Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions: Not For Sale
Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions: Not For Sale
Inverse, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions: Not For Sale
Summary Exercises on
Functions: Domains and
Defining Equations
405
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■ One-to-One Functions
One-to-One Functions Suppose we define the following function F.
■ Inverse Functions
■ Equations of Inverses
F = 51 - 2, 22, 1 - 1, 12, 10, 02, 11, 32, 12, 526
■ An Application of (We have defined F so that each second component is used only once.) We can
Inverse Functions to form another set of ordered pairs from F by interchanging the x- and y-values of
Cryptography each pair in F. We call this set G.
G = 512, - 22, 11, - 12, 10, 02, 13, 12, 15, 226
G is the inverse of F. Function F was defined with each second component
Domain Range
f used only once, so set G will also be a function. (Each first component must
1 6 be used only once.) In order for a function to have an inverse that is also a func-
2 7
3
tion, it must exhibit this one-to-one relationship.
8
4 In a one-to-one function, each x-value corresponds to only one y-value, and
5 9 each y-value corresponds to only one x-value.
Not One-to-One The function ƒ shown in Figure 1 is not one-to-one because the y-value 7 corre-
Figure 1 sponds to two x-values, 2 and 3. That is, the ordered pairs 12, 72 and 13, 72 both
belong to the function. The function ƒ in Figure 2 is one-to-one.
Using the concept of the contrapositive from the study of logic, the boldface
statement in the preceding box is equivalent to
ƒ1a2 = ƒ1b2 implies a = b.
This means that if two range values are equal, then their corresponding domain
values are equal. We use this statement to show that a function ƒ is one-to-one
in Example 1(a).
(b) We can determine that the function ƒ1x2 = 225 - x 2 is not one-to-one by
showing that different values of the domain correspond to the same value of
the range. If we choose a = 3 and b = - 3, then 3 ≠ - 3, but
5 f(x) = Ë 25 – x 2 A function is one-to-one if every horizontal line intersects the graph of the
(–3, 4) (3, 4) function at most once.
x
0
–5 5
Note In Example 1(b), the graph of the function is a semicircle, as
shown in Figure 3. Because there is at least one horizontal line that inter-
sects the graph in more than one point, this function is not one-to-one.
Figure 3
4
y1
(x1, y1 ) (x2 , y1 ) (x 3, y1 )
x
–2 0 2 y1 y2
0 x3
x x
–4 x1 x2 x3 x1 x 2 0
y3
(b) y
4
Solution
–2 2
x
0
(a) Each point where the horizontal line intersects the graph has the same value
of y but a different value of x. Because more than one different value of x
(here three) lead to the same value of y, the function is not one-to-one.
Answers:
(a) It is one-to-one.
(b) Every horizontal line will intersect the graph at exactly one point, so this
(b) It is not one-to-one.
function is one-to-one.
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 11 and 13.
Teaching Tip This is a good Inverse Functions Certain pairs of one-to-one functions “undo” each
place to review composition of other. For example, consider the functions
functions.
1 5
g1x2 = 8x + 5 and ƒ1x2 = x- .
8 8
We choose an arbitrary element from the domain of g, say 10. Evaluate g1102.
g1x2 = 8x + 5 Given function
g1102 = 8 # 10 + 5 Let x = 10.
g1102 = 85 Multiply and then add.
Now, we evaluate ƒ1852.
1 5
ƒ1x2 = x - Given function
8 8
1 5
ƒ1852 = 1852 - Let x = 85.
8 8
85 5
ƒ1852 = - Multiply.
8 8
ƒ1852 = 10 Subtract and then divide.
Starting with 10, we “applied” function g and then “applied” function ƒ to the
result, which returned the number 10. See Figure 4.
Function Function
These functions
10 85 10 contain inverse
g(x) = 8x + 5 f(x) = 1 x – 5 operations that
8 8
“undo” each other.
Figure 4
1 5
In particular, for the pair of functions g1x2 = 8x + 5 and ƒ1x2 = 8 x - 8 ,
ƒ1g1222 = 2 and g1ƒ1222 = 2.
ƒ1g1x22 = x and g1ƒ1x22 = x.
Using the notation for composition of functions, these two equations can be
written as follows.
Because the compositions of ƒ and g yield the identity function, they are inverses
of each other.
Inverse Function
Teaching Tip Remind students By the definition of inverse function, the domain of ƒ is the range of ƒ−1,
that composition of functions and the range of ƒ is the domain of ƒ−1. See Figure 6.
is not commutative. Therefore,
1ƒ ∘ g21x2 and 1g ∘ ƒ21x2 must
both be checked. Use an example X
Y
such as Domain of f f Range of f
ƒ1x2 = x 2 and g1x2 = 2x x y
Range of f – 1
to illustrate the necessity of Domain of f –1
f –1
checking both compositions if
you do not verify the functions
are one-to-one. Figure 6
(a) Each x-value in F corresponds to just one y-value. However, the y-value 2
Classroom Example 4 corresponds to two x-values, 1 and 2. Also, the y-value 1 corresponds to
Find the inverse of each function both - 2 and 0. Because at least one y-value corresponds to more than one
that is one-to-one. x-value, F is not one-to-one and does not have an inverse.
(a) F = 51- 2, - 82, 1- 1, -12,
10, 02, 11, 12, 12, 826 (b) Every x-value in G corresponds to only one y-value, and every y-value cor-
(b) G = 51- 2, 52, 1- 1, 22, responds to only one x-value, so G is a one-to-one function. The inverse
10, 12, 11, 22, 12, 526 function is found by interchanging the x- and y-values in each ordered pair.
(c) Let h be the function defined G -1 = 511, 32, 12, 02, 13, 22, 10, 426
by the table in Example 4(c)
if the number of hurricanes for Notice how the domain and range of G become the range and domain,
2009 is decreased by 1. respectively, of G -1.
Answers:
(a) F -1 = 51- 8, - 22, 1- 1, -12,
(c) Each x-value in ƒ corresponds to only one y-value, and each y-value corre-
sponds to only one x-value, so ƒ is a one-to-one function. The inverse function
10, 02, 11, 12, 18, 226
is found by interchanging the x- and y-values in the table.
(b) G is not one-to-one.
(c) h is not one-to-one. ƒ -11x2 = 513, 20092, 112, 20102, 17, 20112, 110, 20122, 12, 201326
The domain and range of ƒ become the range and domain of ƒ -1.
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 37, 51, and 53.
*1+)1+(
Subtract 5.
x - 5 1 5
Teaching Tip To emphasize Thus, the equation ƒ -11x2 = 2 = 2 x - 2 represents a linear function. In
the relationship between inverse
the function y = 2x + 5, the value of y is found by starting with a value of x,
functions, for ƒ1x2 = 2x + 5 and
x = 3, find multiplying by 2, and adding 5.
x - 5
y = 2 # 3 + 5 = 11. The equation ƒ -11x2 = 2 for the inverse subtracts 5 and then divides
1 5
by 2. An inverse is used to “undo” what a function does to the variable x.
Now, for ƒ -11x2 = 2 x - 2 and
x = 11, find (b) The equation y = x 2 + 2 has a parabola opening up as its graph, so some
1 5 horizontal lines will intersect the graph at two points. For example, both
y= 1112 - = 3. x = 3 and x = - 3 correspond to y = 11. Because of the presence of the
2 2
x 2-term, there are many pairs of x-values that correspond to the same
This shows numerically that when
y-value. This means that the function defined by y = x 2 + 2 is not one-to-
we substitute the original y-value
in ƒ -11x2, we obtain the original one and does not have an inverse.
x-value. Proceeding with the steps for finding the equation of an inverse leads to
y = x2 + 2
x = y 2 + 2 Interchange x and y.
x - 2 = y2 Solve for y.
Remember
both roots.
{ 2x - 2 = y. Square root property
The last equation shows that there are two y-values for each choice of x
greater than 2, indicating that this is not a function.
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y f (x) = (x – 2)3 (c) Figure 7 shows that the horizontal line test assures us that this horizontal
translation of the graph of the cubing function is one-to-one.
8
*1++)1++(
1 3 3
x Step 2 2x = 21y - 223 Take the cube root on each side.
0 2
3 Solve for y.
2x = y - 2 3 3
2a =a
3
This graph 2x + 2 = y Add 2.
passes the
horizontal 3
line test.
Step 3 ƒ -11x2 = 2x + 2 Replace y with ƒ -11x2. Rewrite.
–8 ■
✔ Now Try Exercises 59(a), 63(a), and 65(a).
Figure 7
Classroom Example 6 The following rational function is one-to-one. Find its inverse.
The following rational function is
one-to-one. Find its inverse. 2x + 3
ƒ1x2 = , x≠4
- 3x + 1 x-4
ƒ1x2 = , x≠5
x-5
2x + 3
5x + 1 Solution ƒ1x2 = , x ≠ 4 Given function
Answer: ƒ -11x2 = x + 3 , x-4
x ≠ -3
2x + 3
y= Replace ƒ1x2 with y.
x-4
2y + 3
Step 1 x= , y ≠ 4 Interchange x and y.
y-4
*11++++)++++11(
Step 2 x1y - 42 = 2y + 3 Multiply by y - 4.
xy - 4x = 2y + 3 Distributive property
Pay close
attention here. xy - 2y = 4x + 3 Add 4x and -2y.
Solve for y.
y1x - 22 = 4x + 3 Factor out y.
4x + 3
y= , x ≠ 2 Divide by x - 2.
x-2
In the final line, we give the condition x ≠ 2. (Note that 2 is not in the range of
ƒ, so it is not in the domain of ƒ -1.)
4x + 3
Step 3 ƒ -11x2 = , x ≠ 2 Replace y with ƒ -11x2.
x-2
■✔ Now Try Exercise 71(a).
One way to graph the inverse of a function ƒ whose equation is known follows.
Another way is to select points on the graph of ƒ and use symmetry to find
corresponding points on the graph of ƒ -1.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
y For example, suppose the point 1a, b2 shown in Figure 8 is on the graph of
(a, b) a one-to-one function ƒ. Then the point 1b, a2 is on the graph of ƒ -1. The line
b
segment connecting 1a, b2 and 1b, a2 is perpendicular to, and cut in half by, the
y=x line y = x. The points 1a, b2 and 1b, a2 are “mirror images” of each other with
respect to y = x.
Thus, we can find the graph of ƒ−1 from the graph of ƒ by locating the
(b, a) mirror image of each point in ƒ with respect to the line y = x.
a
x
0
a b
Figure 9
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 77 and 81.
Step 3 ƒ -11x2 = x 2 - 5, x Ú 0
y
f(x) = x + 5, x ≥ − 5
5
f (x) = x + 5,
10
x–5
y=x
x
–5 0 5 −16.1 16.1
y=x
−10
–5
f –1 (x) = x 2 – 5, x 0 f –1(x) = x2 − 5, x ≥ 0
Figure 10 Figure 11
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 75.
−4.1
4.1 Exercises
2. not one-to-one Concept Preview Determine whether the function represented in each table is
1. one-to-one
one-to-one.
3. one-to-one 4. x; 1g ∘ ƒ21x2
5. range; domain 1. The table shows the number of registered passenger cars in the United States for the
3
6. 1b, a2 7. 2 x years 2008–2012.
8. y = x 9. - 3
10. does not; it is not one-to-one Registered Passenger Cars
Year (in thousands)
11. one-to-one 12. one-to-one
2008 137,080
13. not one-to-one
14. not one-to-one 2009 134,880
15. one-to-one 16. one-to-one 2010 139,892
17. one-to-one 18. one-to-one
2011 125,657
19. not one-to-one
20. not one-to-one 2012 111,290
21. one-to-one 22. one-to-one Source: U.S. Federal Highway Administration.
23. one-to-one 24. one-to-one
25. not one-to-one 2. The table gives the number of representatives currently in Congress from each of
26. not one-to-one five New England states.
27. one-to-one 28. one-to-one
Number of
29. no 30. no State Representatives
31. untying your shoelaces Connecticut 5
32. stopping a car Maine 2
33. leaving a room
34. descending the stairs
Massachusetts 9
35. unscrewing a light bulb New Hampshire 2
36. emptying a cup Vermont 1
37. inverses 38. not inverses Source: www.house.gov
39. not inverses 40. inverses
Concept Preview Fill in the blank(s) to correctly complete each sentence.
41. inverses 42. inverses
43. not inverses 44. not inverses 3. For a function to have an inverse, it must be .
45. inverses 46. inverses 4. If two functions ƒ and g are inverses, then 1ƒ ∘ g21x2 = and = x.
47. not inverses 48. not inverses
49. inverses 50. inverses 5. The domain of ƒ is equal to the of ƒ -1, and the range of ƒ is equal to the
of ƒ -1.
51. 516, - 32, 11, 22, 18, 526
6. If the point 1a, b2 lies on the graph of ƒ, and ƒ has an inverse, then the point
52. E 1- 1, 32, 10, 52, 15, 02, A 3 , 4 B F
2
lies on the graph of ƒ -1.
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f –1
x
–5 0
13. y 14. y
–5
–1
f
x 15. y 16. y
–2 0 3
–2
33. entering a room 34. climbing the stairs
(c) Domains and ranges of both 35. screwing in a light bulb 36. filling a cup
ƒ and ƒ -1 are 1- ∞, ∞2.
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65. not one-to-one Determine whether the given functions are inverses. See Example 4.
66. not one-to-one
1 37. x ƒ1x2 x g1x2 38. x ƒ1x2 x g1 x2
67. (a) ƒ -11x2 = x , x ≠ 0
(b) y 3 -4 -4 3 -2 -8 8 -2
2 -6 -6 2 -1 -1 1 -1
5 8 8 5 0 0 0 0
1 1 9 9 1 1 1 -1 1
x
0 1 4 3 3 4 2 8 -8 2
ƒ = ƒ –1
Domain of ƒ = range of
(c)
ƒ -1 = 1- ∞, 32 ´ 13, ∞2.
Domain of ƒ -1 = range of Find the inverse of each function that is one-to-one. See Example 4.
ƒ = 1-∞, 02 ´ 10, ∞2. 2
1 - 2x 51. 51 - 3, 62, 12, 12, 15, 826 52. e 13, - 12, 15, 02, 10, 52, a4, b f
70. (a) ƒ -11x2 = x , x≠0 3
(b) y
53. 511, - 32, 12, - 72, 14, - 32, 15, - 526 54. 516, - 82, 13, - 42, 10, - 82, 15, - 426
ƒ
x
0
–1 ƒ –1
ƒ
ƒ
Determine whether each pair of functions graphed are inverses. See Example 7.
Domain of ƒ = range
(c) 55. y 56. y
of ƒ -1 = 1- ∞, - 22 ´
1- 2, ∞2. 4 y=x 4
Domain of ƒ -1 = range of 3
ƒ = 1-∞, 02 ´ 10, ∞2.
3x + 1
71. (a) ƒ -11x2 = x - 1 , x≠1 0
x
0
x
3 4 y=x 4
(b) y
5
ƒ –1
ƒ –1 ƒ 57. y 58. y
0 x
–1 3
y=x y=x
ƒ
Domain of ƒ = range of
(c) 2
x x
ƒ -1 = 1- ∞, 32 ´ 13, ∞2. 0
2 2
0
2
Domain of ƒ -1 = range of
ƒ = 1-∞, 12 ´ 11, ∞2.
6
4 ƒ –1
x
3 0 4 6
3 ƒ
80. y 81. y 82. y
Domain of ƒ = range of
(c)
ƒ -1 = 1- ∞, 62 ´ 16, ∞2.
Domain of ƒ -1 = range of x x x
ƒ = 1-∞, - 32 ´ 1-3, ∞2. 0 0 0
ƒ
x Concept Check The graph of a function ƒ is shown in the figure. Use the graph to find
–6 0
each value. y
Domain of ƒ = range of
(c)
85. ƒ -1102 86. ƒ -11 - 22 2
ƒ -1 = 3 -6, ∞2.
Domain of ƒ -1 = range of 87. ƒ -11 - 32 88. ƒ -11 - 42 –4 –2 0 2 4
x
ƒ = 30, ∞2.
–2
76. (a) ƒ -11x2 = 2x 2 + 16,
–4
x…0
(b) y
f –1 Concept Check Answer each of the following.
4
89. Suppose ƒ1x2 is the number of cars that can be built for x dollars. What does
4
0
x ƒ -1110002 represent?
f
90. Suppose ƒ1r2 is the volume (in cubic inches) of a sphere of radius r inches. What
Domain of ƒ = range of
(c) does ƒ -1152 represent?
ƒ -1 = 34, ∞2. 91. If a line has slope a, what is the slope of its reflection across the line y = x?
Domain of ƒ -1 = range of
ƒ = 1-∞, 04. 92. For a one-to-one function ƒ, find 1ƒ -1 ∘ ƒ2122, where ƒ122 = 3.
77. 78.
y y Use a graphing calculator to graph each function defined as follows, using the given
ƒ viewing window. Use the graph to decide which functions are one-to-one. If a function is
ƒ –1 ƒ one-to-one, give the equation of its inverse.
x x
y=x 0 0
y=x
ƒ –1
93. ƒ1x2 = 6x 3 + 11x 2 - 6; 94. ƒ1x2 = x 4 - 5x 2;
3 - 3, 24 by 3 - 10, 104 3 - 3, 34 by 3 - 8, 84
79. 80.
y y
ƒ x-5 -x
95. ƒ1x2 = , x ≠ - 3; 96. ƒ1x2 = , x ≠ 4;
–1 ƒ –1 x+3 x-4
ƒ y=x
y=x x x
0 0
ƒ 3 - 8, 84 by 3 - 6, 84 3 - 1, 84 by 3 - 6, 64
81. 82.
y y Use the following alphabet coding assignment to work each problem. See Example 9.
ƒ
ƒ –1 A 1 H 8 O 15 V 22
y=x
x x B 2 I 9 P 16 W 23
0 0
ƒ C 3 J 10 Q 17 X 24
y=x ƒ –1 D 4 K 11 R 18 Y 25
E 5 L 12 S 19 Z 26
83. 4 84. 3 85. 2 F 6 M 13 T 20
86. 0 87. - 2 88. - 4 G 7 N 14 U 21
97. The function ƒ1x2 = 3x - 2 was used to encode a message as
89. It represents the cost, in
dollars, of building 1000 cars. 37 25 19 61 13 34 22 1 55 1 52 52 25 64 13 10.
90. It represents the radius of a
sphere with volume 5 in.3. Find the inverse function and determine the message.
1
91. a 92. 2
98. The function ƒ1x2 = 2x - 9 was used to encode a message as
93. not one-to-one
- 5 9 5 5 9 27 15 29 - 1 21 19 31 - 3 27 41.
94. not one-to-one
95. one-to-one; Find the inverse function and determine the message.
- 5 - 3x
ƒ -11x2 = x - 1 , x ≠ 1
99. Encode the message SEND HELP, using the one-to-one function
96. one-to-one;
4x
ƒ -11x2 = x + 1 , x ≠ - 1 ƒ1x2 = x 3 - 1.
1 2
97. ƒ -11x2 = 3 x + 3 ; Give the inverse function that the decoder will need when the message is received.
MIGUEL HAS ARRIVED
1 9
100. Encode the message SAILOR BEWARE, using the one-to-one function
98. ƒ -11x2 = 2 x + 2 ;
BIG GIRLS DONT CRY ƒ1x2 = 1x + 123.
99. 6858 124 2743 63
511 124 1727 4095; Give the inverse function that the decoder will need when the message is received.
3
ƒ -11x2 = 2x + 1
100. 8000 8 1000 2197
4096 6859 27 216
13824 8 6859 216;
3
ƒ -11x2 = 2x - 1
■ Exponents and
Exponents and Properties Recall the definition of a m/n: If a is a real
Properties n
■ Exponential Functions
number, m is an integer, n is a positive integer, and 2a is a real number, then
■ Exponential Equations m
am/n = A !a B
n
.
■ Compound Interest
■ The Number e 3
and Continuous For example, 16 3/4 = A 2
4
16 B = 23 = 8,
Compounding
■ Exponential Models 1 1 1 1 1 1
27-1/3 = 1/3
= 3 = , and 64-1/2 = 1/2 = = .
27 227 3 64 264 8
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
Teaching Tip Use this opportu- In this section, we extend the definition of a r to include all real (not just
nity to emphasize the distinction rational) values of the exponent r. Consider the graphs of y = 2x for different
between exact and approximate domains in Figure 13.
values.
y y y
8 8
8
6 6 6
4 4 4
23
2 2 2
2
x x x
–2 2 –2 2 –2 3
y = 2 x; y = 2 x; y = 2 x;
integers as domain selected rational numbers real numbers
as domain as domain
Figure 13
The equations that use just integers or selected rational numbers as domain in
Figure 13 leave holes in the graphs. In order for the graph to be continuous, we
must extend the domain to include irrational numbers such as 23. We might
evaluate 223 by approximating the exponent with the rational numbers 1.7,
1.73, 1.732, and so on. Because these values approach the value of 23 more
and more closely, it is reasonable that 223 should be approximated more and
more closely by the numbers 21.7, 21.73, 21.732, and so on. These expressions can
be evaluated using rational exponents as follows.
10 17
21.7 = 217/10 = Q 2 2R ≈ 3.249009585
Because any irrational number may be approximated more and more closely
using rational numbers, we can extend the definition of a r to include all real
number exponents and apply all previous theorems for exponents. In addition
to the rules for exponents presented earlier, we use several new properties in
this chapter.
Exponential Function
ƒ 1 x 2 = a x.
Exponential Function f 1 x 2 = ax
Domain: 1 - ∞, ∞2 Range: 10, ∞2
For ƒ1x2 = 2x:
f(x) = ax, a > 1
x
x ƒ1x2 y
f (x) = a , a > 1
-2 1
4
-1 1
(1, a)
0
2
1 (–1, 1a) (0, 1)
1 2 x
0
2 4
3 8
This is the general behavior seen on
a calculator graph for any base a,
for a + 1.
Figure 14
• ƒ 1 x 2
= a x,
for 0 * a * 1, is decreasing and continuous on its entire
domain, 1 - ∞, ∞2.
• The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote as x S ∞.
• The graph passes through the points A - 1, 1a B , 10, 12, and 11, a2.
(1)
x
f(x) = 10 5 f(x) = 10x
Teaching Tip The point 10, 12 For 0 < a < 1, For a > 1,
lies on the graph of the function
is decreasing.
f(x) = 3()
1 x
4
f(x) = 3x the function
f(x) = 2x is increasing.
ƒ1x2 = ax f(x) = 2 ()
1 x
3
for all a. We can informally
consider it “home plate” when
graphing translations and
reflections, as seen later in The x-axis is
Example 3. x a horizontal
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 asymptote.
f(x) = ax
Domain: (–∞, ∞); Range: (0, ∞)
Figure 16
In summary, the graph of a function of the form ƒ1x2 = a x has the following
features.
Teaching Tip Encourage
students to learn the characteristics Characteristics of the Graph of f 1 x 2 = a x
of the graph of
1
1. The points A - 1, a B , 10, 12, and 11, a2 are on the graph.
ƒ1x2 = ax.
Ask them how the coordinates 2. If a 7 1, then ƒ is an increasing function.
10, 12 and 11, a2 are affected by If 0 6 a 6 1, then ƒ is a decreasing function.
different variations of the graph of
3. The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
ƒ1x2 = -ax - h + k.
4. The domain is 1 - ∞, ∞2, and the range is 10, ∞2.
4
(2)
f (x) 1
x ƒ1x2 y
1
x -2 25 (–2, 25) 25
–4 –2 0 2 4 -1 5
( 1)
x
20 f(x) = 5
1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2 0 1
1 15
1 5 10
2
1
25 (–1, 5) 5
(0, 1)
(1, 15 )
x
–2 –1 0 1 2
Figure 17
This function has domain 1 - ∞, ∞2, range 10, ∞2, and is one-to-one. It is
decreasing on its entire domain.
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 29.
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1- ∞, ∞2; 1- ∞, 02 (c) The graph of ƒ1x2 = 2x - 2 - 1 is that of ƒ1x2 = 2x translated 2 units to the
(b) y
right and 1 unit down. See Figure 20. The domain is 1 - ∞, ∞2, and the range
f (x) = 3 x – 2 is 1 - 1, ∞2.
y y y f(x) = 2x2 1
y= 2x
y = 2x 8
1
x 2
0 2 6
–2 (0, 1) 4
0
1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2 x
f(x) = 2 x+3 4
(0, 1) 2
(c) y y = 2x
–2 f (x) = –2 x 2 (0, 1)
f (x) = 3 x+2
2 (3, 1) (2, 0) 4
(0, 1) x
7 –4 x 0
0
–6 –3 2 y 1
1- ∞, ∞2; 1- 2, ∞2
Exponential Equations Because the graph of ƒ1x2 = a x is that of a
one-to-one function, to solve a x1 = a x2, we need only show that x1 = x2. This
property is used to solve an exponential equation, which is an equation with
a variable as exponent.
1 x
a b = 81
3
100 13-12x = 81 Definition of negative exponent
3-x = 81 1am2n = amn
−5 1
3-x = 34 Write 81 as a power of 3.
- x = 4 Set exponents equal (Property (b) given earlier).
−100
x = - 4 Multiply by -1.
The x-intercept of the graph of
x Check by substituting - 4 for x in the original equation. The solution set is 5 - 46.
y= A 13 B - 81 can be used to verify the
solution in Example 4. ■
✔ Now Try Exercise 73.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
2x + 4 = 8x - 6
Teaching Tip Now is a good
time to review the properties of 2x + 4 = 1232x - 6 Write 8 as a power of 2.
exponents.
2x + 4 = 23x - 18 1am2n = amn
x + 4 = 3x - 18 Set exponents equal (Property (b)).
- 2x = - 22 Subtract 3x and 4.
x = 11 Divide by -2.
Teaching Tip Give an example
such as Check by substituting 11 for x in the original equation. The solution set is 5116.
16 x - 2 = 9 1 - x ■
✔ Now Try Exercise 81.
that cannot be solved using the
methods of this section. Show how Later in this chapter, we describe a general method for solving exponential
a graphing calculator can be used equations where the approach used in Examples 4 and 5 is not possible. For
to find the approximate solution instance, the above method could not be used to solve an equation like
1.558.
7x = 12
because it is not easy to express both sides as exponential expressions with the
same base.
In Example 6, we solve an equation that has the variable as the base of an
exponential expression.
x 4/3 = 81
Teaching Tip Caution students
4
that in solving equations like the A2
3
xB = 81 Radical notation for am/n
one in Example 6, they must
Take fourth roots on each side.
consider both even roots. x = { 3 Remember to use {.
3
2
x = { 27 Cube each side.
Check both solutions in the original equation. Both check, so the solution set is
5 { 276.
Alternative Method There may be more than one way to solve an exponential
equation, as shown here.
x 4/3 = 81
1x 4/323 = 813 Cube each side.
x 4 = 312 1am2n = a mn
x = {2
4 12
3 Take fourth roots on each side.
x = { 33 Simplify the radical.
x = { 27 Apply the exponent.
Compound Interest Recall the formula for simple interest, I = Prt, where
P is principal (amount deposited), r is annual rate of interest expressed as a deci-
mal, and t is time in years that the principal earns interest. Suppose t = 1 yr.
Then at the end of the year, the amount has grown to the following.
P + Pr = P11 + r2 Original principal plus interest
If this balance earns interest at the same interest rate for another year, the bal-
ance at the end of that year will increase as follows.
After the third year, the balance will grow in a similar pattern.
Compound Interest
r tn
A = P a1 + b
n
r tn
(a) A = P a1 + b Compound interest formula
n
0.04 10142
A = 1000a 1 + b Let P = 1000, r = 0.04, n = 4, and t = 10.
4
A = 100011 + 0.01240 Simplify.
r tn
A = P a1 + b ,
n
A is sometimes called the future value and P the present value. A is also called
the compound amount and is the balance after interest has been earned.
6000
P= Divide by 11.03125 to solve for P.
11.03125
P ≈ 5150.60 Use a calculator.
An interest rate of 3.71% will produce enough interest to increase the $5000
to $6000 by the end of 5 yr.
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 99 and 103.
Value of e
y
y = 3x
e ? 2.718281828459045
8 y = ex
7
6 Figure 21 shows graphs of the functions
5
4 y = 2x y = 2x, y = 3x, and y = ex.
3
2 Because 2 6 e 6 3, the graph of y = ex lies “between” the other two graphs.
1 As mentioned above, the amount of interest earned increases with the fre-
x 1 n
–1
0
1 2 quency of compounding, but the value of the expression A 1 + n B approaches e
as n gets larger. Consequently, the formula for compound interest approaches
Figure 21 a limit as well, called the compound amount from continuous compounding.
Continuous Compounding
Teaching Tip Tell students that
as n increases without bound,
n If P dollars are deposited at a rate of interest r compounded continuously
A 1 + 1n B approaches e. for t years, then the compound amount A in dollars on deposit is given by
the following formula.
A = Pert
Check that daily compounding would have produced a compound amount about
$0.03 less.
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 97(b).
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
Compounded $1 $1000
Annually 11 + 0.04210 ≈ 1.48024 $1480.24
0.04 10122
Semiannually a1 + b ≈ 1.48595 $1485.95
2
0.04 10142
Quarterly a1 + b ≈ 1.48886 $1488.86
4
0.04 101122
Monthly a1 + b ≈ 1.49083 $1490.83
12
0.04 1013652
Daily a1 + b ≈ 1.49179 $1491.79
365
Continuously e1010.042 ≈ 1.49182 $1491.82
ƒ1x2 = ex, Exponential Models The number e is important as the base of an expo-
the derivative is the function ƒ itself: nential function in many practical applications. In situations involving growth or
decay of a quantity, the amount or number present at time t often can be closely
ƒ′1x2 = ex.
modeled by a function of the form
Therefore, in calculus the exponential
function with base e is much easier to y = y0ekt,
work with than exponential functions
where y0 is the amount or number present at time t = 0 and k is a constant.
having other bases.
Exponential functions are used to model the growth of microorganisms in a
culture, the growth of certain populations, and the decay of radioactive material.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
(a) We show a calculator graph for the data in Figure 22(a). The data appear to
1975 2300
300 resemble the graph of an increasing exponential function.
(a)
(b) A graph of y = 0.001942e0.00609x in Figure 22(b) shows that it is very
y = 0.001942e0.00609x close to the data points. We graph y2 = 2 # 280 = 560 in Figure 23(a) and
y2 = 3 # 280 = 840 in Figure 23(b) on the same coordinate axes as the given
2100 function, and we use the calculator to find the intersection points.
y1 = 0.001942e0.00609x y1 = 0.001942e0.00609x
1975 2300
300 2100 2100
(b)
Figure 22
−500 −500
y2 = 560 y2 = 840
(a) (b)
Figure 23
2100
Graphing calculators are capable of fitting exponential curves to scatter
diagrams like the one found in Example 11. The TI-84 Plus displays another
(different) equation in Figure 24(a) for the atmospheric carbon dioxide exam-
ple, approximated as follows.
1975
300
2300 y = 0.00192311.0061092x
(b) This calculator form differs from the model in Example 11. Figure 24(b) shows
Figure 24 the data points and the graph of this exponential regression equation. ■
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
4.2 Exercises
1. 16; 16
1
2. rises Concept Preview Fill in the blank(s) to correctly complete each sentence.
3. falls 1. If ƒ1x2 = 4x, then ƒ122 = and ƒ1 - 22 = .
4. 1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2
1 2. If a 7 1, then the graph of ƒ1x2 = ax from left to right.
5. 8 ; 1; 8 6. x; 4; 5 (rises/falls)
7. 5 - 36 8. 5{2166 3. If 0 6 a 6 1, then the graph of ƒ1x2 = ax from left to right.
9. 52540.226 10. 50.036 (rises/falls)
4 x
() A 14 B , find each of the following. Round answers to the nearest
x
() For ƒ1x2 = 3x and g1x2 =
x
3
f(x) = 13 f(x) = 14
1 1
–10 1
x
–10 1
x thousandth as needed. See Example 1.
11. ƒ122 12. ƒ132 13. ƒ1 - 22 14. ƒ1 - 32
31. y 32. y 15. g122 16. g132 17. g1 - 22 18. g1 - 32
3 5 3 5
19. ƒa b 20. ƒa - b 21. ga b 22. ga - b
5
f(x) = ()
5 x 2 2 2 2
1
f(x) = ()3 x
2
3
1
3
x
0
x –1 0 1 23. ƒ12.342 24. ƒ1 - 1.682 25. g1 - 1.682 26. g12.342
3
33. y 34. y
10 Graph each function. See Example 2.
6 1 x
f(x) = 16 ()
–x
27. ƒ1x2 = 3x 28. ƒ1x2 = 4x 29. ƒ1x2 = a b
f(x) = ( ) 1 x 1 3
10 x
1 –1 0 1
x 1 x 3 x 5 x
–2 –1 0 1 2 30. ƒ1x2 = a b 31. ƒ1x2 = a b 32. ƒ1x2 = a b
4 2 3
35. y 36. y
10 1 -x 1 -x
f(x) = 4
–x
33. ƒ1x2 = a b 34. ƒ1x2 = a b 35. ƒ1x2 = 4-x
10 6
4
–1
x f(x) = 10–x
36. ƒ1x2 = 10 -x 37. ƒ1x2 = 2x 38. ƒ1x2 = 2-x
0
1
x
–2 0 2
Graph each function. Give the domain and range. See Example 3.
37. y 38. y
39. ƒ1x2 = 2x + 1 40. ƒ1x2 = 2x - 4 41. ƒ1x2 = 2x + 1
8 1
f(x) = 2– x
42. ƒ1x2 = 2x - 4 43. ƒ1x2 = - 2x + 2 44. ƒ1x2 = - 2x - 3
1
2
1
x
45. ƒ1x2 = 2-x 46. ƒ1x2 = - 2-x 47. ƒ1x2 = 2x - 1 + 2
0 x
3 –2 0 2
f(x) = 2x 48. ƒ1x2 = 2x + 3 + 1 49. ƒ1x2 = 2x + 2 - 4 50. ƒ1x2 = 2x - 3 - 1
39. y x
f(x) = 2 + 1
40. y
x Graph each function. Give the domain and range. See Example 3.
f(x) = 2 – 4
8 1 x 1 x 1 x+2
2 51. ƒ1x2 = a b - 2 52. ƒ1x2 = a b + 4 53. ƒ1x2 = a b
x 3 3 3
0 2
2 y=1 –3 1 x-4 1 -x + 1 1 -x - 2
x y = –4 54. ƒ1x2 = a b 55. ƒ1x2 = a b 56. ƒ1x2 = a b
–2 0 2 3 3 3
1- ∞, ∞2; 11, ∞2 1- ∞, ∞2; 1- 4, ∞2
1 -x 1 -x 1 x-2
41. y 42. y
57. ƒ1x2 = a b 58. ƒ1x2 = - a b 59. ƒ1x2 = a b +2
3 3 3
f(x) = 2 x – 4
0
x
0
x Connecting Graphs with Equations Write an equation for the graph given. Each repre-
4 4
sents an exponential function ƒ with base 2 or 3, translated and/or reflected.
1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2 1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2
63. y 64. y 65. y
43. y 44. y
(4, 9)
–2 0 5 (2, 7) (0, 7)
x x
0 2
–4 –4
f(x) = –2 x + 2
(3, 3) (–2, 1)
(1, 1) (–3, 0)
f(x) = –2 x – 3 x (2, 1)
0 x
(0, –1) x 0
1- ∞, ∞2; 1- ∞, 02 1- ∞, ∞2; 1- ∞, 02 0 y = –1
y = –2
45. y 46. y
–2 0 2
66. y 67. y 68. y
–1
x (–2, 2)
4 –x
f(x) = –2 y=3
f(x) = 2 –x –4 (1, 7)
x
–4 0 2 (–1, 4) (–1, 1) (–2, 1)
(0, 5) 0 x
x
0
1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2 1- ∞, ∞2; 1- ∞, 02 y=3 (0, –1) (–1, –1) (0, –2)
47. y 48. y x y = –3
f(x) = 2 x – 1 2 0
4
2 y=1
69. y 70. y
y=2
x x
y=5
0 1 2 2 0 2
f (x) = 2 x + 3 1 (–1, 3) (0, 4)
(–1, 4)
1- ∞, ∞2; 12, ∞2 1- ∞, ∞2; 11, ∞2
y=1 (0, 2)
(1, 43 )
x
x 0
49. 50. 0
y y f (x) = 2 x – 3 1
(–3, –3)
3
2
2 1 0 3
0 2
x x Solve each equation. See Examples 4–6.
2 y = 1
5 x 4 2 x 9
y = 4 71. 4x = 2 72. 125x = 5 73. a b = 74. a b =
2 25 3 4
f(x) = 2 x + 2 4
1- ∞, ∞2; 1- 4, ∞2 1- ∞, ∞2; 1- 1, ∞2 75. 23 - 2x = 8 76. 52 + 2x = 25 77. e4x - 1 = 1e22x 78. e3 - x = 1e32-x
79. 274x = 9 x + 1 80. 322x = 16 x - 1 81. 4x - 2 = 23x + 3 82. 26 - 3x = 8x + 1
51. y 52. y
0 3
x x 100. Present Value Find the present value that will grow to $45,000 if interest is 3.6%
–2 –3 –2 0
compounded monthly for 1 yr.
f(x) = 3 ( 1 ) –x + 1 1
()
f(x) = 3 –x – 2
101. Present Value Find the present value that will grow to $5000 if interest is 3.5%
1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2 1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2
compounded quarterly for 10 yr.
57. y 58. y
102. Interest Rate Find the required annual interest rate to the nearest tenth of a percent
9 2
0 x for $65,000 to grow to $65,783.91 if interest is compounded monthly for 6 months.
f(x) = () 1 –x
3 –3
–3
3
3 f(x) = – 3 ( 1 ) –x 103. Interest Rate Find the required annual interest rate to the nearest tenth of a percent
0 3
x for $1200 to grow to $1500 if interest is compounded quarterly for 9 yr.
–9
1- ∞, ∞2; 10, ∞2 1- ∞, ∞2; 1- ∞, 02 104. Interest Rate Find the required annual interest rate to the nearest tenth of a percent
for $5000 to grow to $6200 if interest is compounded quarterly for 8 yr.
59. 60. y
()
x–2
y
f(x) = 13 2
f(x) = 13 ()
x–1
3
Solve each problem. See Example 10.
6
105. Comparing Loans Bank A is lending money at 6.4% interest compounded annu-
2
3
y=3 ally. The rate at Bank B is 6.3% compounded monthly, and the rate at Bank C is
y=2
x x 6.35% compounded quarterly. At which bank will we pay the least interest?
0 0 2
2
106. Future Value Suppose $10,000 is invested at an annual rate of 2.4% for 10 yr.
1- ∞, ∞2; 12, ∞2 1- ∞, ∞2; 13, ∞2 Find the future value if interest is compounded as follows.
61. y (a) annually (b) quarterly (c) monthly (d) daily (365 days)
8 (Modeling) Solve each problem. See Example 11.
f(x) = ()
1 x+2
3
1
107. Atmospheric Pressure The atmospheric pressure (in millibars) at a given altitude
(in meters) is shown in the table.
2 2
0 x
1 Altitude Pressure Altitude Pressure
y = 1
0 1013 6000 472
1- ∞, ∞2; 1- 1, ∞2
1000 899 7000 411
62. y
2000 795 8000 357
7 3000 701 9000 308
4000 617 10,000 265
()
x+3
f(x) = 13 2
5000 541
x
5 0 Source: Miller, A. and J. Thompson, Elements of
y = 2 Meteorology, Fourth Edition, Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio.
1- ∞, ∞2; 1- 2, ∞2
(a) U
se a graphing calculator to make a scatter diagram of the data for atmospheric
63. ƒ1x2 = 3x - 2 pressure P at altitude x.
64. ƒ1x2 = 3x - 2 (b) Would a linear or an exponential function fit the data better?
65. ƒ1x2 = 2x + 3 - 1 (c) The following function approximates the data.
66. ƒ1x2 = 2x + 1 + 3
P1x2 = 1013e -0.0001341x
67. ƒ1x2 = -2x + 2 + 3
68. ƒ1x2 = 2-x - 3 Use a graphing calculator to graph P and the data on the same coordinate axes.
69. ƒ1x2 = 3-x + 1 (d) Use P to predict the pressures at 1500 m and 11,000 m, and compare them to
70. ƒ1x2 = -2-x + 5 the actual values of 846 millibars and 227 millibars, respectively.
71. E 2 F
1
72. E 3 F
1 108. World Population Growth World population in millions closely fits the exponen-
tial function
73. 5 - 26
74. 5 - 26
75. 506 76. 506 ƒ1x2 = 6084e0.0120x,
where x is the number of years since 2000. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau.)
77. E 2 F
78. E - 2 F
1 3
(a) The world population was about 6853 million in 2010. How closely does the
79. E 5 F
80. E - 3 F
1 2
function approximate this value?
82. E 2 F (b) Use this model to predict world population in 2020 and 2030.
1
81. 5 - 76
83. 5{86 84. 5{10246 109. Deer Population The exponential
85. 546 86. 596 growth of the deer population in Mas-
87. 5{26 88. 5{46 sachusetts can be approximated using the
89. 5 - 276
90. 5 - 326 model
91. E - 3 F
2
92. E - 5 F
3 ƒ1x2 = 50,00011 + 0.062x,
where 50,000 is the initial deer population
93. E 3 F
4
94. 5 - 36
and 0.06 is the rate of growth. ƒ1x2 is the
95. 536
96. 526 total population after x years have passed.
Find each value to the nearest thousand.
97. (a) $11,643.88; $2737.34
(b) $11,667.25; $2760.71 (a) Predict the total population after 4 yr.
98. (a) $66,661.21; $9881.21 (b) If the initial population was 30,000 and
(b) $86,416.98; $29,636.98 the growth rate was 0.12, how many
99. $22,902.04 100. $43,411.15 deer would be present after 3 yr?
101. $3528.81 102. 2.4% (c) How many additional deer can we e xpect in 5 yr if the initial population is 45,000
103. 2.5% 104. 2.7% and the current growth rate is 0.08?
105. Bank A (even though it has 110. Employee Training A person learning certain skills involving repetition tends
the greatest stated rate) to learn quickly at first. Then learning tapers off and skill acquisition approaches
106. (a) $12,676.51 some upper limit. Suppose the number of symbols per minute that a person using a
(b) $12,703.38 keyboard can type is given by
(c) $12,709.44
(d) $12,712.39 ƒ1t2 = 250 - 12012.82-0.5t,
where t is the number of months the operator has been in training. Find each value
107. (a) 1200
to the nearest whole number.
(a) ƒ122 (b) ƒ142 (c) ƒ1102
(d) What happens to the number of symbols per minute after several months of
−1000 11,000 training?
0
(b) exponential
(c) P(x) = 1013e−0.0001341x Use a graphing calculator to find the solution set of each equation. Approximate the
1200 solution(s) to the nearest tenth.
111. 5e3x = 75 112. 6 -x = 1 - x 113. 3x + 2 = 4x 114. x = 2x
115. A function of the form ƒ1 x2 = xr, where r is a constant, is a power function.
Discuss the difference between an exponential function and a power function.
−1000 11,000
0
116. Concept Check If ƒ1x2 = ax and ƒ132 = 27, determine each function value.
(d) P115002 ≈ 828 mb;
P111,0002 ≈ 232 mb (a) ƒ112 (b) ƒ1 - 12 (c) ƒ122 (d) ƒ102
108. (a) The function gives
approximately Concept Check Give an equation of the form ƒ1x2 = ax to define the exponential func-
6860 million, which tion whose graph contains the given point.
differs by 7 million from
the actual value. 117. 13, 82 118. 13, 1252 119. 1 - 3, 642 120. 1 - 2, 362
(b) 7734 million;
8720 million
Concept Check Use properties of exponents to write each function in the form
109. (a) 63,000 (b) 42,000 ƒ1t2 = kat, where k is a constant. (Hint: Recall that a x + y = a x # a y.)
(c) 21,000
110. (a) 207 (b) 235 (c) 249 1 1 - 2t 1 1 - 2t
121. ƒ1t2 = 32t + 3 122. ƒ1t2 = 23t + 2 123. ƒ1t2 = a b 124. ƒ1t2 = a b
(d) The number of symbols 3 2
approaches 250.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
111. 50.96 112. 50, 0.76 In calculus, the following can be shown.
113. 5 - 0.5, 1.36 114. ∅
x2 x3 x4 x5
+g
2# 1 3# 2# 1 4# 3# 2# 1 5# 4# 3# 2# 1
ex = 1 + x + + + +
115. The variable is located in
the base of a power function
Using more terms, one can obtain a more accurate approximation for ex.
and in the exponent of an
exponential function. 125. Use the terms shown, and replace x with 1 to approximate e1 = e to three decimal
1 places. Check the result with a calculator.
116. (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 9 (d) 1
126. Use the terms shown, and replace x with - 0.05 to approximate e -0.05 to four deci-
117. ƒ1x2 = 2x 118. ƒ1x2 = 5x mal places. Check the result with a calculator.
x x
119. ƒ1x2 = A 14 B 120. ƒ1x2 = A 16 B
129. x = a y 130. x = 10 y
131. x = ey 132. 1q, p2
■ Logarithms
Logarithms The previous section dealt with exponential functions of the
■ Logarithmic Equations form y = a x for all positive values of a, where a ≠ 1. The horizontal line test
■ Logarithmic Functions shows that exponential functions are one-to-one and thus have inverse functions.
■ Properties of The equation defining the inverse of a function is found by interchanging x and y
Logarithms in the equation that defines the function. Starting with y = a x and interchanging
x and y yields
x = a y.
Here y is the exponent to which a must be raised in order to obtain x. We call
this exponent a logarithm, symbolized by the abbreviation “log.” The expres-
sion log a x represents the logarithm in this discussion. The number a is the base
of the logarithm, and x is the argument of the expression. It is read “logarithm
with base a of x,” or “logarithm of x with base a,” or “base a logarithm of x.”
Logarithm
For all real numbers y and all positive numbers a and x, where a ≠ 1,
y = log a x is equivalent to x = a y.
The expression log a x represents the exponent to which the base a must be
raised in order to obtain x.
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 11, 13, 15, and 17.
Teaching Tip Have students
verbalize the statements in the left
Logarithmic Equations The definition of logarithm can be used to solve
column of the table in Example 1.
For instance, “log2 8 is the a logarithmic equation, which is an equation with a logarithm in at least one term.
exponent to which 2 must be
raised in order to obtain 8.” Example 2 Solving Logarithmic Equations
8
Teaching Tip Point out that Check logx = 3 Original equation
Example 2 illustrates three 27
different locations for the 8 ≟
variable: the base, the argument, log2/3 3 Let x = 23 .
and the exponent. Remind students 27
of the restrictions on x in parts (a)
2 3 8
and (b), and that there is no a b ≟ Write in exponential form.
restriction on x in part (c). 3 27
8 8
= ✓ True
27 27
5 3
(b) log4 x = (c) log49 27 = x
2
Write in exponential
49 x = 27 W rite in exponential
3
45/2 = x form. form.
141/225 = x amn = 1am2n
1722x = 71/3 W rite with the same
base.
25 = x 41/2 = 12221/2 = 2 Power rule for
72x = 71/3 exponents
32 = x Apply the exponent.
1
5 2x = Set exponents equal.
Check log4 32 ≟ Let x = 32. 3
2
1
45/2 ≟ 32 x= Divide by 2.
6
25 ≟ 32
5
45/2 = A 24 B = 25 A check shows that the solution set
is E 6 F.
32 = 32 ✓ True 1
Logarithmic Function
ƒ 1 x 2 = log a x.
y = 2x Let y = ƒ1x2.
The graph of ƒ1x2 = 2x has the x-axis as horizontal asymptote and is shown
in red in Figure 25. Its inverse, ƒ -11x2 = log2 x, has the y-axis as vertical asymp-
tote and is shown in blue. The graphs are reflections of each other across the line
y = x. As a result, their domains and ranges are interchanged.
f(x) = 2 x
Domain: (–∞, ∞)
x ƒ1x2 = 2 x x ƒ−1 1x2 = log2 x y Range: (0, ∞)
y=x
1 1 8
-2 4 4 -2
1 1 6
-1 2 2 -1 (1, 2)
0 1 1 0 4
(0, 1) f –1(x) = log 2 x
1 2 2 1
( )
Domain: (0, ∞)
2 4 4 2 –1, 1 Range: (–∞, ∞)
2 (2, 1)
x
0
–2 (1, 0) 4 6 8
–2
( 12 , –1)
Figure 25
The domain of an exponential function is the set of all real numbers, so the
range of a logarithmic function also will be the set of all real numbers. In the same
way, both the range of an exponential function and the domain of a logarithmic
function are the set of all positive real numbers.
Figure 26
• ƒ 1 x 2
= log a x, for a + 1, is increasing and continuous on its entire
domain, 10, ∞2.
• The y-axis is a vertical asymptote as x S 0 from the right.
• The graph passes through the points A 1a , - 1 B , 11, 02, and 1a, 12.
Figure 27
• ƒ 1 x 2
= log a x, for 0 * a * 1, is decreasing and continuous on its entire
domain, 10, ∞2.
• The y-axis is a vertical asymptote as x S 0 from the right.
• The graph passes through the points A 1a , - 1 B , 11, 02, and 1a, 12.
The graphs in Figures 26 and 27 and the information with them suggest the
following generalizations about the graphs of logarithmic functions of the form
ƒ1x2 = loga x.
Teaching Tip Encourage
students to learn the characteristics Characteristics of the Graph of f 1 x 2 = log a x
of the graph of
ƒ1x2 = loga x. 1. The points A 1a , - 1 B , 11, 02, and 1a, 12 are on the graph.
Ask them how the coordinates 2. If a 7 1, then ƒ is an increasing function.
1
A a, - 1 B , 11, 02, and 1a, 12 are If 0 6 a 6 1, then ƒ is a decreasing function.
affected by different translations
of the graph. Also, emphasize 3. The y-axis is a vertical asymptote.
that horizontal shifts affect the 4. The domain is 10, ∞2, and the range is 1 - ∞, ∞2.
domains of logarithmic functions.
y
x y= A 12 B
x
x ƒ1 x2 = log1/2 x y= ( 12 ) x y=x x ƒ1x2 = log3 x y
1
-2 4 4 -2 3 -1
-1 2 2 -1 1 0
0 1 1 0 4 3 f(x) = log 3 x
3 1
1 1
1 2 2 1 9 2
x
1 1 x 0
2 2 3 9
4 4 0
4 Think: x = 3y –2
1 1 –2
4 16 16 4
f(x) = log 1/2 x
Figure 28 Figure 29
x y y
0 6 x=1
2
4 4
f(x) = log2 (x – 1) f(x) = (log 3 x) – 1
f(x) = log2 (x 3) 2
2 (3, 1) 2
(5, 2) (9, 1)
13, ∞2; 1- ∞, ∞2 (3, 0)
x x
0 0
4 6 8 3 6 9
–2 (2, 0) –2 (1, 1)
Figure 30 Figure 31
(b) The function ƒ1x2 = 1log3 x2 - 1 has the same graph as g1x2 = log3 x
translated 1 unit down. We find ordered pairs to plot by writing the equation
y = 1log3 x2 - 1 in exponential form.
y = 1log3 x2 - 1
y + 1 = log3 x Add 1.
Again, choose y-values and calculate the corresponding x-values. The graph
is shown in Figure 31. The domain is 10, ∞2, and the range is 1 - ∞, ∞2.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
y
(c) The graph of ƒ1x2 = log4 1x + 22 + 1
is obtained by shifting the graph of
y = log4 x to the left 2 units and up
1 unit. The domain is found by solving 4
f(x) log4 (x 2) 1
x + 2 7 0,
(1, 1) (2, 2)
which yields 1 - 2, ∞2. The vertical x
asymptote has been shifted to the left 0 2
2 units as well, and it has equation 2
Note If we are given a graph such as the one in Figure 31 and asked to
find its equation, we could reason as follows: The point 11, 02 on the basic
logarithmic graph has been shifted down 1 unit, and the point 13, 02 on the
given graph is 1 unit lower than 13, 12, which is on the graph of y = log3 x.
Thus, the equation will be
y = 1log3 x2 - 1.
Properties of Logarithms
The last statement is the result we wished to prove. The quotient and power
properties are proved similarly and are left as exercises.
Theorem on Inverses
4.3 Exercises
1. (a) C (b) A (c) E Concept Preview Match the logarithm in Column I with its value in Column II.
(d) B (e) F (f ) D Remember that loga x is the exponent to which a must be raised in order to obtain x.
2. (a) F (b) B (c) A I II I II
(d) D (e) C (f ) E 1. (a) log2 16 A. 0 2. (a) log3 81 A. - 2
3. 23 = 8 4. log10 1000 = 3 1 1
(b) log3 1 B. (b) log3 B. - 1
2 3
5. E 9 F 6. E 6 F
4 1
(c) log10 0.1 C. 4 (c) log10 0.01 C. 0
(d) log2 22 D. - 3 1
7. y (d) log6 26 D.
2
1
4 f(x) = log 5 x (e) loge E. - 1 9
e2 (e) loge 1 E.
1
x
(f) log1/2 8 F. - 2 2
–2 0 1 5
–2
(f) log3 273/2 F. 4
Concept Preview Sketch the graph of each function. Give the domain and range.
9. log10 2 + log10 x - log10 7 Concept Preview Use the properties of logarithms to rewrite each expression. As-
x3 sume all variables represent positive real numbers.
10. log4 y 5
2x
9. log10 10. 3 log4 x - 5 log4 y
11. log3 81 = 4 12. log2 32 = 5 7
27
13. log2/3 8 = -3
14. log10 0.0001 = -4 If the statement is in exponential form, write it in an equivalent logarithmic form. If the
15. 6 2 = 36 16. 51 = 5
statement is in logarithmic form, write it in exponential form. See Example 1.
8 1
17. A 23 B = 81 18. 4-3 = 2 -3 27
64 11. 34 = 81 12. 25 = 32 13. a b = 14. 10 -4 = 0.0001
3 8
19. 5 - 46 20. 5 - 46
1
15. log6 36 = 2 16. log5 5 = 1 17. log 23 81 = 8 18. log4 = -3
21. E F 22. E 4 F
1 3
2 64
23. E 4 F 24. E 5 F
1 1
Solve each equation. See Example 2.
25. 586 26. 556
1 1 1 27
27. 596 28. 5116 19. x = log5 20. x = log3 21. logx = 5 22. logx =3
625 81 32 64
29. E 5 F 30. E 4 F
1 1
4 5
23. x = log8 2 8 24. x = log7 2 7 25. x = 3log3 8 26. x = 12log12 5
31. 5646 32. 586
27. x = 2log2 9 28. x = 8log8 11 29. logx 25 = - 2 30. logx 16 = - 2
33. E 3 F 34. E 2 F
2 1
3 4
35. 52436 36. 51286 31. log4 x = 3 32. log2 x = 3 33. x = log4 216 34. x = log5 225
37. 5136 38. 536 5 7
39. 536 40. 5236 35. log9 x = 36. log4 x =
2 2
41. 556 42. 566
37. log1/2 1x + 32 = - 4 38. log1/3 1x + 62 = - 2
43. 44. 39. log1x + 32 6 = 1 40. log1x - 42 19 = 1
y y
x = –3
f(x) = (log 2 x) + 3 41. 3x - 15 = logx 1 1x 7 0, x ≠ 12 42. 4x - 24 = logx 1 1x 7 0, x ≠ 12
6 3
4 –2
x
2 0 2 5 Graph each function. Give the domain and range. See Example 4.
x
0 2 4 6 8 43. ƒ1x2 = 1log2 x2 + 3 44. ƒ1x2 = log2 1x + 32 45. ƒ1x2 = 0 log2 1x + 32 0
f(x) = log 2 (x + 3)
4
2 2 1
x 1 0 1 1 1
0 3 6 9 x x x x
–2 0 3 6 9 0 0
–2 1
x=2 f(x) = log1/2 (x – 2)
49. E 50. D
51. B 52. C 1 1 1
x x x
53. F 54. A 0 0 0
2
1 1
2 x=3
2
68. y 69. 70. y
( 43 , 1)
x 0 y
0 x
–4 –2 –3 2
–2
(–2, 0)
f(x) = log1/2 (1 – x) (2, 0)
0 x (4, 0)
f(x) = log1/3 (3 – x) x
(1, –2) 0 x
(–1, –1) 0
(4, –1) (–3, –3)
61. 62. (3, –1)
y y
x=1 x =1
x = –2 x=5
x = –3
3 3
2
x x
0 2 4
0 6 Use the properties of logarithms to rewrite each expression. Simplify the result if pos-
3
–3 sible. Assume all variables represent positive real numbers. See Example 5.
f(x) = log3 (x 1) 2 f(x) = log 2 (x + 2) – 3
6x 4p 527
71. log2 72. log3 73. log5
63. y 64. x; 7; 4 y q 3
x = –3
2 223
0 74. log2 75. log4 12x + 5y2 76. log6 17m + 3q2
–4 2 5
x 5
–2
5r 3 3m5n4 ab
f(x) = log1/2 (x + 3) – 2 77. log2 78. log3 79. log2
B z5 B t2 cd
65. ƒ1x2 = log2 1x + 12 - 3
xy 2x # 2y
3 3
2 a # 4
2 b
66. ƒ1x2 = log2 1x - 32 - 1 80. log2 81. log3 82. log4
tqr w 2 2z 2c # 3 2
2d
67. ƒ1x2 = log2 1- x + 32 - 2
68. ƒ1x2 = - log2 1x + 32
Write each expression as a single logarithm with coefficient 1. Assume all variables rep-
69. ƒ1x2 = - log3 1x - 12
resent positive real numbers, with a ≠ 1 and b ≠ 1. See Example 6.
70. ƒ1x2 = - log2 1- x + 52
83. loga x + loga y - loga m 84. logb k + logb m - logb a
71. log2 6 + log2 x - log2 y
85. loga m - loga n - loga t 86. logb p - logb q - logb r
72. log3 4 + log3 p - log3 q
73. 1 +
1
log5 7 - log5 3 1 3 1 2
2 87. logb x 4y 5 - logb x 2y 88. loga p 3q4 - loga p 4q3
1 3 4 2 3
74. 1 + log2 3 - log2 5
2
75. This cannot be simplified. 89. 2 loga 1z + 12 + loga 13z + 22 90. 5 loga 1z + 72 + loga 12z + 92
76. This cannot be simplified. 2 1 3 2
91. - log5 5m2 + log5 25m2 92. - log3 16p 4 - log3 8p 3
3 2 4 3
1
77. 2 1log2 5 + 3 log2 r - Given that log10 2 ≈ 0.3010 and log10 3 ≈ 0.4771, find each logarithm without using a
calculator. See Example 7.
5 log2 z2
1
78. 3 15 log3 m + 4 log3 n - 3 2
93. log10 6 94. log10 12 95. log10 96. log10
2 log3 t2 2 9
79. log2 a + log2 b - log2 c - 9 20
97. log10 98. log10 99. log10 230 100. log10 36 1/3
log2 d 4 27
80. log2 x + log2 y - log2 t -
log2 q - log2 r Solve each problem.
1 1
81. 2 log3 x + 3 log3 y - 101. (Modeling) Interest Rates of Treasury Securities The Time Yield
1 table gives interest rates for various U.S. Treasury Securities
2 log3 w -
log3 z 3-month 0.02%
2 on January 2, 2015.
1
82. 3 log4 a +
1
log4 b - 6-month 0.10%
4 (a) Make a scatter diagram of the data.
1 2 2-year 0.66%
2 log 4 c -
3 log4 d (b) Which type of function will model this data best: linear,
exponential, or logarithmic? 5-year 1.61%
xy km
83. loga m 84. logb a
10-year 2.11%
m
85. loga nt
86. logb
p 30-year 2.60%
qr
Source:www.federal
87. logb 1x -1/6y 11/122
reserve.gov
88. loga 1p -7/62
102. Concept Check Use the graph to estimate each y
89. loga 31z + 12213z + 224 logarithm. 1
90. loga 31z + 72512z + 924 (a) log3 0.3 (b) log3 0.8
0.8
51/3 3 5
91. log5 m1/3 , or log53 m
0.6
1 y = 3x
92. log3 32p 5
0.4
Use a graphing calculator to find the solution set of each equation. Give solutions to the
nearest hundredth.
107. log10 x = x - 2 108. 2-x = log10 x
x
109. Prove the quotient property of logarithms: loga y = loga x - loga y.
7. It is not one-to-one.
Determine whether each function is one-to-one. If it is, then sketch the graph of its
8. y inverse function.
y=x
5. y 6. y
y=x y=x
0 x
x x
1
9. B 10. D
11. C 12. A
14. ƒ -11x2 = 5x
1
15. ƒ -11x2 = 3 x + 2;
Domains and ranges of both ƒ
and ƒ -1 are 1- ∞, ∞2. In Exercises 9–12, match each function with its graph from choices A–D.
9. y = log3 1x + 22 10. y = 5 - 2x
11. y = log2 15 - x2 12. y = 3x - 2
A. y B. y
1 1
x x
0 0
1 1
C. y D. y
1
x
0
1 1
x
0
1
13. The functions in Exercises 9–12 form two pairs of inverse functions. Determine
which functions are inverses of each other.
14. Determine the inverse of the function ƒ1x2 = log5 x. (Hint: Replace ƒ1x2 with y,
and write in exponential form.)
3 x For each function that is one-to-one, write an equation for the inverse function. Give the
16. ƒ -11x2 = 3 2 - 1;
domain and range of both ƒ and ƒ -1. If the function is not one-to-one, say so.
Domains and ranges of both ƒ
and ƒ -1 are 1- ∞, ∞2. 15. ƒ1x2 = 3x - 6 16. ƒ1x2 = 21x + 123
17. ƒ is not one-to-one.
2x - 1
5x + 1
18. ƒ -11x2 = 2 + 3x ; 17. ƒ1x2 = 3x 2 18. ƒ1x2 =
5 - 3x
Domain of ƒ = range of
3
5
ƒ -1 = A - ∞, 3 B ´ A 53 , ∞ B . 19. ƒ1x2 = 2 5 - x 4 20. ƒ1x2 = 2x 2 - 9, x Ú 3
Domain of ƒ -1 = range of
2 2
ƒ = A - ∞, - 3 B ´ A - 3 , ∞ B . Write an equivalent statement in logarithmic form.
19. ƒ is not one-to-one. 1 -3 4
20. ƒ -11x2 = 2x 2 + 9, x Ú 0; 21. a b = 1000 22. a b = c 23. A 23 B = 9
10
Domain of ƒ = range of
ƒ -1 = 33, ∞2. 1
24. 4-3/2 = 25. 2x = 32 26. 274/3 = 81
Domain of ƒ -1 = range of 8
ƒ = 30, ∞2.
43. E - 3 F
1
44. 1- ∞, ∞2
■ Common Logarithms
Common Logarithms Two of the most important bases for logarithms
■ Applications and are 10 and e. Base 10 logarithms are common logarithms. The common loga-
Models with Common
rithm of x is written log x, where the base is understood to be 10.
Logarithms
■ Natural Logarithms
■ Applications and
Models with Natural
Common Logarithm
Logarithms
For all positive numbers x,
■ Logarithms with Other
Bases log x = log10 x.
A calculator with a log key can be used to find the base 10 logarithm of any
positive number.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 11, 15, and 17.
1 7 14
Figure 34
pH ≈ 3.6 Add.
*A mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of molecules as the number of atoms
in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12.
(b) pH = - log3H3O+ 4
7.1 = - log3H3O+ 4 Substitute pH = 7.1.
- 7.1 = log3H3O+ 4 Multiply by -1.
3H3O+ 4 = 10 -7.1 Write in exponential form.
Note In the fourth line of the solution in Example 2(a), we use the
equality symbol, =, rather than the approximate equality symbol, ≈ , when
replacing log 2.5 with 0.3979. This is often done for convenience, despite
the fact that most logarithms used in applications are indeed approximations.
Wetlands are classified as bogs, fens, marshes, and swamps based on pH values.
A pH value between 6.0 and 7.5 indicates that the wetland is a “rich fen.” When
the pH is between 3.0 and 6.0, it is a “poor fen,” and if the pH falls to 3.0 or less,
the wetland is a “bog.” (Source: R. Mohlenbrock, “Summerby Swamp, Michigan,”
Natural History.)
Suppose that the hydronium ion concentration of a sample of water from a
wetland is 6.3 * 10 -5. How would this wetland be classified?
Solution pH = - log3H3O+ 4 Definition of pH
y Natural Logarithm
0
x ln x = log e x.
2 4 6 8
–2
Figure 35 A graph of the natural logarithmic function ƒ1x2 = ln x is given in Figure 35.
ln 142 ≈ 4.955827058
and ln 0.005832 ≈ - 5.144395284.
Figure 36
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 45, 51, and 53.
Solution
A
Looking Ahead To Calculus (a) If A = 0, then K = 0 and the equation is as follows.
The natural logarithmic function
A
ƒ1x2 = ln x and the reciprocal function ln A 1 + 8.33 A K B B
1
g1x2 = x have an important relation- t = 11.26 * 10 92 Given formula
ship in calculus. The derivative of the
ln 2
natural logarithmic function is the ln 1 A
reciprocal function. Using Leibniz t = 11.26 * 10 92 K = 0, so ln 11 + 02 = ln 1
ln 2
notation (named after one of the
co-inventors of calculus), we write t = 11.26 * 10 92102 ln 1 = 0
d 1
this fact as dx 1ln x2 = x . t=0
ln 11 + 8.3310.21222
t = 11.26 * 10 92 Substitute.
ln 2
t ≈ 1.85 * 10 9 Use a calculator.
Answers: where C0 is the preindustrial amount of carbon dioxide, C is the current carbon
(a) 9.7 w/m2 (b) 10°F
dioxide level, and k is a constant. Arrhenius determined that 10 … k … 16 when
C = 2C0 . (Source: Clime, W., The Economics of Global Warming, Institute for
International Economics, Washington, D.C.)
(a) Let C = 2C0. Is the relationship between R and k linear or logarithmic?
(b) The average global temperature increase T (in °F) is given by T1R2 = 1.03R.
Write T as a function of k.
Solution
C
(a) If C = 2C0 , then C = 2, so R = k ln 2 is a linear relation, because ln 2 is a
0
constant.
Logarithms with Other Bases We can use a calculator to find the values
of either natural logarithms (base e) or common logarithms (base 10). However,
sometimes we must use logarithms with other bases. The change-of-base
theorem can be used to convert logarithms from one base to another.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
Change-of-Base Theorem
Looking Ahead To Calculus
In calculus, natural logarithms are For any positive real numbers x, a, and b, where a ≠ 1 and b ≠ 1, the fol-
more convenient to work with than lowing holds.
logarithms with other bases. The
log b x
change-of-base theorem enables us to log a x =
convert any logarithmic function to a
log b a
natural logarithmic function.
The first two entries in Figure 38(a) show that the results are the same
whether natural or common logarithms are used.
(a) (b)
Figure 38
log 0.1
log2 0.1 = ≈ - 3.3219 Check: 2 -3.3219 ≈ 0.1
log 2
The last two entries in Figure 38(a) show that the results are the same whether
natural or common logarithms are used.
Some calculators, such as the TI-84 Plus, evaluate these logarithms directly
without using the change-of-base theorem. See Figure 38(b).
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 79 and 81.
where P1, P2, c, Pn are the proportions of a sample that belong to each of
n species found in the sample. (Source: Ludwig, J., and J. Reynolds, Statistical
Ecology: A Primer on Methods and Computing, © 1988, John Wiley & Sons, NY.)
Find the measure of diversity in a community with two species where there
are 90 of one species and 10 of the other.
90
Solution There are 100 members in the community, so P1 = 100 = 0.9 and
10
P2 = 100 = 0.1.
H = - 30.9 log2 0.9 + 0.1 log2 0.14 Substitute for P1 and P2.
Classroom Example 9
Refer to the formula in Example 9. In Example 8(b), we found that log2 0.1 ≈ - 3.32. Now we find log2 0.9.
Find the measure of diversity in a
community with two species where log 0.9
there are 60 of one species and 140 log2 0.9 = ≈ - 0.152 Change-of-base theorem
of the other.
log 2
Verify that H ≈ 0.971 if there are 60 of one species and 40 of the other.
1
As the proportions of n species get closer to n each, the measure of diversity
increases to a maximum of log2 n.
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 73.
4.4 Exercises
1 (2.75, 1.0116009)
x
0
2 4 6 8
–1
y = ln x
Find each value. If applicable, give an approximation to four decimal places. See
Example 1.
11. log 10 12 12. log 10 7 13. log 0.1 14. log 0.01
15. log 63 16. log 94 17. log 0.0022 18. log 0.0055
518 643
19. log 1387 * 232 20. log 1296 * 122 21. log 22. log
342 287
23. log 387 + log 23 24. log 296 + log 12
25. log 518 - log 342 26. log 643 - log 287
29. 3.2 30. 1.8 For each substance, find the pH from the given hydronium ion concentration. See
31. 8.4 32. 13.5 Example 2(a).
33. 2.0 * 10 -3 34. 4.0 * 10 -4 29. grapefruit, 6.3 * 10 -4 30. limes, 1.6 * 10 -2
35. 1.6 * 10 -5 36. 3.2 * 10 -7
31. crackers, 3.9 * 10 -9 32. sodium hydroxide (lye), 3.2 * 10 -14
37. poor fen 38. poor fen
39. bog 40. bog Find the 3H3O+ 4 for each substance with the given pH. See Example 2(b).
41. rich fen 42. rich fen
33. soda pop, 2.7 34. wine, 3.4
43. (a) 2.60031933 35. beer, 4.8 36. drinking water, 6.5
(b) 1.60031933
(c) 0.6003193298
Suppose that water from a wetland area is sampled and found to have the given hydro-
(d) The whole number parts
nium ion concentration. Determine whether the wetland is a rich fen, a poor fen, or a bog.
will vary, but the decimal
See Example 3.
parts will be the same.
44. 4.3979; Each can be written 37. 2.49 * 10 -5 38. 6.22 * 10 -5 39. 2.49 * 10 -2
as log 25 plus a logarithm of a
power of 10. 40. 3.14 * 10 -2 41. 2.49 * 10 -7 42. 5.86 * 10 -7
65. (a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 8 65. Earthquake Intensity The magnitude of an earthquake, measured on the Richter
66. 1,258,900,000I0 I
scale, is log10 I0 , where I is the amplitude registered on a seismograph 100 km from
67. 631,000,000I0
the epicenter of the earthquake, and I0 is the amplitude of an earthquake of a certain
68. 1.995 times greater
(small) size. Find the Richter scale ratings for earthquakes having the following
69. 106.6 thousand; We must amplitudes.
assume that the model
continues to be logarithmic. (a) 1000I0 (b) 1,000,000I0 (c) 100,000,000I0
70. 1590 million person-trips; 66. Earthquake Intensity On December 26, 2004, an earthquake struck in the Indian
This is very close to the actual Ocean with a magnitude of 9.1 on the Richter scale. The resulting tsunami killed an
number. estimated 229,900 people in several countries. Express this reading in terms of I0 to
the nearest hundred thousand.
67. Earthquake Intensity On February 27, 2010, a massive earthquake struck Chile
with a magnitude of 8.8 on the Richter scale. Express this reading in terms of I0 to
the nearest hundred thousand.
68. Earthquake Intensity Comparison Compare the answers to Exercises 66 and 67.
How many times greater was the force of the 2004 earthquake than that of the 2010
earthquake?
69. (Modeling) Bachelor’s Degrees in Psychology The table gives the number of
bachelor’s degrees in psychology (in thousands) earned at U.S. colleges and univer-
sities for selected years from 1980 through 2012. Suppose x represents the number
of years since 1950. Thus, 1980 is represented by 30, 1990 is represented by 40, and
so on.
Degrees Earned
Year (in thousands)
1980 42.1
1990 54.0
2000 74.2
2010 97.2
2011 100.9
2012 109.0
Source: National Center for
Education Statistics.
Use this function to estimate the number of bachelor’s degrees in psychology earned
in the year 2016 to the nearest tenth thousand. What assumption must we make to
estimate the number of degrees in years beyond 2012?
70. (Modeling) Domestic Leisure Travel U.S. Domestic Leisure Travel Volume
The bar graph shows numbers of 2000
Person-Trips (in millions)
71. (a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 1 71. (Modeling) Diversity of Species The number of species S1n2 in a sample is
72. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 5 given by
73. 1 74. 1.589
75. between 7°F and 11°F n
S1n2 = a ln a1 + b,
76. (a) T1x2 = a
35311.0062x - 1990
6.489 ln C 280 D
where n is the number of individuals in the sample, and a is a constant that indicates
(b) C(x) = 353(1.006) x − 1990 the diversity of species in the community. If a = 0.36, find S1n2 for each value of n.
2100 (Hint: S1n2 must be a whole number.)
(a) 100 (b) 200 (c) 150 (d) 10
72. (Modeling) Diversity of Species In Exercise 71, find S1n2 if a changes to 0.88. Use
1990 2275
the following values of n.
300
(a) 50 (b) 100 (c) 250
C
T(x) = 6.489 ln , where 73. (Modeling) Diversity of Species Suppose a sample of a small community shows
280
C(x) is defined as given earlier. two species with 50 individuals each. Find the measure of diversity H.
15
74. (Modeling) Diversity of Species A virgin forest in northwestern Pennsylvania has
4 species of large trees with the following proportions of each:
78. (a) 6 78. (Modeling) Planets’ Distances from the Sun Planet D P
and Periods of Revolution The table contains
the planets’ average distances D from the sun and Mercury 0.39 0.24
their periods P of revolution around the sun in Venus 0.72 0.62
−2 4
years. The distances have been normalized so that Earth 1 1
−2 Earth is one unit away from the sun. For example, Mars 1.52 1.89
Let x = ln D and y = ln P since Jupiter’s distance is 5.2, its distance from
for each planet. From the the sun is 5.2 times farther than Earth’s. Jupiter 5.2 11.9
graph, the data appear to Saturn 9.54 29.5
(a) Using a graphing calculator, make a scatter
be linear. Uranus 19.2 84.0
diagram by plotting the point (ln D, ln P) for
(b) y = 1.5x each planet on the xy-coordinate axes. Do Neptune 30.1 164.8
6 the data points appear to be linear?
Source: Ronan, C., The Natural
(b) Determine a linear equation that models the History of the Universe, MacMillan
data points. Graph the line and the data on Publishing Co., New York.
−2 4 the same coordinate axes.
−2 (c) Use this linear model to predict the period of Pluto if its distance is 39.5.
The points 10, 02 and Compare the answer to the actual value of 248.5 yr.
13.40, 5.102 determine
the line y = 1.5x or Use the change-of-base theorem to find an approximation to four decimal places for
ln P = 1.5 ln D. each logarithm. See Example 8.
(Answers will vary.)
(c) P ≈ 248.3 yr 79. log2 5 80. log2 9 81. log8 0.59 82. log8 0.71
79. 2.3219 80. 3.1699 83. log1/2 3 84. log1/3 2 85. logp e 86. logp 22
81. - 0.2537
82. - 0.1647 87. log 213 12 88. log 219 5 89. log0.32 5 90. log0.91 8
83. - 1.5850
84. - 0.6309
85. 0.8736 86. 0.3028
87. 1.9376 88. 1.0932 Let u = ln a and v = ln b. Write each expression in terms of u and v without using the
89. - 1.4125
90. - 22.0488 ln function.
a # b4 B
a3 a3
91. ln A b 4 2a B 94. ln A 2
3
1
91. 4v + 2 u
92. 3u - 2v 92. ln 93. ln
b2 B b5
3 5 1
93. 2 u - 2 v
94. 3 u + 4v
Concept Check Use the various properties of exponential and logarithmic functions to
1
95. (a) 4 (b) 25 (c) e evaluate the expressions in parts (a) – (c).
96. (a) 2 (b) ln 3 (c) ln 9 95. Given g1x2 = ex, find (a) g1ln 42 (b) g1ln 522
1
(c) g A ln e B .
97. (a) 6 (b) ln 3 (c) ln 9
98. (a) 7 (b) 1 (c) 2 96. Given ƒ1x2 = 3x, find (a) ƒ1log3 22 (b) ƒ1log3 1ln 322 (c) ƒ1log3 12 ln 322.
99. D 100. D 97. Given ƒ1x2 = ln x, find (a) ƒ1e62 (b) ƒ1eln 32 (c) ƒ1e2 ln 32.
98. Given ƒ1x2 = log2 x, find (a) ƒ1272 (b) ƒ12log2 22 (c) ƒ122 log2 22.
101. domain: 1- ∞, 02 ´ 10, ∞2;
range: 1- ∞, ∞2; symmetric
with respect to the y-axis Work each problem.
102. (a) 1- ∞, 02 ´ 10, ∞2 99. Concept Check Which of the following is equivalent to 2 ln 13x2 for x 7 0?
(b) f(x) = log3 x A. ln 9 + ln x B. ln 6x C. ln 6 + ln x D. ln 9x 2
4
100. Concept Check Which of the following is equivalent to ln 14x2 - ln 12x2 for x 7 0?
ln 4x
−4 4 A. 2 ln x B. ln 2x C. D. ln 2
ln 2x
−4 101. The function ƒ1x2 = ln 0 x 0 plays a prominent role in calculus. Find its domain, its
(c) Because of limited reso- range, and the symmetries of its graph.
lution, the graph appears 102. Consider the function ƒ1x2 = log3 0 x 0 .
to show a point with
x-value of 0, which does (a) What is the domain of this function?
not exist on this graph. (b) Use a graphing calculator to graph ƒ1x2 = log3 0 x 0 in the window 3 - 4, 44 by
3 - 4, 44.
103. ƒ1x2 = 2 + ln x, so it is
(c) How might one easily misinterpret the domain of the function by merely
the graph of g1x2 = ln x
translated 2 units up. observing the calculator graph?
104. ƒ1x2 = ln x - 1, so it is the Use properties of logarithms to rewrite each function, and describe how the graph of the
graph of g1x2 = ln x trans- given function compares to the graph of g1x2 = ln x.
lated 1 unit down.
x x
105. ƒ1x2 = ln x - 2, so it is the 103. ƒ1x2 = ln 1e2x2 104. ƒ1x2 = ln 105. ƒ1x2 = ln
graph of g1x2 = ln x trans- e e2
lated 2 units down.
■ Exponential Equations
Exponential Equations We solved exponential equations in earlier sec-
■ Logarithmic Equations tions. General methods for solving these equations depend on the property below,
■ Applications and which follows from the fact that logarithmic functions are one-to-one.
Models
Property of Logarithms
x ln 7 = ln 12 Power property
This is exact.
ln 12
−20 x= Divide by ln 7.
ln 7
As seen in the display at the bottom
of the screen, when rounded to three
x ≈ 1.277 Use a calculator.
decimal places, the solution of This is approximate.
7x - 12 = 0 agrees with that found The solution set is 51.2776.
in Example 1. ■
✔ Now Try Exercise 11.
ln 12 12
Caution Do not confuse a quotient like ln 7 in Example 1 with ln 7 ,
which can be written as ln 12 - ln 7. We cannot change the quotient of two
logarithms to a difference of logarithms.
ln 12 12
≠ ln
ln 7 7
2 ln 0.4 + ln 3
x= Divide by 2 ln 3 - ln 0.4.
2 ln 3 - ln 0.4
ln 0.42 + ln 3
x= Power property
ln 32 - ln 0.4
ln 0.16 + ln 3
3 x= Apply the exponents.
ln 9 - ln 0.4
This is exact.
ln 0.48
−4 4
x= Product and quotient properties
ln 22.5
x ≈ - 0.236 Use a calculator.
−3
This is approximate.
This screen supports the solution The solution set is 5 - 0.2366.
found in Example 2. ■
✔ Now Try Exercise 19.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
x2 = ln 200 ln e x = x 2
2
Remember
both roots.
x = { 2ln 200 Square root property
x ≈ { 2.302 Use a calculator.
- 2x ln e = ln 3 Power property
- 2x = ln 3 ln e = 1
1
x= - ln 3 Multiply by - 12 .
2
x ≈ - 0.549 Use a calculator.
e2x - 4e x + 3 = 0
1e x22 - 4e x + 3 = 0 am n = 1an2m
u 2 - 4u + 3 = 0 Let u = e x.
1u - 121u - 32 = 0 Factor.
u-1=0 or u - 3 = 0 Zero-factor property
u=1 or u=3 Solve for u.
x3 = 27 Add 19.
3
x = 227 Take cube roots.
x=3 3
2 27 = 3
1x + 321x - 22 = 0 Factor.
The proposed negative solution 1 - 32 is not in the domain of log x in the origi-
nal equation, so the only valid solution is the positive number 2. The solution set
is 526.
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 69.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
Caution Recall that the domain of y = loga x is 10, ∞2. For this reason,
it is always necessary to check that proposed solutions of a logarithmic
equation result in logarithms of positive numbers in the original equation.
4
x = or x = 5 Solve for x.
3
A check is necessary to be sure that the argument of the logarithm in the given
equation is positive. In both cases, the product 13x - 721x - 42 leads to 8, and
log2 8 = 3 is true. The solution set is E 3 , 5 F.
4
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 53.
ln eln x - ln 1x - 32 = ln 2
ln x - ln 1x - 32 = ln 2 eln x = x
x
ln = ln 2 Quotient property
x-3
x
=2 Property of logarithms
x-3
x = 21x - 32 Multiply by x - 3.
x = 2x - 6 Distributive property
x=6 Solve for x.
Sales The table gives U.S. tablet sales (in millions) for several years. The data can be
Year (in millions) modeled by the function
2010 10.3
ƒ1t2 = 20.57 ln t + 10.58, t Ú 1,
2011 24.1
2012 35.1 where t is the number of years after 2009.
2013 39.8 (a) Use the function to estimate the number of tablets sold in the United States
2014 42.1 in 2015.
Source: Forrester Research. (b) If this trend continues, approximately when will annual sales reach 60 million?
Solution
49.42
ln t = Divide by 20.57 and rewrite.
20.57
t = e49.42/20.57 Write in exponential form.
Adding 11 to 2009 gives the year 2020. Based on this model, annual sales
will reach 60 million in 2020.
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 111.
4.5 Exercises
1. B
2. F Concept Preview Match each equation in Column I with the best first step for
3. E
4. A solving it in Column II.
5. D
6. C
I II
log 19 ln 19
7. log7 19; log 7 ; ln 7
1. 10 x = 150 A. Use the product rule for exponents.
log 10 1 ln 10 2. e2x - 1 = 24 B. Take the common logarithm on each side.
8. log3 10; log 3 , or log 3 ; ln 3
C. Write the sum of logarithms as the
log 12 ln 12 3. log4 1x 2 - 102 = 2
9. log1/2 12; ; logarithm of a product.
4. e2x # ex = 2e
1 1
log 2 ln 2
D. Let u = ex and write the equation in
log 4 ln 4 quadratic form.
10. log1/3 4; ; 1 5. 2e2x - 5ex -3=0
1
log 3 ln 3 E. Change to exponential form.
6. log 12x - 12 + log 1x + 42 = 1
F. Take the natural logarithm on each side.
11. 51.7716 12. 51.5946
13. 5 - 2.3226 14. 5 - 1.6316 Concept Preview An exponential equation such as
15. 5 - 6.2136 16. 5 - 2.1516 5x = 9
17. 5 - 1.7106 18. 50.8236 can be solved for its exact solution using the meaning of logarithm and the change-of-
19. 53.2406 base theorem. Because x is the exponent to which 5 must be raised in order to obtain 9,
the exact solution is
log 9 ln 9
log5 9, or , or .
log 5 ln 5
For each equation, give the exact solution in three forms similar to the forms above.
1 x 1 x
7. 7x = 19 8. 3x = 10 9. a b = 12 10. a b = 4
2 3
Solve each equation. In Exercises 11–34, give irrational solutions as decimals correct
to the nearest thousandth. In Exercises 35– 40, give solutions in exact form. See
Examples 1–4.
1 x
11. 3x = 7 12. 5x = 13 13. a b = 5
2
1 x
14. a b = 6 15. 0.8x = 4 16. 0.6 x = 3
3
17. 4x - 1 = 32x 18. 2x + 3 = 52x 19. 6 x + 1 = 42x - 1
54. E - 8F
14 53. log3 31x + 521x - 324 = 2 54. log4 313x + 821x - 624 = 3
53. 5 - 6, 46 3 ,
55. 5 - 8, 06 56. E - 3 , 0 F
8 55. log2 312x + 821x + 424 = 5 56. log5 313x + 521x + 124 = 1
57. 556 58. 526 57. log x + log 1x + 152 = 2 58. log x + log 12x + 12 = 1
59. 5 - 56 60. 5 - 16 59. log 1x + 252 = log 1x + 102 + log 4 60. log 13x + 52 - log 12x + 42 = 0
61. ∅ 62. ∅
61. log 1x - 102 - log 1x - 62 = log 2 62. log 1x 2 - 92 - log 1x - 32 = log 5
63. 5 - 26 64. 5 - 56
63. ln 17 - x2 + ln 11 - x2 = ln 125 - x2 64. ln 13 - x2 + ln 15 - x2 = ln 150 - 6x2
66. E 2 F
9
65. 506
65. log8 1x + 22 + log8 1x + 42 = log8 8 66. log2 15x - 62 - log2 1x + 12 = log2 3
67. 5126 68. 536
69. 5256 70. 556 67. log2 1x 2 - 1002 - log2 1x + 102 = 1 68. log2 1x - 22 + log2 1x - 12 = 1
71. ∅ 72. ∅ 69. log x + log 1x - 212 = log 100 70. log x + log 13x - 132 = log 10
73. E F
5
2 74. 546 71. log 19x + 52 = 3 + log 1x + 22 72. log 111x + 92 = 3 + log 1x + 32
75. 536 76. 586
73. ln 14x - 22 - ln 4 = - ln 1x - 22 74. ln 15 + 4x2 - ln 13 + x2 = ln 3
1 + 241 1 + 285
77. U 4 V 78. U 6 V 75. log5 1x + 22 + log5 1x - 22 = 1 76. log2 1x - 72 + log2 x = 3
79. 566 80. 566
77. log2 12x - 32 + log2 1x + 12 = 1 78. log5 13x + 22 + log5 1x - 12 = 1
81. 546 82. 51, 106
79. ln ex - 2 ln e = ln e4 80. ln ex - ln e3 = ln e3
83. 51, 1006 84. 5 - 2, 26
81. log2 1log2 x2 = 1 82. log x = 2log x
85. Proposed solutions that cause
any argument of a logarithm 3
to be negative or zero must be 83. log x 2 = 1log x22 84. log2 22x 2 =
2
rejected. The statement is not
correct. For example, the 85. Concept Check Consider the following statement: “We must reject any negative
solution set of proposed solution when we solve an equation involving logarithms.” Is this correct?
Why or why not?
log 1- x + 992 = 2
is 5 - 16. 86. Concept Check What values of x could not possibly be solutions of the following
equation?
86. any real numbers less than or
7
equal to 4 loga 14x - 72 + loga 1x 2 + 42 = 0
87. x = ek/1p - a2 Solve each equation for the indicated variable. Use logarithms with the appropriate
88. t = e1 p - r2/k bases. See Example 10.
1 T - T0
89. t = - k log A T1 - T0 B k
87. p = a + , for x 88. r = p - k ln t, for t
A - Pr ln x
log A A B
90. n = - Pr
log 11 + r2 89. T = T0 + 1T1 - T0210 -kt, for t 90. A = , for n
2 RI 1 - 11 + r2-n
91. t = - R ln A 1 - E B
E K
ln A
K - y
B 91. I = 11 - e -Rt/22, for t 92. y = , for b
ay R 1 + ae -bx
92. b =
-x
M
ln A
A + B - y 93. y = A + B11 - e -Cx2, for x 94. m = 6 - 2.5 log , for M
B B M0
93. x =
-C
I
94. M = M0 # 10 16 - m2/2.5
95. log A = log B - C log x, for A 96. d = 10 log , for I
I0
B
95. A = xC r tn
96. I = I0 # 10 d/10
97. A = P a1 + b , for t 98. D = 160 + 10 log x, for x
n
A
log P
97. t = To solve each problem, refer to the formulas for compound interest.
r
n log A 1 + n B
r tn
A = P a1 + b and A = Pert
98. x = 10 D/10 - 16 n
99. $11,611.84 100. $6885.64 99. Compound Amount If $10,000 is invested in an account at 3% annual interest
101. 2.6 yr 102. 5.55 yr compounded quarterly, how much will be in the account in 5 yr if no money is
103. 2.64% 104. 3.09% withdrawn?
105. (a) 10.9% (b) 35.8% 100. Compound Amount If $5000 is invested in an account at 4% annual interest com-
(c) 84.1% pounded continuously, how much will be in the account in 8 yr if no money is
106. (a) $3891 (b) $6990 withdrawn?
(c) $8495 101. Investment Time Kurt wants to buy a $30,000 truck. He has saved $27,000. Find
the number of years (to the nearest tenth) it will take for his $27,000 to grow to
$30,000 at 4% interest compounded quarterly.
102. Investment Time Find t to the nearest hundredth of a year if $1786 becomes
$2063 at 2.6%, with interest compounded monthly.
103. Interest Rate Find the interest rate to the nearest hundredth of a percent that will
produce $2500, if $2000 is left at interest compounded semiannually for 8.5 yr.
104. Interest Rate At what interest rate, to the nearest hundredth of a percent, will
$16,000 grow to $20,000 if invested for 7.25 yr and interest is compounded
quarterly?
107. 2019 107. Average Annual Public University Costs The Year Average Annual Cost
108. (a) 11.65 m per sec table shows the cost of a year’s tuition, room
and board, and fees at 4-year public colleges 2006 $12,837
(b) 2.48 sec
109. (a) 62% (b) 1989 for the years 2006–2014. Letting y represent 2007 $13,558
110. (a) The graph of ƒ1- x2 is the cost in dollars and x the number of years 2008 $14,372
symmetric to the graph since 2006, the function 2009 $15,235
of ƒ1x2 with respect to ƒ1x2 = 13,01711.052x 2010 $16,178
the y-axis.
(b) 984 ft (c) 39 ft models the data quite well. According to this 2011 $17,156
function, in what year will the 2006 cost be 2012 $17,817
doubled? 2013 $18,383
2014 $18,943
Source: The College Board, Annual
Survey of Colleges.
108. Race Speed At the World Championship races held at Rome’s Olympic Stadium
in 1987, American sprinter Carl Lewis ran the 100-m race in 9.86 sec. His speed in
meters per second after t seconds is closely modeled by the function
(Source: Banks, Robert B., Towing Icebergs, Falling Dominoes, and Other Adven-
tures in Applied Mathematics, Princeton University Press.)
(a) How fast, to the nearest hundredth, was he running as he crossed the finish line?
(b) After how many seconds, to the nearest hundredth, was he running at the rate
of 10 m per sec?
109. Women in Labor Force The percent of women in the U.S. civilian labor force can
be modeled fairly well by the function
67.21
ƒ1x2 = ,
1 + 1.081e -x/24.71
where x represents the number of years since 1950. (Source: Monthly Labor
Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.)
(a) What percent, to the nearest whole number, of U.S. women were in the civilian
labor force in 2014?
(b) In what year were 55% of U.S. women in the civilian labor force?
110. Height of the Eiffel Tower One side of y
the Eiffel Tower in Paris has a shape that
can be approximated by the graph of the
function
x
f(x) = –301 ln ,x>0
x 207
ƒ1x2 = - 301 ln , x 7 0,
207
111. (a) P1x2 = 1 - e -0.0034 - 0.0053x 111. CO2 Emissions Tax One action that government could take to reduce carbon
(b) P(x) = 1 − e−0.0034 − 0.0053x emissions into the atmosphere is to levy a tax on fossil fuel. This tax would be
1 based on the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the air when the fuel is burned.
The cost-benefit equation
ln 11 - P2 = - 0.0034 - 0.0053x
0 1000 models the approximate relationship between a tax of x dollars per ton of carbon
0 and the corresponding percent reduction P (in decimal form) of emissions of car-
(c) P1602 ≈ 0.275, or 27.5%; bon dioxide. (Source: Nordhause, W., “To Slow or Not to Slow: The Economics of
The reduction in carbon the Greenhouse Effect,” Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.)
emissions from a tax of (a) Write P as a function of x.
$60 per ton of carbon is (b) Graph P for 0 … x … 1000. Discuss the benefit of continuing to raise taxes on
27.5%.
carbon.
(d) x = $130.14
112. (a) R ≈ 4.4 w/m2 (c) Determine P, to the nearest tenth, when x = $60. Interpret this result.
(b) T ≈ 4.5°F; (d) What value of x will give a 50% reduction in carbon emissions?
113. ƒ - 11x2 = ln x + 5; 112. Radiative Forcing Radiative forcing, R, measures the influence of carbon dioxide
domain: 10, ∞2;
in altering the additional solar radiation trapped in Earth’s atmosphere. The Inter-
national Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 estimated k to be 6.3 in the
range: 1- ∞, ∞2
radiative forcing equation
114. ƒ - 11x2 = ln 1x - 102;
domain: 110, ∞2; C
R = k ln ,
range: 1- ∞, ∞2 C0
115. ƒ - 11x2 = ln 1x + 42 - 1; where C0 is the preindustrial amount of carbon dioxide and C is the current level.
domain: 1- 4, ∞2; (Source: Clime, W., The Economics of Global Warming, Institute for International
range: 1- ∞, ∞2 Economics, Washington, D.C.)
116. ƒ - 11x2 = e x - 2; C
(a) Use the equation R = 6.3 ln C0 to determine the radiative forcing R (in watts
domain: 1- ∞, ∞2; per square meter to the nearest tenth) expected by the IPCC if the carbon diox-
range: 1- 2, ∞2 ide level in the atmosphere doubles from its preindustrial level.
1
117. ƒ - 11x2 = 3 ex/2; (b) Determine the global temperature increase T, to the nearest tenth, that the IPCC
domain: 1- ∞, ∞2; predicted would occur if atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were to double,
range: 10, ∞2 given T1R2 = 1.03R.
118. ƒ - 11x2 = e x - 6 + 1;
domain: 1- ∞, ∞2; Find ƒ -11x2, and give the domain and range.
range: 11, ∞2
113. ƒ1x2 = ex - 5 114. ƒ1x2 = ex + 10 115. ƒ1x2 = ex + 1 - 4
119. 51.526 116. ƒ1x2 = ln 1x + 22 117. ƒ1x2 = 2 ln 3x 118. ƒ1x2 = ln 1x - 12 + 6
120. 5 - 0.93, 1.356
121. 506 Use a graphing calculator to solve each equation. Give irrational solutions correct to
122. 50.69, 1.106 the nearest hundredth.
123. 52.45, 5.666 119. ex + ln x = 5 120. ex - ln 1x + 12 = 3 121. 2ex + 1 = 3e -x
124. 50.236 3
122. ex + 6e -x = 5 123. log x = x 2 - 8x + 14 124. ln x = - 2 x+3
125. When dividing each side by 125. Find the error in the following “proof ” that 2 6 1.
1
log 3 , the direction of the
inequality symbol should be 1 1
1
6 True statement
reversed because log 3 is 9 3
negative.
1 2 1
a b 6 Rewrite the left side.
3 3
1 2 1
log a b 6 log Take the logarithm on each side.
3 3
1 1
2 log 6 1 log Property of logarithms; identity property
3 3
1
261 Divide each side by log 3 .
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
Growth Function Models The amount of time it takes for a quantity that
grows exponentially to become twice its initial amount is its doubling time.
Carbon Dioxide Earlier in this chapter, we discussed the growth of atmospheric carbon dioxide
Year (ppm) over time using a function based on the data from the table. Now we determine
1990 353 such a function from the data.
2000 375 (a) Find an exponential function that gives the amount of carbon dioxide y in
2075 590 year x.
2175 1090 (b) Estimate the year when future levels of carbon dioxide will be double the
2275 2000 preindustrial level of 280 ppm.
Source: International Panel on Solution
Climate Change (IPCC).
(a) The data points exhibit exponential growth, so the equation will take the form
y = y0 ekx.
We must find the values of y0 and k. The data begin with the year 1990, so
to simplify our work we let 1990 correspond to x = 0, 1991 correspond
to x = 1, and so on. Here y0 is the initial amount and y0 = 353 in 1990 when
x = 0. Thus the equation is
From the last pair of values in the table, we know that in 2275 the carbon
dioxide level is expected to be 2000 ppm. The year 2275 corresponds to
2275 - 1990 = 285. Substitute 2000 for y and 285 for x, and solve for k.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
y = 353e0.00609x.
(b) y = 353e0.00609x Solve the model from part (a) for the year x.
560 = 353e0.00609x To double the level 280, let y = 212802 = 560.
560
= e0.00609x Divide by 353.
353
560
ln = ln e0.00609x Take the natural logarithm on each side.
353
Teaching Tip In Example 1(b), 560
stress that 75.8 does not represent ln = 0.00609x ln ex = x, for all x.
353
the time for carbon dioxide to
double. It represents the time since
1990 that the preindustrial level of x=
1 # ln 560 1
Multiply by 0.00609 and rewrite.
0.00609 353
280 ppm took to double. Mention
that the solution to x ≈ 75.8 Use a calculator.
2= e0.00609x
Since x = 0 corresponds to 1990, the preindustrial carbon dioxide level will
yields a doubling time of 114 yr. double in the 75th year after 1990, or during 2065, according to this model.
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 43.
2 = e0.03t Divide by P.
Teaching Tip Have students
solve Example 2 using interest ln 2 = ln e0.03t Take the natural logarithm on each side.
rates of 2%, 4%, and 10%.
Explain that the Rule of 72, ln 2 = 0.03t ln ex = x
72 ln 2
t= , =t Divide by 0.03.
r 0.03
is often used to approximate 23.10 ≈ t Use a calculator.
doubling times. Have students check
their answers against this rule. It will take about 23 yr for the amount to double. ■
✔ Now Try Exercise 31.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the world population reached 6 billion
people during 1999 and was growing exponentially. By the end of 2010, the pop-
ulation had grown to 6.947 billion. The projected world population (in billions
of people) t years after 2010 is given by the function
ƒ1t2 = 6.947e0.00745t.
(a) Based on this model, what will the world population be in 2025?
(b) If this trend continues, approximately when will the world population reach
Classroom Example 3 9 billion?
Refer to the model in Example 3. Solution
(a) Based on the model, what will
the world population be in (a) Since t = 0 represents the year 2010, in 2025, t would be 2025 - 2010 =
2020? 15 yr. We must find ƒ1t2 when t is 15.
(b) If this trend continues,
approximately when will ƒ1t2 = 6.947e0.00745t Given function
the world population reach ƒ1152 = 6.947e0.007451152 Let t = 15.
8 billion?
ƒ1152 ≈ 7.768 Use a calculator.
Answers:
(a) 7.484 billion The population will be 7.768 billion at the end of 2025.
(b) It will reach 8 billion during
the year 2028. (b) ƒ1t2 = 6.947e0.00745t Given function
9 = 6.947e0.00745t Let ƒ1t2 = 9.
9
= e0.00745t Divide by 6.947.
6.947
9
ln = ln e0.00745t Take the natural logarithm on each side.
6.947
9
ln = 0.00745t ln ex = x, for all x.
6.947
9
ln 6.947
t= Divide by 0.00745 and rewrite.
0.00745
t ≈ 34.8 Use a calculator.
Thus, 34.8 yr after 2010, during the year 2044, world population will reach
9 billion.
■✔ Now Try Exercise 39.
Solution
1
(a) If y0 is the amount of radiocarbon present in a living thing, then 2 y0 is half
this initial amount. We substitute and solve the given equation for t.
y = y0 e -0.0001216t Given equation
1
y = y0 e -0.0001216t Let y = 12 y0 .
2 0
1
= e -0.0001216t Divide by y0 .
2
1
ln = ln e -0.0001216t Take the natural logarithm on each side.
2
1
ln = - 0.0001216t ln e x = x, for all x.
2
1
ln 2
=t Divide by -0.0001216.
- 0.0001216
5700 ≈ t Use a calculator.
Newton’s law of cooling says that the rate at which a body cools is proportional
to the difference in temperature between the body and the environment around
it. The temperature ƒ1t2 of the body at time t in appropriate units after being
introduced into an environment having constant temperature T0 is
A pot of coffee with a temperature of 100°C is set down in a room with a tem-
perature of 20°C. The coffee cools to 60°C after 1 hr.
(a) Write an equation to model the data.
(b) Find the temperature after half an hour.
(c) How long will it take for the coffee to cool to 50°C?
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
1
ƒ a b = 20 + 80e1-0.693211/22 Let t = 12 .
2
1
ƒ a b ≈ 76.6°C Use a calculator.
2
(c) To find how long it will take for the coffee to cool to 50°C, let ƒ1t2 = 50.
ƒ1t2 = 20 + 80e -0.693t Model from part (a)
50 = 20 + 80e -0.693t Let ƒ1t2 = 50.
30 = 80e -0.693t Subtract 20.
3
= e -0.693t Divide by 80.
8
3
ln = ln e -0.693t Take the natural logarithm on each side.
8
3
ln = - 0.693t ln e x = x, for all x.
8
3
ln 8
t= Divide by -0.693 and rewrite.
- 0.693
t ≈ 1.415 hr, or about 1 hr, 25 min ■
✔ Now Try Exercise 27.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
4.6 Exercises
1. B
2. D Concept Preview Population Growth A population is increasing according to the
3. C
4. A exponential function
5. B
6. D y = 2e0.02x,
7. C
8. A where y is in millions and x is the number of years. Match each question in Column I
1 1 1 1 with the correct procedure in Column II to answer the question.
9. 3 ln 3 10. ln
6 3
I II
1 1 1 1
11. 100 ln 2 12. 200 ln 2
1. How long will it take for the population to A. Evaluate y = 2e0.0211/32.
1
13. 2 ln 4
1 1
14. 4 ln 9
1 triple?
2. When will the population reach 3 million? B. Solve 2e0.02x = 6.
15. (a) 440 g (b) 387 g
(c) 264 g (d) 22 yr 3. How large will the population be in 3 yr? C. Evaluate y = 2e0.02132.
4. How large will the population be in 4 months? D. Solve 2e0.02x = 3.
(Modeling) The exercises in this set are grouped according to discipline. They involve
exponential or logarithmic models. See Examples 1–6.
Physical Sciences (Exercises 9–28)
An initial amount of a radioactive substance y0 is given, along with information about
the amount remaining after a given time t in appropriate units. For an equation of the
form y = y0 ekt that models the situation, give the exact value of k in terms of natural
logarithms.
9. y0 = 60 g; After 3 hr, 20 g remain. 10. y0 = 30 g; After 6 hr, 10 g remain.
11. y0 = 10 mg; The half-life is 100 days. 12. y0 = 20 mg; The half-life is 200 days.
13. y0 = 2.4 lb; After 2 yr, 0.6 lb remains. 14. y0 = 8.1 kg; After 4 yr, 0.9 kg remains.
16. (a) 404 g (b) 327 g 16. Decay of Plutonium Repeat Exercise 15 for 500 g of plutonium-241, which decays
(c) 173 g (d) 13 yr according to the function A1t2 = A0 e -0.053t, where t is time in years.
17. 1600 yr 18. 12 yr
17. Decay of Radium Find the half-life of radium-226, which decays according to the
19. 3.6 g 20. 0.88 g function A1t2 = A0 e -0.00043t, where t is time in years.
21. 16 days
22. Magnitude 1 is about 6.3 18. Decay of Tritium Find the half-life of tritium, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen,
times as great as magnitude 3. which decays according to the function A1t2 = A0 e -0.056t, where t is time in years.
23. 9000 yr 24. 4200 yr 19. Radioactive Decay If 12 g of a radioactive substance are present initially and 4 yr
25. 15,600 yr 26. 43°C later only 6.0 g remain, how much of the substance will be present after 7 yr?
27. 6.25°C 28. 81.25°C
20. Radioactive Decay If 1 g of strontium-90 is present initially, and 2 yr later 0.95 g
29. (a) 3% compounded quarterly remains, how much strontium-90 will be present after 5 yr?
(b) $826.95 21. Decay of Iodine How long will it take any quantity of iodine-131 to decay to 25%
of its initial amount, knowing that it decays according to the exponential function
A1t2 = A0 e -0.087t, where t is time in days?
22. Magnitude of a Star The magnitude M
of a star is modeled by
5 I
M=6- log ,
2 I0
30. 5.61 yr 30. Growth of an Account If Russ (see Exercise 29) chooses the plan with continuous
31. 27.73 yr compounding, how long will it take for his $60,000 to grow to $70,000?
32. The time will be divided by 3. 31. Doubling Time Find the doubling time of an investment earning 2.5% interest if
33. 36.62 yr interest is compounded continuously.
34. 39 yr, 347 days
32. Doubling Time If interest is compounded continuously and the interest rate is
35. (a) 315 (b) 229 (c) 142 tripled, what effect will this have on the time required for an investment to double?
36. 1968 33. Growth of an Account How long will it take an investment to triple if interest is
37. (a) P0 = 1; a ≈ 1.01355 compounded continuously at 3%?
(b) 1.3 billion
(c) 2030 34. Growth of an Account Use the Table feature of a graphing calculator to find how
38. (a) 961,000 long it will take $1500 invested at 2.75% compounded daily to triple in value.
(b) 7.2 yr Zoom in on the solution by systematically decreasing the increment for x. Find the
(c) 17.3 yr answer to the nearest day. (Find the answer to the nearest day by eventually letting
1
the increment of x equal 365 . The decimal part of the solution can be multiplied by
365 to determine the number of days greater than the nearest year. For example,
if the solution is determined to be 16.2027 yr, then multiply 0.2027 by 365 to get
73.9855. The solution is then, to the nearest day, 16 yr, 74 days.) Confirm the
answer algebraically.
36. Legislative Turnover Use the model in Exercise 35 to determine the year in which
the number of continuously serving members was 338.
37. Population Growth In 2000 India’s population reached 1 billion, and it is projected
to be 1.4 billion in 2025. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau.)
(a) Find values for P0 and a so that P1x2 = P0 a x - 2000 models the population of India
in year x. Round a to five decimal places.
(b) Predict India’s population in 2020 to the nearest tenth of a billion.
(c) In what year is India’s population expected to reach 1.5 billion?
38. Population Decline A midwestern city finds its residents moving to the suburbs. Its
population is declining according to the function
P1t2 = P0 e -0.04t,
where t is time measured in years and P0 is the population at time t = 0. Assume that
P0 = 1,000,000.
(a) Find the population at time t = 1 to the nearest thousand.
(b) How long, to the nearest tenth of a year, will it take for the population to decline
to 750,000?
(c)
How long, to the nearest tenth of a year, will it take for the population to decline
to half the initial number?
39. (a) $8412 39. Health Care Spending Out-of-pocket spending in the United States for health care
(b) 2010 increased between 2008 and 2012. The function
40. $998 billion
ƒ1x2 = 7446e0.0305x
41. (a) $14,542
(b) $16,162 models average annual expenditures per household, in dollars. In this model, x rep-
(c) $17,494 resents the year, where x = 0 corresponds to 2008. (Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor
42. (a) 348 yr Statistics.)
(b) 3974 yr (a) Estimate out-of-pocket household spending on health care in 2012 to the nearest
(c) 2288 yr dollar.
(b) In what year did spending reach $7915 per household?
40. Recreational Expenditures Personal
consumption expenditures for recre-
ation in billions of dollars in the United
States during the years 2000–2013 can
be approximated by the function
A1t2 = 632.37e0.0351t,
where t = 0 corresponds to the year
2000. Based on this model, how much
were personal consumption expenditures
in 2013 to the nearest billion? (Source:
U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.)
41. Housing Costs Average annual per-household spending on housing over the years
2000–2012 is approximated by
H = 12,744e0.0264t,
where t is the number of years since 2000. Find H to the nearest dollar for each year.
(Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.)
(a) 2005 (b) 2009 (c) 2012
42. Evolution of Language The number of years, n, since two independently evolving
languages split off from a common ancestral language is approximated by
n ≈ - 7600 log r,
where r is the proportion of words from the ancestral language common to both
languages. Find each of the following to the nearest year.
(a) Find n if r = 0.9. (b) Find n if r = 0.3.
(c) How many years have elapsed since the split if half of the words of the ancestral
language are common to both languages?
43. School District Growth Student enrollment in the Wentzville School District, one
of the fastest-growing school districts in the state of Missouri, has projected growth
as shown in the graph.
y Enrollment Projections
20,000 19,915
19,000
Projected Enrollment
18,000
17,000
16,000
15,000
14,000 14,225
0 x
13–14 14–15 15–16 16–17 17–18 18–19 19–20 20–21 21–22 22–23 23–24
School Year
Source: Wentzville School District.
43. (a) y = 14,225e0.034x (a) Use the model y = y0 ekx to find an exponential function that gives the projected
(b) 2025–26 enrollment y in school year x. Let the school year 2013–14 correspond to x = 0,
44. (a) y = 100e0.309x 2014–15 correspond to x = 1, and so on, and use the two points indicated on the
(b) 1,061,475 graph.
(b) Estimate the school year for which projected enrollment will be 21,500 students.
45. (a) 15,000
(b) 9098 44. YouTube Views The number of views of a YouTube video increases after the num-
(c) 5249 ber of hours posted as shown in the table.
46. 14 days
47. (a) 611 million Hour Number of Views
(b) 746 million
20 100
(c) 1007 million
48. 6.9 days 25 517
49. 13.2 hr 30 2015
35 10,248
(a) Use the model y = y0 ekx to find an exponential function that gives projected
number of views y after number of hours x. Let hour 20 correspond to x = 0,
hour 25 correspond to x = 5, and so on, and use the first and last data values
given in the table.
(b) Estimate the number of views after 50 hr.
50. (a) 250,000 50. Population Size Many environmental situations place effective limits on the growth
G(x) =
100+ 2400e−x of the number of an organism in an area. Many such limited-growth situations are
2500
described by the logistic function
MG0
G1x2 = ,
G0 + 1M - G02e -kMx
0 8
0 where G0 is the initial number present, M is the maximum possible size of the popu-
(b) 590; 589 lation, and k is a positive constant. The screens illustrate a typical logistic function
(c) 2.8; 2.7726 calculation and graph.
51. 2020
52. (a) S112 ≈ 45,000;
70
S132 ≈ 37,000
(b) S122 ≈ 72,000;
S1102 ≈ 49,000
53. 6.9 yr 54. 27.5 yr
−1 65
−5
55. 11.6 yr 56. 34.7 yr 55. Electricity Consumption Suppose that in a certain area the consumption of elec-
tricity has increased at a continuous rate of 6% per year. If it continued to increase
57. (a) 0.065; 0.82; Among at this rate, find the number of years, to the nearest tenth, before twice as much elec-
people age 25, 6.5% have tricity would be needed.
some CHD, while among
people age 65, 82% have 56. Electricity Consumption Suppose a conservation campaign, together with higher
some CHD. rates, caused demand for electricity to increase at only 2% per year. (See Exercise 55.)
(b) 48 yr Find the number of years, to the nearest tenth, before twice as much electricity
58. (a) would be needed.
x - y 3 = 0 or x - y 2 = 0
represents a function, solve the equation for y. In the first equation above, doing
so leads to
3
y= 2 x.
Notice that every value of x in the domain (that is, all real numbers) leads to one
and only one value of y. So in the first equation, we can write y as a function of x.
However, in the second equation above, solving for y leads to
y = { 2x.
16. A - ∞, - 25 B ´ A - 25, 25 B x3 - 1
16. ƒ1x2 = ln 0 x 2 - 5 0 17. ƒ1x2 = e x + x + 4
2
18. ƒ1x2 =
x2 - 1
´ A 25, ∞ B
17. 1- ∞, ∞2 -1 31
19. ƒ1x2 = 20. ƒ1x2 =
18. 1- ∞, - 12 ´ 1- 1, 12 ´ 11, ∞2 B x 3 - 1
B x 3 - 8
19. 1- ∞, 12
21. ƒ1x2 = ln 1x 2 + 12 22. ƒ1x2 = 21x - 321x + 221x - 42
20. 1- ∞, 22 ´ 12, ∞2
21. 1- ∞, ∞2 x+2 2 12
23. ƒ1x2 = log a b 24. ƒ1x2 = 214 - x221x + 32
22. 3 - 2, 34 ´ 34, ∞2 x-3
23. 1- ∞, - 22 ´ 1- 2, 32 ´ 13, ∞2 1
25. ƒ1x2 = e 0 1/x 0 26. ƒ1x2 =
24. 3 - 3, ∞2 0 x2 - 70
25. 1- ∞, 02 ´ 10, ∞2
27. ƒ1x2 = x 100 - x 50 + x 2 + 5 28. ƒ1x2 = 2- x 2 - 9
26. A - ∞, - 27 B ´ A - 27, 27 B
4 3
29. ƒ1x2 = 216 - x 4 30. ƒ1x2 = 216 - x 4
´ A 27, ∞ B
27. 1- ∞, ∞2 28. ∅ x 2 - 2x - 63 5
31. ƒ1x2 = 32. ƒ1x2 = 25 - x
29. 3 - 2, 24 30. 1- ∞, ∞2 B x 2 + x - 12
31. 1- ∞, - 74 ´ 1- 4, 32 ´ 39, ∞2
-1
32. 1- ∞, ∞2 33. ƒ1x2 = P 25 - x P 34. ƒ1x2 =
B -3
x
33. 1- ∞, 54 34. 1- ∞, 32
35. 1- ∞, 42 ´ 14, ∞2 1
36. ƒ1x2 = 6 x - 9
2
35. ƒ1x2 = log ` `
36. 1- ∞, ∞2
4-x
3
37. 1- ∞, - 54 ´ 35, ∞2 37. ƒ1x2 = 6 2x - 25
2
38. ƒ1x2 = 6 2 x - 25
2
38. 1- ∞, ∞2
-3 -2
39. 1- 2, 62 39. ƒ1x2 = ln a b 40. ƒ1x2 =
1x + 221x - 62 log x
40. 10, 12 ´ 11, ∞2
41. A 42. B
43. C 44. D Determine which one of the choices (A, B, C, or D) is an equation in which y can be
45. A 46. B written as a function of x.
47. D 48. C 41. A. 3x + 2y = 6 B. x = 2 0 y 0 C. x = 0 y + 3 0 D. x 2 + y 2 = 9
49. C 50. B
42. A. 3x 2 + 2y 2 = 36 B. x 2 + y - 2 = 0 C. x - 0 y 0 = 0 D. x = y 2 - 4
1
43. A. x = 2y 2 B. x = log y 2 C. x 3 + y 3 = 5 D. x =
y2 + 3
x2 y2 x2 y2
44. A. + = 1 B. x = 5y 2 - 3 C. - = 1 D. x = 10 y
4 4 4 9
2-y
C. 2x = 0 y + 1 0 D. 2x = y 2
4
45. A. x = B. x = ln 1y + 122
y+3
B. ey + 2 = x C. e 0 y 0 = x D. 10 0 y + 2 0 = x
2
46. A. ey = x
1 1 1 1
47. A. x 2 = B. x + 2 = C. 3x = D. 2x =
y2 y2 y4 y3
1
48. A. 0 x 0 = 0 y 0 B. x = 0 y 2 0 C. x = D. x 4 + y 4 = 81
y
x2 y2 y2 x2 x y x2 y2
49. A. - = 1 B. - = 1 C. - = 0 D. - =0
4 9 4 9 4 9 4 9
Key Terms
4.1 one-to-one function future value 4.3 logarithm 4.4 common logarithm
inverse function present value base pH
4.2 exponential function compound amount argument natural logarithm
exponential equation continuous logarithmic equation 4.6 doubling time
compound interest compounding logarithmic function half-life
New Symbols
ƒ−1 1 x2 inverse of ƒ1x2 log x common (base 10) logarithm of x
e a constant, approximately 2.718281828459045 ln x natural (base e) logarithm of x
log a x logarithm of x with the base a
Quick Review
Concepts Examples
Concepts Examples
Concepts Examples
Change-of-Base Theorem
For any positive real numbers x, a, and b, where a ≠ 1 and Approximate log8 7.
b ≠ 1, the following holds.
log b x log 7 ln 7
log a x = log8 7 = = ≈ 0.9358 Use a calculator.
log b a log 8 ln 8
3. one-to-one
4. one-to-one
5. not one-to-one x x x
6. not one-to-one 0 0 0
3
7. ƒ - 11x2 = 2 x+3
8. not possible
4. y = x 3 + 1 5. y = 1x + 322 6. y = 23x 2 + 2
9. It represents the number
of years after 2004 for the
investment to reach $50,000. Find the inverse of each function that is one-to-one.
10. yes
7. ƒ1x2 = x 3 - 3 8. ƒ1x2 = 225 - x 2
11. one-to-one 12. true
10
6 1
f (x) = Q R x + 2 1
5
4
2 −16.1 16.1
3 3
0 x
y = 1 –2
−10
1- ∞, ∞2; 1- 1, ∞2
11. To have an inverse, a function must be a(n) function.
21. 10 3 = 1000 22. 9 3/2 = 27
23. e1/2 = 2e 12. True or false? The x-coordinate of the x-intercept of the graph of y = ƒ1x2 is the
y-coordinate of the y-intercept of the graph of y = ƒ - 11x2.
Match each equation with the figure that most closely resembles its graph.
13. y = log0.3 x 14. y = ex 15. y = ln x 16. y = 0.3x
A. y B. y C. y D. y
x x x x
0 0 0 0
24. 3 24. Concept Check What is the base of the logarithmic function whose graph contains
25. 2 the point 181, 42?
26. 2 log5 x + 4 log5 y + 25. Concept Check What is the base of the exponential function whose graph contains
1
1
5 13 log5 m + log5 p2 the point A - 4, 16 B ?
27. log3 m + log3 n -
log3 5 - log3 r
28. This cannot be simplified. Use properties of logarithms to rewrite each expression. Simplify the result if possible.
Assume all variables represent positive real numbers.
29. - 1.3862 30. 1.6590 mn
26. log5 A x 2y 4 2m3p B
5
31. 11.8776 32. 6.1527 27. log3 28. log7 17k + 5r 22
5r
33. 1.1592 34. 6.0486
35. E F
22
5 36. 51.7926 Use a calculator to find an approximation to four decimal places for each logarithm.
37. 53.6676 38. 52.2696
29. log 0.0411 30. log 45.6 31. ln 144,000
39. 5 - 13.2576 40. 52.3866
5
41. 5 - 0.4856 42. 5 - 0.1236 32. ln 470 33. log2/3 34. log3 769
8
43. 52.1026 44. 5 - 17.5316
45. 5 - 2.4876 46. 526
47. 536 48. 5140.0116 Solve each equation. Unless otherwise specified, give irrational solutions as decimals
49. 5ln 36 50. ∅
correct to the nearest thousandth.
51. 56.9596 35. 16 x + 4 = 83x - 2 36. 4x = 12 37. 32x - 5 = 13
(b) 72. Earthquake Intensity The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 had a Richter scale
For t = x,
A(x) = 350 log (x + 1) rating of 8.3.
500 (a) E
xpress the magnitude of this earthquake in terms of I0 to the nearest hundred
thousand.
(b) In 1989, the San Francisco region experienced an earthquake with a Richter
scale rating of 7.1. Express the magnitude of this earthquake in terms of I0 to the
0 10 nearest hundred thousand.
0
(c) Compare the magnitudes of the two San Francisco earthquakes discussed in
(c) For t = x,
parts (a) and (b).
A(x) = 350 (0.75)x
500 73. Interest Rate What annual interest rate, to the nearest tenth, will produce $4700 if
$3500 is left at interest compounded annually for 10 yr?
74. Growth of an Account Find the number of years (to the nearest tenth) needed for
$48,000 to become $53,647 at 2.8% interest compounded semiannually.
0 10
0
75. Growth of an Account Manuel deposits $10,000 for 12 yr in an account paying 3%
(d) For t = x, interest compounded annually. He then puts this total amount on deposit in another
A(x) = 100 (0.95)x account paying 4% interest compounded semiannually for another 9 yr. Find the
500 total amount on deposit after the entire 21-yr period.
76. Growth of an Account Anne deposits $12,000 for 8 yr in an account paying 2.5%
interest compounded annually. She then leaves the money alone with no further
deposits at 3% interest compounded annually for an additional 6 yr. Find the total
0 10
0 amount on deposit after the entire 14-yr period.
Function (c) best describes A1t2.
77. Cost from Inflation Suppose the inflation rate is 4%. Use the formula for continu-
ous compounding to find the number of years, to the nearest tenth, for a $1 item to
cost $2.
78. (Modeling) Drug Level in the Bloodstream After a medical drug is injected
directly into the bloodstream, it is gradually eliminated from the body. Graph the
following functions on the interval 30, 104. Use 30, 5004 for the range of A1t2.
Determine the function that best models the amount A1t2 (in milligrams) of a drug
remaining in the body after t hours if 350 mg were initially injected.
(a) A1t2 = t 2 - t + 350 (b) A1t2 = 350 log1t + 12
(c) A1t2 = 35010.752t (d) A1t2 = 10010.952t
79. 2016 79. (Modeling) Chicago Cubs’ Payroll The table shows the total payroll (in millions
80. (a) See the graph in part (c). of dollars) of the Chicago Cubs baseball team for the years 2010–2014.
(b) An exponential function
best describes the data.
(c) Answers will vary. Total Payroll
One answer is Year (millions of dollars)
ƒ1x2 = 973,716(1.395)x. 2010 145.4
1.5 × 109 2011 134.3
2012 111.0
2013 107.4
0 25 2014 92.7
−108
Source: www.baseballprospectus.com/
(d) 7,797,000,000 compensation
81. (a) $15,207
(b) $10,716
Letting ƒ1x2 represent the total payroll and x represent the number of years since
(c) $4491
(d) They are the same. 2010, we find that the function
ƒ1x2 = 146.02e - 0.112x
models the data quite well. According to this function, when will the total payroll
halve its 2010 value?
80. (Modeling) Transistors on Computer Chips Computing power has increased dra-
matically as a result of the ability to place an increasing number of transistors on
a single processor chip. The table lists the number of transistors on some popular
computer chips made by Intel.
ake a scatter diagram of the data. Let the x-axis represent the year, where x = 0
(a) M
corresponds to 1989, and let the y-axis represent the number of transistors.
(b) D
ecide whether a linear, a logarithmic, or an exponential function best describes
the data.
(c) D
etermine a function ƒ that approximates these data. Plot ƒ and the data on the
same coordinate axes.
(d) A
ssuming that this trend continues, use ƒ to estimate the number of transistors
on a chip, to the nearest million, in the year 2016.
81. Financial Planning The traditional IRA (individual retirement account) is a com-
mon tax-deferred saving plan in the United States. Earned income deposited into an
IRA is not taxed in the current year, and no taxes are incurred on the interest paid
in subsequent years. However, when the money is withdrawn from the account after
1
age 59 2 , taxes must be paid on the entire amount withdrawn.
Suppose we deposited $5000 of earned income into an IRA, we can earn an
annual interest rate of 4%, and we are in a 25% tax bracket. (Note: Interest rates and
tax brackets are subject to change over time, but some assumptions must be made
to evaluate the investment.) Also, suppose that we deposit the $5000 at age 25 and
withdraw it at age 60, and that interest is compounded continuously.
82. (a) log412x 2 - x2 = (a) How much money will remain after we pay the taxes at age 60?
ln 12x 2 - x2 (b) S
uppose that instead of depositing the money into an IRA, we pay taxes on
ln 4
the money and the annual interest. How much money will we have at age 60?
(b) ln (2x2 − x)
y= (Note: We effectively start with $3750 (75% of $5000), and the money earns 3%
ln 4
2.5 (75% of 4%) interest after taxes.)
(c) To the nearest dollar, how much additional money will we earn with the IRA?
−2.5 2.5
(d) Suppose we pay taxes on the original $5000 but are then able to earn 4% in a
tax-free investment. Compare the balance at age 60 with the IRA balance.
−5 82. Consider ƒ1x2 = log4 12x 2 - x2.
1
(c) A - 2 , 0 B , 11, 02 (a) Use the change-of-base theorem with base e to write log4 12x 2 - x2 in a suitable
1 form to graph with a calculator.
(d) x = 0, x = 2
(e) There is no y-intercept raph the function using a graphing calculator. Use the window 3 - 2.5, 2.54 by
(b) G
because the domain of 3 - 5, 2.54.
a logarithm must be a (c) What are the x-intercepts?
positive number, and the (d) Give the equations of the vertical asymptotes.
argument 2x 2 - x is
(e) Why is there no y-intercept?
positive for 1- ∞, 02 ´ A 12 , ∞ B
only.
Chapter 4 Test
3
[4.1] 1. Consider the function ƒ1x2 = 22x - 7.
1. (a) 1- ∞, ∞2; 1- ∞, ∞2 (a) What are the domain and range of ƒ?
(b) The graph is a stretched
3 (b) Explain why ƒ - 1 exists.
translation of y = 2 x,
which passes the horizon- (c) Write an equation for ƒ - 11x2.
tal line test and is thus a (d) What are the domain and range of ƒ - 1?
one-to-one function.
x3 + 7 (e) Graph both ƒ and ƒ - 1. How are the two graphs related with respect to the line
(c) ƒ - 11x2 = 2 y = x?
(d) 1- ∞, ∞2; 1- ∞, ∞2
(e) 3
2. Match each equation with its graph.
y –1 x +7 f (x) =
2 1 x
10 (a) y = log1/3 x (b) y = e x (c) y = ln x (d) y = a b
3
f(x) = 2x – 7 3
–10 0 x
10 A. y B. C.
y y D. y
–10
3
4. (a) log4 8 = 2
4. (a) Write 43/2 = 8 in logarithmic form.
(b) 82/3 = 4 2
(b) Write log8 4 = 3 in exponential form.
[4.1–4.3] x
5. y 5. Graph ƒ1x2 = A 12 B and g1x2 = log1/2 x on the same axes. What is their relationship?
4 6. Use properties of logarithms to rewrite the expression. Assume all variables repre-
()
x
f(x) = 12
1 sent positive real numbers.
x
0 1 4 4
g(x) = log1/2 x
x 2 2y
log7
z3
They are inverses.
Copyright Pearson. All Rights Reserved.
[4.3] Use a calculator to find an approximation to four decimal places for each logarithm.
1
6. 2 log7 x + 4 log7 y - 3 log7 z
7. log 2388 8. ln 2388
9. log9 13
[4.4] 10. Solve x 2/3 = 25.
7. 3.3780 8. 7.7782
9. 1.1674
Solve each equation. Give irrational solutions as decimals correct to the nearest thou-
[4.2] sandth.
10. 5{1256
11. 12x = 1 12. 9 x = 4 13. 16 2x + 1 = 83x
11. 506
14. 2x + 1 = 3x - 4 15. e0.4x = 4x - 2
[4.5]
16. 2e2x - 5ex + 3 = 0 (Give both exact and approximate values.)
12. 50.6316
[4.2]
Solve each equation. Give solutions in exact form.
13. 546
9
[4.5] 17. logx = 2 18. log2 31x - 421x - 224 = 3
16
14. 512.5486 1
19. log2 x + log2 1x + 22 = 3 20. ln x - 4 ln 3 = ln x
15. 52.8116 5
16. E 0, ln 2 F ; 50, 0.4056
3
21. log3 1x + 12 - log3 1x - 32 = 2
22. A friend is taking another mathematics course and says, “I have no idea what an
[4.3]
expression like log5 27 really means.” Write an explanation of what it means, and
17. E 4 F
3
tell how we can find an approximation for it with a calculator.
[4.5]
18. 50, 66 Solve each problem.
19. 526 23. (Modeling) Skydiver Fall Speed A skydiver in free fall travels at a speed modeled by
2 0. ∅
v1t2 = 17611 - e -0.18t2
21. E 2 F
7
feet per second after t seconds. How long, to the nearest second, will it take for the
[4.4] skydiver to attain a speed of 147 ft per sec (100 mph)?
22. The expression log5 27 repre-
sents the exponent to which 5 24. Growth of an Account How many years, to the nearest tenth, will be needed for
must be raised in order to $5000 to increase to $18,000 at 3.0% annual interest compounded (a) monthly
obtain 27. To approximate (b) continuously?
it with a calculator, use the
25. Tripling Time For any amount of money invested at 2.8% annual interest com-
change-of-base theorem.
pounded continuously, how long, to the nearest tenth of a year, will it take to triple?
log 27
log5 27 = ≈ 2.0478 26. (Modeling) Radioactive Decay The amount of a certain radioactive material, in
log 5 grams, present after t days is modeled by
[4.6] A1t2 = 600e -0.05t.
23. 10 sec
(a) Find the amount present after 12 days, to the nearest tenth of a gram.
24. (a) 42.8 yr (b) 42.7 yr
25. 39.2 yr (b) Find the half-life of the material, to the nearest tenth of a day.
26. (a) 329.3 g (b) 13.9 days