC 2009a,
p. 243; AKTC 2009b, p. 243
258
259
198 Portrait of an Ottoman with a book Like his father Akbar (r. 1556 –1605) before him, painting (see, for example, a portrait study of Shah
India, Mughal, ca. 1610 the Mughal emperor Jahangir (r. 1605 –1627) ³Abbas by Jahangir’s court artist Bishn Das, in the
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold paper; showed an interest in portraiture, continuing his British Museum, in Canby 2009, p. 38, no. 1). The
8.5 x 9.5 cm father’s portrait albums and encouraging court painting is identified on the reverse as a gift given
AKM 00733 artists to capture the psychology of their subjects by a certain Baha² al-Din on 6 Urdibihisht [reg-
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 245; in their portraits (Welch 1985, p. 226). This por- nal] year 5, which is equal to 26 April 1610 and
AKTC 2009b, p. 245 trait of an Ottoman holding a book demonstrates falls under Jahangir’s reign. Persian and Mughal
that subjects were not limited to Mughals and In- seal impressions from later periods also appear on
dians alone, but also included foreigners who the back of the page, as well as notes about when
were in frequent contact with the royal court. It the work entered the Mewar Royal Library along
was not unusual for court artists to record meet- with that library’s stamp and the royal inventory
ings between the emperor and his visitors in number of 20 / 220. LA
260
199 Pair of mother-of-pearl doors
India, Gujarat, Ahmedabad, 18 th century
Wood and mother-of-pearl; 187 x 49.5 cm
AKM 00705
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 246;
AKTC 2009b, p. 246
The combination of mother-of-pearl and wood

as well as the form and design of this beautiful
pair of doors indicate the native work of crafts-
men from Gujarat, recognized in the sixteenth
century as the centre of mother-of-pearl pro-
duction. Smaller, portable objects also display a
similar design composed as a puzzle of indi-
vidual pierced pieces of mother-of-pearl. The
doors may have once adorned a wealthy home
or public structure, such as a temple or tomb.
The chain suspended from the top of the right
door suggests the door would have been situ-
ated in an interior, attaching to a hook within
the doorframe to keep the door closed; a door
with access to the exterior, on the other hand,
would have received a stronger lock for greater
security. LA
261
200 Jade and agate Cups with dragons The Jade cup was carved from a piece of pale for the King of France himself, and it may have
Cups: Mughal Empire, mid to late 16 th century green jade and adorned with a gold vegetable mo- been commissioned directly by one of his repre-
Brass setting and marble base: early 19 th century tif in which stems are interlaced with golden ro- sentatives. It is also possible that it was a gift of
Cups: H 4.3 cm; L 16.4 cm; W 9.6 cm settes and palm leafs. The agate cup is unadorned. state presented to the king by an ambassador.
Bronze setting: max. H 18 cm; They were acquired by Baron Lionel de Roth- The piece bears a striking resemblance to sev-
max. W 28 cm schild (1808 –1897) and have been in his family’s eral others from the so-called Tesoro del Delfín,
Marble base: L 16.5 cm; W 8.2 cm possession since that time. which is divided between the Louvre Museum in
AKM 00813 On one side of the Jade cup, the application Paris and the Prado in Madrid. The Spanish part
exhibits the Kingdom of Navarre’s coat of arms, of this collection belonged to the Dauphin of
the so-called Chains of Navarre. The coat of arms France, hence the name Louis, the heir of Louis
of the Bourbons and of the French royal family, XIV (1638 –1715). Upon his death it became the
on the other side, helps to provide historical con- property of Philip of Anjou, who ruled Spain as
text for the object, or at least for a part of it, given Philip V from 1683 to 1746. The items were
that the gilt-bronze mounts appear to be attribut- brought to Madrid in 1716 and 1776, and were
able to the nineteenth-century English artisan deposited in the Gabinete de Historia Natural. In
Benjamin Vulliamy (1780 –1854). 1813 Napoleon’s troops abandoned Madrid, tak-
The elaboration of jade was very highly prized ing it as part of a rich art booty, which upon
during the period of the Mughal Empire. The em- reaching France was deposited first in Orleans
peror Jahangir (1605–1627) possessed an exten- and later in Paris. In 1815 the French government
sive collection, part of which had previously be- signed an agreement with Spain and returned
longed to his Timurid ancestors, and he most of the objects, though some pieces were lost
sponsored the production of these types of luxury in the uneven process of restitution that followed.
items. Many of them mimic the forms of older ex- Given the dates on which Baron Lionel de
amples. During the seventeenth century it was Rothschild obtained the piece, it is not unlikely
common for vessels carved from stone to be that this was one of the pieces of the Madrid col-
adorned with gold filigrees and precious stones in lection lost in the course of the looting and subse-
the form of vegetable motifs. Some of these deco- quent removal to France. The marble base and
rations recall Western prototypes due to the pres- bronze dragon were not part of the original object
ence of European lapidaries working for the and were added later, although the former could
Mughal court. have been created in imitation of the original, now
It is likely that this piece was created for some- lost. Similar dragons form the mounts of vessels
one in Europe. It is easy to conclude, given the found in the Tesoro del Delfín housed in the Mu-
presence of the coat of arms, that it was intended seum of Prado. FV
262
201 A sea-serpent swallows the Royal Fleet
Folio from the Gulshan-i ³Ishq of Nusrati
India, Deccan, ca. 1670
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold on paper;
39 x 23.5 cm
AKM 00167
Published: Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 229 – 231
(no. 77); Falk 1985, p. 174 (no. 154); AKTC 2007a,
p. 137 (no. 104); AKTC 2007b, p. 139 (no. 104);
AKTC 2008a, pp. 212 – 213 (no. 80); AKTC 2009a,
p. 247 ; AKTC 2009b, p. 247
A giant sea serpent constricts its gold coils

around a royal fleet, its full mouth leaving no
doubt as to its intentions toward the remaining
vessels. As if the carnivorous serpent were not
enough, the alternative is a scary sea filled with
demon-headed fish, giant crabs, and turtles, as
well as a mermaid and merman. Most of the
sailors appear to pray with upturned hands for
deliverance from this nightmare. The painting
has been identified as an illustration from the
Gulshan-i ³Ishq (“Rose Garden of Love”) a he-
roic epic written in Deccani Urdu by the court
poet Nusrati for Sultan ³Ali II ibn Muhammad
³Adil Shahi (r. 1656 –1672) (Falk 1985, p. 174).
The ³Adil-Shahis were great patrons of the arts
and ruled Deccani Bijapur as an independent
Shia kingdom from 1489 until it became part of
the Mughal Empire in 1689. It has been sug-
gested that this painting was produced for an
aristocrat at the end of Sultan ³Ali’s reign or
during the reign of his successor, Sikandar ³Ali
Shah (r. 1672–1686) (Welch and Welch 1982, p.
229). The theme of disaster at sea in this paint-
ing may be compared with similar episodes in
the Hamzanama as part of the picaresque genre
of adventure-romances, featuring heroes who
travel through strange lands and meet with
danger on land and sea. AF
263
Four album folios with samples The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries witnessed various cut pieces of paper. A green and gold bor-
of calligraphy a growing interest in art and the art of collecting der of vegetal ornament provides the largest frame
in the three “gunpowder” empires, beginning around the calligraphy and sets it off from the
202 Page from an album with the Safavids in Iran and followed by the Ot- margins of the folio on which it is mounted. These
made for Shah Jahan tomans and Mughals. Not only did more artists margins have been treated as a painting surface,
Calligraphy signed by Mir ³Ali; margins signed exhibit a hitherto rare sense of self-awareness by on which several different species of flora and fau-
by Daulat Khan increasingly signing their works, but the royal and na appear.
Calligraphy: Iran, Herat, ca. 1520 wealthy patrons who compiled or commissioned The subject matter, painting style and signa-
Margins: India, Mughal, ca. 1640 the albums had the chance to express their own ture – ³amal-i Daulat Khan (“the work of
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold on paper; taste and connoisseurship through their collect- Daulat Khan”) – on the outer margins of this page
39.2 x 25.4 cm ing. These extraordinary codices were filled with have led to its identification as part of an
AKM 00145 specimens of calligraphy, painting and drawing, album made for the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan
Published: Falk 1985, p. 65, no. 36; AKTC 2007a, including single-page, finished compositions as (r. 1628 –1658). The careful rendering of the
p. 173 (no. 146v); AKTC 2007b, p. 173 (no. 146v); well as elements of illustrated manuscripts and plants, in particular, is typical of the Mughal style,
AKTC 2008a, pp. 270 – 271 (no. 106); AKTC 2009a, calligraphy exercises (for a Qajar example, see cat. influenced by European plant manuals that
p.248; AKTC 2009b, p.248 no. 174). Artists’ and calligraphers’ works were reached India via Jesuit missionaries. While the
recognized within the albums for their individual text might be attributed to the early sixteenth cen-
203 Calligraphy signed talents and styles, sometimes by glosses added by tury, the album was probably assembled around
by Mir ³Ali (d. ca. 1544) the patron himself. 1640, at which point the same artist responsible
Signed (at top right and bottom left): li-katib… The four album folios in this group contain for the margins might have also painted the flow-
al-faqir ³Ali al-katib… (“written / composed by writing samples both by Persian masters as well as ers and cows in the interstices of Mir ³Ali’s text.
the poor ³Ali the writer [Mir ³Ali]…”) Mughal princes whose royal training would have Cat. nos. 203 and 205 contain similar formats,
Calligraphy: Iran, Safavid, 16 th century included learning the art of calligraphy. Three of with calligraphic samples by Mir ³Ali pasted onto
Margins: India, Mughal, ca. 1640 the examples (cat. nos. 202, 202 and 205) are two other pages of the Shah Jahan album. Like
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper signed by one of the greatest masters of the cat. no. 202, the text in cat. no. 203 has been past-
page 37.9 x 25.6 cm; text 18.3 x 10.1 cm nasta³liq script, Mir ³Ali (d. ca. 1544), who served ed onto an album page with borders depicting flo-
AKM 00255 in Herat and Bukhara at the Timurid, Uzbek, and ra and fauna, here including seated deer, kingfish-
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 250; AKTC 2009b, p. 250 Safavid courts and was extolled by Qadi Ahmad ers, parrots, and other birds; the margins of cat.
in his sixteenth-century treatise on calligraphers nos. 204 and 205, on the other hand, are devoted
204 Calligraphy by Prince Dara Shikuh and painters (Qadi Ahmad in Minorsky 1959, p. to botanically accurate representations of flowers.
India, Burhanpur 131). In cat. no. 202, the calligrapher has signed It is possible the Mughals admired Mir ³Ali
Calligraphy dated 1041 H / 1631-2 CE two couplets of poetry in the lower left corner of not only for his talent but also because of the
Margins: 18 th century the innermost rectangle on the page, using the Ar- praise he gave to Babur, the founder of the
Ink, opaque watercolour, gold on paper; abic formula, katabahu Mir ³Ali (“Mir ³Ali wrote Mughal dynasty, in one of his poems (Welch and
page 42.3 x 28.8 cm; text 21.9 x 6.3 cm it”). The verses, calligraphed in black but outlined Welch 1982, p. 220). By the time Shah Jahan’s al-
AKM 00249 in red, are written in Persian: bum was compiled, however, Persian poets had
Published: Falk 1985, p. 167 (no. 145); been emigrating to the Mughal courts in Agra and
AKTC 2007a, p. 124 (no. 89); AKTC 2007b, p. 126 “My God, if the entire universe should be Lahore, and the influence once coming from Iran
(no. 89); AKTC 2009a, p. 250; AKTC 2009b, p. 250 blown by wind to India now began to move from east to west,
Let not the light of fortune be extinguished initiating the sabk-i hindi, or Indian style, in Iran
205 Sample of calligraphy from And if the entire universe should become (Welch 1976, p. 9). These poets and calligraphers
an album made for Shah Jahan flooded with water must have exercised great influence on the educa-
Signed by Mir ³Ali Let not the mark of the unfortunate be washed tion of princes in the royal household as well. The
Calligraphy: Iran, Herat, Safavid ca. 1520 away!” Persian verses in cat. no. 204 were signed by Shah
Margins: India, Mughal, ca. 1640 Jahan’s preferred son, Muhammad Dara Shikuh
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold paper; More verses in Persian border the main text, set (1615–1659) and dated 1041 H / 1631-2 CE at
page 36.9 x 25.2 cm; text 27.2 x 14.1 cm within ten rectangular cartouches alternating with Burhanpur in the Deccan; they were probably
AKM 00351 small panels containing colourful floral and veg- written while the Mughals were campaigning in
Published: Falk 1985, p. 65 (no. 36); AKTC 2007a, etal scrolls; they also frame two strips of green, that region. This sample was later mounted into
p. 173 (no. 146); AKTC 2007b, p. 173 (no. 146); marbled paper on the right and left, drawing at- an eighteenth-century album, another presumed
AKTC 2009a, p. 250; AKTC 2009b, p. 250 tention to the fact that the entire composition of page of which was copied in Burhanpur in 1631
text, image, and border has been created from and now belongs to the British Museum. LA
264
202 203
204 205
265
206 Landscape with villagers, In this illustration, a typical north Indian land- further aspect that was unknown in traditional
travellers, and animals scape from the Ganges Basin around Lucknow paintings: perspective. Nevertheless, the land-
India, Oudh, Lucknow, ca. 1800 can be seen. This area is greener and richer in wa- scape is not a realistic depiction, but rather
Ink and watercolour on paper; 28.7 x 41.4 cm ter than the area further west around Delhi, but shows an idealized, prosperous region. The vil-
AKM 00461 dryer than the eastern-lying Bengal. lage is rich; the houses are built of brick or stone,
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 252; AKTC 2009b, p. 252 From the horizon, where a charming village and some even have two stories. The Hindu tem-
with a north Indian style Hindu temple is situ- ple is also built of stone and is relatively large.
ated, a sunken road winds into the foreground of No specific place is depicted, but rather “any”
the illustration. Villagers, travelers, and animals village; this is to display that prosperity prevailed
are moving around in the wide, rolling landscape even in the simplest of places. The cows are well-
that is dotted with vegetation typical of the re- fed and graze on green pasture. True luxury is
gion, including date trees and a mango tree. The asserted through the portrayal of broad stretches
flora and fauna are also typical of the area around of pastureland that would otherwise surely have
Lucknow. A herd of blackbucks, a popular game been converted into farmland because of popula-
animal from the time, graze at the bottom left. An tion density. The street is safe and even the wild
entire herd of cows can be seen in the background animals are thriving. This landscape is supposed
on the right; foxes, wild boars, and a lion are also to depict the kind of affluence that the Nawabs
visible in the picture. Travellers in two ox-drawn from Lucknow brought not only to the capital,
carriages are being escorted by soldiers dressed in but also to the entire country.
Indian attire. Of the two people on horseback, Lucknow was ruled by Nawabs (literally,
one is also accompanied by soldiers. Traveling “deputy of the ruler of the Mughals”) and was
salesmen transport their wares on camels. In the one of the states that formed in the early eight-
right foreground, Indian farmers have stopped eenth century after the fall of the Mughal Em-
along the way. They are dressed simply but they pire. By the end of the seventeenth century, the
do not appear to be poor: their lightweight Mughals had already been weakened and their
clothes can be explained by the time of year rep- resources depleted by their heavy invasions of the
resented in the picture. The landscape is green Deccan Plateau. After Awrangzeb’s death in
and the ponds are full, which means that it must 1707, the power of the Mughal emperor rapidly
be shortly after the rainy season in October. Two dwindled as a result of royal infighting about dis-
people are sitting on the edge of the path and putes with the governors of provinces and do-
conversing. Near them, a farmer lifts his hand to mestic enemies like the Maratha from the south,
greet another person who is sitting in a hut, and a whom Awrangzeb had fought for 30 years to no
couple passes by on a mule. avail. The richest governors declared themselves
This picture does not contain any symbolism independent and just paid lip service to the
or allegory and is therefore a departure from ear- Mughal Emperor in Delhi, as did, starting from
lier, traditional Mughal paintings. Even the lion, 1732, the Nawabs from Lucknow. They profited
which is usually a symbol of royalty, lacks any from the prosperity of the Ganges Basin but in-
symbolic function here. Instead, this landscape creasingly came under influence of the British in
simply depicts the area around Lucknow. The the bordering Bengal. By the end of the eight-
concept of landscape paintings was taken from eenth century, the Lucknow’s leaders were al-
European painting style and completely negates ready vassals to the British until the latter were
the symbolism of traditional Indian painting. The removed from power in 1856. The increasing po-
way the path tapers off at the horizon and the way litical power of the British in India paved the way
the village’s details are discernable yet portrayed for European artistic influences such as the per-
in faded colors means that the picture contains a spective shown in landscape paintings. VD / SP
266
267
207 Palace at Delhi This painting depicts the palace of Begum Somru, Mughal gardens. The entire complex and its ar-
India, Mughal, Delhi, ca. 1820 –1830 which is also illustrated in Reminiscences of Impe- chitectonic details, like gables, Corinthian pillars,
Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold on paper; rial Delhi, an album of 89 folios and around 130 and the symmetrical design of the outside stair-
29.3 x 21 cm paintings of Delhi monuments from the pre- case, are nevertheless taken from the European
AKM 00464 Mughal and Mughal periods, compiled by and Baroque style.
Published: AKTC 2009a, p. 252; AKTC 2009b, p. 252 accompanied by the text of Sir Thomas The- There is a striking contrast between the strict
ophilus Metcalfe (1795 –1853), the Governor- symmetry displayed in the architecture and the
General’s Agent at the imperial court. Metcalfe park and the people, who seem to be moving
describes Begum Somru as the widow of a certain around the grounds freely and casually without
“Walter Reinihard, born of obscure parents”, who any official purpose. By contrast, in the darbar
entered the French Service under the name of scene (see cat. no. 194), which portrays a similarly
“Summer.” Due to his dark complexion, he was large group of people in front of a palace, every
given the sobriquet “Sombre,” subsequently cor- person in the crowd has a strictly defined position
rupted into Sumroo, by which name “Her High- that is determined by class. In traditional Mughal
ness was generally known, though she always paintings, a casual portrayal of a scene without
styled herself the Begum Sombre” (Reminiscences any clear occasion, as is such in this painting,
of Imperial Delhi, The Sir Thomas Metcalfe Al- would have been unthinkable. The cheerful hustle
bum, The British Library, London). Metcalfe also and bustle would have been interpreted as chaos
comments on the doubtful origins of the Begum, and a sign of the deterioration of sovereign au-
who was either believed to come from a noble thority.
Mughal family or to have been a native Kashmiri The influence of European painting makes it-
who was sold to Somru as a slave. In either case, self felt in this picture, not only because of the
Begum Somru inherited her husband’s principal- Colonial architecture, but also in the choice and
ity upon his death and remained active as an inde- presentation of its subject. The painter, who was
pendent ruler until her death in 1837. LA most certainly schooled in traditional painting,
The colonial-style palace is shown from the was probably presented with the print of a Euro-
south side. The strong symmetry of the gardens pean Baroque marketplace that he in turn adapt-
may still correspond to the design principles of ed to his Indian environment. VD / SP
268
269
208 Multan tile arch These tiles form the spandrel of an arch from an arches. The palette of turquoise, white, and blue un-
Pakistan, Multan (?), 16 th century or later unknown building. Fifteenth- and sixteenth-centu- derglaze reflects the strong influence of Timurid
Earthenware, painted with white slip under cobalt ry funerary monuments in Multan, Punjab, were Central Asia on northern Indian craftsman potters
blue and turquoise glazes; 124 x 226 cm decorated on the exterior with tile panels such as and their designs. Used here as a central point
AKM 00582 this. The sixteenth-century tomb of Sultan ³Ali Ak- around which stylised leaves rotate, this motif is also
Published: AKTC 2007a, p. 185 (cat. A); bar, for example, is clad with spandrels that closely commonly found on tilework from Multan and Sind
AKTC 2007b, half-title page and p. 190 (cat. A); parallel the AKM panel. Each of the eight sides of in southern Pakistan from the fifteenth to the seven-
AKTC 2009a, p. 254; AKTC 2009b, p. 254 that mausoleum includes spandrels above blind teenth centuries. AF
270
271
Transcription Table Arabic, Persian and Turkish terms and names Dates are written in the Hijra calendar
as well as book titles and quotations appear system, denoted by H, which starts in the
in the catalogue according to a system of sim- year 622 CE (emigration of the Prophet Mu-
plified transcription recorded in the table hammad from Mekka to Medina), are writ-
below. For names that have entered English ten and followed by the CE year. In the case
such as “Hijaz” and “Abbasids” diacritics that only one year is given, it is always given
were avoided. in CE.
Arabic Persian Turkish Pronunciation
‫ ع‬ ³ ‘ain’: sound made from the throat without an English equivalent

‫ء‬ ² ‘hamza’: glottal stop as in the English expression ‘uh-oh!’
‫چ‬ ch ç ‘cha’: ‘ch’
dh ‘dhal’:
‫ذ‬ ‘th’ as in ‘the’
‫ض‬ d z ‘dhad’: emphatic ‘d’
‫گ‬ g ‘ga’: hard ‘g’ as in ‘go’
‫ج‬ j ‘jim’: ‘j’
‫غ‬
gh ‘ghayn’: soft ‘gh’
b soft guttural ‘r’, lengthens the preceding vowel
‫ح‬ h ‘ha’: hard ‘h’ from the throat
‫خ‬ kh ‘kha’: ‘kh’ from the throat, as at the end of the German Bach
‫پ‬ p ‘pa’: ‘p’
‫ق‬ q ‘qaf’: guttural ‘k’
‫ر‬
r ‘r’: hard or rolling ‘r’
‫س‬ s ‘sin’: voiceless ‘s’
‫ش‬ sh r ‘shin’: ‘sh’
‫ص‬ s ‘sad’: emphatic ‘s’
‫ط‬ t ‘ta’: emphatic ‘t’
‫ث‬ th s ‘tha’: ‘th’ as in ‘thing’
‫ز‬
z ‘zay’: ‘z’
‫ظ‬ z ‘zha’: emphatic ‘z’
‫ژ‬
zh ‘zha’: the French ‘j’ as in jour
ı close back unrounded vowel sound
‫ا‬ a ‘alif’: long ‘a’
‫و‬ u / w u / v ‘waw’: long ‘u’
‫ي‬ i / y i / i ‘ya’: long ‘i'
272
The Islamic Dynasties This schematic chart does not give more than
a very simplified picture of the political com-
plexities of certain periods. Large parts of
Central Asia, China, South-east Asia and Af-
rica have been omitted.
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
Bahmanids Deccan
1347 – 1526 Sultans
Deccan 1490 – 1687
Hindustan Delhi Sultans Moghals

1206 – 1555 1526 – 1858
Ghaznawids
977 – 1186
1747 – 1973
1819 – 1979
Barakzays
Afghanistan
Durranis
c. 1011 – 1215
Ghurids
Mongols and successors

Transoxania Samanids 1017 – 1231
Timurids Khanates
Khwarazm-
819 – 1005 1370 – 1507 1500 – 1920

shahs
Umayyads
750 – 1258
Abbasids
Iran 750 – 1258 1127 – 1251
1751 – 1794
1779 – 1925
The Rightly Guided
Caliphs 632 – 661
Buyids Seljuqs Safavids
Qajars
Zands
932 – 1062 1040 – 1194 1501 – 1736
Abbasids
Iraq
Zengids Turkmans
1501 – 1501
Seljuqs of Rum Emirates

Anatolia 1081 – 1307 12th – 15th C
Ottomans
Turkey 1231 – 1922
in Europe
Zengids
Adapted from: Hayward Gallery, The Arts of Islam, London 1976, p. 46.
1127 – 1251
Muhammad ’Ali
Syria Abbasids
The Rightly Guided
Ikhshidids
Caliphs 632 – 661
1805 – 1953
935 –969
750 – 1258
(house of)
Mamluks
1250 – 1517
1169 – 1250
Fatimids
868 – 905
Tulunids
Ayyubids
Egypt 909 – 1171

(Damascus) 661 – 750
Aghlabids Zirids
1130 – 1269
Almohades
800 – 909 972 – 1152 Hafsids 1229 – 1574

Umayyads
Rustamids
Maghrib 778 – 909 Zayanids 1236 – 1555
1062 – 1147
Almoravids
Idrisids Berber- Marinids Wattasids Sa’adians

789 – 985 tribes 1474 – 1550 Alawites 1631 – present
1217 – 1465 1510 – 1659
1031 – 1090
Nasrids 1232 – 1492

Umayyads
of Taifas
Spain
Kings
(Cordoba) 755 – 1031
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
273
Chronology
ca. 570 Birth of the Prophet Muhammad 644 – 656 ³Uthman proclaimed third 718 Great Mosque of Zaragosa was
in Mecca caliph • Construction of the Qubbat designed
al-Khadra’ (“Green Dome”), the Caliph’s
595 Muhammad marries Khadija palace in Damascus (Syria) 724 – 727 Construction of the Umayyad
palace of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi (“Qasr
610 Muhammad receives the first revela- 650 – 651 Conquest of Nishapur and al-Hayr West”, Syria)
tion; beginning of the Prophetic mission construction of the first Great Mosque
728 – 729 Construction of the Umayyad
619 Death of Khadija 656 – 661 Caliphate of ³Ali palace of Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi (“Qasr
al-Hayr East”, Syria)
622 The Hijra: emigration of Prophet 661 Murder of Imam ³Ali
Muhammad to Medina • Starting point 732 Battle of Poitiers
of the Muslim lunar Calendar 670 Foundation of Kairouan (Tunisia) and
its Great Mosque 744 Construction of the Umayyad palace
624 Starting point of the Muslim lunar of Mshatta (Jordan)
Calendar • Expedition of Badr • The 680 Death of Imam Husayn at Karbala
direction of prayer is changed from Jeru (Iraq) 748 Construction of the Dar al-Imara,
salem to Medina of Abu Muslim, in Merv (modern Turkmen-
691 Construction of the mosque (Dome of istan)
625 Marriage of Fatima and ³Ali the Rock) in Jerusalem by Umayyad caliph
³Abd al-Malik ca. 750 Translation of classical medical
630 Bloodless conquest of Mecca and philosophical works into Arabic begins
ca. 696 Monetary reform; replacement of
632 Event of Ghadir Khumm • Death of Sasanian and Byzantine coinages by coins 754 Construction of the Great Mosque of
Prophet Muhammad in Medina with purely Arabic inscriptions Nishapur (Iran)
632 – 634 Abu Bakr, proclaimed first 707 – 715 Construction of the Great 756 ³Abd al-Rahman [I] al-Dakhil builds
caliph Mosque in Damascus the palace of Rusafa, near Cordoba
634 – 644 ³Umar, proclaimed second caliph 711 Muslim conquest of Iberian Peninsula 762 Baghdad founded as capital city of the
Abbasids
635 Construction of the Basra Mosque 712 – 715 Construction of the bath house
(Iraq) of Qusayr ³Amra (Jordan) 765 Death of Imam Ja³far al-Sadiq
637 Conquest of Ctesiphon, capital of the 712 Construction of the Great Mosque in 772 Al-Mansur builds the city and Great
Sassanid Empire Samarqand Mosque of al-Raqqa /al-Rafiqa (Syria)
638 Foundation of Kufa (Iraq) and of its 713 Construction of the Great Mosque in 776 Probable construction of Ukhaidir
Great Mosque Bukhara (Iraq)
639 or 641 – 642 First Mosque in Haram 714 – 716 Completion of Muslim conquest 784 – 786 First phase of the construction
al-Sharif in Jerusalem of the Western regions of the Iberian of the Great Mosque of Cordoba
Peninsula and of part of southwest France
640 – 641 Foundation of ³Amr Mosque in 790 Construction of the Great Mosque
Cairo (Egypt) 715 Foundation of Ramallah (Palestine) of Tlemcen (Algeria)
and its Great Mosque
274
793 – 794 Erection of the first minaret of 859 Foundation of the al-Qarawiyyin 935 Death of Abu ’l-Hasan al-Ash³ari,
the Great Mosque of Cordoba (Spain) Mosque in Fez (Morocco) founder of Ash³ari school of law
794 First paper mill established in Baghdad 860 – 861 Foundation of the Alamut 936 Foundation of the palace city of
Fortress (Iran) Madinat al-Zahra, near Cordoba
797 – 806 Construction of the first alcazaba
in Toledo (Spain) 862 Construction of Qubbat al-Sulaybiya 940 Death of the Abbasid vizier and
in Samarra (Iraq) calligrapher Ibn Muqla
806 Harun al-Rashid orders the construc-
tion of Hiraqla, outside Raqqa (Syria) ca. 866 Death of the philosopher and ca. 947 Ibn Hawqal visits al-Andalus and
scientist al-Kindi the Maghreb
808 Foundation of Fez (Morocco)
868 Death of al-Jahiz, litterateur and 950 Death of the philosopher al-Farabi
821 Construction of the Ribat of Suss master of Arabic prose
(Tunisia) 952 Great minaret of the Great Mosque
870 Death of al-Bukhari, author of a of Cordoba
822 – 842 Probable foundation of Madrid respected canonical collection of hadith
by emir ³Abd al-Rahman II 953 Fatimid coin of al-Mu³izz (cat. no.
873 Death of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, translator 68–76, first coin middle row)
822 – 852 Muhammad I orders the of medical, scientific and philosophical
construction of the “Puerta de San Esteban” works from Greek into Arabic 956 Death of al-Mas³udi, author of an
in the Great Mosque of Cordoba encyclopaedia on history, geography and
875 Construction of the Mosque of the sciences
829 Construction of the Great Mosque of Three Doors, in Kairouan (Tunisia) •
Seville Foundation of Badajoz (Spain) 961 Al-Hakam II extends the Great
Mosque of Cordoba
830 Establishment of the Bayt al-Hikma 879 Completion of the Mosque of Ibn
(“House of Knowledge”) in Baghdad Tulun in Fustat (Cairo, Egypt) 969 – 970 Fatimid conquest of Egypt
and foundation of new capital city, Cairo
833 – 844 First extension of the Great 909 Establishment of the Fatimids in North (al-Qahira)
Mosque of Cordoba Africa
979 – 981 Construction of the Madinat
835 Construction of the alcazaba of Merida 922 Death of the mystic Mansur al-Hallaj al-Zahra
836 Al-Mu’tasim establishes Samarra (Iraq) 923 Death of al-Tabari, author of impor- 987 Marble funerary stele (cat. no. 59)
tant texts on early Islamic history
839 Exchange of embassies between 988 Last extension of the Great Mosque
Cordoba and Byzantium 925 Death of the physician and philoso- of Cordoba
pher, Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes)
847 Construction of Great Mosque of 988 – 989 Foundation of Al-Azhar
Samarra (Iraq) 929 Death of the astronomer, al-Battani University in Cairo (Egypt)
(Albatenius)
ca. 850 Translation into Arabic of the 999 – 1000 Construction of the Bab
medical works of Hippocrates and Galen 931 Death of the Andalusian philosopher al-Mardum Mosque, in Toledo (Spain)
and mystic Ibn Masarra
855 Death of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder 1000 Death of al-Muqaddasi, world-travel-
of the Hanbali school of law ler and geographer
275
1005 Foundation of the Dar al-Hikma 1070 Death of Ibn Zaydun famous 1179 Death of Ibn Khayr al-Ishbili,
(“House of Wisdom”) in Cairo Andalusian poet philologian and traditionist of Seville
1006 – 1007 Construction of the tower- 1081 Death of al-Baji, distinguished 1185 Death of Ibn Tufayl, celebrated
mausoleum of Gunbad-i Qabus, built near Andalusian theologian and literary figure Andalusian physician and philosopher
Gurgan
1086 Death of Ibn ³Ammar, Andalusian 1187 Farid al-Din ³Attar writes the
1007 Death of Maslama al-Majriti, poet and vizier of the king of Seville (Spain) allegorical verse epic, Mantiq al-tayr
Andalusian mathematician and Astronomer (“Conference of the Birds”)
1090 Ismaili state established in the
1010 Firdawsi completes the epic of the fortress of Alamut (Iran) 1198 Death of Ibn Rushd (Averroes),
Shahnama Andalusian philosopher and physician,
1111 Death of al-Ghazali, jurist and author of important commentaries on the
1022 Death of the calligrapher Ibn theologian works of Aristotle
al-Bawwab
1122 Death of al-Hariri, master of the ca. 1200 Manuscript of the Khawass
1030 al-Biruni completes his work on India literary genre of the maqamat (prose poem) al-ashjar (“De Materia Medica”) of Diosco-
• Death of the philosopher and historian rides (cat. nos. 112-115)
Miskawayh • Death of the Andalusian poet 1134 Death of Ibn³Abdun, Andalusian
Ibn Darraj poet and writer 1204 Death of Ibn Maymun (Maimonides),
Jewish philosopher and theologian
1035 Death of Ibn al-Samh, Andalusian 1139 Death of Ibn Bajja (Avempace),
author of works on geometry and astronom- Andalusian philosopher, poet and musician 1209 Death of Nizami, Persian poet author
ical tables of romantic verse epics
1143 First translation of the Qur’an into
1037 Death of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Medieval Latin by Robert of Ketton 1217 Death of the Andalusian traveller Ibn
influential philosopher and physician Jubayr, author of the Rihla
1147 Death of Ibn Bassam, Andalusian
1039 Death of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), poet and anthologist 1233 Death of Ibn al-Athir, author of a
astronomer and physicist monumental world history
ca. 1150 Translations of Ibn Sina (Avi-
1049 – 1083 Construction of the Aljaferia cenna) into Latin 1235 Manuscript of Mi’a layla wa-layla
Palace in Zaragoza (Spain) (“One Hundred and One Nights”) of
1154 Al-Idrisi completes his universal Al-Zuhri (cat. no. 46)
1052 Manuscript of the Qanun fi ’l-tibb geography at the court of Roger II of Sicily •
(“Canon of medicine”) of Ibn Sina, fifth Construction of the Nur al-Din hospital in 1238 Construction of the Alhambra by the
book (cat. no. 111) Damascus Nasrid ruler Muhammad I
1064 Death of Ibn Hazm, Andalusian 1160 Death of Ibn Quzman, famous 1240 Death of Ibn al-³Arabi, Andalusian
philosopher and theologian Andalusian poet philosopher and mystic
1067 Foundation of the Nizamiyya 1162 Death of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), 1248 Death of Ibn al-Baytar, Andalusian
madrasa in Baghdad Andalusian physician botanist and pharmacologist
1068 – 1069 Destruction of Fatimid 1170 – 1180 Construction of the Almohad 1258 Destruction of Baghdad by the
libraries Great Mosque of Seville with its minaret, Mongols
now called Giralda
276
1259 Construction of the observatory at ca. 1420 Foundation of the observatory at 1628 Portraits of Jahangir and Shah Jahan
Maragha (Iran) begins Samarqand (cat. no. 192)
1273 Death of Jalal al-Din Rumi, author of 1453 Conquest of Constantinople by the 1631-2 Calligraphy by Prince Dara Shikuh
mystical poems Ottomans (cat. no. 204)

1274 Death of Nasir al-Din Tusi, eminent 1492 Conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of 1632 – 1654 Construction of the Taj Mahal
philosopher and astronomer Granada by the Castilians • End of Muslim at Agra by the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan
rule in Spain
1284 Construction of al-Mansuri hospital 1640 Death of Mulla Sadra, theologian and
in Cairo 1498 Vasco da Gama arrives in India via philosopher
the Cape of Good Hope and the Indian
1286 Death of Ibn Sa³id al-Maghribi, Ocean 1658 Death of Hajji Khalifa, Turkish
Andalusian poet, historian and geographer cosmographer and encyclopaedist
ca. 1520 Album made for Shah Jahan (cat.
1292 Death of Sa³di, Persian poet, master no. 202) 1718 – 1720 Qur’an on cloth (cat. no. 25)
of lyrical and ethical-didactic poetry
1520 – 1540 The Shahnama of Shah 1727 Ibrahim Muteferriqa sets up first
1294 Death of the musician Safi al-Din Tahmasp; five illustrations (cat. nos. Ottoman printing press
162–166)
ca. 1300 Gold and silver inlaid pen box 1798 – 1801 French expedition under
(cat. no. 136) 1536 Death of the painter Bihzad Napoleon to Egypt
1310 Death of the playwright Ibn Daniyal 1537 – 1538 First edition of the Qur’an ca. 1805 Portrait of Sultan Selim III (cat.
printed by Paganino and Alessandro no. 100)
1333 – 1354 Expansion of the Alhambra Paganini
1808 Letter from Crown Prince ³Abbas
1349 Creation of the al-Qarawiyyin library 1544 Death of Mir ³Ali Haravi poet and Mirza to Napoleon I (cat. no. 184)
in Fez (Morocco) calligrapher.
1813 Publication of James Murphy’s The
1354 Kitab fi ma³rifa al-hiyal al-handasiyya 1550 – 1557 Construction of the Suleyman Arabian Antiquities of Spain
(“Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechan- the Magnificent Mosque complex in Istanbul
ical Devices”); see folio “A blood-letting 1821 Setting up of the Bulaq printing press
device” (cat. no. 93) ca. 1570 Portrait of Sultan Selim II (cat. in Cairo
no. 98)
1368 Death of the traveller Ibn Battuta 1828 Appearance of the first Arabic
1588 Death of Sinan, architect of Suleyman newspaper
1375 Death of Ibn al-Khatib, historian of the Magnificent
Granada 1836 – 1837 Publication of Girault de
1593 Manuscript of the Anvar-i Suhayli Prangey’s Souvenirs de Grenade et de
1390 Death of the Persian poet Hafiz (“Lights of Canopus”) of Husayn Ibn ³Ali l’Alhambra
al-Wa³iz al-Kashifi (cat. no. 154)
1398 Death of the calligrapher Yaqut 1839 Publication of Girault de Prangey’s
al-Musta³simi 1602 Manuscript of poet Rumi’s Masnavi Monuments arabes et moresques de Cordoue,
(cat. no. 37) Séville et Grenade
1406 Death of Ibn Khaldun, philosopher
of history
277
1842 – 1845 Publication of Owen Jones’ 1938 Death of Muhammad Iqbal, poet and 1988 Timbuktu and Old Towns of Djenne
Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the philosopher in Mali, and Kairouan in Tunisia added to
Alhambra World Heritage List • Foundation of The
1973 Death of the writer Taha Husayn Aga Khan Trust for Culture • Naguib
1861 Chao Jin Tu Ji by Ma Fuchu (cat. Mahfouz awarded the Nobel Prize in
no. 30) 1976 Exhibition on the Arts of Islam at the Literature
Hayward Gallery in London
1865 Lacquer pen box (cat. no. 186) 1989 Death of the architect Hassan Fathy
1977 Establishment of The Aga Khan
1869 Opening of the Suez Canal Award for Architecture 1990 Itchan Kala in Uzbekistan added to
World Heritage List
1876 Exhibition of Persian art at the South 1979 Abdus Salam awarded Nobel Prize in
Kensington Museum in London Physics • Aga Khan Program for Islamic 1993 Humayun’s Tomb and the Qutb
Architecture (AKPIA) established at Minar complex in Delhi (India), the
1885 Exhibition of Persian and Arab art at Harvard-MIT Historic Town of Zabid (Yemen), and the
the Burlington Fine Arts Club in London Historic Centre of Bukhara (Uzbekistan)
1980 Al Qal³a of Beni Hammad in Algeria added to World Heritage List
1893 Exposition d’Art Musulman at the added to World Heritage List
Palais de l’Industrie in Paris • Manuscript 1996 Ancient Ksour of Ouadane, Chinguet-
of Shabistari’s Gulshan-i Raz (cat. no. 187) 1981 Medina of Fez (Morocco), and the ti, Tichitt and Oulata (Mauritania), and the
Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore Historic city of Meknes (Morocco) added to
1903 Exposition des Arts Musulman at the (Pakistan) added to World Heritage List World Heritage List
Pavilion de Marsan in Paris
1982 Old Walled City of Shibam in Yemen 1997 Qila Rohtas in Pakistan added to
1905 Exposition d’Art Musulman in Algiers added to World Heritage List World Heritage List • Death of the musi-
cian Nusrat Fateh ³Ali Khan
1910 Exhibition on Islamic art (Meister- 1983 Agra Fort and Taj Mahal in India
werke Muhammedanischer Kunst) in added to World Heritage List 1999 Ahmed Zewail awarded Nobel Prize
Munich in Chemistry
1984 Alhambra in Granada and the
1911 Excavations initiated at Madinat historic centre of Cordoba added to the 2000 Historic Town of Zabid (Yemen), and
al-Zahra’ by Ricardo Velásquez Bosco World Heritage List the Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore
(Pakistan) added to List of World Heritage
1912 Exposition d’Art Persan at the Musée 1985 Historic mosque city of Bagerhat in • Stone Town of Zanzibar, and the Historic
des Arts Décoratifs in Paris Bangladesh, Qusayr Amra in Jordan, the Centre of Shahr-i Sab (Uzbekistan) added to
Great Mosque and Hospital of Divrigi in World Heritage List • Aga Khan Music
1914 Death of the novelist Jurji Zaydan Turkey, and the Medina of Marrakesh in Initiative in Central Asia (AKMICA)
Morocco added to World Heritage List established
1920 Aligarh College (India) upgraded to
the status of University 1986 Fatehpur Sikri in India, and the Old 2001 Lamu Old Town (Kenya), and
City of Sana³a’ in Yemen added to World Samarqand (Uzbekistan) added to World
1931 Exhibition of Persian Art at Burling- Heritage List Heritage List
ton House in London
1987 Death of the dramatist Tawfiq 2002 Minaret and archaeological remains
1935 Exhibition of Persian art at the al-Hakim of Jam (Afghanistan) added to List of World
Hermitage Museum in Leningrad (St Peters- Heritage • ArchNet, online library on
burg) architecture, launched
278
2003 Shirin Ebadi awarded Nobel Peace
Prize • Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi
(Kazakhstan) added to World Heritage List
2004 Tomb of Askia in Mali added to

World Heritage List
2005 Old Bridge and Old City of Mostar

(Bosnia and Herzegovina), Kunya-Urgench
(Turkmenistan), and the Mausoleum of
Oljaytu in Soltaniyeh (Iran) added to World
Heritage List • Inauguration of Al-Azhar
Park, Cairo
2006 Orhan Pamuk awarded Nobel Prize

in Literature • Muhammad Yunus awarded
Nobel Peace Prize • Death of the writer
Naguib Mahfouz • Death of the singer-
musician Ali Ibrahim Toure
2007 Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge

(Bosnia and Herzegovina), Samarra
Archaeological City (Iraq) and Red Fort
Complex (India) added to World Heritage
List • Samarra Archaeological City added to
List of World Heritage
2008 Archeological sites Al-Hijr (Mada’in

Salih, Saudi Arabia) become UNESCO
World Cultural Heritage sites. • Death of
the Palestinian poet Mahmud Darwish (b.
1941)
2009 The Burj Khalifa in Dubai reaches a

maximum height of 828 meters and is the
tallest building in the world • US-President
Barak Obama’s address to the Islamic world
at the University of Cairo
279
Glossary
Abbasids Dynasty that founded the city of ghubari Miniscule script said to have Mamluks Turkic dynasty that ruled from
Baghdad and ruled large parts of the central received its name because it resembled 1250 to 1517, with Cairo as the capital.
Islamic lands from 750 to 1258. motes of dust and to have been invented to
write messages carried by pigeon post. maqsura “Imperial Box” in the form of a
abjad Alphanumeric system in which each separate section of the Mosque, usually
letter of the Arabic alphabet is assigned a hadith Report of the sayings of the beside the minbar.
numerical value. Prophet, and in Shia Islam, for the tradi-
tions of the Imams. mihrab Niche in the wall of a mosque that
Almohads Berber dynasty that ruled indicates the direction of prayer.
North Africa and southern Spain from 1130 Hajj Annual pilgrimage to Mecca.
to 1269. minbar Elevated pulpit in a mosque from
Ilkhanids Established by Hulegu, dynasty which the Friday sermon is delivered.
Almoravids Berber dynasty that ruled that ruled Iran from 1256 to 1353.
North Africa and southern Spain from 1062 Mughals Founded by Babur, a descendant
to 1147. Imam In general, a leader of prayers or of Timur, dynasty that ruled the Indian
religious leader; used by the Shia to denote subcontinent from 1526 to 1858.
ayah A verse from the Qur’an. the spiritual leaders descended from ³Ali
ibn Abi Talib and the Prophet’s daughter, muhaqqaq Monumental cursive script
Ayyubids Founded by Salah al-Din Fatima. with well-balanced ascending and horizontal
(Saladin), dynasty that ruled Egypt and strokes.
Syria from 1169 to 1260. Jazira The area that spans northeast Syria,
northwest Iraq, and souteast Turkey muqarnas Decorative vaulting system
basmala The invocation bism Allah between the Tigris and the Euphrates. composed of tiers of small niche-like
al-rahman al-rahim, meaning “In the Name elements resembling stalactites or honey-
of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful”, juz’ A thirtieth part of the Qur’an. combs.
which appears at the beginning of most
chapters of the Qur’an. Ka³ba Cubic building in Mecca, and the muraqqa³ Album with a collection of
focus of the hajj. samples of calligraphy and paintings.
bihari Stately cursive script used exclu-
sively in India with thick round bowls for khanqah Lodge or hospice for Sufis. naskh Cursive script used to transcribe
endings and wide spaces between words. texts, and the basis for modern typography.
khutba Sermon delivered in a mosque
dhikr Form of prayer, which consists in the during Friday prayers. Nasrids Dynasty that ruled southern Spain
constant repetition of a name or formula, from 1230 to 1492.
performed either in solitude or collectively. Kufic Angular script with defined vertical
and horizontal lines. nasta³liq Elegant ‘hanging’ script charac-
divan Anthology of poetry. terized by short ascending strokes and
Madrasa College or educational institu- sweeping elongated diagonal strokes.
Fatimids Dynasty that ruled large parts of tion, especially for religious studies. Developed to save paper; because one
North Africa and the Middle East from 909 writes slanting down, the next word can
to 1171, and founded the city of Cairo. Maghreb Western part of the Islamic start above the previous one.
world; includes modern Morocco, Tunisia,
Ghaznavids Turkic dynasty that ruled Algeria, Libya and Mauritania. Ottomans Dynasty that came to power in
parts of Iran, Afghanistan and India from Anatolia during the early 14th century, and
977 to 1186. maghribi Distinctive round style script ruled Turkey, the Balkans, North Africa,
used in North Africa and in Spain. Egypt and the Middle East for over 400
years until 1924.
280
pir Spiritual guide qualified to lead tauqi³ Script usually used for administra-
disciples on the mystical path. tive documents, the larger counterpart to
riqa³.
Qajars Dynasty that ruled Iran from 1779
to 1925. tawhid The Oneness of God or belief in
Divine Unity, one of the fundamental tenets
qibla The relative direction of Muslim of Islam.
prayer towards Mecca.
thuluth Elegant monumental cursive script
qilin The unicorn from Chinese mythology. often used for inscriptions, the larger
Personification of goodness, purity, and counterpart to naskh.
peacefulness.
Timurids Dynasty founded by Timur that
rihan Round script, which is the smaller ruled in Central Asia and Afghanistan from
counterpart to muhaqqaq and notable for its 1370 to 1507.
smooth line, even spacing and balance.
tiraz Textile with woven, embroidered or
riqa³ Script par excellence for administra- painted inscriptions.
tive decrees and official letters.
tughra Distinctive and intricately executed
Safavids Dynasty that ruled Iran from monogram of the Ottoman sultan.
1501 to 1722 and established Shiism as the
official state religion. ³ulama’ Religious and legal scholars.
Samanids Dynasty that ruled from 819 to Umayyads Dynasty that ruled the central
1005 in Central Asia and Transoxania. Islamic lands from 661 to 750 with Damas-
cus as the capital, and also the Iberian
saz Type of vegetal decoration common in Peninsula from 756 to 1031, with Cordoba
Ottoman art of the 16th century. as the capital.
Seljuqs Turkic dynasty that ruled parts of waqf Pious endowment or trust stipulated
Iran and Iraq from 1040 to 1194, as well as for a charitable purpose.
Anatolia from 1081 to 1307.
shahada The Muslim profession of faith.
shari‘a Standard term used for the body of

rules guiding the life of a Muslim.
shikasta Dense script in which letters and

words that should be detached are some-
times joined allowing the calligrapher to
complete each word in a single penstroke.
Simurgh Gigantic mythical Persian bird.
Sura Chapter of the Qur’an.
281
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Treasures of The Aga Khan Museum

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What is the collection about?

What is the collection about?

Who owns the collection?

Who owns the collection?

Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum

Verena Daiber is a lecturer of Arabic and Islamic art and archa-

Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum

Cover illustration: Haftvad and the worm

Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum

Cover illustration: Haftvad and the worm

AGA KHAN TRUST FOR CULTURE

Der Martin-Gropius-Bau wird gefördert durch:

aufgrund eines Beschlusses des Deutschen Bundestages

Eine Ausstellung des Aga Khan Trust for Culture

Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC)

Curator Editors Proof reading

Exhibition Design Scientific Advisors Design

Ladan Akbarnia Executive Director of the Iran Heritage Foundation, London

Monique Buresi Archivist, Department of Islamic Art, Musée du Louvre, Paris

Carine Juvin Curator, Department of Islamic Art, Musée du Louvre, Paris

Sophie Makariou Director, Department of Islamic Art, Musée du Louvre, Paris

Alnoor Merchant Head Librarian, Institute of Ismaili Studies, London

Azim Nanji Senior Associate Director of Islamic Studies, Stanford University

Fernando Valdés Professor of Archaeology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid

13 Museums as Collective Memory and Cultural Vectors

14 Map of the Islamic World

17 A Plural Vision of Islam for a Singular Museum

21 The Historical Context

25 Introduction to Islamic Art

THE WORD OF GOD

59 Pilgrimage and Prayer

THE PATH OF THE TRAVELLERS

87 Looking to the Orient

91 Al-Andalus: The Orient in the West

115 The Fatimids

125 The Mamluks

139 Anatolia and the Ottomans

THE PATH OF THE TRAVELLERS

149 The Persianised East and the Royal Tradition

165 Iran in the Middle Ages

191 The Safavids

229 The Zand and the Qajars

245 India and the Mughals

272 Transcription Table

The Court of Gayumars

A Prince visits a hermit

at Tangier, Ibn Battuta (1304–1368 or 1377) is

considered one of the world’s most famous travel- Niani

Prince and Princess Sadruddin Aga

Isfahan (Iran), Great Mosque

Cairo (Egypt), Mosque of al-Hakim

83 Biconical gold bead

84 Gold amulet box

85 Miniature Qur’an case

Cairo (Egypt), Mausoleum of Sultan Barsbay

Istanbul (Turkey), Süleymaniye Mosque

105 Dish with a representation of a garden

106 Dish with tulips and roses

115 “Plant for the treatment of ulcers, pustu-