Chapter 1

Overview of criminology
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students would be able to:

1. Familiarize the definition of criminology.

2. Identify the various field associated in the study of criminology.
3. Describe the scope and major areas in the study criminology.

CRIMINOLOGY DEFINED
 Criminology is a scientific study of crime, criminals, and criminal behavior
 Criminology came from the Latin word crimen – accusation and Greek word Logia.
 Criminology was coined by the Italian Law Professor Raffaele Garofalo as Criminologia.
 Is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. It includes within its scope, the
process of making laws, of breaking laws, and reacting towards breaking laws. (Sutherland and Cressey)
 In the broader meaning, criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crimes, criminals, and the effort of
society to prevent and repress them.
Criminology is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry, it withdraws knowledge from other disciplines such as:

 Biology • Medicine
 Psychology • Statistics
 Psychiatry • Economics
 Sociology • Political Science
 Law
Principal Divisions of Criminology (Tradio,1999)
1. Criminal Etiology – an attempt at scientific analysis of the causes of crime.
2. Sociology of Law – an attempt at scientific analysis of the conditions under which penal or criminal laws
develop as a process of formal social control.
3. Penology – concerned with the rehabilitation and treatment of offenders.
Principal Divisions of Criminology (Edwin Sutherland)
1. Sociology of Law
2. Scientific analysis of the causes of crime.
3. Crime Control
Components of Criminology
1. Detection of the offender.
2. Treatment of the offender.
3. Explaining crime and criminal behavior
Goals of Studying Criminology
The study of criminology seeks to achieve the following goals:
1. To describe criminal behavior
2. To understand criminal behavior
3. To predict criminal behavior
4. To control criminal behavior
Various Studies and Sciences Related to Criminology

Criminology covers the following studies and sciences:

1. Law
2. Sociology
3. Psychology
4. Medicine
5. Chemistry
6. Public Administration
 7. Education
8. Theology
9. Economics

Agencies and Sectors Associated to Criminology

Criminology consists of the activities of the following offices and sectors, public and private;
1. Legislative Bodies and Lawmakers
2. Law Enforcement Agencies
3. Courts and Prosecution
4. Correctional Institutions
5. Educational Institution
6. Public Welfare Agencies
7. Public Charitable and Social Agencies
8. Non-Government Organizations
9. Family/Home
10. Church
11. Private Charitable and Welfare Institutions
12. Civic clubs and Organizations
13. Print Media, Radio, and Television
Nature of Criminology
Generally, criminology cannot be considered a science because it has not yet acquired universal and
acceptance. It is not stable and it varies from one time and place to another.
However considering that science is the systematic and objective study of social phenomenon and other
body’s knowledge, criminology is a science in itself classified when under the following nature:
1. It is an applied science – Criminology is considered as an applied science because of the following
studies regarding the cause of crimes such as:
a. Anthropology
b. Psychology
c. Sociology
d. Other natural science

In crime detection, it involves instrumentation that covers the utilization of the following:
a. Chemistry
b. Physics
c. Firearms identification
d. Legal medicine
e. Personal Identification
f. Mathematics
g. Polygraph
h. Question document examination

2. It is a social science – In as much as crime is a social creation that exists in a society being a social
phenomenon, its study must be considered a part of social science.
3. It is dynamic – Criminology is dynamic because it changes as social condition changes. It is connected
with the advancement of other science that has been applied to it.
4. It is nationalistic – Criminology is nationalistic because the study of crime is in relation with the existing
criminal law within the territory or country. Finally, the question as to whether an act is a crime is dependent
on the criminal law of a state; it follows therefore, that the cause of crime must be determined from their
social needs and standards
Scope of Criminology
1. Study of the origin and development of criminal law.
2. Study of the causes of crimes and development of criminals.
3. Study of the different factors that enhance the development of criminal behavior such as:

a. Criminal Demography
- it refers to the study of the relationship between criminality and population.

b. Criminal Epidemiology
– it refers to the study of criminality in relation to spatial distribution in a community

c. Criminal Ecology
 – it refers to the study of the relationship between environment and criminality.

d. Criminal Physical Anthropology

– it refers to the study of criminality in relation to physical constitution of men.

e. Criminal Psychology
– it refers to the study of human mind and behavior in relation to criminality.

f. Criminal Psychiatry
– it refers to the study of mental and behavioral disorders in relation to criminality.

g. Victimology
– it refers to the study of the role of the victim in crime commission.

4. Study of various measures and methods accepted by society in cases of violation of criminal law such as:
a. Detection of crimes
b. The arrest or apprehension of criminals.
c. The prosecution of suspected law violators.
d. The conviction of criminals in judicial proceedings.
e. The imprisonment, correction and rehabilitation of the criminal convicted of a crime.
f. The enforcement of laws, decrees, rules and regulations.
g. The administration of the police and other law enforcement agencies.

Major Areas of Study in Criminology

1. Criminal Sociology – includes the fundamentals of criminology; juvenile delinquency; human behavior and
crisis management; ethics and community relations; and criminal justice system.

2. Criminal Law and Jurisprudence – covers the study of the Revised Penal Code and its amendments, and
other laws that are penal in nature; criminal procedure; and the law on evidence.

3. Law Enforcement Administration – embraces police organization; operational planning; patrol; industrial
security management; intelligence and secret service; police records and personnel management.

4. Crime Detection, Investigation and Prevention – consist of criminal, special and arson investigation; vice
control; traffic management and accident investigation; and police report writing.

5. Criminalistics – covers the following areas:

a. Dactyloscopy – the science of fingerprinting.
b. Police Photography – study of the black and white and colored photograph ( both film-based
photography and digital photography)
c. Polygraphy – the science of lie detection examination.
d. Ballistics – study of firearms and bullets
e. Questioned document examination – study of disputed documents.
f. Forensic Medicine – application of medical science to elucidate legal problems.
g. Forensic Chemistry – an application of chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in
connection with the administration of justice.
6. Corrections – deals with the institution and non – institution correctional system of approach.

Criminologist defined
A criminologist is any person graduate with the Degree of Criminology, passes the examination for
criminologist and is registered as such by the Board of Examiners of the Professional Regulation Commission
(Sec. 22 R. A. 6506).
A criminologist is one who has been engaged in the practice of criminology if he holds himself out to
the public in any of the following capacities:
1. As a professor, instructor or teacher of criminology in any university, college or school duly recognized by the
government and teaches any of the following:
a. Law Enforcement
b. Criminalistics
c. Correctional Administration
d. Criminal Sociology and Applied Subject
e. Other technical and specialized subjects in criminology curriculum.
2. As a law enforcement administrator, executive, adviser, consultant or agent in any government or private
agency.
3. As technician in dactyloscopy, ballistics, question document, police photography, lie detection (polygraphy),
forensic chemistry, and other aspects of crime detection.
4. As a correctional administrator, executive supervisor, worker or officer in any correctional and penal institution.
5. As a counselor, expert, adviser, researcher in any government or private agency or any aspect of criminal
research or project involving the cause of crime juvenile delinquency, treatment of offenders, police operations,
law enforcement administration, scientific criminal investigation or public welfare administration (Sec. 23, R. A.
6506)

Career opportunities for Criminology Graduates

1. Law Enforcement Officers/ Intelligence Officers/ Investigators
A. Philippine National Police
B. Philippine Ports Authority
C. Bureau of Customs
D. National Bureau of Investigation
E. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency
F. Department of Finance
G. National Police Commission
H. Bureau of Fire Protection
I. Department of Transportation and Communications
J. Department of the Interior and Local Government
K. others.

2. Armed Forces of the Philippines

a. Philippine Army
b. Philippine Navy
c. Philippine Marines
d. Philippine Air Force
e. Forensic specialists
f. National Bureau of Investigation
g. Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory
h. Higher Education Institutions

3. Forensic Specialist or Experts

a. National bureau of Investigation
b. Philippine National Police Crime laboratory
c. Higher Education Institution – State Colleges and Universities, and Private Universities and Colleges
3. Personnel and Officers of Correctional Institution
a. Bureau of Corrections
b. Bureau of Jail Management and Penology
c. Parole and Probation Administration
d. Provincial Jail

4. State Colleges and Universities SUCs, Private Universities and Colleges (PUCs) and Specialized Training
Institutions such as the Philippine Military Academy, Philippine National Police, Philippine Safety College as:
a. Administrators
b. Instructors
c. Training Officers
d. Laboratory Technician

5. Judiciary
a. Supreme Court as sheriffs
6. Maritime Industry
a. Sea Marshall Officer in private vessels, both national and international.
 CHAPTER 2
SCHOOL OF THOUGHT IN CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology as a discipline is recent, but its foundations date back to centuries ago, built by people
who may be called early criminologist. To better understand the current criminological theories, it is essential
to be familiar with these people contribution and earlier approaches.
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Identify the pioneer of the school of thought in criminology
2. Discuss the biological explanation of criminality
3. Understand the other factors of crime causation

1. Classical School of Criminology

By the middle of 18th century, social philosophers studied, argued and began to look for more rational
approach in imposing punishment. Social reformers sought to eliminate the barbaric system of law,
punishment and justice. They stressed that the relationship between crime and punishment should be
balanced and fear.

One of the social reformers who worked on the implementation puff said reform was Cesar Beccaria.
He pioneered the development of a systematic understanding of why people committed crime. According to
him the crime problem could be traced not to bad people but to bad laws, that a modern criminal justice
system should guarantee all people equal treatment before the law.
Beccaria believed that the behavior of people with regard to their choice of action is based on hedonism, the
pleasure and pain principle: Human beings choose hose actions that give pleasure and avoid those that bring
pain. Moreover punishment should be assigned to each crime in degree that results in more pain than
pleasure for those who commit forbidden acts. Therefore, “the punishment should fit the crime”

Basic elements of Classical Criminology

 In every society, people have free will to choose criminal or law solutions to meet their needs or settle
their problems.
 Criminal solutions may be more attractive than lawful ones because they usually require less work for
greater payoff; If left unsanctioned, crime has greater utility than conformity
 A person’s choice of criminal solutions may be controlled by his fear of punishment
 The more sever, certain, and swift the punishment, the better able is to control criminal behavior.

Cesare Becaria believed the best way to prevent and deter crime was to:

1. Enact laws that are clear, simple, and unbiased, and that reflect the consensus of the population.
2. Educate the public.
3. Eliminate corruption from the administration of justice.
4. Reward virtue.

Deterrence – refers to the prevention of individuals from committing crime is by imposing punishment.
Two Forms of Deterrence:

1. Specific Deterrence – specific deterrence is applied to the individual who committed an offense.
2.General Deterrence – general deterrence applies to other potential offenders by showing then that a
punished individual would not gain from his or her offense.
Three Components of Deterrence

1. Celerity – Celerity refers to the speed with which a punishment is applied.

2. Certainly – Certainly refers to the concepts of making a punishment sure to happen whenever an
undesirable act is committed.
3. Severity – Severity refers to the amount of pain to be inflicted on those who do harmful acts.

Arguments against the Classical Theory

1. Unfair – it treats all men as if they were robot without regard to the individual differences and the surrounding
circumstances when the crime is committed.
2. Unjust – having the same punishment for first and recidivists.
 3. The nature and definition of punishment is not individualized.
4. It considers only the injury caused not the mental condition of the offender.

Pioneer of Classical Criminology

1. Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

Beccaria was an Italian philosopher and politician best known for this treatise Essay on Crimes and
Punishments or Dei Delitti e Delle Pene (1764).
His judiciary reform condemned torture and led to the abolition of death penalty in Grand Duchy of
Tuscany, the first Italian state taking this measure.
The Classical School was based on utilitarian philosophy.
Beccaria said, man is fundamentally a biological organism with intelligence and rationality that control his
behavior.
Before man does something, he tries to determine the amount of pain he will suffer and the amount of
pleasure he will receive.
His future actions will depend on the algebraic sum of the two considerations if there will be more pain
than pleasure, he will desist from doing the act (Rational Calculation).

What is the Essay on Crimes and Punishment?

- Proposing reforms to the criminal justice system which we now take for granted, in particular:

a. The prompt administration of clearly prescribed and consistent punishment.

b. Well-publicized laws made by the legislature rather than individual courts or judges.
c. The abolition of torture in prisons.
d. The use of the penal system to deter would-be offenders, rather than simply punishing those convicted.

2. Jeremy Bentham (1784-1832)

 Bentham was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer.
 He was a political radical and a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law.
 Bentham is an early advocator of utilitarianism (the greatest good for the greatest number) and fair
treatment of animals that influenced the development of liberalism.
 Utilitarianism assumes that all human actions are calculated in accordance with their likelihood of
bringing happiness (pleasure) or unhappiness (pain). People weigh their responsibilities of present and
future pleasures against those of present and future pain.
 He also invented a prison known as the Panopticon prison.

The Classical School of Criminology’s concept of human nature as governed by the doctrine of “free will”
and rational behavior, upholds the following principles:

1. All human beings, including criminals, will freely choose either criminal ways or non-criminal ways
depending on which way they believed will benefit them.

2. Criminals will avoid behaviors that will bring pain and will engage in behaviors that will bring pleasure.

3. Before deciding which course of action to take, criminals will weigh the expect pains

4. Criminals are responsible for their behaviors. They are seen as human beings who are able to interpret,
analyze, and understand the situations I which they find themselves.

5. Criminals act over and against their environment. They are not victims of their environment.

6. Criminals go through a thinking process whereby they take variety of factors into account before they make
a final decision on whether or not to commit criminal act.

7. Criminals are totally responsible for their behaviors

8. Environmental forces do not push, pull or propel individuals to act. An individual acts willfully and freely.

9. Offenders are not helpless, passive, or propelled by forces beyond their control.

10. Each criminal act is deliberate one, committed by a rational, choosing person who is motivated primarily
by the pleasure-pain principle.

Neo-Classical School
 The Neo-classical school flourished in 19th century, had the same basis as the classical school – a belief in
free will. The neoclassical criminologist believed that the classical criminology was too harsh and unjust. This
school of criminology modifies the classical theory.
This school accepts the fact that the crime in accordance with the free will of the man but the act of
committing a crime is modified by some causes that finally prevail upon the person to commit crimes. These
causes are:

- Pathology - the study of the causes and effects of disease or injury.

- Incompetence – inability to do something successfully.
- Insanity or any condition that will make it possible the individual to exercise the free will entirely.

In the Philippine legal provision (Revise Penal Code Book I and II), the aforementioned may serve to
mitigate or exempt a person from the commission of crime.
Thus, the neo-classical school proposed the value of mitigating or exempting circumstance.

Positivist School or Italian School

The positivist school of criminology was originated in 19 th century, in the context of the scientific revolution.
The positivist rejected the harsh legalism of the classical school and substituted the concept of “free will” with
the doctrine of determinism. They focused on the constitutional approach of crime, advocating that structure
or physical characteristics of an individual determine that person’s behavior.

• Positivist school presumes that the criminal behavior is caused by internal and external factors outside of
the individual’s control.
• The positivist school introduced the scientific method of the understanding criminality and was applied to
study human behavior.
• Many criminologist use the term “positivism” to mean approach that studies human behavior through the
use of scientific method.
• The focus is on systematic observation and the accumulation of evidence and objective fact within a
deductive framework (moving from the general to the specific) (William III & McShane, 2004).
• Italian school of criminology was founded at the end of the 19 th century by Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)
and the two of his Italian disciples,
• Enrico Ferri (1856-1929) and
• Raffaele Garofalo (1851-1934).

Positivist Criminology
a. J.K. Lavater (1741- 1801)- studied the facial features of criminals to determine whether the shape of ears,
nose, eyes and the distance between them were associated with antisocial behavior. (Physiognomists)
b. Franz Joseph Gall & Johann K Spurzheim- studied the shape of the skull and bumps on the head to
determine whether these physical attributes were linked to criminal behavior. Phrenologists believed that
external cranial characteristics dictate which areas of the brain control physical activity.

c. Philippe Pinel- one of the founders of French psychiatry, claimed that some people behave abnormally
even without being mentally ill. He coined the phrase “manie sans delire” to denote what eventually was
referred to as “psychopathic personality”.

d. Henry Maudsley- An English physician who believed that insanity and criminal behavior were strongly
linked.

e. Charles Darwin- he claimed that all humans, like other animals, are parasite. Man is an organism having
an animalistic behavior that is dependent on other animals for survival. Thus, man kills and steals to live.

f. Charles Goring- An English statistician, who studied the case histories of 2,000 convicts and found that
heredity is more influential as determiner of criminal behavior. Goring believed that criminal behavior was
inherited and could be controlled by regulating the reproduction of families who produced mentally
defective children.

g. Enrico Ferri- He was the best known Lombroso’s associate, although he agreed with Lombroso on the
biological bases of criminal behavior, his interest in socialism led him to recognize the importance of
social, economic and political determinants. He believed that criminals could not be held morally
responsible for their crimes because they did not choose to commit crimes but rather, were driven to
commit them by conditions in their lives.

h. Raffaele Garofalo- He rejected the doctrine of free will and supported that the only way to understand
crime was to study it by scientific methods. He was also influenced on Lombroso’s theory of atavistic
 stigmata; he traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to their psychological
equivalents, which he called moral anomalies.
According to his theory, natural crimes are found in all human societies, regardless of the views of the
lawmakers, and no civilized society can afford to disregard them. Natural crimes are those that offend the
basic moral sentiments of probity (respect for property of others) and piety (revulsion against infliction of pain
to others)
Positivism can be broken up into three segments, which includes the following:

1. Biological Positivism - Biological Positivism includes the study of the following theories in relation to
criminality:

a. criminal anthropology
b. phrenology
c. physiognomy
d. heredity: Kallikak and Juke family study,
e. criminal body type theories/somatotyping,
f. genetic structure
g. biochemistry
h. blood sugar levels
i. adrenaline sensitivity
j. allergies and diet, and
k. substance abuse

2. Psychological Positivism - Psychological Positivism relates criminality through the study of the following
theories:
a. psychodynamics/psychoanalytic theory,
b. behavioral learning theories,
c. cognitive learning theories

3. Social Positivism - Social Positivism relates criminality through the study of the following theories:
a. social disorganization theory,
b. Chicago school theory,
c. anomie theory

Major contributions of Cesare Lombroso to positivist criminology are the following;

1. The theory of Atavism

2. The application of the experimental or scientific method to the study of criminal.
3. The development of criminal typology

Categories of Criminals

1. Born Criminals – These refers to individuals who are born with genetic predilection towards criminality
2. Epileptic criminals- These are criminals who commit crime because they are affected by epilepsy.
3. Insane criminals – These are criminals who commits crime due to psychological disorders.
4. Occasional criminals – These are criminals who commits crime due to insignificant reasons that push
them to do at given occasion.

Various types of occasional criminals

1. Pseudo criminals – these individuals are not real criminals. They do something criminal on account of
acute pressure of circumstances that leave them with no choice.
2. Criminaloids – These individuals are not born criminals but non criminals who have adopted criinal
activity due to pressure of circumstances and less physical stamina or self-control
3. Habitual criminals – They have no organic tendency, but in the course of their lives they have develops
some foul habits that force them into criminality
4. The belief of indeterminate sentence
5. The application of statistical techniques to criminology.

The Holy Three (3) in Criminology

1. Cesare Lombroso (1836- 1909)

Cesare Lombroso was an Italian criminologist and founder of the Italian School of Positivist Criminology. His
study proved that a criminal is born with some physical characteristic as the cause of crime.
Greatest Contributions of Lombroso

A. He rejected the Classical School which held that crime was a characteristic trait of human nature. Instead,
he uses concepts drawn from the following:

 Physiognomy - is a practice of assessing a person's character or personality from their outer

appearance—especially the face.

 Early eugenics - Eugenics is a set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a
human population by excluding certain genetic groups judged to be inferior, and promoting other
genetic groups judged to be superior.

 Psychiatry - Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to diagnosing, preventing, and treating
mental disorders.

 Social Darwinism - the theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian
laws of natural selection as plants and animals.
B. Lombroso’s theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality is:

1. Inherited
2. That someone “born criminal” could be identified by physical defects which confirmed a criminal as
savage or atavistic.
3. Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence for studying crime.
4. He founded criminal anthropology. He considered it as throwbacks to Neanderthal man and is
indicative of “atavistic”

The four main categories of criminals according to Lombroso are:

1. Atavistic – Atavistic criminal is referred by Lombroso as born criminal.

2. Insane Criminal – Lombroso referred to this criminal as those alcoholics, kleptomaniacs,
nymphomaniacs, idiots, epileptics, and child molesters. Although insane criminals bore some stigmata,
they were not “born criminals”; rather they become criminal as a result “of an alteration of the brain”,
which completely upsets their moral nature.

3. Criminaloid or Occasional Criminal – Occasional Criminal or Criminaloid refers to those who commit
crimes in response to opportunities. Further, Lombroso also referred to this as “habitual criminal”, who
become so by contact with other criminals, the abuse of alcohol, or other “distressing circumstances.
4. Criminal of Passion – Lombroso referred to a person who committed a crime motivated or because of
anger, love or honor (Burke, 2005).

Discovery of the “fossette” and the theory of the Criminal Man

In November 1872, Lombroso performed an autopsy on the body of Giuseppe Villella, a seventy-
year-old Calabrian brigand, whom he had already examined in prison the previous year.
The autopsy Lombroso performed on Villella’s skull revealed an anomaly in the criminal structure, a smooth
concavity in the occipital area described as the median occipital fossette.

The discovery of the fossette convinced Lombroso that this anomaly was not present in “normal”
individuals, but only in the skull of madmen and criminal and is the “proof’ that criminals are born: the insane,
criminals, wild individuals, humanoids and extinct species, criminal and psychiatric deviant behavior all have
a single atavistic cause.

• Pouches in the cheek like those of some animals.

• Peculiarities in the plate, such as those found in reptiles, and cleft palate.
• Chin preceding, or excessively long, or short and flat, as in apes.
• Abnormal dentition.
• Abundance, variety, and precocity of wrinkles.
Stigmata indicate of criminal tendencies (from the Criminal Man):

1. Deviation in head size and shape from type common to race and region from which the criminal case.
2. Asymmetry of the face.
3. Eye defects and peculiarities.
4. Excessive dimensions of the jaw and cheeks bones.
5. Ears of unusual size, or occasionally very small, or standing out from the head as to those of a
chimpanzee.
6. Nose twisted, upturned, or flattened in thieves, or aquiline or beak like in murderers, or with a tip rising
like a peak from swollen nostrils.
 7. Lips fleshy, swollen, and protruding.
8. Pouches in the cheek like those of some animals.
9. Peculiarities in the plate, such as those found in reptiles, and cleft palate.
10. Chin preceding, or excessively long, or short and flat, as in apes.
11. Abnormal dentition.
12. Abundance, variety, and precocity of wrinkles.
13. Anomalies of their hair, marked by characteristics of the opposite sex.
14. Defects of the thorax, such as too many or too few ribs, or supernumerary nipples.
15. Inversion of sex characters in the pelvic organs.
16. Excessive length of arms.
17. Supernumerary fingers and toes.
18. Imbalance of the hemisphere of the brain (asymmetry of the cranium).

The Female Offender (1901)

Lombroso noted that most women are not criminal. However, they are most often occasional criminals
but some women are atavistic criminal. He considered female criminality to be restricted to prostitution and
abortion, and a man was invariably for instigating these crimes.

Note: Lombroso was regarded as the Father of Modern Criminology because of his biggest contribution to
biological positivism (Burke, 2005).

2. Enrico Ferri (1856-1929)

Enrico Ferri, a student of Lombroso argued that criminal behavior could be explained by studying the
interaction of a range of factors. He observed:

First, physical factors in relation to crime such as:

a. Race
b. Geography
c. Temperature
Second, individual factors in relation to crime such as:
a. Age
b. Sex
c. Psychological variables
Third, social factors in relation to crime such a
a. Population
b. Religion
c. Culture
Enrico Ferri summarized that:
A. Social as well as biological factors played a role in criminality.
B. Criminal should not be held responsible for their acts because the factors causing their criminality were
beyond their control.
C. Crime could be controlled by improving the social condition of the poor and to that end advocated the
provision of subsidized housing, birth control, and public recreation facilities.
3. Raffaele Garofalo (1852-1934)

Raffaele Garofalo was an Italian jurist and a student of Lombroso. His contributions in the Italian school of
criminology are as follow:
 He rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that crime can be understood only if it is
studied by scientific method.
 He attempted to formulate a sociological definition of crime that would designate those acts which can be
repressed by punishment.

Raffaele Garofalo’s suggestions are the following:

A. Death for those whose criminal act grew out of a permanent psychological anomaly, rendering them
incapable of social life.
B. Partial elimination of long time imprisonment for those fit only for the life of nomadic hordes or primitive
tribes, and;
C. Enforced reparation on the part of those who lack altruistic sentiments but who have committed their
crimes under pressure of exceptional circumstances are not likely to do so again.
Types of Criminals by Raffaele Garofalo
1. Murdered – Murderer refers to a criminal who kills another person and is satisfied from
vengeance/revenge. This type of criminal totally lacks both pity and probity and will kill whenever
opportunity arises.
2. Violent criminal – Violent criminal lacks pity and can be influenced by environmental factors such as the
consumption of alcohol or the fact that criminality is endemic to criminal’s particular population.
3. Deficient criminal - Deficient criminal refers to a person who commits crime against property like thieves
and robbers.
4. Lascivious criminal – Lascivious criminal refers to a person who commits crime against chastity like acts
of lasciviousness, seduction, adultery, and the like (burke, 2005)
Chicago School
The primacy of sociological positivism was secured by research begun in the early 20 th century by
Robert Ezra Park, Ernest W Burgess, Louis Wirth and their colleagues in the Sociological Department at the
University of Chicago. The Chicago School sociologists and their contemporaries focused on the functions of
social institutions such as the school and family, and how their breakdown influenced deviant and antisocial
behavior.
 CHAPTER III
CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY

Criminal etiology is the study of the causes of crimes.

Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
1. Identify the mental disturbances that causes crime
2. Explain the different causation and explanation of criminality
3. Know the contribution of geography to crime
4. Discuss the different theories of crime

EARLIER EXPLANATIONS OF THE EXISTENCE OF CRIMINALITY

The following concepts provide a scenario on how criminality was dealt with in early times:
1. Crime is caused by demon – Men violate social norms and religious practices because they are
possessed by demons or evils spirits.
2. Crime is cause by divine will – Men manifest criminal behavior because they are sinful.
3. Crime is a matter of personal offense and retribution – This is the earliest form of punishment in which
the victim or the victim kin’s retaliated for injury and the community did not interfere.
Code of Hammurabi – These laws were based on “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth concept of
contribution.
4. Crime is equal to sin – Crimes and sin were treated as the same substance and nature. The state
claimed that it was acting in the place of God when inflicted with horrible punishments such as ostracism,
stoning, exile from the community, burning, decapitation, and capital punishment.

BIOLOGICAL EXPANATION OF CRIMINALITY

The biological explanation of criminality explains assumes that individuals vary in behavior because of
their biological structural differences. These structural differences may be the result of chromosomes, genres,
chemistry, hormones, or even body type.
HERIDITY AND CRIMES
Early biological theories believed that criminality was inherited trait passed on/in the genes.
The methods employed to test the proposition that criminality was inherited are the following;
A. Family Studies
In this method, the family known to have many criminals was compared with a family free of criminals.
Some studies are conducted to prove that children of criminal parents are more likely to become law violators
than children of conventional parents. They are as follows:
1. The Study of the Juke family (Richard Dugdale)
The Juke family consisted of 6 girls, some of whom were illegitimate. One of them, ADA JUKE was
known as ‘The mother of Criminals”.Dugdale traced the 1,200 descendants for 75 years and found 280
paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murderers, 40 other criminals, 40 with sexual diseases, 300 infants prematurely
born, 50 prostitutes and 30 who were prosecuted for bastardy.

2. The Study of the Kallilak Family (Henry Goddard)

Martin Kallilak was an American Revolutionary war soldier. While stationed in a small village, he met a
feeble-minded girl and had illicit relations with her. About 489 descendants from this lineage were traced
which included 143 feeble-minded and 46 normal. 36 were illegitimate, 3 epileptics, 3 criminals, 8 kept
brothels, and 82 died in infancy.
3. The study of Sir Jonathan Edward’s family
 Sir Jonathan was famous preacher during the colonial period. When his family was traced, none of the
descendants was found to become criminal. Rather many became presidents of the United States,
governors, member of the supreme court, famous writers, preachers, and teachers.
B. Twin Behavior Studies
In 192os, Lange studies 30 pairs of same-sex twins– 13 identical and 17 fraternal twins. He found out
that one member of each pair was known criminal. Moreover, both twins in 10 of the 13 pairs of identical
twins were criminal; 2 of the 17 pairs of fraternal twins were both criminal. This showed a significant
relationship between the criminal a activities of identical twins and a much lower association between those of
fraternal twins.
A famous study of twin behavior is the Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Experts’ conclusion was
that twins are alike in personality regardless of how they are reared, that environment induces little or no
personality resemblance on twin pairs.
C. Adoption Studies
This method compared the criminal records of adopted children who were adopted at relatively early
age with the criminal records of adopted parents. Several studies indicate that some of relationship exists
between biological parents; behavior and the behavior of their children.
An analysis of Swedish adoptees also found that genetic factors are highly significant accounting for
59 percent of the variation in their petty crime rates. Boys who had criminal parents were significantly more to
violate the law.
D. The XYY “Super male studies”
The first well known study of this type was undertaken by Patricia A. Jacob, a British researcher who
examined 197 Scottish prisoners for chromosomal abnormalities through a relatively simple blood test known
as karyotyping. Twelve of the group displayed chromosome which were unusual and 7 were found to have
XYY Chromosomes.
Normal males has XY chromosome structure while, normal female has XX chromosome structure.
Some other unusual combination might be XXX, wherein females’ genetic make-up contains an extra X or
female chromosomes. Klinefelter’s males with an extra X chromosomes often possessed the male genital
abut are frequently sterile and with evident breast enlargement and intellectual retardation.
Studies of XYY males tend to show that supermales:

 Are taller than the average male, often standing 6’1or more
 Suffer from acne or skin disorder
 Are of less than average intelligence
 Are overrepresented in prisons and mental hospitals
 Come from families with less history of crime or mental illness.

PHYSIOGNOMY – is the study of the facial feature of a person in relation to his criminal behavior.
The first to use this approach was Cesare Beccaria in his Crime and Punishment. It was revived by
swish theologian Johan Kapar Lavater
PHRENOLOGY OR CRANIOLOGY – is the study of the external formation of the skull indicating the
conformation of the brain and the development of it various parts in relations to the behavior of criminal. This
is associated with the work of Franz Joseph Gall.
PHYSIOLOGY OR SOMATOTYPE - refers to the study of the body build in relation to his temperament and
personality and the type of offense he is most prone to commit. This approach was originated by Ernst
Kretschmer and develops by William Sheldon.
Study of Kretschmer by Classifying the Types of Physique and the Type of Crimes they are prone to commit:

Types of Physique Crime Prone to Commit

1. Asthenic Larceny and fraud cases

2. Pyknic Deception, fraud, violence

3. Athletic Offenses against decency
and morality, violence
 Three body types (William Sheldon)

Types of Physique Physical attributes

1. Ectomorph Tall, thin, droopy shoulders

2. Endomorph Round fat, short tapering

limbs, and small bones
3. Mesomorph Muscular with athletic limbs

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC EXPLANATION OF CRIMINALITY

The psychological and psychiatric theories have the common assumption that there is something wrong with
the mind of the offender, which causes him to commit offenses.
1. Psychoanalytic Theory

This theory blames criminal or delinquent behavior to a conscience that is either so overbearing that
arouses feelings of guilt, or so weak that it cannot control the individuals impulses and leads to a need
for immediate gratification.
Sigmund Freud
Freud viewed criminality as a result of too much guilt feelings. He notice that those suffering from
unbearable guilt committed crimes in order to be apprehended and punished. Once they had been punished,
their feelings of guilt were relieved.
Three types of Personality (Sigmund Freud)
1. The ID – It represent the unconscious biological drives for sex, food and other life sustaining necessities.
The ID impulses require immediate gratification without concern of others. It operates according to “pleasing
principle”
2. The Ego – This is the rational part of personality, hence it considers sensibility and responsibility to others.
The ego compensates for the demands of the ID by helping the individual guide his actions to remain within
the boundaries of righteousness and fairness. It operates according to the “reality principle”
3. The Superego – It is the moral aspect of personality. It allows a person to feel pride, shames and guilt.
Thus, it is responsible for making a person follow the moral code of society.

Personality and Crime

In the investigation of the difference f personality between criminals and non-criminals carried out in
prisons, it showed that inmates are typically more impulsive, hostile, self-centered and immature than non-
criminals. In another study, psychiatrist -psychologist concluded that criminals share abnormal thinking
patterns that lead to decision to commit crimes.
They argued that criminals are “angry” people a sense of superiority, expect not to be held
accountable for their acts, and have a highly inflated self-image. Any perceived attack on their glorified self-
image. Any perceived attack on their glorified self-image elicits a strong reaction, often a violent one.
Mental Disturbances and Crimes
Criminal behavior is linked to some mental disturbances. These disturbances or disorders come in
many forms as follows:
1. Mental Deficiency
This is a condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind existing before the age of
eighteen, whether arising from inherent causes or induced by diseases or injury. Mentally deficient persons
are prone to commit malicious damage to property and unnatural offenses. They may commit violent crimes
but definite not crimes involving the use of mentality.
Classes of Mental Deficiency
a. Idiots – persons with a mental defect to degree that they are unable to guard themselves against common
physical damage. Their mentality is comparable to a two year old child.
b. Imbeciles – A person with mental defects which do not amounting to idiocy, is so pronounced that they are
incapable of managing themselves or their affairs.
c. Feeble-minded - A person with mental defects which do not amounting to imbecility, yet so pronounced
that they require care, supervision and control for their own or for protection of others, or in the case of
children they appear to be permanently incapable of receiving proper benefit from instructions in ordinary
schools.
d. Morally defective – A person with strong vicious or criminal propensities. They require care, supervision,
and control for their own or for the protection of others
2. Psychosis
This is common category of mental among youthful offenders and habitual criminals. Psychosis can
be functional or organic. It is characterized by infantile level of sense, lack of conscience, lack of affection to
others, and aggression to environment and other people. Psychotic people lose contact with reality and have
difficulty distinguishing reality from fantasy. Most of the time, they have severe breakdown in their ability to
communicate and become isolated from others.
The most common types of psychoses are the following:
1. Schizophrenia – This is manifested by delusion or hallucinations or a clear-cut thought disorder. This is
also known as dementia praecox. Sometimes schizophrenics are not logical in their thoughts, as shown by
their language. Their personal appearance is dilapidated, and they are liable to impulsive acts and may
commit suicide.
2. Paranoia – It is a psychotic delusion characterized by incorrect or unreasonable suffering from this
disorder. Paranoia is a Greek term which means “ a mind beside itself” Paranoid people are suspicious and
have that feeling of being persecuted by others, referred to as psychotic delusion. In the paranoid’s mind the
delusion system is firm and is accompanied by clear and orderly thinking because he or she can give rational,
distinct and clear reasons for his or her thoughts.
3. Neurosis – This is another common type of mental disorder linked to criminal behavior. Neurotic behavior
are those that a do not grossly violate social norms or represent severely disorganized personalities. Most
neurotic are aware of their problems and may not seek for professional help. They do nr require
hospitalization but are guilty, unhappy, anxious people.
The most common neuroses with their respective symptoms are the following:
a. Neurasthenia – This is a condition weakened nerves that manifests in facilities and nervousness and
sometimes in physical symptoms such as pain.
b. Anxiety- It is also known as “anxiety state” or “anxiety reaction” with the person feeling anxious, fearful or
apprehensive. The person may also be irritable and restless and has chronic tension, poor concentration and
overreaction to noise.
c. Obsessive-compulsive neurosis – This is the uncontrollable or irresistible impulse to do something. There
may be an active desire to resist this irrational behavior, nut the person is prevented by his unconscious
motives to act out his difficulty or to suffer miserably in his fear. This neurosis maybe any of the following
forms.
1. Kleptomania – the compulsive desire to steal
2. Dipsomania – the compulsive desire to drink alcohol
3. Pyromania – the compulsive desire to set fire.
4. Homicidal compulsion – the irresistible urge to kill somebody.
d. Hysteria – this refers to unhealthy or senseless emotional outbreaks
e. Phobia- It is generally called exaggerated fears of some degree, and fears of things that ordinary people do
not fear.
f. Depression – People who suffer from depressive neurosis generally have feelings of pain, hurt
unpleasantness, sadness rejection, self-pity, helplessness, despair, boredom, pessimism, and rejection.
When these feelings become pervasive and affect all aspects of a person’s life, depression is said to occur.
4. Epilepsy – This is a condition characterized compulsive seizure and a tendency to mental deterioration.
The disease is characterized by reduced emotional control, stubbornness, irresistibility impulsiveness,
inconsistency feeling, irritability manifested either by sudden outburst of anger and vicious conduct.
Before the convulsion, the epileptic may have mental confusion and hallucination or delusion, and may
commit violent crimes without provocation. After the attack, he may be at the state of altered consciousness
and may wonder from one place to another and inflict bodily harm. In the course of mild attack he may,
unconsciously perform indecent acts, breach of the peace, and varying degree of crime of violence.
INTELLIGENCE AND CRIMES
TRAVIS HIRSCHI and MICHAEL HINDELANG, proposed the Idea that Low IQ increases the likelihood of
criminal behavior through its effect on school performance, that youths, with low IQs do poorly in school, and
school failure and academic incompetence are highly related to delinquency and later to adult criminality.
These inferences were later supported by other researchers who continued to prove that IQ and crime are
related through indirect.
On the contrary, very limited evidence is available which can support the said conditions. Studies
showed that forgery, bribery, security violation and embezzlements are crimes committed by offenders with
higher IQ’s than those offenders in general population; assault, homicide, rape and other sex offenses are
committed with low IQs than those of offenders in the general population; and that high frequency property
offenders, such as burglars, thieves and robbers, drug and alcohol offenders, have IQs that correspond to
general population of offenders.
CONITIVE THEORY
Cognitive is defined as an ability to process information. Cognition has to do with one's ability to learn information
quickly, memorize, and understand information they receive. Therefore, cognitive theories of crime fall under the
psychological theories of criminal behavior.

Cognitive theories of crime explain criminal behavior as a defect in moral thinking, thought processes, and mental
development. Cognitive theories also help us to understand how an individual's personality and intelligence level
are linked to delinquency.
Cognitive theories focus on how we perceive the world around us, how we think, and the factors that
influence our mental development (family upbringing, parental modeling, personality, intelligence). These theories
help to explain how we develop morally in our thought process.

BEHAVIORAL THEORY
The most popular work on behavioral approaches is B.F. Skinner. Behavioral theory is based on the
belief that all behavior is learned and can be unlearned. Its major premise is that people alter their behavior is
supported by rewards and extinguished by negative reactions or punishment.
It assumed that neurotic symptoms and some deviant behavior are acquired through an unfortunate quirk of
learning and that they are rewarding to the person. The undesirable can be eliminated, modified, or replace
by taking away the reward value or by rewarding a more appropriate behavior that is incompatible with
deviant one.

SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF CRIMINALITY

Sociologist emphasizes that human beings live in social groups, and that those groups and the social
structure they create influence behavior. Most sociological theories of crime causation assume that a
criminal’s behavior is determined by his or her social environment, which includes families, friends,
neighborhoods, and so on. Most sociological theorist of crime explicitly rejects the notion of born criminal.
A. Social Learning Theory

1. Differential Association Theory

In criminology, differential association is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland (1883–1950)

proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and
motives for criminal behavior. This theory focuses on how individuals learn to become criminals, but it does
not concern itself with why they become criminals.

Differential association predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of
definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be reinforced if social
association provides active people in the person’s life. The earlier in life an individual comes under the
influence high status people within a group, the more likely the individual is to follow in their footsteps. This
does not deny that there may be practical motives for crime.

Example
If a person is hungry but has no money, there is a temptation to steal, but the use of “needs” and “values” is
equivocal. To some extent, both non-criminal and criminal individuals are motivated by the need for money
and social gain.

Nine key principles of Differential Association Theory by Edwin Sutherland

1. Criminal behavior is learned.

 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.
3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.
4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime (which
are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple) and the specific direction of motives, drives,
rationalizations, and attitudes.
5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable
or unfavorable.
6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over
definitions unfavorable to violation of the law.
7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns
involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.
9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those
needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.

2. Differential Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcements and punishments are two tools that are used to modify behavior. Punishments are meant
to decrease undesirable behaviors, while reinforcements aim to increase desirable behavior. Though
punishments are very useful, they can also cause ethical concerns.

For example, people have debated for years whether or not spanking your children as a form of punishment
is ethical. In some countries, spanking of any kind is illegal.
The goal of differential reinforcement is to increase desirable behaviors and decrease undesirable
behaviors without the use of punishments. Instead of punishments, differential reinforcement uses extinction,
which is the removal of the positive reinforcer that maintains the undesirable behavior.
When the mother in the example ignored her child's tantrum, she was practicing extinction. Extinction
decreases or reduces undesirable behavior through quick removal of the reinforcer. The reinforcer here was
the mother's attention. Once she stopped paying attention to her son, his tantrum stopped.
Once the child asked for candy politely (the desirable behavior), his mother started paying attention to him
(reinforcement), offered him praise (reinforcement), and purchased the candy bar (reinforcement). It is
important to note that the reinforcement is only given after the desirable behavior. Differential reinforcement
can be thought of as a blend of extinction and reinforcement.
Differential reinforcement aims to get rid of undesirable behaviors by using positive reinforcement in a
structured manner to increase desirable behaviors

B. Social Control Theory

Social control theory assumes that persons will engage in delinquent behavior when their "social
bond" to society is weakened. Travis Hirschi's concept of "social bond" is comprised of the following four
elements:

1 Attachment

Attachment refers to the symbiotic linkage between a person and society. According to Hirschi,
individuals with strong and stable attachments to others within society are presumed to be less likely to
violate societal norms. Conversely, an individual with weak attachments is assumed to be unconcerned about
the wishes of others, and thereby inclined to deviate from social expectations. Thus, if one is attached to
one's family, friends, and community institutions (e.g., church), one is less likely to deliberately engage in
behavior which would harm or distress the attachments. Although persons with strong family and community
attachments can potentially abuse drugs, Hirschi hypothesized that they are more likely to contemplate their
decision and avoid deviant behavior because of probable consternation from valued attachments.

2. Commitment

Commitment refers to the investment an individual has in social activities and institutions (Hirschi,
1969). Hirschi's commitment construct is based on the premise that there is an association between level of
commitment and propensity for deviance.
Thus, an individual who has invested time, energy, and resources into conforming to social norms and
expectations (e.g., pursuing educational goals) are less likely to deviate than someone who has not made
such an investment. Hirschi asserted that individuals heavily invested in commitments have more to lose
(e.g., interruption of career path) than those who are moderately invested or uninvested. Consequently,
deviant behavior such as alcohol and drug abuse are less appealing to individuals with strong commitments.

3. Involvement
 Involvement is the third element of Hirschi's (1969) concept of social bonding. Hirschi postulated that
large amounts of structured time spent in socially approved activities reduces the time available for deviance.
Thus, an individual who is actively engaged in conventional endeavors (e.g., employment) simply has
less time and opportunity to engage in deviant activities such as drug abuse. However, an unemployed or
underemployed per, son has several hours more a day of free time in which to become enticed and involved
in deviance. Hirschi contended that involvement such as being a parent or maintaining a job fosters discipline
and regiment, and the discipline and regiment encourages a resolve to resist deviance such as substance
abuse.

4. Beliefs

Hirschi's (1969) last element of social bonding relates to an individual's level of belief in the moral
validity of shared social values and norms. In American society, certain values (e.g., monogamous sexual
conduct) are espoused as norms.
Hirschi suggested that persons who strongly believe in the these norms are less likely to deviate from
them. However, those who question or challenge the norms have a greater propensity to behave in a
deviant manner. The belief system concerning alcohol and drug use in American society can be complicated
and confusing, Though social drinking is accepted, driving while under-the-influence is considered deviant
behavior. Likewise, the use of prescription medication tends to be socially sanctioned. Reasonable
medication for illness and pain is a belief that is encouraged and accepted in our society. Moreover, the
legal and medical professions have established guidelines for what is considered a reasonable amount of
medication.
According Hirschi's logic, adherence to the belief and guidelines decreases the probability of
deviance. However, substance abuse occurs when individuals exaggerate the belief and ignore the medical
and legal rules.

C. Conflict Theory
Conflict theory assumes that society is based primarily in conflict between competing interest groups
for instance, the rich against the poor, management against labor, men against women, adults against
children. In many cases, competing interest groups are not equal in power and resources. Consequently, in
group is dominant the other is subordinate. One of the earliest theorists to apply conflict theory to the study of
crime was George Fold.

 Radical Theory
Radical Theories of crime causation are generally based on Karl Marx’s ideas. Among the first
criminologist to employ Marxist theory to explain crime and justice were Richard Quinney, William
Chambliss and Anthony Platt.
Radical criminologist argues that capitalism is an economic system that requires people to compete
against each other in the individualistic pursuit of material wealth.
The destructive effects of capitalism, such as crime, are nit caused by income or property inequalities
or by poverty. Rather, crime is caused by class struggle the competition among wealth people and
among poor people, between rich and poor people, and the practice of taking advantage of other
people.
D. Social Reaction Theory
Commonly called labeling theory, the focus of social reaction theory is the criminalization process the
way people and actions are defined as criminal. The distinguishing feature of all “criminals” is that they have
been the object of a negative social reaction.
Throughout their lives, people are given a variety of symbolic labels include “trouble maker” “mentally
ill” and “stupid”. These labels reduce the self-image of the individual. The less personal power and fewer
resources a person has, the greater the chance he or she will become labeled.
E. Social Structure Theory
Many criminologist view the disadvantaged economic class position as a primary cause of crime. This
view is referred to social structure theories. These theories suggest that anti-social and economic forces
operating in deteriorated lower-class areas push many of their residents into criminal behavior patterns. They
consider the existence on unsupervised teenage gangs, high crime rates and social disorder in slum areas
and major social problems.
Three branches of social structure perspective,
1. Social Disorganization Theory
Social disorganization is based on the work of Henry Mckay and Clifford Shaw of the Chicago School.
 A disorganized area is one in which institution =s of social control, such as the family, commercial
establishments and schools have broken down and can no longer carry out their expected functions. The
indicators of social disorganization theory include high unemployment, school dropout rates, deteriorated
housing, low income dropouts rates, deteriorated housing, low income levels, and large numbers of single-
parents households. Residents in these areas experience conflict and despair, and as a result, antisocial
behaviour flourishes.
2. Strain Theory
This theory holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means
they can use to legally obtain them.
Robert Merton: Strain Theory

Sociologist Robert Merton agreed that deviance is an inherent part of a functioning society, but he
expanded on Durkheim’s ideas by developing strain theory, which notes that access to socially acceptable
goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates. From birth, we’re encouraged to
achieve the “American Dream” of financial success. A woman who attends business school, receives her
MBA, and goes on to make a million-dollar income as CEO of a company is said to be a success. However,
not everyone in our society stands on equal footing. A person may have the socially acceptable goal of
financial success but lack a socially acceptable way to reach that goal. According to Merton’s theory, an
entrepreneur who can’t afford to launch his own company may be tempted to embezzle from his employer for
start-up funds.

Merton defined five ways people respond to this gap between having a socially accepted goal and having no
socially accepted way to pursue it.

1. Conformity: Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue their goals to the extent that they
can through socially accepted means.
2. Innovation: Those who innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead
using criminal or deviant means.
3. Ritualism: People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable
ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than attaining a distant dream.
4. Retreatism: Others retreat and reject society’s goals and means. Some beggars and street people
have withdrawn from society’s goal of financial success.
5. Rebellion: A handful of people rebel and replace a society’s goals and means with their own.
Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society’s goals through socially unacceptable
means.
General strain theory (GST) is a theory of criminology developed by Robert Agnew. General strain theory
has gained a significant amount of academic attention since being developed in 1992. Robert Agnew's
general strain theory is considered to be a solid theory, has accumulated a significant amount of empirical
evidence, and has also expanded its primary scope by offering explanations of phenomena outside of
criminal behavior
Agnew recognized that strain theory originally put forward by Robert King Merton was limited in terms
of fully conceptualizing the range of possible sources of strain in society, especially among youth.
According to Merton, innovation occurs when society emphasizes socially desirable and approved goals but
at the same time provides inadequate opportunity to achieve these goals with the legitimate institutionalized
means. In other words those members of society, who find themselves in a position of financial strain yet wish
to achieve material success, resort to crime in order to achieve socially desirable goals.
Agnew supports this assumption but he also believes dealing with youth there are other factors that
incite criminal behaviour. He suggests that negative experiences can lead to stress not only that are
financially induced.
Agnew described four characteristics of strains that are most likely to lead to crime:
1) Strains are seen as unjust,
2) Strains are seen as high in magnitude,
3) Strains are associated with low social control, and
4) Strains create some pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping.
According to Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory, strain is based on three different factors:

1. Failure to achieve a goal,

2. The existence of harmful impulses and,
3. Removal of positive impulses.
Stress produces negative emotions such as anger or depression that promote delinquent behaviour without
adequate coping skills.
3. Cultural Deviance Theory
This theory combines elements of both strain and social disorganization.

Cultural deviance theory suggests that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class
society causes crime. Researchers Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay (1942) studied crime patterns in Chicago
in the early 1900s. They found that violence and crime were at their worst in the middle of the city and
gradually decreased the farther someone traveled from the urban center toward the suburbs. Shaw and
McKay noticed that this pattern matched the migration patterns of Chicago citizens.

New immigrants, many of them poor and lacking knowledge of the English language, lived in neighborhoods
inside the city. As the urban population expanded, wealthier people moved to the suburbs and left behind the
less privileged.

Shaw and McKay concluded that socioeconomic status correlated to race and ethnicity resulted in a
higher crime rate. The mix of cultures and values created a smaller society with different ideas of deviance,
and those values and ideas were transferred from generation to generation.

The theory of Shaw and McKay has been further tested and expounded upon by Robert Sampson
and Byron Groves (1989). They found that poverty, ethnic diversity, and family disruption in given localities
had a strong positive correlation with social disorganization. They also determined that social disorganization
was, in turn, associated with high rates of crime and delinquency—or deviance. Recent studies Sampson
conducted with Lydia Bean (2006) revealed similar findings. High rates of poverty and single-parent homes
correlated with high rates of juvenile violence.

Geographical factors
The following are some of the explanations formulated by criminologist about the contribution of
geography to crime.
1. North and South Pole
According to Quetlet’s “thematic law of delinquency” crime against person predominate in the South Pole
during warm season while crimes against property predominate in the North pole and cold countries.
2 .Approach to the Equator
According to Montesquieu, criminality increases in proportion as one approaches the equator, and
drunkenness increases as one approaches the North and South Pole.
3. Season of the year
Crimes against person are more in summer than in rainy season while crimes against property are
more during rainy season. Climatic conditions directly affect one’s irritability and cause criminality. During the
dry season, people get of the houses more, and there is more contact and consequently more probability of
personal violence.
4. Soil Formation
More crimes of violence are recorded in fertile level lands in hilly, rugged terrain. In these places are more
congregations of people, and there is more irritation. Also there is more incidence of rape in level districts.
5. Month of the Year
There is frequent incidence of violent crimes during warm months from April to July having its peak in May.
This is due to May festivals, excursions, picnics, and other sorts of festivities wherein people are more in
contact with one another.
6. Temperature
Studies showed that the number of arrest increases quite regularly with increase of temperature. Increases of
temperature, affects the emotional state of the individual and leads to fighting. Furthermore, the influences
temperatures upon females were greater than upon males.
7. Humidity and Atmospheric Pressure
According to a survey, large numbers of assaults to be found correlated with low humidity and a small
number with high humidity. It was explained that low and high humidity are both vitally and emotionally
depression to the individual.
8. Wind Velocity
Studies explained that during high wind, arrests were less. It may be due to the presence of more carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere than lessen the vitality of men to commit violence.
Other Sociological Causes of Crimes
1. Lack of parental guidance
2. Broken homes and family
3. Poor status of neighbourhood
4. Bad association with criminal groups
5. Lack of recreational facilities for proper use of leisure time
6. Lack of employment opportunities
7. Failure of the school in character development of the children or youth
8. Influence of mass media
Other factors of Crime Causation
1. Alcoholism
It is a form of vice causing mental disturbance. It is a condition wherein a person is under the
influence of intoxicating liquor or alcohol. His physical condition and behaviour may be modified to a certain
extent by the effects of alcohol. The drunkard habitually takes or uses intoxicating alcoholic liquor. Once
under the influence of liquor, he becomes dangerous to himself or to others. He may commit violent crimes
and inflict physical injuries. Habitual drunkard may, commit suicide, sex offense and exquisite crimes.
2. Drug Addiction
This is another form of vice which causes strong mental disturbance. Drug addiction is the state of
periodic or chronic intoxication produced by repeated consumption of natural or synthetic drugs. This vice is
punishable by the Revised Penal Code and the Dangerous Drugs Act. An addict may commit crimes against
property when he or she has no more money to buy the drugs. A woman may become a prostitute just to get
just to get money to buy her drugs. Similarly, an addict who has withdrawn from drugs may commit violent
crimes and commit suicide due to extreme suffering.
 Areas of 5pts 4pts 3 pts 2 pts-1pt
Assessment
1. Ideas Present Ideas in an Present ideas in Ideas are too Ideas are vague or
original manner a consistent general unclear
manner.

2. Understanding Writing shows strong Writing shows Writing shows Writing shows little
understanding strong adequate understanding.
understanding understanding

3. Sentence Sentence structure Sentence Sentence No sense of sentence

structure enhances meaning; structure is structure is structure or flow
flows throughout the evident limited;
piece

Essay Rubric