Chapter 9

Structures and properties of substances

9.1 Structures of substances
9.2 Simple molecular structures
9.3 Giant covalent structures
9.4 Giant ionic structures
9.5 Giant metallic structures
9.6 Comparison of structures and properties of substances
9.7 Predicting structures from physical properties
9.8 Predicting physical properties from bonding and structure
9.9 Applications of substances according to their properties

Learning goal
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

9.1 • classify substances according to structures

9.2 • describe simple molecular structures of substances such as carbon dioxide and iodine
• recognize that van der Waals’ forces exist between molecules
• state and explain the properties of simple molecular substances in terms of their structures and
bonding

9.3 • describe giant covalent structures of substances such as diamond, graphite and quartz
• state and explain the properties of giant covalent substances in terms of their structures and
bonding

9.4 • describe giant ionic structures of substances such as sodium chloride and caesium chloride
• state and explain the properties of ionic compounds in terms of their structures and bonding

9.5 • describe the general properties of metals

• relate the properties of metals to their giant metallic structures

9.6 • compare the structures and properties of substances with simple molecular, giant covalent, giant
ionic and giant metallic structures

9.7-9.8 • deduce the properties of substances from their structures and bonding, and vice versa

9.9 • explain applications of substances according to their properties

Chapter 9 Structures and properties of
substances

Look at the photos below.

They are diamond rings and pencils. The key constituents of these two things are diamond and
graphite (pencil lead) respectively. Diamond and graphite are different forms of the same element
(carbon) and they have different properties. Diamond is a hard and shiny solid. On the other hand,
graphite is a black solid. It is soft and gives a slippery feel when we touch it. Diamond is a non-
conductor of electricity while graphite conducts electricity well.

Think about...
Are there any other differences in properties between diamond and graphite?
Graphite has lubricating property while diamond does not.
Why are the properties of diamond and graphite so different although they are composed of the
same element?
Refer to Section 9.3 on p.8 to 10 of this chapter for details.
Do substances composed of different elements show similar properties?
The physical properties of a substance are closely related to its structure. Substances composed of different elements may show similar
physical properties if their structures are similar.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.

diamond 金剛石
graphite 石墨
 9 Structures and properties of substances

9.1 Structures of substances

PowerPoint
Classification of substances according to structure
The structure of a substance is a description of what its constituent
particles are, and how they are arranged and packed together. The
physical properties of a substance are closely related to its structure.

Under room conditions, all substances exist as either molecular

structures or giant structures.

Molecular structures
Molecular structures consist of discrete molecules. The atoms within a
molecule are bonded together by strong covalent bonds. However, each
molecule is attracted to neighbouring molecules by intermolecular forces
only.

There are two types of molecular structures, depending on the

molecular size:

• Simple molecular structures

Substances with simple molecular structures may be solids, liquids or
gases under room conditions. Examples include iodine (solid), bromine
(liquid) and chlorine (gas);

• Macromolecules CE2009(II)22

Substances with macromolecules are usually solids under room

Note 1 conditions. Examples include plastics, proteins and some carbohydrates N1
Remind students that substances
like polymers are macromolecules.
like starch. See Figure 9.1.
They have simple molecular
structures, but NOT giant covalent
structures.

(a) (b)

Figure 9.1 (a) Starch, which can be found in bread, and (b) polyethene, which can be
used to make plastic bag, are made up of macromolecules.

giant structure 巨型結構

intermolecular force 分子間引力
molecular structure 分子結構
room conditions 常温常壓
3 9

macromolecule 巨大分子 simple molecular structure 簡單分子結構

 II Microscopic world I

Giant structures
In a giant structure, all particles (trillions of atoms or ions) are held together
by strong chemical bonds. A continuous giant lattice forms, in which the
particles are packed in a regular pattern and no discrete molecules exist.
Almost all substances with giant structures are solids under room
Learning tip
conditions.
For polyethene, the
formula is represented
A classification of substances according to structure, together with
by (CH2CH2)n ,
where n is a whole some examples, is shown in Figure 9.2.
number from 100 to
30 000.
EXAMPLES
Elements Compounds
Non-metals Metals Covalent Ionic
Simple hydrogen (H2), water (H2O),
molecular iodine (I2) carbon
Molecular structures dioxide (CO2)
structures
Macro- polyethene
molecules (CH2CH2)n

Substances Giant diamond, silicon dioxide

covalent graphite (SiO2)
structures (different
forms of
carbon)
Giant
structures Giant sodium
ionic chloride
structures (NaCl)
Giant copper (Cu),
metallic iron (Fe)
structures

Figure 9.2 Classification of substances according to structure.

Key point
All substances exist as either molecular structures or giant
structures under room conditions.

9 4 giant covalent structure 巨型共價結構

giant ionic structure 巨型離子結構
giant lattice 巨型晶格
giant metallic structure 巨型金屬結構
 9 Structures and properties of substances

9.2 Simple molecular structures

PowerPoint
Most non-metal elements and covalent compounds are composed of
simple, discrete molecules. Examples are hydrogen, iodine, water, carbon
dioxide, etc. These substances have a simple molecular structure.

Structure of carbon dioxide

CE2007(II)31 Each carbon dioxide molecule consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen
atoms covalently bonded together. Under room conditions, carbon dioxide
Learning tip
is a gas. When carbon dioxide gas is placed under temperatures below
Van der Waals’ forces
are much weaker than –78.5°C, it changes to a solid called dry ice directly without going
ionic bond, covalent through the liquid state.
bond and metallic bond.
In general, the larger
The carbon dioxide molecules are held together by weak
the molecular size, the
greater will be the van intermolecular forces (called van der Waals’ forces) and packed closely N2
der Waals’ forces together in a regular pattern, but they are still discrete molecules. The
between molecules.
structure of dry ice is shown in Figure 9.3.
Note 2
Strictly speaking, van der Waals’ forces are only one type of intermolecular
forces. Hydrogen bonds are also intermolecular forces. The concept of
intermolecular forces will be discussed in more detail in Book 3A, Chapter 26.

Figure 9.3 In the structure

of dry ice, CO2 molecules
are held together by weak
van der Waals’ forces. Within
each CO2 molecule, the
atoms are held together by
strong covalent bonds. N3
Note 3 a carbon dioxide
Some students wrongly think molecule
that van der Waals’ forces exist
between atoms in covalent Structure of iodine
molecules.
In an iodine crystal, iodine molecules are also held together by weak van
CE1999(II)34
CE2005(II)7 der Waals’ forces and packed closely together in a regular pattern. See
Figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4 In the crystal

structure of iodine, I2
molecules are held together
by weak van der Waals’
forces in a regular pattern.
Repetition of this pattern
trillions of times would result
in a crystal.
an iodine molecule

dry ice 乾冰
van der Waals’ forces 范德華力
5 9
 II Microscopic world I

Properties of substances with a simple molecular

structure CE2000(I)1(a)
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CE2004(I)5
AL2009(I)3(b)(iii)

1. They have low melting points and boiling points.

Learning tip Under room conditions, substances with a simple molecular structure are
A volatile liquid gases, volatile liquids, or solids with low melting points (Figure 9.5). Because
evaporates quickly
the molecules are held together only by weak intermolecular forces, little
under room conditions.
heat energy is needed to separate the molecules.

CE1999(I)4
CE2000(I)8(c)(i)
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CE2001(II)37
CE2002(I)8(b)(iii)
CE2002(II)45
CE2007(I)1(c)
CE2008(II)46
CE2009(I)9

m.p.: –11.2°C 0°C 115.2°C

b.p.: 21.1°C 100°C 444.6°C

Figure 9.5 Substances with a simple molecular structure may be gases, liquids or solids.

2. Solids with a simple molecular structure are soft.

Intermolecular forces are weak. It is easy to separate the molecules and
break down the crystal structure.

DSE2014(IB)12(a)(iv) 3. Solids with a simple molecular structure are usually slightly

soluble or insoluble in water, but soluble in non-aqueous
Note 4 solvents. N4
Solvents other than water are
called non-aqueous solvents. Take iodine as an example. It is only slightly soluble in water but very
soluble in non-aqueous solvents.

9 6 nitrogen dioxide 二氧化氮

non-aqueous solvent 非水溶劑
volatile 揮發性
 9 Structures and properties of substances

The attractive forces between water molecules are quite strong. The
weak attractive forces between iodine and water molecules are not strong
enough to overcome the attractive forces between water molecules. Thus,
iodine does not dissolve readily in water (Figure 9.6).

weak forces between iodine

and water molecules stronger attractive forces
between water molecules

iodine molecules water molecules

Figure 9.6 Iodine is only slightly soluble in water.

In non-aqueous solvents, the molecules are held together by weak

attractive forces. Thus, iodine molecules can mix together with the
molecules of non-aqueous solvent readily (Figure 9.7).

attractive forces between iodine molecules and

molecules of non-aqueous solvent are similar to
those between molecules of non-aqueous solvent

molecule of non-
aqueous solvent

iodine
molecule

Figure 9.7 Iodine dissolves readily in non-aqueous solvent.

4. They are usually non-conductors of electricity CE2009(I)9 DSE2012(IB)16(a)

DSE2012(IA)1
Most of the molecular substances do not conduct electricity no matter they
are solids, liquids or in aqueous solution. This is because they do not
contain mobile ions or delocalized electrons to conduct electricity.

7 9
 II Microscopic world I

A9.1 However, the aqueous solutions of a few molecular substances

1. Iodine, bromine, chlorine and
fluorine have simple molecular conduct electricity. This is because mobile ions form when they
structures and their molecules dissolve in water. Examples of these molecular substances include
are held together by weak
intermolecular forces called van hydrogen chloride and ammonia.
der Waals’ forces. The larger the
molecular size, the stronger are
the van der Waals’ forces. The
Class practice 9.1
molecular sizes of the substances
are: I2 > Br2 > Cl2 > F2. Therefore, 1. Explain why iodine is a solid, bromine is a liquid, while chlorine and
the strength of the van der Waals’ fluorine are gases under room conditions. (Hint: You may answer the
forces are: I2 > Br2 > Cl2 > F2.
2. (a) Covalent bonding
question with reference to the van der Waals’ forces between the
(b) Intermolecular forces/van der molecules.)
Waals’ forces
2. Answer the following questions concerning sulphur.
(c) Sulphur is a low-melting
solid. This is because it has a (a) What is the type of bonding between the atoms in a sulphur
simple molecular structure. molecule?
Only a small amount of heat
energy is needed to separate
(b) What are the attractive forces that hold sulphur molecules together?
the molecules during (c) Is sulphur a high-melting or low-melting solid? Explain briefly.
melting. (d) Does sulphur conduct electricity? Explain briefly.
(d) No. This is because there are
no mobile ions or delocalized (e) Is sulphur soluble in water?
electrons in the structure.
(e) No

9.3 Giant covalent structures

PowerPoint
In a few non-metal elements and compounds, the atoms are joined by
strong covalent bonds to form a giant network, called giant covalent
structure. Covalent bonds extend throughout the whole structure. There
are no discrete molecules. Common examples of substances with a giant
Note 5 covalent structure are diamond, graphite and quartz. N5
Diamond and graphite are
allotropes of carbon. Remind
students that graphite is the only
non-metal that conducts electricity.
Structure and properties of diamond CE2002(II)46
CE2007(II)37
CE2009(II)22
DSEPP2012(IA)8
CE2009(II)3
Note 6 Diamond is one form of carbon. It has a giant covalent structure. Each
It is correct to say diamond has
a giant structure or diamond has
carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms, forming a
a giant structure with covalent three-dimensional giant network. See Figure 9.8. N6
bonds. However, some students
misinterpret that diamond has a
CE2001(I)7(c)(i)
giant covalent bond.
AL2008(II)4(c)(ii)

carbon
atoms

covalent
bonds

Figure 9.8 The three-dimensional

structure of diamond.

9 8 giant covalent structure 巨型共價結構

network 網狀結構
 9 Structures and properties of substances

To break the structure, a large number of strong covalent bonds

CE2011(I)3(c)
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between carbon atoms must be broken. This explains the extreme
hardness and very high melting point (3550°C) of diamond. Diamond
cannot conduct electricity because it does not contain delocalized
electrons.

Skill corner 9.1 CE2006(I)5(b)

Drawing the three-dimensional structure of diamond

The structure of diamond can be drawn by following the steps shown
below:
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Structure and properties of graphite

Note 7 Graphite is another form of carbon. It also has a giant covalent structure. N7
Some students wrongly think that
graphite has a simple molecular
In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in flat, parallel layers. Each
structure because van der Waals’ layer contains many six-membered carbon rings (Figure 9.9).
forces exist between adjacent
layers.
strong covalent bonds (within layers) AL2012(II)8(b)(i)

weak van der

Waals’ forces
(between layers)

Figure 9.9 The layered structure of graphite.

AL2008(II)4(c)(ii) CE2011(I)3(a)(ii) DSE2012(IA)1 DSE2014(IB)1(a)(ii)

Learning tip Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to only three other carbon
Graphite is the only atoms in its layer, and one outer electron of each carbon atom is
non-metal that delocalized. They are free to move from one six-membered carbon ring
conducts electricity.
to the next within a layer. Thus, graphite can conduct electricity.

hardness 硬度 parallel 平行的

9 9
 II Microscopic world I

Graphite is soft, easy to cleave and has lubricating property because

AL2009(I)3(a)(ii) AL2012(II)8(a) only weak van der Waals’ forces exist between the adjacent layers. The
CE2011(I)3(a)(i) DSE2014(IB)1(a)(i)
layers are able to slide over each other. Besides, graphite has a very high
melting point (3730°C). This is because it requires the breaking of strong
DSE2014(IB)1(b)
covalent bonds between carbon atoms within the layers.

Think about Some physical properties of diamond and graphite are summarized in
What are the uses of Table 9.1.
diamond and graphite
CE2009(II)22
which depend on their
properties?
Property Diamond Graphite
Think about Appearance colourless solid black solid
Diamond is commonly used to make
jewellery, diamond cutter, diamond- Hardness very hard soft, brittle
tipped drill, etc. Graphite is commonly
used to make ‘wet’ lubricants,
Melting point (°C) 3550 3730
electrodes, pencil lead, etc.

Electrical conductivity non-conductor conductor

Table 9.1 Some properties of diamond and graphite.

Structure and properties of quartz CE2000(II)46

DSEPP2012(IA)4

Quartz is a crystalline form of silicon dioxide (or silicon(IV) oxide). Silicon

CE2006(I)5(a)
Note 8 dioxide (SiO2) is a compound with a giant covalent structure. Silicon and
Some students wrongly think that
SiO2 exists as molecules, like the
oxygen atoms are held together by covalent bonds throughout the whole
case in CO2, because silicon and structure. Each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms while each
carbon belong to the same group
of the Periodic Table.
oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms (Figure 9.10). N8

oxygen atom

silicon
atom silicon and
oxygen atoms are
held together by
covalent bonds
throughout the
whole structure

Figure 9.10 The giant covalent structure of silicon dioxide. Note that this represents only a very small part
of the giant lattice, which extends in all directions.

9 10 crystalline 晶狀
lubricating property 潤滑性質
silicon dioxide 二氧化硅
silicon(IV) oxide 氧化硅(IV)
adjacent 鄰近的
cleave 裂開
quartz 石英
 9 Structures and properties of substances

DSE2012(IB)16(b) Because of its structure, silicon dioxide has a very high melting
point (1610°C). Besides, it does not conduct electricity no matter it is
DSE2012(IB)16(a)
in the solid or molten state.

Properties of substances with a giant covalent

structure
1. They are all solids with very high melting points. CE2002(I)8(b)(iii)
CE2004(I)5
In melting the solid, a lot of heat energy must be supplied to break a
large number of strong covalent bonds in the structure (Figure 9.11).

strong covalent bonds

strong
covalent melting (a lot of
bonds energy is needed)

giant covalent structure

Figure 9.11 To melt a substance with a giant covalent structure, a large number of strong
covalent bonds must be broken.

2. All (except graphite) are hard.

DSE2013(IA)1
They have a network of strong covalent bonds in their structures. The
atoms cannot slide over one another. This makes them very hard.

3. They are insoluble in any solvent.

They are insoluble in water and non-aqueous solvents. This is because
the atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds. It is difficult to
separate them.

4. All (except graphite) are non-conductors of electricity.

All the outermost shell electrons of the atoms in substances with a giant
covalent structure are held firmly in covalent bonds. There are no
delocalized electrons in the structure. Hence, they do not conduct
electricity.

11 9
 II Microscopic world I

Experiment 9.1 Experiment Workbook 1

PowerPoint Building models of diamond, graphite, quartz and iodine

In this experiment, you are going to build models of diamond, graphite, quartz
and iodine. A9.2
(a) Giant covalent structure
(b) Covalent bonding
(c) Quartz is a high-melting solid. This is because a lot of heat

Note 10 Class practice 9.2 energy is needed to break a large number of covalent bonds in
the structure.
In examination, the three- (d) Quartz is neither soluble in water nor heptane.
dimensional structure of sodium Answer the following questions concerning quartz.
chloride lattice can be simply
represented as:
(a) What type of structure does quartz have?
Cl (b) What is the type of bonding between the silicon and oxygen atoms in
Cl
quartz? (e) No. This is because there are no mobile ions or delocalized
Cl Na
+
electrons in the structure.
Cl (c) Is quartz a high-melting or low-melting solid? Explain briefly.
+ Cl
Na
+ (d) Is quartz soluble in (i) water (ii) heptane (a non-aqueous solvent)?
Na Cl
(e) Does quartz conduct electricity? Explain briefly.
+
Cl Na

9.4 Giant ionic structures

PowerPoint
An ionic compound usually forms when a metal combines with a non-
DSE2014(IA)2
Note 9
metal. It consists of positive and negative ions held together by ionic bonds.
In some ionic compounds like The ions are regularly packed to form a continuous, three-dimensional
NH4NO3, both ionic bond and
covalent bond exist. However, giant ionic structure. N9
many students wrongly think that
there are van der Waals’ forces in
NH4NO3. Structure of sodium chloride
Learning tip
Let us take sodium chloride as an example. In sodium chloride (NaCl),
Figure 9.12 shows just a + –
+ –
few Na and Cl ions. positively charged ions (Na ) and negatively charged ions (Cl ) are held
Even a single sodium together by ionic bonds. They are packed regularly so that each ion is
chloride crystal contains
trillions of ions.
surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge (Figure 9.12).

3D Model – –
Cl ion
(Sodium chloride + +
– – –
crystal)
+ +
+
Na ion –
+ +
– – +
Na ion
+
– –
–
Cl ion + +
–

+ –
Figure 9.12 Sodium chloride has a giant ionic structure. It consists of Na and Cl ions held together by ionic bonds. N10

9 12 giant ionic structure 巨型離子結構

heptane 庚烷
 9 Structures and properties of substances

Refer to Figure 9.12, the ions are arranged to form a cubic structure. It
+
should be noted that the giant structure contains equal numbers of Na
–
and Cl ions.

Structure of caesium chloride

+
In the structure of caesium chloride (CsCl), each caesium ion (Cs ) is
–
surrounded by eight chloride ions (Cl ) and each chloride ion is in turn
surrounded by eight caesium ions. See Figure 9.13.

DSE2013(IB)8(b)(i)
or
+
Cs ion

–
Cl ion

+ –
Figure 9.13 Caesium chloride has a giant ionic structure. It consists of Cs and Cl ions held
together by ionic bonds.

Properties of ionic compounds CE2009(II)22

CE2010(II)17

1. They are crystalline in the solid state.

Ionic compounds are crystalline in the solid state. The crystals of ionic
compounds have flat sides and a regular shape. See Figure 9.14.
AL2009(II)3(c)(i) DSE2013(IB)8(b)(ii)

2. They are hard but brittle.

The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong ionic bonds which
make the compounds hard. However, when under stress, the relative
movement of the ions brings ions of the same charge close to each other.
Figure 9.14 A large crystal This results in repulsion. Therefore, ionic compounds are brittle.
of copper(II) sulphate.

3. They usually have high melting points and boiling points.

CE1999(I)4
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For example, sodium chloride has a melting point of 808°C and a boiling
CE2005(II)27
CE2007(I)1(c) point of 1465°C. A lot of heat energy is required to overcome the strong
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ionic bonds between the ions during melting and boiling.

caesium chloride 氯化銫

copper(II) sulphate 硫酸銅(II)
cubic structure 立方結構
13 9
 II Microscopic world I

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4. Most of them are soluble in water, but insoluble in non-
Learning tip
aqueous solvents. N11
Attraction exists between
ions and water molecules. For example, sodium chloride is soluble in water. When a sodium chloride
This is because one end
of a water molecule has a crystal is added to water, attraction exists between ions in sodium
slightly positive charge chloride and water molecules. This attraction causes the ions to move
while another end has a
slightly negative charge.
away from the crystal and go into the water. Then water molecules
surround the ions. The ions are said to be hydrated (Figure 9.15).

–
Cl ion water molecules
+
Na ion

hydrated sodium ion

hydrated chloride ion
Note 11
Point out to students that though Figure 9.15 Sodium chloride dissolves in water, forming hydrated ions.
most ionic compounds are soluble
in water, there are insoluble ones No such strong attraction exists between the ions in sodium chloride
such as barium sulphate and silver
chloride. and molecules of non-aqueous solvents like tetrachloromethane. Thus,
sodium chloride is insoluble in non-aqueous solvents.

CE2002(I)6(a)(iii) 5. They conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution.

CE2003(II)42
CE2008(I)1(c) They are non-conductors in the solid state. This is because in the solid
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DSE2012(IA)1 state, the ions present are not mobile. When molten or in aqueous
DSE2012(IB)16(a) solution, the ions become mobile and can conduct electricity. They are
therefore electrolytes.

H20 Example 9.1

Understanding the structure and properties of sodium chloride
The following diagram shows an incomplete arrangement of ions in the structure of sodium chloride
crystal.

+
Na
–
Cl

(a) Complete the diagram by drawing the missing ions.

(b) What is the type of bonding between sodium ions and chloride ions?
cont’d

9 14 electrolyte 電解質
hydrated chloride ion 水合氯離子
hydrated ion 水合離子
hydrated sodium ion 水合鈉離子
 9 Structures and properties of substances

(c) Does sodium chloride conduct electricity in the solid state? Explain your answer.
(d) Explain why sodium chloride has a high melting point.
Solution
(a)

(b) Ionic bonding

(c) No. This is because the ions are not mobile in the solid state.
(d) This is because a lot of heat energy is required to overcome the strong ionic bonds between ions
during melting.

Experiment 9.2 Experiment Workbook 1

PowerPoint Building lattice models of ionic crystals

In this experiment, you are going to build lattice models of sodium chloride
A9.3 and caesium chloride.
(a) Giant ionic structure
(b) Ionic bonding
(c) Caesium chloride is a high-
melting solid. This is because a Class practice 9.3
lot of energy is needed to break
the strong ionic bonds between
Answer the following questions concerning caesium chloride.
the ions during melting.
(d) Caesium chloride is soluble in (a) What type of structure does caesium chloride have?
water. This is because when (b) What is the type of bonding between the caseium ions and chloride ions
dissolved in water, strong
attraction exists between ions
in caesium chloride?
in caesium chloride and water (c) Is caesium chloride a high-melting or low-melting solid? Explain briefly.
molecules. However, there is no (d) Is caesium chloride soluble in (i) water (ii) heptane (a non-aqueous
such attraction between ions in
caesium chloride and heptane solvent)? Explain briefly.
molecules. (e) Does caesium chloride conduct electricity in the solid state?
(e) No

XTRA
E Everyday chemistry
S

Silicon dioxide and metal ions in coloured glass

The art work called ‘Dome of Light’, which is made of coloured
glass, is found in a Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) station in Taiwan.
It is famous for its colourful and attractive appearance.
The main constituent of glass is silicon dioxide. Silicon
dioxide has a giant covalent structure. Thus, glass is hard
enough for use in buildings.
Addition of different metal ions gives the glass different
colours. For example, copper(II) ions are blue; iron(II) ions are
The art work ‘Dome of Light’ in a Mass Rapid
green; cobalt(II) ions are pink, etc.
Transit (MRT) station in Taiwan.

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9.5 Giant metallic structures

PowerPoint
Structure of metals
* Book 1, Section 7.7, p.24 In Chapter 7, we have learnt how *metallic bond forms between
delocalized electrons and the metal ions in a metal. The metal ions are
packed closely together in a regular pattern in the metal. A giant
lattice of metal ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons is
Note 12 called a giant metallic structure (Figure 9.16). N12
Remind students that mercury also
has a giant metallic structure
though it is a liquid at room positively charged metal ions
conditions.

a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons

Figure 9.16 In a giant metallic structure, positively charged metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons.

DSE2012(IA)1 DSE2013(IA)12

Properties of metals CE2011(I)3(b)

Animation 1. Metals are good conductors of electricity.

(How metals
conduct Refer to the explanation in Chapter 7 (p.25).
electricity and
heat)
2. Metals are good conductors of heat.
When one end of a piece of metal is heated, the delocalized electrons there
CE1999(II)46
CE2003(II)42 get more energy. They move faster and collide with the neighbouring
DSEPP2012(IB)7(b)(i)(II) electrons. Heat is transferred in the collisions. The whole piece of metal
thus becomes hot (Figure 9.17).

heat transfer by collisions of electrons

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +
heat source

Figure 9.17 Metal conducts

heat by collision of electrons.
metal piece

9 16 delocalized electron 離域電子

giant metallic structure 巨型金屬結構
metal ion 金屬離子
metallic bond 金屬鍵
 9 Structures and properties of substances
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XTRA
E Do you know? 3. Most metals are solids with high melting points.
S

To melt a metal, a lot of heat energy is required to break the strong metallic
bonds in a giant metallic structure. Hence, metals have high melting N13

points. Note 13
Metallic bonds in a few metals are quite weak. For example, mercury is a liquid with a melting
point of –39°C; caesium is a solid with a melting point of 28°C.
4. Most metals have high densities.
Tungsten is a metal with
a very high melting point The metal ions in a giant metallic structure are packed closely together.
(about 3410°C). It can be Hence, metals generally have high densities.
used as a filament in a
light bulb.
5. Metals are malleable (can be rolled into sheets and other
XTRA shapes) and ductile (can be drawn into wires).
E Do you know?
S

Metal ions are packed in layers. When we apply force to a piece of metal,
the layers of ions can slide over one another. As a result, the ions settle into
new positions and the piece of metal takes up a new shape (Figure 9.18).
The metal piece does not break easily. This is because the non-directional
metallic bonds continue to hold the metal ions together.
CE2008(I)12(b)
Pure gold is the most
AL2009(II)3(c)(i)
malleable and ductile of
all the metals. It can great force
easily be beaten or
hammered to a thickness layers of metal
of 0.000013 cm. ions slide over one
another
metal ions

metal ions settle into new positions

under pressure

Figure 9.18 Metals can be re-shaped without breaking.

A9.4
Class practice 9.4
(a) Tungsten has a very high melting
point. Tungsten is commonly used to make filaments for tungsten light bulbs. By
(b) This is because there are passing an electric current through the filament, it can emit light when it
delocalized electrons in the
structure.
reaches an extremely high temperature.
(c) When a force is applied to a piece (a) Apart from the light emitting property, suggest another physical property
of tungsten metal, the layers of
tungsten ions can slide over one
that makes tungsten, but not other metals, suitable for making filaments.
another without breaking the (b) Explain why tungsten can conduct electricity.
metallic bonds.
(c) Explain why tungsten can be drawn into wires.

density 密度
ductile 可延的
malleable 可展的 filament 燈絲
17 9
 II Microscopic world I

9.6 Comparison of structures and

PowerPoint properties of substances
In the previous sections, we have discussed the bonding, structures and
properties of substances with simple molecular, giant covalent, giant
ionic and giant metallic structures. All of these are summarized in Table
9.2.

Simple molecular Giant covalent Giant ionic Giant metallic

structure structure structure structure
(1) Examples H2, I2, H2O, NH3, CCl4 C (diamond), NaCl, CaO, All metals
C (graphite), SiO2 KOH

(2) Structure small discrete giant lattice of giant lattice of giant lattice of metal
molecules e.g. H2 atoms ions ions surrounded by a
e.g. C (diamond) e.g. NaCl ‘sea’ of delocalized
electrons

(3) Bonds holding strong covalent bonds covalent bonds ionic bonds link metallic bonds link the
constituent particles bind atoms together link atoms oppositely metal ions (positively
within a molecule; throughout the charged ions charged) and the ‘sea’
separate molecules are network structure throughout the of electrons (negatively
attracted by weak structure charged)
intermolecular forces
(e.g. van der Waals’
forces)

(4) Physical properties

(a) State under room gases, volatile liquids solids solids solids (except
conditions or solids of low mercury)
melting points

(b) Melting point low very high high usually high

(c) Hardness of solid form soft usually hard hard usually hard

(d) Solubility in
(i) water (i) most are insoluble (i) insoluble (i) most are (i) insoluble (except
soluble where there is
reaction with water)
(ii) non-aqueous (ii) generally soluble (ii) insoluble (ii) insoluble (ii) insoluble
solvents

(e) Electrical conductivity non-conductors non-conductors non-conductors good conductors

Note: A few (e.g. (except graphite) when solid; good
hydrogen chloride) conductors when
react with water to molten or in
form a solution which aqueous solution
conducts electricity

Table 9.2 Comparison of structures and properties of different kinds of substances.

9 18
 9 Structures and properties of substances

9.7 Predicting structures from physical

PowerPoint properties
The physical properties of a substance usually give us information about
their structures. The flow chart as shown in Figure 9.19 may help us
predict the structure of a substance.

Physical properties Structure

1. Is the substance a gas or liquid Yes

under room conditions?

No Simple molecular structure

CE2000(II)17 2. Does the substance have a low Yes

CE2007(II)18 melting point?
Learning tip
No
If the answer to
question 3 is ‘yes’,
the substance can
3. Does the substance conduct Yes
electricity in the solid state? Giant metallic structure
also be graphite,
which has a giant
covalent structure. No

4. Does the substance conduct Yes

electricity when molten or in Giant ionic structure
aqueous solution?

No

5. Does the substance have a Yes

Giant covalent structure
very high melting point?

Figure 9.19 Predicting the structure of a substance from its physical properties.

Experiment 9.3 Experiment Workbook 1

PowerPoint Experiment Predicting the structures of substances from their properties

Video In this experiment, you are going to compare the properties of sodium
chloride, dry ice, wax and quartz, and predict their structures.

19 9
 II Microscopic world I

A9.5 Class practice 9.5

(a) B. This is because it conducts
electricity in the solid state or when The following table gives information about some properties of substances A to
molten.
D.
(b) D. This is because it does not
conduct electricity in the solid state
but conducts electricity when Melting point Boiling point Electrical conductivity
Substance
molten. (°C) (°C) Solid Molten
(c) A. This is because it has a low
melting point and a low boiling point. A –7 59 poor poor
Besides, it does not conduct
electricity no matter it is in the solid B 842 1484 good good
state or when molten.
(d) C. This is because it has a high
C 1670 2230 poor poor
melting point and a high boiling
point. Besides, it does not conduct
D 801 1413 poor good
electricity no matter it is in the solid
state or when molten.
(e) A. This is because substances with Answer the following questions and explain your answers.
simple molecular structure are
(a) Which substance has a giant metallic structure?
usually soluble in non-aqueous
solvent. (b) Which substance has a giant ionic structure?
(c) Which substance has a simple molecular structure?
(d) Which substance has a giant covalent structure?
(e) Which substance is likely to be soluble in non-aqueous solvents like
tetrachloromethane?

9.8 Predicting physical properties from

PowerPoint bonding and structure
The physical properties of a substance are closely related to its bonding
and structure. From the group numbers of the elements that make up a
substance, we can predict the bonding and structure of the substance. We
can then predict its physical properties. See Example 9.2.

H20 Example 9.2

Predicting physical properties of substances from their bonding
Predict the (i) formula (ii) structure (iii) physical properties ((1) melting point and boiling point, (2)
physical state at room temperature and pressure, (3) solubility and (4) electrical conductivity) of the
compound formed between
(a) potassium and sulphur
(b) nitrogen and fluorine.
cont’d

9 20
 9 Structures and properties of substances

Solution
(a) (i) The compound formed between a metal (potassium) and a non-metal (sulphur) is an ionic
compound.
+
Potassium is a Group I element. It forms K ions.
2–
Sulphur is a Group VI element. It forms S ions.

 the formula of the compound is K2S.
(ii) It has a giant ionic structure.
(iii) Its physical properties:
(1) High melting point and boiling point
(2) Solid at room temperature and pressure
(3) Soluble in water but insoluble in non-aqueous solvents like tetrachloromethane
(4) Non-conductor of electricity in the solid state; conductor when molten or in aqueous
solution.
(b) (i) The compound formed between non-metals (nitrogen and fluorine) is a covalent compound.
Nitrogen is a Group V element which requires three electrons to get the stable electronic
arrangement.
Fluorine is a Group VII element which requires one electron to get the stable electronic
arrangement.
N F

3 1 N1F3 NF3

 the formula of the compound is NF3.
(ii) It has a simple molecular structure.
(iii) Its physical properties:
(1) Low melting point and boiling point
(2) Gas
(3) Slightly soluble in water but soluble in non-aqueous solvents like tetrachloromethane.
(4) Non-conductor of electricity no matter it is in the solid or liquid state.
Try Chapter Exercise Q19

A9.6 Class practice 9.6 (b) (i) PCl3

(a) (i) MgBr2 (ii) It has a simple molecular structure.
(ii) It has a giant ionic structure. Predict the (i) formula (ii) structure (iii) physical properties (melting point,
(iii) Its physical properties are: (1)
boiling point, solubility and electrical conductivity) of the compound formed
High melting point and boiling
from the reaction between (iii) Its physical properties are: (1) Low melting point and
point (2) Solid at room
boiling point (2) Gas at room temperature and
temperature and pressure (3)
(a) magnesium and bromine pressure (3) Insoluble in water but soluble in non-
Soluble in water but insoluble
aqueous solvents (4): Non-conductor of electricity no
in non-aqueous solvents (4) (b) phosphorus and chlorine.
matter it is in the solid or liquid state.
Non-conductor of electricity in
the solid state; conductor when (Assume that each atom in the compound has attained the electronic
molten or in aqueous solution arrangement of the nearest noble gas after reaction.)

21 9
 II Microscopic world I

9.9 Applications of substances according

PowerPoint to their properties
As mentioned in Sections 9.2 to 9.5, substances with the same structure
have some general properties. However, they also have some characteristic
properties of their own. All these properties affect their applications in
daily life.

For example, graphite has a giant covalent structure. Like other

substances with the same structure, it is hard and insoluble in any solvent,
and has a high melting point. On the other hand, it can conduct electricity.
Because of these properties, it is widely used as electrodes. Let us look at
another example, aluminium, below.

Reading to learn

Properties and applications of aluminium

Read the information about aluminium below and answer the questions that follow.

Aluminium was discovered in 1824. It has a giant metallic structure and has some general properties (1–3
below) like other substances with similar structures. Besides, it has other characteristic properties of its
own (4–6 below).

Properties of aluminium:

1 Very malleable and ductile

Aluminium is very malleable and ductile. It is the second most malleable metal, and the sixth
most ductile metal in the world. It can be easily rolled into sheets and other shapes, and drawn
into wires.

2 Good conductor of heat

Aluminium is good conductor of heat, although not as good as silver. The thermal conductivity of
aluminium is about 55% of that of silver.

3 Good conductor of electricity

Aluminum is a good conductor of electricity, although not as good as copper. The electrical
conductivity of aluminium is about 63% of that of copper.

9 22 thermal conductivity 導熱性

 9 Structures and properties of substances

4 Low density but strong

Aluminium has a low density but is strong. It weighs less than one-third of iron with the same
volume. We say that it has a high strength-to-weight ratio.

5 Non-poisonous
Aluminium is non-poisonous. It does not release poisonous substances when it is used.

6 Resistant to corrosion
Aluminium is resistant to corrosion. A protective layer, aluminium oxide, forms on the surface of
the metal. This layer is impermeable to air and water so that the metal can be protected from
corrosion.

Applications of aluminium:
Today, aluminium is commonly used in making soft drink cans, window frames, aircraft bodies, overhead
power cables, etc. These applications of aluminium are related to its structure and properties.

Making soft drink cans Making window frames

Used as construction material for aircraft bodies Making overhead power cables

Questions
What properties of aluminium are important for it to be used in the following applications?
(a) Soft drink cans Reading to learn
(a) Non-poisonous, low density but strong, resistant to corrosion, malleable.
(b) Construction material for aircraft bodies
(b) Low density but strong, resistant to corrosion
(c) Overhead power cables (c) Low density but strong, good conductor of electricity, ductile

corrosion 腐蝕作用 aircraft body 飛機機身

impermeable 不滲透的
resistant 抵抗
strength 強度
23 9

non-poisonous 無毒的 window frame 窗框

overhead power cable 架空電纜
 II Microscopic world I

STSE connections 9.1

PowerPoint
Applications of specialized new materials
Based on the findings of research on the structure, chemical bonding and other properties of matter, scientists
can create specialized new materials for different purposes.
Bullet-proof vests consist mainly of a man-made fabric, Kevlar. This fabric is very strong and can absorb
energy well. It can withstand great force from a speeding bullet and spread the momentum of the bullet. As
a result, the human body can be protected from being penetrated by the bullet.

Bullet-proof vest

Other examples of specialized new materials include superconductors and superglue.

9 24 Kelvar 凱庫勒
superconductor 超導體
bullet-proof vest 避彈衣
man-made fabric 人造纖維
penetrate 穿透
specialized 專門的
momentum 動量 superglue 超能膠
 9 Structures and properties of substances

Key terms
PowerPoint

English term Chinese translation Page

1. giant covalent structure 巨型共價結構 8

2. giant ionic structure 巨型離子結構 12

3. giant metallic structure 巨型金屬結構 16

4. giant structure 巨型結構 3

5. intermolecular force 分子間引力 3

6. macromolecule 巨大分子 3

7. molecular structure 分子結構 3

8. simple molecular structure 簡單分子結構 3

9. van der Waals’ force 范德華力 5

25 9
 II Microscopic world I

Progress check
PowerPoint

Can you answer the following questions? Put a ‘✓’ in the box if you can. Otherwise, review the relevant
part on the page as shown.

Page
1. How can we classify substances according to structures? 3

2. What structure do carbon dioxide and iodine have? How are the molecules in carbon
5
dioxide and iodine arranged in this structure?

3. What are van der Waals’ forces? Where do they exist? 5

4. How are the properties of substances with simple molecular structure related to their
6–7
structures and bonding?

5. What structure do diamond, graphite and quartz have? How are the atoms in diamond,
8–10
graphite and quartz arranged in this structure?

6. How are the properties of substances with a giant covalent structure related to their
11
structures and bonding?

7. What structure do sodium chloride and caesium chloride have? How are the ions in
12–13
sodium chloride and caesium chloride arranged in this structure?

8. How are the properties of ionic compounds related to their structures and bonding? 13–14

9. What structure do metals have? How are the metal atoms arranged in this structure? 16

10. What are the similarities and differences between structures and properties of substances
18
with simple molecular, giant covalent, giant ionic and giant metallic structures?

11. How can we deduce the structures and bonding of substances from their physical
19
properties?

12. How can we deduce the physical properties of substances from their structures and
21
bonding?

13. How are the applications of substances related to their properties? 22

9 26
 9 Structures and properties of substances

Summary
PowerPoint

9.1 Structures of substances

1. The structure of a substance is a description of what its constituent particles are, and how they
are arranged or packed together.

2. All substances exist as either molecular structures or giant structures under ordinary
conditions.

9.2 Simple molecular structures

3. In substances with a simple molecular structure, atoms within a molecule are bonded together
by strong covalent bonds and each molecule is attracted to neighbouring molecules by weak
intermolecular forces.

9.3 Giant covalent structures

4. In a few elements and compounds, the non-metal atoms are joined together by covalent bonds to
form a giant network called giant covalent structure.

9.4 Giant ionic structures

5. In ionic compounds, crystals consisting of positive and negative ions are held together by strong
non-directional electrostatic attractions. The ions are regularly packed to form a continuous,
three-dimensional giant ionic structure.

9.5 Giant metallic structures

6. Metal ions are joined to one another in a giant metallic structure by metallic bonds, which
result from the attraction between a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons and metal ions.

9.6 Comparison of structures and properties of substances

7. The structure, bonding and physical properties of substances with simple molecular structure,
giant covalent structure, giant ionic structure and giant metallic structure are summarized in
Table 9.2 on p.18.

9.7 Predicting structures from physical properties

8. It is possible to predict the structure of a substance from its physical properties.

(Refer to the flow chart in Figure 9.19 on p.19.)

9.8 Predicting physical properties from bonding and structure

9. It is possible to predict the physical properties of a substance from its bonding and structure.
(Refer to Example 9.2 on p.20–21.)

9.9 Applications of substances according to their properties

10. Some specialized new materials have been created on the basis of the findings of research on the
structure, chemical bonding, and other properties of matter.

27 9
 II Microscopic world I

Concept map
PowerPoint

Complete the following concept map.

SUBSTANCES

Molecular structures Giant structures

Macromolecules

examples

Simple Compounds Giant ionic Giant covalent Giant metallic

molecular e.g. polyethene structures structures structures
structures
positively charged all metal
discrete ions and negatively atoms are atoms are
molecules charged ions bonded held
are attracted packed regularly together together
by by by by

Ionic Covalent Metallic

Intermolecular
bond bond bond
forces

examples examples examples

examples

Elements
Elements Compounds Compounds e.g. diamond, Compounds Elements
e.g. H2, I2 e.g. H2O, CO2 e.g. NaCl, MgO graphite e.g. SiO2 e.g. Fe, Cu

(Hints: CO2, covalent, giant, graphite, I2, ionic, macromolecules, metallic, MgO, intermolecular forces)

9 28
 9 Structures and properties of substances

Chapter exercise
Fill in the blanks 8. Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat
delocalized
because they contain electrons.
Section 9.1 They are malleable
and ductile. Most of
1. Under ordinary conditions, all substances exist as high
them are solids with melting
giant
either molecular structures or points and have high densities.
structures.
Section 9.8
2. Molecular structures consist of discrete 9. The physical properties of a substance depend on
molecules
. The atoms within a molecule are its bonding and structure
.
covalent
bonded together by bonds.
However, each molecule is only weakly attracted Multiple-choice questions
intermolecular
to neighbouring molecules by
forces. Section 9.2
10. Which of the following statements concerning
3. In a giant structure, all particles are held together
iodine is/are correct?
by strong chemical bonds. A continuous
giant lattice (or network) (1) It consists of diatomic molecules.
forms, in which
(2) It has a low boiling point because iodine
no discrete molecules exist.
atoms are held together by covalent bond.
Section 9.2 (3) It has a giant covalent structure.
4. Substances with a simple molecular structure have A. (1) only 10. (2): Iodine has a low boiling point
low
melting points and boiling points. B. (2) only because iodine molecules are held
together by weak van der Waals’
They are non-conductor of electricity. Solids with a C. (1) and (3) only
forces. A
simple molecular structure are usually slightly D. (2) and (3) only
water
soluble or insoluble in but (3): I2 has a simple molecular
soluble Section 9.3 structure.
in non-aqueous solvents like
tetrachloromethane. 11. Which of the following statements concerning the
substances with a giant covalent structure are
Section 9.3 correct?
5. Substances with a giant covalent structure are (1) They have high melting points.
solids
under room conditions. They (2) They can conduct electricity when molten.
high
have melting points. With the (3) They are insoluble in water but soluble in
exception of graphite , all are non-aqueous solvents.
non-conductor
of electricity. They are 11. Substances with a giant covalent
insoluble A. (1) only structure (except graphite)
in any solvent.
B. (2) only cannot conduct electricity
Section 9.4 C. (1) and (3) only because there are no mobile
ions or delocalized electrons in
high D. (2) and (3) only A
6. Ionic compounds usually have their structures. Besides, they
melting points and boiling points. They conduct Section 9.4
are neither soluble in water nor
molten non-aqueous solvents.
electricity only when or in
aqueous solution 12. Which of the following substances has a giant
. They are usually
soluble ionic structure?
in water but insoluble in
non-aqueous A. SiO2 12. Substance Structure
solvents like tetrachloromethane.
B. NO SiO2 Giant covalent structure
Section 9.5 C. HgO NO Simple molecular structure
7. Metal ions and the sea of delocalized electrons D. SO2 SO2 Simple molecular structure C
giant metallic
are held together in a
structure by metallic bonds.

29 9
 II Microscopic world I

13. The diagram below shows the structure of an Section 9.7

ionic compound formed from the reaction 15. The following table gives information about the
between metal M and non-metal X. properties of four substances P to S.

Electrical
Melting
conductivity Solubility in
Substance point
under room tetrachloromethane
(°C)
conditions
ion of X
ion of M P 1610 Poor Insoluble

Q –68 Poor Soluble

The formula of this compound should be R 2047 Good Insoluble

A. M2X3. S 801 Poor Insoluble

B. MX. 13. In this structure, each ion of X is
C. MX2. surrounded by 8 ions of M and Which of the above substances may consist of
vice versa. B discrete molecules?
D. M2X.
A. P 15. P and S show the properties of ionic
14. X has a melting point of 2566°C. It can conduct compounds or substances with giant
B. Q
electricity when molten but not in the solid state. covalent structures.
C. R Q shows the properties of substances with
X 14. X shows the properties of B
D. S simple molecular structures.
A. is insoluble in water. ionic compounds. R shows the properties of metals.
16. (a) I2
B. is malleable. (b)
C. is probably an ionic compound.
C
D. consists of separate molecules.
iodine
molecule

Structured questions
Section 9.2 (c) It has a simple molecular structure.

16. Tincture of iodine can be prepared by dissolving iodine in ethanol. It can also be prepared by dissolving a
mixture of iodine and sodium iodide in a solution of equal volumes of ethanol and water.
20. (a) Covalent bonding
16. (d) Iodine atoms are linked together by covalent bond (b) Giant covalent structure
within each iodine molecule. Iodine molecules in (c) Structure of diamond:
the lattice are held together by weak van der Waals’
forces.
(e) The attractive forces between water molecules are carbon atom
quite strong. The weak attractive forces between
iodine and water molecules are not strong enough Structure of quartz:
to overcome the attractive forces between water
molecules. On the other hand, the attractive forces
between ethanol molecules are similar to that
silicon atom
between iodine molecules in strength. Thus, iodine
is more soluble in ethanol than in water. oxygen atom

Iodine kills a wide range of germs within 5 minutes of application. It was first reported as a germ killer in
th
wounds in 1839. By the late 19 century, tincture of iodine was commonly used as an antiseptic.
(a) Write the formula for an iodine molecule. 20. (d) Diamond. This is because it has a shiny beautiful
appearance.
(b) Draw the structure of an iodine lattice.
(e) Diamond. This is because it is very hard.
(c) What type of structure does iodine have?
(d) What types of attractive forces are present in an iodine lattice?
(e) Explain why iodine is more soluble in ethanol (a non-aqueous solvent) than in water.
9 30
 9 Structures and properties of substances

17. Nitrogen which can be obtained from air is a colourless and odourless gas. Besides, it is unreactive and does
not conduct electricity. Nitrogen has a boiling point of –196°C. Upon cooling, gaseous nitrogen can change
to liquid nitrogen.
Due to the super-cooling property of liquid nitrogen, it is commonly used in freezing food for transportation
and preserving living cells.
17. (d)
17. (a) Fractional distillation of liquid air
(b) Covalent bonding N N
(c) A nitrogen atom has five electrons in
its outermost shell. To attain an
(e) There are three bond pairs and two
electronic arrangement of the
lone pairs of electrons in a nitrogen
nearest noble gas, each nitrogen
molecule.
atom shares three of its outermost
(f) This is because to react with other
shell electrons with another nitrogen
elements, the strong triple covalent
atom. As a result, a triple covalent
bond between the nitrogen atoms
bond forms.
has to be broken first, which requires
a lot of energy.
(g) Intermolecular forces/van der Waals’
(a) Suggest a method used to obtain nitrogen gas from air.
forces
(b) What type of bonding is present in a nitrogen molecule?
(c) Describe how the bonding stated in (b) forms in a nitrogen molecule.
(d) Draw the electron diagram (showing electrons in the outermost shells only) for a nitrogen molecule.
(e) How many bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons are there in a nitrogen molecule?
(f) Explain why nitrogen is unreactive.
(g) State the attractive forces that exist between the nitrogen molecules.

18. (a) B
Section 9.7 (b) (i) E. This is because it
18. The following table shows some physical properties of five substances A to E. conducts electricity in the
solid state or when molten.
(ii) A. This is because it does
Electrical conductivity not conduct electricity in the
Substance Melting point (°C) Solubility in water solid state but conducts
when solid when molten electricity when molten.
(iii) B and C. This is because
A 680 Soluble Poor Good
both of them do not conduct
B –70 Insoluble Poor Poor electricity no matter in the
solid state or when molten.
C 56 Insoluble Poor Poor Besides, they have low
melting points.
D 1610 Insoluble Poor Poor (iv) D. This is because it does
not conduct electricity no
E 660 Insoluble Good Good matter in the solid state or
when molten. However, it
has a very high melting
(a) Which of the above substances is/are not in the solid state at 25°C?
point.
(b) Which of the above substances is/are
18. (c) B and C
(i) metal(s)?
(d) C. Wax does not conduct electricity no matter it is in the solid state or when molten. Besides,
(ii) ionic compound(s)? it is a low-melting solid.
(iii) covalent compound(s) with a simple molecular structure?
(iv) covalent compound(s) with a giant covalent structure?
Explain your answers.
(c) Which of the above substance(s) is/are likely to be soluble in heptane, which is a non-aqueous solvent?
(d) Which of the above substances could be wax? Explain your answer.

31 9
 II Microscopic world I
19. (a) W: giant covalent structure; X: giant ionic structure; Y: giant covalent structure; Z: simple molecular structure
(b) W: graphite; X: sodium chloride; Y: diamond; Z: iodine
Section 9.8 (c) X: ionic bonding; Y: covalent bonding

19. The diagrams below show the structures of four solids W to Z.

W X Y Z

(a) What types of structures do W, X, Y and Z have respectively?

(b) Suggest four substances that have the same structures as W, X, Y and Z respectively.
(c) Name the types of bonding present in solids X and Y respectively.
(d) Name all types of attractive forces present in solids W and Z respectively and state what particles are held
by these forces.
(e) Which solid, X or Z, has a higher melting point? Explain your answer.
(f) W and Y belong to two different forms of carbon. Explain why W can conduct electricity while Y
cannot. 19. (d) In solid W, the atoms within each layer are linked by strong covalent bonds. The layers are held together by weak
intermolecular forces. In solid Z, the atoms within each molecule are linked by strong covalent bond. The
Section 9.9 molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces.

20. Diamond, quartz and glass are all transparent in nature. Diamond is composed of carbon atoms and is the
hardest known natural material in the world. (Answers on p.9-30.)
Quartz and glass are mainly composed of silicon and oxygen atoms. Natural quartz crystals have 99% or
more silicon dioxide content. Glass is a type of non-crystalline solid containing 80% or less silicon dioxide
content.19. (e) X has a giant ionic structure while Z has a simple molecular structure. A large amount of energy is needed to break the
strong ionic bonds between the ions during melting. On the other hand, to melt Z, only a small amount of energy is
needed to separate the molecules. Hence, X has a higher melting point than Z.

diamond quartz
19. (f) In Y, each carbon atom is covalently bonded with four other carbon atoms. All electrons are localized. In W,
each carbon atom is covalently bonded with only three other carbon atoms in its layer. Each carbon atom glass
has one delocalized electron. These delocalized electrons can move in the direction of electric field.
(a) What is the type of bonding that holds the carbon atoms together in diamond?
(b) What is the name of the structure given to diamond and quartz?
(c) Draw the structures of diamond and quartz respectively.
(d) Which of the above materials is usually used to make jewellery? Explain your choice.
(e) In oil industry, an oil drill is used to drill a hole into the Earth’s crust to collect crude oil from
underground. Suggest a material that can be used in making an oil drill. Explain your answer.

9 32
 II Microscopic world I

Part exercise
Multiple-choice questions B. It reacts vigorously with water.
C. Its chloride is soluble in water.
1. Some information of two particles, X and Y, is D. It decomposes when conducting electricity.
listed below:  4. Metals do not decompose when conducting electricity. D

Number of Number of Number of 5. Which of the following substances is an

Particle
protons neutrons electrons electrolyte? 5. Copper(II) sulphate conducts
X 8 8 8 A. Mercury electricity when molten or in
aqueous solution and is
B. Carbon tetrachloride
Y 8 10 8 decomposed at the same
C. Ethanol time.
D
D. Copper(II) sulphate
Which of the following statements about X and Y
is INCORRECT? 6. Which of the following particles are responsible
A. X is an electrically neutral atom. for the conduction of electricity in the aqueous
B. The mass number of Y is 16. solution of an ionic compound?
C. X and Y are the atoms of the same element. (1) Positively charged ions
D. X and Y have different physical properties. (2) Negatively charged ions
1. The mass number of Y is 18. B
(3) Electrons
2. Copper consists of two isotopes. The table below A. (1) and (2) only
shows the relative abundance of each of these two 6. (3): Electrons are responsible
B. (1) and (3) only for the electrical conduction of
isotopes. C. (2) and (3) only metals.
A
D. (1), (2) and (3)
Isotope Relative abundance
63
Cu
29 69.09% 7. Element X belongs to Group II and element Y
65
belongs to Group V in the Periodic Table. The
Cu 30.91%
29
formula of a compound formed by these two
The relative atomic mass of copper (correct to 2 elements is probably
decimal places) is A. X3Y2. 7. The formula of this compound
can be worked out as follows:
A. 63.60. 2. Relative atomic mass of copper B. X2Y6. 2+ 3–
X Y
B. 63.62. = 63 × 69.09% + 65 × 30.91% = 63.62 C. X2Y3.
A
C. 63.64.
3. The most reactive metals are found in D. X3Y. = X3 Y2
the bottom left-hand corner of the
B
D. 31.81. table. 8. A compound formed from element Y and oxygen
3. Which of the following statements concerning the has the following structure:
Periodic Table is INCORRECT?
A. Elements with similar chemical properties are O Y O
in the same group.
B. Elements are arranged in increasing order of (Only electrons in the outermost shells are
atomic number. shown.)
C. The most reactive metals are found in the top Which of the following statements are correct?
left-hand corner of the table. (1) The compound is a non-electrolyte.
D. The reactivity of Group VII elements (2) Y is a Group IV element.
decreases down a group. C
(3) Electrons are transferred from Y to oxygen
4. Caesium (Cs) is in the same group as sodium in when the compound forms.
the Periodic Table. Which of the following A. (1) and (2) only
predictions of the properties of caesium is B. (1) and (3) only
INCORRECT? C. (2) and (3) only
A
A. The formula of its chloride is CsCl. D. (1), (2) and (3)
33 9
 II Microscopic world I

9. Which of the following electron diagrams is/are A. (1) and (2) only
correct? B. (1) and (3) only
(1) MgCl2 C. (2) and (3) only
D
- 2+ - D. (1), (2) and (3)

Cl Mg Cl 11. Which of the following statements concerning

iodine is correct?
(2) NO2 A. Iodine exists as discrete molecules.
9. The correct electron
diagram of a NO2
B. Iodine lattice has a giant covalent structure.
O N O molecule is: C. Iodine molecules are held together by
covalent bonds.
(3) H2S N D. Iodine is a liquid at room temperature and
pressure. 11. Refer to p.5 of chapter 9 A
O O for details.
H S H 12. Which of the following combinations is/are
correct?
A. (1) only Substance Attraction between particles
B. (2) only
(1) Argon Van der Waals’ forces
C. (1) and (3) only
C
(2) Mercury Covalent bond
D. (2) and (3) only
(3) Quartz Ionic bond
10. Which of the following types of bonds are present A. (1) only 12. Metallic bonds exist between
in ammonium chloride? B. (2) only mercury(II) ions and the ‘sea’
of delocalized electrons in
(1) Ionic bond 10. Ionic bond exists between C. (1) and (3) only
+ –
NH4 and Cl ions. Covalent mercury. Covalent bonds A
(2) Covalent bond D. (2) and (3) only exist between silicon and
bond and dative covalent
(3) Dative covalent bond +
bond exist in NH4 ion. oxygen atoms in quartz.

Structured questions
13. (a) Hydrogen occurs naturally in three isotopic forms. Their atomic structures are shown below:

Protium Deuterium Tritium

13. (a) (i) Isotopes are different atoms
(i) What is the meaning of the term ‘isotopes’? of the same element which
have the same atomic
(ii) Complete the following table by using the above information.
number but different mass
numbers/the same number
Number of of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
Isotope proton(s) neutron(s) electron(s) (iii) 2
20 21 22
(b) (i) 10Ne, 10Ne, 10Ne
Protium 1 0 1 (ii) Relative atomic mass of
neon
Deuterium 1 1 1
= 20 × 90.48% + 21 × 0.27%
1 2 1 + 22 × 9.25%
Tritium
= 20.2

(iii) What is the relative molecular mass of deuterium?

9 34
 II Microscopic world I

(b) Neon has three isotopes. Their mass numbers are 20, 21 and 22, and their relative abundances are
90.48%, 0.27% and 9.25% respectively.
(i) Write the full atomic symbols for the three isotopes of neon.
(ii) Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon.

14. Part of the Periodic Table is shown below, with some of the elements represented by letters (the letters are
NOT the symbols of the elements).

Group
I II III IV V VI VII 0
2 E F K

Period 3 A D G L N

4 B C M

14. (a) (1) B

(2) K
(a) From the above Periodic Table, choose the letter of the element that
(3) C
(1) is the most reactive metal. (4) E
(b) This is because it has a stable
(2) is the most reactive non-metal.
electronic arrangement/an octet
(3) can form coloured ions in aqueous solution. of electrons.
(c) This is because A has delocalized
(4) has a giant covalent structure. electrons in its structure while G
(b) Explain why element N is unreactive. does not have any delocalized
electrons or mobile ions for
(c) Element A conducts electricity but element G does not. Explain briefly. conducting electricity.
(d) Arrange elements K, L and M in ascending order of their melting points. (d) K < L < M

15. The following set-up is used to investigate the migration of ions under the influence of an electric field.

15. (a) A purple colour gradually appears

20 V d. c. supply in the solution around the positive
electrode because negatively
carbon electrode carbon electrode charged permanganate ions
migrate to the positive electrode.
(b) There is no observable change
dilute sulphuric acid
at the negative electrode. Though
dilute sulphuric acid the positively charged ammonium
ions migrate to the negative
electrode, we cannot see them
as they are colourless.
(c) The gel slows down the mixing of
dilute sulphuric acid and
a gel containing ammonium
ammonium permanganate.
permanganate

(a) What would be observed at the positive electrode after some time? Explain your answer.
(b) What would be observed at the negative electrode after some time? Explain your answer.
(c) What is the use of the gel in the set-up?

35 9
 II Microscopic world I 16. (a) When a force is applied to a piece of strontium, the layers of strontium ions can slide over one another
without breaking the metallic bonds.
(b) Yes. This is because strontium has delocalized electrons.
16. Strontium is a silvery-white and malleable metal. It is often used in the production of fireworks as its
compounds produce a coloured light when heated. 16. (c) Giant metallic structure
(a) Explain why strontium is malleable. (d) Alkaline earth metals
(e) Strontium reacts more vigorously
(b) Do you think strontium can conduct electricity? Explain your answer. with water than calcium does to give
(c) Name the structure of strontium. hydrogen and strontium hydroxide.

(d) Name the group that strontium belongs to in the Periodic Table.
(e) Calcium, which is in the same group as strontium, reacts steadily with water to give hydrogen and
calcium hydroxide. Predict the vigour of the reaction between strontium and water and name the
products formed.

17. The atomic numbers of five elements A, B, C, D and E are given below. 17. (a) (Cont’d)
Electron diagram of D2:
(A, B, C, D and E are not atomic symbols.)
17. (a) The electronic arrangements of C
and D are 2,6 and 2,8,7 Element Atomic number D D
respectively. Their atoms can attain
electronic arrangements of the A 3
(b) A. The atom of A can attain the electronic
nearest noble gases by sharing
B 6 arrangement of a helium atom by losing
electrons with another atom of their
one outermost shell electron.
own. C 8 (c) (i) A2C; ionic bonding
Electron diagram of C2:
(ii) AD; ionic bonding
D 17
(iii) BC2; covalent bonding
C C E 18

(a) State, with reasons, which of these elements exist as diatomic molecules under room conditions. Draw
electron diagrams of the molecules, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.
(b) Which of the elements has the greatest tendency to form positively charged ions? Explain your answer.
(c) Give the formulae for the following compounds. Name the type of bonding in each case.
(i) Compound formed between A and C
(ii) Compound formed between A and D
(iii) Compound formed between B and C
(d) Which compound mentioned in (c) would have the lowest melting point and boiling point? Explain
briefly.
(e) Would you expect element E to form any compound at all? Explain your answer.

18. Smelling salts are chemicals used for arousing consciousness. The active chemical in smelling salts is
ammonium carbonate.
17. (d) A2C and AD have giant ionic structures. BC2 18. (a) (NH4)2CO3
has a simple molecular structure. When (b) Both of them are colourless.
melting or boiling A2C or AD, a large amount of (c) Ionic bonding
heat energy is needed to break the strong (d) (i)
H
ionic bonds between the ions in them. On the
other hand, only a small amount of heat H N H
energy is needed to overcome the weak van
der Waals’ forces between the molecules in
BC2 during melting or boiling. Hence, BC2 has (ii) Covalent compound
the lowest melting point and boiling point. (iii) The size of ammonia molecules is not large.
(e) No. This is because the atom of E has a stable The intermolecular forces between the
electronic arrangement. molecules are relatively weak.

(a) Give the formula of ammonium carbonate.

(b) What are the colours of ammonium ion and carbonate ion respectively?
(c) Name the type of bonding between ammonium ions and carbonate ions.

9 36
 II Microscopic world I
19. (a) KCl
(b) CCl4
(d) Smelling salts work by releasing ammonia.
(c) Electron diagram of potassium chloride:
(i) Draw the electron diagram for ammonia, showing the electrons in the outermost shells only.
+
(ii) Is ammonia a covalent compound or an ionic compound?
K Cl
(iii) Explain why ammonia is a gas under room conditions.

19. The following table shows some physical properties of potassium chloride and carbon tetrachloride.
Electron diagram of carbon
tetrachloride:
Potassium chloride Carbon tetrachloride

Melting point (°C) 770 –23 Cl

Conduction of good conductor when molten non-conductor

Cl C Cl
electricity or in aqueous solution

Solubility in water soluble ? Cl

(a) Write the chemical formula of potassium chloride.

(b) Write the molecular formula of carbon tetrachloride.
(c) Draw the electron diagrams of potassium chloride and carbon tetrachloride, showing electrons in the
outermost shells only.
(d) Explain the difference in melting points between the two compounds.
(e) Explain why potassium chloride conducts electricity when molten or in aqueous solution.
(f) State and explain whether carbon tetrachloride is soluble in water.

20. The diagrams below show the structures of three solids A, B and C.

20. (a) A: giant ionic structure; B: giant covalent structure;

( = positively charged ion;
C: simple molecular structure
= negatively charged ion) (b) A: caesium chloride; B: silicon dioxide; C: carbon
dioxide
A B (c) (i) A C
(ii) C
(iii) B
(a) Name the structures of A, B and C respectively. (iv) A
(b) Name three substances that have the same structures as A, B and C respectively.
19. (d) Potassium chloride has a giant ionic structure while carbon tetrachloride has a
(c) Which of the above solids
simple molecular structure. A large amount of heat energy is needed to break
(i) can conduct electricity when molten? the strong ionic bonds between the ions in potassium chloride during melting.
On the other hand, only a small amount of heat energy is needed to overcome
(ii) has the lowest melting point? the weak van der Waals’ forces between the molecules in carbon tetrachloride
(iii) is the hardest? during melting.
(e) Because the ions in potassium chloride become mobile when potassium
(iv) is soluble in water? chloride is molten or in aqueous solution.
(f) The attractive forces between water molecules are quite strong. The weak
attractive forces between carbon tetrachloride and water molecules are not
strong enough to overcome the attractive forces between water molecules. 37 9
Thus, carbon tetrachloride is insoluble in water.
 II Microscopic world I

21. Synthetic diamonds can be made by heating graphite to a temperature higher than 1500°C and under a
pressure of about 60 000 atm.

A synthetic diamond ring

The quality of synthetic diamonds is affected by the conditions of the manufacturing process. Synthetic
diamonds can be used in cutting tools and jewellery, depending on their quality.
(a) What is the element present in both graphite and diamond? 21. (e) This is because a lot of energy
is needed to break the large
(b) Draw the structures of graphite and diamond respectively.
number of strong covalent
(c) Name the structure of graphite and diamond. bonds between the carbon
atoms in graphite and
(d) Explain why graphite and diamond have different electrical conductivities. diamond during melting.
(e) Explain why both graphite and diamond have very high melting points.

22. Silicon dioxide (also known as silica) is an oxide of silicon. It is commonly found in nature as sand and quartz.
It plays an important role in telecommunication. It is used to manufacture optical fibres, which are made of
very pure silicon dioxide with size as small as human hair. Optical fibres are flexible and transparent.
22. (a) SiO2
(b) Giant covalent structure
(c)

silicon atom

oxygen atom

(d) It is transparent. It has a very high melting

Optical fibre point (At high temperatures, silicon dioxide
can be drawn into fibres.). When light travels
from air to silicon dioxide, total internal
(a) Write the chemical formula for silicon dioxide.
reflection occurs.
(b) Name the structure of silicon dioxide. (e) Since the speed of light is much higher than
that of electronic pulse. Optical fibres can
(c) Draw the structure of silicon dioxide. transmit signals faster than copper.
(d) What properties make silicon dioxide suitable for making optical fibres?
(e) Suggest a reason why optical fibres are better than copper in signal transmission.
21. (a) Carbon Structure of diamond:
(b) Structure of graphite:

carbon atom
carbon atom

covalent bond (c) Giant covalent structure

(d) In diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded with four
van der Waals’ forces other carbon atoms. All electrons are localized. In graphite,
each carbon atom is covalently bonded with only three other
carbon atoms in its layer. Each carbon atom has one
delocalized electron. These delocalized electrons can move in
the direction of electric field.
9 38
 II Microscopic world I

Public examination questions

2–
Multiple-choice questions 4. M is an element in the Periodic Table. M ion
possesses 45 neutrons and 36 electrons. What is
1. How many electrons and neutrons are there in a M?
55
doubly charged cation formed from 25Mn?
A. Se
Number of electrons Number of neutrons B. Kr
A. 23 30 C. Sr
B. 23 32 D. Rh
C. 25 28
(HKCEE 2007 Paper 2 Q13)
D. 25 30
(HKCEE 2010 Paper 2 Q1) 5. Which of the following statements concerning the
Periodic Table is/are correct?
2. Which of the following statements concerning an
131 131 (1) Ni is an example of transition elements.
I atom and a Xe atom is/are correct?
(2) The elements are arranged in increasing order
(1) They have the same number of protons. of neutron number.
(2) They have different numbers of neutrons. (3) The lower the element located in each group,
(3) They have different numbers of outermost the more reactive the element is.
shell electrons.
A. (1) only
A. (1) only B. (2) only
B. (2) only C. (1) and (3) only
C. (1) and (3) only D. (2) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only
(HKCEE 2009 Paper 2 Q18)
(HKDSE 2012 Paper 1A Q15)
+
6. X is an element in the Periodic Table and X ion
63
3. Suppose that element X has only two isotopes, X has an electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 8. Which of
65
and X. The graph below shows the relative the following statements concerning X is correct?
abundance of the two isotopes:
A. X is a halogen.
B. X is a transition metal.
100
C. X is a Group 0 element.
D. X is a Period 4 element.
80
Relative abundance (%)

(HKCEE 2007 Paper 2 Q3)

60
7. Which of the following statements concerning
40
chlorine, bromine and iodine is/are correct?
(1) They are all coloured substances.
20 (2) Their reactivity increases with relative atomic
mass.
0 (3) They all react with sodium sulphite solution.
63 65
X X
isotope
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
Which of the following is the relative atomic mass C. (1) and (3) only
of X? D. (2) and (3) only
A. 63.3 (HKCEE 2007 Paper 2 Q22)
B. 63.5
C. 63.6
D. 64.0
(HKDSE 2013 Paper 1A Q2)
39 9
 II Microscopic world I

2+
8. X ion has an electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 8. 12. Which of the following statements concerning a
Which of the following statements concerning the water molecule is/are correct?
carbonate of X is INCORRECT? (1) The number of bonding electrons contributed
A. It is a white solid. by each hydrogen atom in the molecule is 2.
B. It is soluble in water. (2) The number of bonding electrons contributed
C. It decomposes on heating. by the oxygen atom in the molecule is 2.
D. It produces a brick-red flame in flame test. (3) The total number of electrons in the molecule
is 8.
(HKCEE 2010 Paper 2 Q3) A. (1) only
B. (2) only
Assertion-reason question C. (1) and (3) only
(See the back inside cover for instructions.) D. (2) and (3) only
1st statement 2nd statement (HKCEE 2008 Paper 2 Q19)
9. Ammonium chloride is Ammonium chloride 13. Which of the following pairs of elements would
an ionic compound. can conduct electricity form a covalent compound?
in aqueous state. A. Mercury and neon
 B. Neon and nitrogen
(HKCEE 2009 Paper 2 Q28) C. Mercury and fluorine
D. Fluorine and nitrogen
10. The table below shows the colour of the aqueous (HKCEE 2007 Paper 2 Q12)
solutions of three ionic compounds.
14. Which of the substances listed in the following
Compound Colour of aqueous solution table has a giant ionic structure?
QT green Electrical Electrical
XZ yellow Substance conductivity in conductivity in
solid state molten state
XT colourless
W not conducting not conducting
Which of the following combinations about the
colour of the ions involved is most likely to be X not conducting conducting
correct? Y conducting not conducting
2+ 2+ 2– 2–
Q (aq) X (aq) T (aq) Z (aq)
Z conducting conducting
A. colourless colourless colourless colourless
B. green yellow green yellow A. W
C. colourless yellow green colourless B. X
D. green colourless colourless yellow C. Y
 D. Z
(HKCEE 2008 Paper 2 Q9) (HKCEE 2010 Paper 2 Q17)

11. Which of the following combinations shows a 15. A substance has a high melting point and does not
correct matching of a molecule and its structural conduct electricity when in solid state. It may be
formula? (1) a compound with giant molecules.
Molecule Structural formula (2) an element with giant covalent structure.
A. Nitrogen N=N (3) a compound with giant ionic structure.
B. Helium He–He A. (1) and (2) only
C. Carbon dioxide O–C–O B. (1) and (3) only
D. Hydrogen peroxide H–O–O–H C. (2) and (3) only
(HKCEE 2010 Paper 2 Q13) D. (1), (2) and (3)
(HKCEE 2009 Paper 2 Q22)
9 40
 II Microscopic world I

16. Which of the following properties is NOT 20. Which is the best description of ionic bonding?
possessed by both carbon and nitrogen? A. The electrostatic attraction between positively
A. They can form multiple bonds. charged nuclei and an electron pair
B. They can exist in giant covalent structures. B. The electrostatic attraction between positive
C. They are chemically stable at room ions and delocalized negative ions
temperature and pressure. C. The electrostatic attraction between positive
D. They react with oxygen under suitable ions and delocalized electrons
conditions to form acidic oxides. D. The electrostatic attraction between
(HKCEE 2009 Paper 2 Q3) oppositely charged ions
(IB, IBO, Chemistry, Standard level, Paper 1 Q13,
17. Which one of the following structural features of May 2009)
graphite accounts for its use as a lubricant?
A. Each carbon atom with a coordination Questions 21 to 23 refer to two elements, R and T.
number of 3 Element R is in Group 1 of the Periodic Table and
B. The van der Waals’ forces between layers of element T is in Group 6. R and T are not the symbols
atoms for the elements.
C. The hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms
21. The compound of R and T will have the formula
in each layer
A. RT.
D. The presence of delocalized electrons
B. RT6.
(HKALE 2009 Paper 1 Q3(a)(ii))
C. RT2.
D. R2T.
18. Which of the following substances CANNOT
(Edexcel, GCEAS, Unit 1, Q7(a), JAN 2011)
conduct electricity?
A. Pt(s)
22. The compound of R and T will have bonding
B. PbBr2(,)
which is predominantly
C. C(graphite)
A. ionic.
D. CH3CH2OH(,)
B. covalent.
(HKDSE 2012 Paper 1A Q1)
C. dative covalent.
D. metallic.
19. Silicon and carbon react to form silicon carbide.
(Edexcel, GCEAS, Unit 1, Q7(b), JAN 2011)
The crystal structure of silicon carbide is similar to
that of diamond. Silicon carbide is very hard
23. In terms of its electrical conductivity, the
because
compound of R and T will
A. it has a high melting point.
A. conduct when solid and liquid.
B. silicon atoms and carbon atoms form triple
B. conduct when solid but not when liquid.
bonds.
C. conduct when liquid but not when solid.
C. it has a giant network structure with strong
D. not conduct when solid or liquid.
covalent bonds.
D. both silicon and carbon atoms have four (Edexcel, GCEAS, Unit 1, Q7(c), JAN 2011)
outermost shell electrons.
(HKDSE 2012 Paper 1A Q8)

41 9
 II Microscopic world I

Structured questions (ii) Write the electronic arrangement of

rubidium ion.
10
24. Boron occurs naturally in two isotopes, B and
11 (HKCEE 2010 Paper 1 Q1)
B.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘isotopes’? 27. T, X and Z are three elements in the Periodic
Table, with the sum of their atomic numbers
(b) With reference to the Periodic Table, calculate
11 equals to 38. Moreover, both T and X are Group
the percentage abundance of B in nature.
10 11 VII elements, while the atomic number of T is
(c) BCl3 and BCl3 are compounds formed
smaller than that of X.
respectively from the two isotopes of boron
10 (a) What are elements T, X and Z?
with chlorine. BCl3 reacts with water to give
white fumes. State, with explanation, the T:
11
expected observation when BCl3 is added to X:
water. Z:
(HKCEE 2008 Paper 1 Q2)
(b) Draw the electronic diagram of the
25. Neon occurs naturally in three isotopes with the compound formed from T and X, showing
abundance of each isotope shown in the table electrons in the outermost shells only.
below: (c) Discuss, with explanation, the electrical
conductivity of the compound formed from X
Isotope Abundance (%)
and Z with reference to the type and property
20
Ne 90.48 of the particles in it.
21
Ne 0.27 (HKCEE 2008 Paper 1 Q1)
22
Ne 9.25
28. The simplified diagram below show a tungsten
light bulb. The filament inside is made of
(a) What is meant by the term ‘isotope’?
tungsten metal (atomic number = 74). The
(b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon.
filament can emit light by passing an electric
(c) Give one daily application of neon. current until it reaches an extremely high
(d) Explain why the boiling point of neon is lower temperature. Under vacuum condition, the
than that of oxygen. filament would emit tungsten particles under
(HKDSE 2012 Paper 1B Q1) extremely high temperature and blacken the
light bulb. To avoid this from happening, the
26. Both bromine (Br) and chlorine (Cl) are Group VII
light bulb should be filled up with gas.
elements in the Periodic Table.
(a) What is the name commonly given to this
group of elements?
(b) The electronic arrangement of bromine is 2,
8, p, q.
p is
q is
(c) Explain, in terms of bonding and structure, (a) Describe the structure and bonding in
why the boiling point of bromine is higher tungsten metal with the help of a diagram.
than that of chlorine. (b) Apart from the property that tungsten can
(d) Rubidium (Rb) is a Group I element in the emit light at extremely high temperature,
Periodic Table. It reacts with bromine to form suggest another physical property that can
an ionic compound. render it suitable for making filament. Explain
(i) Write a chemical equation for the why it has this property.
reaction involved.

9 42
 II Microscopic world I

(c) Tungsten is stable in air under normal (c) Explain why graphite is a good conductor of
conditions. However, it is not appropriate to electricity and why diamond does NOT
fill up a tungsten light bulb with air. conduct electricity.
Explain. (AQA, GCSE, Chemistry, Unit Chemistry C2,
(d) Suggest, with explanation in terms of Higher Tier Q3, JUN 2010)
electronic arrangement, a suitable gas for
filling up a tungsten light bulb.
(e) Explain, from the perspective of energy, why
the efficiency of tungsten light bulb is not
high enough.
(HKCEE 2008 Paper 1 Q12)

29. Pure carbon can exist in two forms, diamond and

graphite.
(a) Complete the diagram to show the electronic
structure of a carbon atom.
A carbon atom has 6 electrons. Show the
electrons as crosses (×).

(b) A drill bit is used to cut holes through

materials. The cutting end of this drill bit is
covered with very small diamonds.

cutting end
of drill bit

drill bit

the arrangement of atoms

in diamond

(i) What property of diamond makes it

suitable for use on the cutting end of a
drill bit?
(ii) Explain, as fully as you can, why diamond
has this property. Use your knowledge of
the structure and bonding of diamond
and the information shown opposite to
help you to answer this question.

43 9
(This is a blank page.)