Purposive Communication

Module 1
Understanding 21st Century Communication
1. COMMUNICATION
Alexander (1984) stated that communication occurs when a sender expresses an emotion or a
feeling, creates an idea, or senses the need to communicate. The communication process is
triggered when the sender makes a conscious or an unconscious decision to share the message with
another person —the receiver. It is a process wherein the exchange of information between two or
more people (Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018). Keyton (2011) supported this notion of
communication when he defined it as Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting
information and common understanding from one person to another. For communication to
succeed, both the participants must be able to exchange information and understand each other. If
this flow of information is interrupted or blocked communication fails. The word communication is
derived from the Latin word, ― “communis”, which means common. In our everyday living, for a
communication to be effectively transmitted, elements of communication must be present and these
include a) Speaker, b) Message, c) Receiver, d) Channel, e) Feedback, and f) Communicative
Situation.

Alexander (1984) further explains that every communicative act is based on something that conveys
meaning, and that conveyance is the message. The message may be either verbal (spoken or
written) or nonverbal (body language, physical appearance, or vocal tone). Messages may also come
from the context—or place and time—of the communication. For instance, if you choose to make a
critical comment to someone, the place and the time you choose to make that comment will make a
big impact on how it will be received.

Moreover, every message is sent and received through one of our five senses—it is seen, heard,
touched, tasted, or smelled. The sensory media through which messages are sent and received are
communication channels. In a work setting, messages may be seen through body movement, letters,
memos, newsletters, bulletin board notices, signs, emails, and so on. Messages that are heard come
through conversations, interviews, presentations, telephones, radios, and other audio media. Sight
and sound are the two most frequent communication channels used in our society.

When the receiver gets the message (through seeing, hearing, feeling, touching, or smelling), he or
she will usually give feedback (return message) unconsciously or consciously. Thus, the
communications process is on-going.

The worst assumption a sender of a message can make is that the message will be received as
intended. So many things can go wrong during the communications process that we should always
assume that something will go wrong and take steps to prevent that occurrence. Barriers to good
communications are always present. For instance, the language itself can be a barrier—unclear
wording, slang, jargon, the tone. Another barrier is the failure of the sender to realize that his or her
body language might contradict the spoken message. The channel used to convey the message
might be wrong. For instance, you would not use the telephone to relay a lot of statistical
information; you would need to write that message on paper. Poor listening skills can constitute a
barrier also (Alexander, 1984).

DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Communication is a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create
shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills:
 Intrapersonal and interpersonal processing
  Listening
 Observing
 Speaking
 Questioning
 Analyzing
 Evaluating

2. It can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic

rules:
• Syntactic
• Pragmatic
• Semantic

3. It is therefore a social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set
of signs and a common set of semiotic rules.

4. The Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary defines communication, as the act of passing
news, information…, the act of sharing or exchanging thoughts, ideas, feelings with others or
with a group; the act of participating with or sharing in common, the ―we-belong-to-
same-feeling‖ as in communication with… or the act of thinking about oneself.

5. Communication is derived from the Latin word ‗communis,‘which means,―Belonging to

many‖ or ―equally‖ and ―communico‖ – to confer with others. It is the mutual exchange of
information, ideas, and understanding by any effective means (Ballesterros, 2003).

6. Communication refers to the process of human beings responding to the symbolic

behavior of other persons (Adler and Rodman, 1997).
• COMMUNICATION IS HUMAN.
• COMMUNICATION IS A PROCESS.
• COMMUNICATION IS SYMBOLIC.

7. The communication done by animals is relatively different from humans. The manner by
which we communicate or use different gestures, facial expression, etc. to communicate is
different from the dance that is done by bees to instruct their hive-mates on the location
of food or the chimpanzees that have been taught to express themselves using sign language
like deaf humans.

8. We often talk about communication as if it occurred in discrete, individual acts. In fact

communication is a continuous, ongoing process. Consider, for example, a friend‘s
compliment about your appearance. Your interpretation of those words will depend on a
long series of experiences stretching far back in time: how have others judged your
appearance? How do you feel about your looks? How honest has your friend been in the
past? How have you been feeling about one another recently? All of this history will help
shape your response to the other person‘s remark. In turn, the words you speak and the way
you say them will shape the way your friend behaves toward you and others- both in this
situation and in the future. This example shows that it‘s inaccurate to talk about
―acts of communication as if they occurred in isolation. To put it differently, communication
isn‘t a series of incidents pasted together like photographs in a scrapbook; instead, it is
more like a motion picture in which the meaning comes from the unfolding of an
interrelated series of images. The fact that communication is a process is reflected in the
transactional model.
 9. Symbols are used to represent things, processes, ideas, or events in ways that make
communication possible. The most significant feature of symbols is their arbitrary nature.
For example, there‘s no logical reason why the letters in book should stand for the object
you‘re reading in class. Speakers of Spanish call it a libro, and Germans label it a Buch.
Even in English, another term would work just as well as long as everyone agreed to use it in
the same way. We overcome the arbitrary nature of symbols by linguistic rules and customs.
Effective communication depends on agreement among people about these rules. This is
easiest to see when we observe people who don‘t follow linguistic conventions. For
example, recall how unusual the speech of children and immigrant speakers of a language
sounds.

10. In addition to this, nonverbal communication can have symbolic meaning. As with words,
some nonverbal behaviors, though arbitrary, have clearly agreed - upon meanings. For
example, to most North Americans placement of a thumb and first finger together while
facing the palm of the hand outward stands for the idea of something being ―OK. But even
more than words, many nonverbal behaviors are ambiguous. Does a frown signify
anger or unhappiness? Does a hug stand for a friendly greeting or a symbol of the hugger‘s
romantic interest in you? One can‘t always be sure (Adler and Rodman, 1997).

Other Concepts of Communication

1. Allen Louis – Communication is the sum of all things (telling, listening and understanding). It
is a systematic activity under any given circumstances.

2. Henry Kuntz – Communication is the transferring of information from one person to another
whether or not he/she elicits that confidence.

3. George Terry – Communication is the exchange of ideals, feelings, and emotions

between two or more persons.

4. Keith Davis – The purpose of passing information and understanding between two
persons without the bridge of communication no one can cross the river of understanding.

Types of Communication According to

Mode
A message may be impart through these types; verbal-non-verbal and visual. While communication
is often thought of as verbal, the non-verbal mode is equally essential as it enhances one’s message.

A. VERBAL COMMUNICATION

- (Linguistics) The process of sending and receiving messages with words, including writing
and sign language.
- It refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally.
- Communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION: ORAL

 • Spoken words are used
• It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio,
television, voice over internet.
• Communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.

Verbal Communication: Oral- Advantages

• It brings quick feedback.
• In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can guess
whether he/she should trust what‘s being said or not.
• It saves time in communication.
• It is quick in obtaining feedback once delivered.
• It provides complete understanding of communication delivered and there is chance to
make it clearer in case of doubts in interpretation of words or ideas.
• It is more reliable method of communication.
• It is flexible and effective for all.
• It is powerful means of persuasion and control.
• It is cheaper way of communication and hence saves money.

Verbal Communication: Oral- Disadvantages

• It has issues when communicating with distant people.
• It is difficult for certain people to understand speech due to various speech tones used in
verbal communication.
• This form of communication is not suitable for lengthy message.
• There is chance of leak of secret information with the help of modern devices such as
polygraph or lie detector. Often secret information can be obtained while the person is
under the influence of alcohol.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION: WRITTEN

• In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate.
• In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo
etc.
• Written communication is most common form of communication being used in business.

Verbal Communication: Written- Advantages

• Messages can be edited and revised
• Written communication provide record and backup.
• A written communication enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate
feedback
• Easy to preserve: The documents of written communication are easy to preserve. Oral
and non-verbal communication cannot be preserved. If it is needed, important information
can be collected from the preserved documents.
• Easy presentation of complex matter: Written communication is the best way to represent
any complex matter easily and attractively.
• Permanent record: The documents of written communication act as a permanent record.
• When it is needed, important information can be easily collected from the preserved
documents.
• Prevention of wastage of time and money: Written communication prevents the waste of
money and time. Without meeting with each other the communicator and communicate
can exchange their views.
• Accurate presentation: Through the documents of the written communication top executive
can present the information more accurately and clearly. As it is a legal document everybody
 takes much care does draft it.
• Use as a reference: If it is needed, written communication can be used as future reference.
• Delegation of authority: Written communication can help the authority to delegate the
power and authority to the subordinate. It is quite impossible to delegate power without a
written document.
• Longevity: Written document can be preserved for a long time easily. That is why; all the
important issues of an organization should be back and white.
• Effective communication: Written communication helps to make communication
effective. It is more dependable and effective than those of other forms of communication.
• Maintaining image: Written communication helps to maintain the images of both the person
and the organization. It also protects the images of the company or organization.
• Proper information: It is a proper and complete communication system. There is no
opportunity to include any unnecessary information in a written document.
• Less distortion possibility: In this communication system information is recorded
permanently. So, there is less possibility of distortion and alteration of the information.
• No opportunity to misinterpret: there is any opportunity to misinterpret the information or
messages of written communication.
• Controlling tool: Written communication can help to control the organizational activity. The
written document may be used as a tool for controlling.
• Easy to verify: The information and messages that are preserved can be verified easily. If
there arises any misunderstanding any party can easily verify the information.
• Others: Clear understanding, Legal document, Acceptability, Reduction of risk, Creating
confidence, Easy circulation, Wide access or coverage etc.

Verbal Communication: Written- Disadvantages

• Expensive: Written communication is comparatively expensive. For this communication

paper, pen, ink, typewriter, computer and a large number of employees are needed.
• Time consuming: Written communication takes time to communicate with others. It is a time
consuming media. It costs the valuable time of both the writer and the reader.
• Red-Taoism: Red-Taoism is one of the most disadvantages of written communication. It
means to take time for approval of a project.
• Useless for illiterate person: It messages receiver is illiterate, written communication is quite
impossible. This is major disadvantage written communication.
• Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an unexpected medium to keep business secrecy. Secrecy
is not always possible to maintain through written communication. Because here
needs to discuss everything in black and white.
• Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents cannot be changed easily at any time. Lack of
flexibility is one of the most important limitations of written communication.
• Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message receiver; prompt
response is not possible in case of written communication that is possible in oral
communication.
• Delay in decision making: Written communication takes much time to communicate
with all the parties concerned. So the decision maker cannot take decisions quickly.
• Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and expensive to keep all the records in written
communication.
• Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses complex words in writing a message. It becomes
difficult to meaning out to the reader. So the objectives of the communication may lose.
• Lack of direct relation: If there is no direct relation between the writer and the reader, writer
communication cannot help to establish a direct relation between them.
• Other: Prompt feedback is impossible, Slowness, Bureaucratic attitude,
 • Understanding problem between boss and subordinates, lack in quick clarification and
correction, formality problem, lack of personal intimacy, etc.

B. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. Such gesture,

body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions is called nonverbal communication. It is
all about the body language of speaker.

It has three elements:

1. Appearance (speaker) - Clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics; Appearance

(surrounding) – room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings
2. Body language - facial expressions, gestures, postures
3. Sounds - voice tone, volume, speech rate

C. VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Visual communication, on the other hand, is the type of communication that uses visuals to convey
information and/or messages. Some examples are signs, symbol, imagery, maps, graphs, charts,
diagrams, pictograms, photos, drawings or illustrations, and even various forms of electronic
communication.

Visual communication now occupies an important place in any work environment. For instance,
during presentations, instructors, managers, doctors, lawyers, legislators and the like use visuals to
transfer data into digestible information. Very likely, they have greater success in catching the
attention of the audience making the latter easily recall the information.

Verbal Communication: Visual- Advantages

It makes use of technology that provides apps (applications), videos and images that rely less on the
printed word making presentations more interesting. This leaves a powerful effect on the audience
and prospective clients.

Speakers/presenters should be mindful of the content of their presentation since wrong and
irrelevant information may lead to miscommunication. Likewise, they should pay attention to
graphic elements, such as position, color, size, shape and orientation as all these play an important
role in the presentation of slides. Audience size should be considered as well when preparing slide
presentations or other forms of visuals.

Types of Communication According to

Context
This sub-section, context in communication is referred to as composite of people interacting with
each other. Communication may also be classified according to context: (1) intrapersonal; (2)
interpersonal

A. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The Latin prefixes intra-means within or inside. Intrapersonal communication then

means talking to oneself. Some label it as self or inner talk, inner dialogue. Psychologists call it with
other names such as self-verbalization or self-statement.

Intrapersonal communication can be defined also as communication with one’s self, and that
may include self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and even recall and memory
(McLean, 2005).

Communications expert Leonard Shedletsky examined intrapersonal communication through the

eight basic components of the communication process (i.e., source, receiver, message, channel,
feedback, environment, context, and interference) as transactional, but all the interaction occurs
within the individual (Shedletsky, 1989). From planning to problem solving, internal conflict
resolution, and evaluations and judgments of self and others, we communicate with ourselves
through intrapersonal communication. All this interaction takes place in the mind without
externalization, and all of it relies on previous interaction with the external world.

B. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal communication can be defined as communication between two people, but the
definition fails to capture the essence of a relationship. This broad definition is useful when we
compare it to intrapersonal communication, or communication with ourselves, as opposed to mass
communication, or communication with a large audience, but it requires clarification. The
developmental view of interpersonal communication places emphasis on the relationship rather
than the size of the audience, and draws a distinction between impersonal and personal interactions.
Family for many is the first experience in interpersonal relationships, but as we develop
professionally, our relationships at work may take on many of the attributes we associate with family
communication. We look to each other with similar sibling rivalries, competition for attention and
resources, and support. The workplace and our peers can become as close, or closer, than our
birth families, with similar challenges and rewards. To summarize, interpersonal relationships are an
important part of the work environment.

COMMUNICATION AS PROCESS
In a survey conducted by the Katz Business School at the University of Pittsburg, organizations rated
communication skills as the most important factor used in selecting their management staff. The
study found that oral and written communication skills were important in predicting job success, as
was the ability to communicate well with others in the workplace (Mtd Training, 2010).

This result makes sense after all since communication is innate to us. Therefore for us to be able to
communicate well is important. If we are not able to communicate well, the messages we send get
lost in translation (Mtd Training, 2010). Similarly, Bernales, Balon and Biligan (2018) stated that
when the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties cannot make themselves
understood, then communication fails.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

• Speaking and listening are vital elements of communication. Therefore, in any
communication situation, you are both speaker and listener. (Villamarzo, 2003)

• Eugene White (1960) mentions eight stages in the cycle of communication.

These are:
- Thinking
- Symbolizing
 - Expressing
- Transmitting
- Receiving
- Decoding
- Reacting
- Monitoring

• Roman Jacobson mentions the following as components of communication:

- Addressor (speaker)
- Addressee (listener)
- Context (situation)
- Contact
- Code, and
- Message

• Gronbeck defines model as ―a picture or a representation of a thing or process that

identifies the key parts or elements and indicates how each element affects the operations
of all of the elements.

•Communication Model, therefore, is a sketch that shows the basic elements of the
communication process, and how each element affects the other elements in the entire
communication process as a system
COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. SPEAKER/ SENDER
• A person who sends the message
• A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphs or visual aids) to convey the message
and produce required response.
• Sender maybe an individual or a group or an organization
• The views, background, approach, skills, competencies and knowledge of the sender
have great impact on the message.
• The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called the
communicator or source. The sender has some kind of information – a command,
request, or idea – that he or she wants to share with others. In order for the message to
be received, the sender must first encode the message in a form that can be
understood and then transmit it.

2. MESSAGE
• Is the key idea that the sender wants to communicate
• It is a sign that elicits the response of the recipient.
• Communication process begin with decoding about the message to be conveyed.
• It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.
• Message is what you communicate verbally or non –verbally
• The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver.
It is relayed between the parties. Put all three together and you have the communication
process at its most basic.
• It also refers to the thoughts, ideas, or information that you convey to your listeners.
• Verbal delivery of messages includes:
- Elements of voice (rate, volume, pitch, and quality)
- Articulation, and
- Pronunciation
 - Verbal message consists of three variables:
- Content (is everything you say about something:
referential or relational) Ref- all relevant to your topic; Rel – a suggestion of any
relationship to your listeners
- Structure ( the pattern of organization you follow
- Style (how you express your ideas)

3. CHANNEL OR MEDIUM
 Is the means used to exchange or transmit the message
 The channel or medium is the language you use.
 The means through which the sender must choose an appropriate medium for
transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed.
 It is also called channel, the medium is the means by which a message is transmitted.
Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell phones.

4. RECEIVER OR LISTENER
 a person for whom the message is intended, aimed or targeted
 The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon
various factors such as: knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message,
and the reliance of the encoder on the decoder.
 The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter. In
order to comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able
to receive the sender‘s information and then decode or interpret it.

5. FEEDBACK
 Is the main component of the communication process as it permits the sender to
analyze the efficacy of the message?
 It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder.
 Feedback maybe verbal or non-verbal.
 The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been
successfully transmitted, received, and understood.
 The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension.
Feedback may be direct, such as written or verbal response, or it may take the form of
an act or deed in response.
 The communication process is not always simple or smooth, of course.
 Two other elements may affect how the message is transmitted, received, and
interpreted.

6. NOISE
 This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent, received, or
understood. It can be as literal as static over a phone line or esoteric as misinterpreting
a local custom.

7. SITUATION or CONTEXT
 It refers to the time and place in which communication occurs
 This is the setting and situation in which communication takes place.
 Like noise, context can have an impact of the successful exchange of information. It
may have a physical, social, or cultural aspect to it
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 The goal of communication is to convey information —and the understanding of that
information—from one person or group to another person or group. This communication
process is divided into three basic components: A sender transmits a message through a
channel to the receiver. (Figure shows a more elaborate model.) The sender first develops an
idea, which is composed into a message and then transmitted to the other party, who
interprets the message and receives meaning. Information theorists have added somewhat
more complicated language. Developing a message is known as encoding. Interpreting the
message is referred to as decoding.

 The other important feature is the feedback cycle. When two people interact,
communication is rarely one‐way only. When a person receives a message, she responds to
it by giving a reply. The feedback cycle is the same as the sender‐receiver feedback noted in
Figure 1. Otherwise, the sender can't know whether the other parties properly interpreted
the message or how they reacted to it. Feedback is especially significant in management
because a supervisor has to know how subordinates respond to directives and plans. The
manager also needs to know how work is progressing and how employees feel about the
general work situation.

 The critical factor in measuring the effectiveness of communication is common

understanding. Understanding exists when all parties involved have a mutual agreement as
to not only the information, but also the meaning of the information. Effective
communication, therefore, occurs when the intended message of the sender and the
interpreted message of the receiver are one and the same. Although this should be
the goal in any communication, it is not always achieved.

 The most efficient communication occurs at a minimum cost in terms of resources

expended. Time, in particular, is an important resource in the communication process. For
example, it would be virtually impossible for an instructor to take the time to communicate
individually with each student in a class about every specific topic covered. Even if it were
possible, it would be costly. This is why managers often leave voice mail messages and
 interact by e‐mail rather than visit their subordinates personally.

 However, efficient time‐saving communications are not always effective. A low‐cost

approach such as an e‐mail note to a distribution list may save time, but it does not always
result in everyone getting the same meaning from the message. Without opportunities to
ask questions and clarify the message, erroneous interpretations are possible. In addition to
a poor choice of communication method, other barriers to effective communication include
noise and other physical distractions, language problems, and failure to recognize nonverbal
signals.

 Sometimes communication is effective, but not efficient. A work team leader visiting each
team member individually to explain a new change in procedures may guarantee that
everyone truly understands the change, but this method may be very costly on the leader's
time. A team meeting would be more efficient. In these and other ways, potential tradeoffs
between effectiveness and efficiency occur. (―The Communication Process, n.d.)

The Communication Process

There are many communication models that can be used to visually describe different
communication situations. Here are some models that will allows us to get a deeper understanding
of the communication as process.

ARISTOTLE’S COMMUNICATION MODEL (1)

Figure 2. Aristotle’s Model of Communication

Aristotle proposed the model before 300 B.C. He found the importance of the audience role in
communication chain. This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal
communication.

Aristotle‘s Model of Communication is formed with five (5) basic elements, namely:
1. Speaker, 2. Speech, 3. Occasion, 4. Audience, and 5. Effect.

Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience on different time (occasion) and for
different effect.

ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION (2)

Aristotle defined communication (called RHETORIC in his time) as ―the faculty of observing, in any
given case, the available means of persuasion. The model shows the process which the speaker must
follow to communicate his idea or message to his intended listener. This process involves four steps:
 1) A Speaker discovers some logical, emotional and ethical proofs;
2) He arranges these materials strategically;
3) He clothes the ideas in clear, compelling words; and
4) He delivers the resulting speech appropriately.

IMPORTANT SKILLS OF A SPEAKER

The Aristotelian model seems to emphasize four important ―faculties or skills of a speaker, which he
must use (observe) as a means of persuading his listeners (audience) to act according to his please or
intentions.

These skills are as follows:

1) Logical reasoning skills coupled with the ability to present ethical and emotional
proofs of ideas he advances or proposes;
2) Skills in organizing or positioning his speech materials strategically
(or simply put, the proper ordering or sequencing of materials in order to help the
listener follow the speaker‘s thoughts to an effective close or ending);
3) Skills in presenting his ideas/ messages in clear and compelling words; and
4) Skills in delivering his resultant speech in appropriate oratorical style (e.g. correct
pronunciation, volume of voice, rate of speed, gestures or body language, timing,
etc.).

Figure 3. Aristotle’s Model of Communication (2)

Although not specifically indicated in the model above, it is clear that the communication process
has these elements: (1) a Speaker, (2) an Idea or Message, and (3) an Audience or Listener (s). It can
also be safely assumed that there is a channel chosen – the means to carry the idea or message
across to the listener; and the channel chosen is the human voice – the public speech instrument.

The Aristotelian model is SPEAKER-CENTERED. But, of course, during his time, the emphasis was the
training of speakers – public speakers called orators, skillful in the art of reasoning and persuasion.

SHANNON’S MODEL
This model argues that communication can be broken down into 6 key concepts: sender, encoder,
channel, noise, decoder, and receiver. A later version of the theory by Warren Weaver added a 7th
concept (feedback) which changed the model from a linear to cyclical model (Drew, 2020).

It is known as the ―mother of all models‖ because of its wide popularity. The model is also known
as information theory‘ or the Shannon theory‘ because Shannon was the main person who
developed the theory.

The model‘s primary value is in explaining how messages are lost and distorted in the process of
communication (Drew, 2020).

SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL

Drew, C. (2020) explains that the Shannon-Weaver model follows the concept of communication in a
linear fashion from sender to receiver with the following steps:

1. Sender (Information Source)

The model starts with the sender. They are the person (or object, or thing) who has
the information to begin with (the ‗information source‘). The sender starts the process
by choosing a message to send, someone to send the message to, and a channel
through which to send the message.

A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may be orally

(through spoken word), in writing, through body language, music, etc.

Example: An example of a sender might be the person reading a newscast on the

nightly news. They will choose what to say and how to say it before the newscast
begins.

2. Encoder (Transmitter)
The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can be sent
from the sender to the receiver. The Shannon model was designed originally to explain
communication through means such as telephone and computers which encode our
words using codes like binary digits or radio waves.
 However, the encoder can also be a person that turns an idea into spoken words,
written words, or sign language to communicate an idea to someone.

Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which converts our voice into binary 1s and
0s to be sent down the telephone lines (the channel). Another encode might be a radio
station, which converts voice into waves to be sent via radio to someone.

3. Channel
The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets information from the
sender and transmitter through to the decoder and receiver. We sometimes also call this
the ‗medium‘.

Examples: A person sending an email is using the worldwide web (internet) as a

medium. A person talking on a landline phone is using cables and electrical wires as their
channel.

If we‘re face-to-face, perhaps we don‘t have a channel, except the sound waves from our
voice that carry the sound from the sender‘s mouth to the receiver‘s ear.

4. Noise
Noise interrupts a me ssage while it‘s on the way from the sender to the receiver. It‘s
named after the idea that ‗noise could interrupt our understanding of a messag e.
There are two types of noise: internal and external.

- Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a

receiver makes a mistake decoding the message. Here‘s the two points where it can
happen

- Examples of internal noise may include someone having a headache so they can‘t
concentrate, someone speaking with a heavy accent, or when the sender mumbles
when speaking.

At the point of encoding (for example, when you misspell a word in a text message); At the
point of decoding (for example, when someone misinterprets a sentence when reading
an email)

- External noise happens when something external (not in the control of sender or
receiver) impedes the message. So, external noise happens:
At the point of transmission through the channel (for example, when we‘re having a
conversation by a busy highway and the receiver is having trouble hearing over the
sound of cars)

One of the key goals for people who u se this theory is to identify the causes of noise
and try to minimize them to improve the quality of the message.

Examples: Examples of external noise may include the crackling of a poorly tuned radio,
a lost letter in the post, an interruption in a television broadcast, or a failed internet
 connection.

5. Decoder
Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver made this model in
reference to communication that happens through devices like telephones. So, in this
model, there usually needs to be a device that decodes a message from binary digits or
waves back into a format that can be understood by the receiver.

If we‘re talking about direct communication between people without the use of
technology, there may still be a need for decoding. For example, you might need to
decode a secret message, turn written words into something that makes sense in your
mind by reading them out loud, or you may need to interpret (decode) the meaning
behind a picture that was sent to you.

Examples: Decoders can include computers that turn binary packets of 1s and 0s into
pixels on a screen that make words, a telephone that turns signals such as digits or waves
back into sounds, and cell phones that also turn bits of data into readable (and listenable)
messages.

6. Receiver (Destination)
The receiver is the end-point of Shannon and Weaver‘s original linear framework. This
is the step where the person finally gets the message, or what‘s left of it after
accounting for noise.

Examples: Examples of a receiver might be: the person on the other end of a
telephone, the person reading an email you sent them, an automated payments
system online that has received credit card details for payment, etc.

7. Feedback
The ‗feedback step was not originally proposed by Shannon and Weaver in 1948. Norbert
Weiner came up with the feedback step in response to criticism of the linear nature of the
approach. (‗Linear means that the messages are only going one way).

Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the sender in order to
close the communication loop. They might respond to let the sender know they got
the message or to show the sender:

- Whether they got the message clearly without noise

- How well they understand the message
- Nonetheless, the ‗feedback elements seems like a post-hoc add-on to the model,
and is the subject of a lot of criticism (see later in this article on ‗disadvantages
of the model or details).

Examples: Feedback does not occur in all situations. Sometimes, like when watching TV,
we don‘t tend to let the people talking on the TV know what we‘re thinking … we simply
watch the show.
 Some times when feedback will occur include:
- During a chat between friends
- When you write a reply email
- Through your facial expressions and body language during a conversation

Figure 5. Shannon- Weaver Model of Communication

BERLOS’ SMCR MODEL

Berlo‘s model follows the SMCR model. This model is not specific to any particular communication.

Berlo‘s model includes a number of factors under each of the elements:

 Source - The source is situated where the message originates.

 Communication skills – It is the skill of the individual to communicate. For example, the ability to
read, write, speak, listen etc.

 Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and towards oneself. For
example, for the student, the attitude is to learn more and for teachers, it is to help teach.

 Knowledge– Communicating also means that the person needs to be knowledgeable about the
subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to know about the subject in detail that he or she
teaches so that they can communicate properly such that the students understand here.

Note: It refers, not to the general knowledge, but to the knowledge of the subject that the
person is communicating and their familiarity with it.

 Social system – The social system includes the various aspects of society like values, beliefs,
culture, religion and a general understanding of society. It is where the communication takes
place.

For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like people‘s behaviours and how
they communicate, etc.
 Note: We can communicate only to the extent that the social system allows. When we
communicate, we take the social system into account.

 Culture: Culture of a particular society also comes under the social system.
According to this model, people can communicate only if the above requirements are met
in the proper or adequate proportion.

 Encoder: The sender of the message, from where the message originates, is referred to as the
encoder. So the source encodes the message here.

 Message
Content – The body of a message, from the beginning to the end, comprises its content. For
example, whatever the class teacher teaches in the class, from beginning to end, is the
content of the message.

 Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language, etc. They constitute
all the elements of a particular message. Any content is accompanied by some elements.

 Treatment – It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the message is
conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.

Note: When there is too much treatment, communication will not go smoothly.

 Structure– The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged; the way people structure
the message into various parts.

Note: Message is the same, but if the structure is not properly arranged then the receiver
will not understand the message.

 Code– The code of the message refers to the means through which it is sent and in what form. It
could be, for example, language, body language, gestures, music, etc. Even culture is a code.
Through this, people give and receive messages and communication takes place.

Note: Only when the code is clear, the message will be clear. The wrong usage may lead to
misinterpretation.

 Channel– It refers to the five sense organs. The following are the five senses:

- Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. For example, orally transmitted messages,
interpersonal communication etc.

- Seeing: Visual channels, for example, Watching television so the message is conveyed
through the scene/film.

- Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate. For example, we
touch, buy food, hugging our loved ones, etc.

- Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate. For example, perfumes, food,
fragrances etc. Charred smell communicates something is burning. People can deduct which
food is being cooked by its smell etc.
 - Tasting: The tongue is a muscular organ used in the ac t of eat an d taste food . For example,
while a food is being shared, the communication can happen regarding its taste.

Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to assume that as communication is

taking place, channels can be any of the 5 senses or combination.

 Decoder: The person who receives the message and decodes it is referred to a decoder.

 Receiver: The receiver needs to think all the contents and elements of the source, so as to
communicate/responds to sender effectively.

Berlo’s model believes that for effective communication to take place, the source and the
receiver need to be on the same level. Only then communication will happen or take place
properly. Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar.

For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the receiver should have
equally good listening skills.

It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message because even though he
may receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For effective communication, the
source and the receiver need to be on the same level.

Note: Self-image differs from person to person. For communication, the person should
consider the receiver, speak accordingly and give them what they need.

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.
2. It does not mention the barriers to communication.
3. There is no room for noise.
4. It is a rather complex model.
5. It is a linear model of communication.
6. It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to happen. However,
that rarely happens in everyday life.
7. The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel of
communication, which is an asset to human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc.)
Figure 6. Berlo’s Model of Communication
 SCHRAMM’S MODEL, 1954

Figure 6. Schramm’s model of communication

Janse (2019) in his article explains that the Schramm Communication Model is a cyclical
communication model containing all basic principles of communication. The Schramm
Communication Model offers a classic approach to and explanation of communication. It can be used
to determine how communication between two people works when they‘re exchanging information,
ideas, or attitudes.

The cyclical communication model is based on the theory and belief that communication is
a two-way street. This means there‘s at least a sender and a recipient. The model contains at least
one other element as well; the message itself. Usually communication takes places along the
traditional path with a wasteful recipient and sender. The recipient and sender can also be one and
the same. This is called intra-personal communication. The former is called interpersonal
communication. Where several other models and theories about communication are linear in nature,
the Schramm Communication Model is circular. This means at least two parties are required to send
and receive a message. Both the sender and the recipient have to encode and decode th e
message to interpret the message correctly.

Wilbur Schramm published the circular communication model in 1954, several years after Lasswell‘s
communication model was published. Schramm wrote and spoke about the communication model—
based on the model by Charles Egerton Osgood— in his book The Process and Effects of Mass
Communication‘. He later made some changes, including introducing the field of experience, or
commonality. This refers to what is mutually understood between the recipient and the sender.
A physics professor can teach mathematical principles to a class of psychology students, but it won‘t
be easy as the students don‘t share a field of experience that would have made it easier to
understand the message.

Three Elements
According to the Schramm Communication Model, communication is circular and the sender and
recipient of the message can be the same person. A message is encrypted and passed on to the same
person or to a different person. It is up to the recipient to decrypt the message, interpret it, and
then encode it again before sending the message to a new recipient (circular). There is no fourth
element, such as the in Berlo‘s SMCR communication model.

1. Source (Encoder)
The source of the message is the sender; the party who sent the messag e. The source has
to be clear when sending the message and has to be able to show why it is important that
the recipient reads it. This is why the sender of a message has to make sure that the
information he is providing is useful, relevant, and accurate.

In order to ensure that the recipient can properly read the message, it has to be encoded.
This means it is necessary for the recipient to know the sender. The success of the
attempt at communication will depend on the ability to bring across the information in a
simple but clear way. The way in which the message is encoded is influenced by cultural
aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and skills.

2. Recipient (Decoder)
The recipient of a message is the person or group to whom the message has been sent.
Whether the recipient is able to decode the message depends on a number of factors. For
instance, how much does the individual know about the topic of the message, but also
how open are they for a message and do they trust the source. The interpretations of the
recipient are influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes,
experiences, and skills as well.

Decoding a message is a psychological process. After the message has been received, the
stimulus is immediately sent to the brain for interpretation. This is where the message is
given meaning, if at all. This processing phase is also called decoding. Communication is
successful when the recipient correctly interprets the message from the source.

3. Message
In the studies of rhetoric and communication, a message is defined as information. This
information is communicated through words or other characters and symbols. A message,
either verbal or non-verbal, is the content of the communication process and plays an
important role in the Schramm Communication Model.

A message may contain verbal content, such as speech, sign language, emails, WhatsApp
messages, or phone calls. A message can also consist of non -verbal content, such as
behavior, gestures, body language, eye contact, physical contact, timing, and even
artifacts.

4. Feedback and Organizations

Although it‘s not clearly indicated in the Schramm Communication Model, recipients play
an important role throughout the communication process. They are not only supposed to
absorb the message, but they also receive the message and respond to it. The reply from
the recipient to the sender‘s message is called feedback. Feedback can be both verbal and
non-verbal. Sometimes it‘s a verbal response, sometimes it‘s just a sigh or a nod.
Feedback is often expressed in writing, an email for instance.

Feedback is therefore a way to measure how the audience has received the message. This
enables the sender to improve the effectiveness of the way messages are
composed and sent. If the audience doesn‘t understand the message, the source of the
message can refine it based on the feedback.
 It‘s essential for effective communication in an open communication environment to offer
the opportunity to provide feedback. A manager in a business environment should
therefore create an atmosphere that stimulates feedback. Questions such as Do you get
it?‘ and What do you think?‘ should be asked a lot more regularly. Moreover,
organizations can gather feedback from employees in countless ways; surveys, open-
door policy, newsletters, memos, and meetings.

Universal Law of Communication

One of the first people who came up with a communication theory was Aristotle. A number of
thinkers followed in his footsteps, including Lasswell, Berlo, and Shannon & Weaver. There is one
universal law of communication that applies to all these theories, and it was written by S.F. Scudder in
1980. Scudder wrote that all living beings on planet earth have the ability to communicate.
Communication takes place through different means, such as physical changes, language, breathing,
movements, sounds, or by changing color.

In this law of communication, Scudder emphasized that communication was an essential survival tool
for creatures, as well a s enabling them to share information about their presence and conditions.
According to the universal law of communication, communication is used to express biological
needs as well as feelings, thoughts, and other kinds of information that are necessary to bring across
the condition of a living creature.

As in the Schramm Communication Model encoding and decoding also happens in the universal law of
communication. In this law the recipient does the decoding. The universal law of communication also
states that the communication process can be interrupted in a number of ways. The reason for this is
barriers. Barriers can alter the meaning of a message and lead to the recipient interpreting it
incorrectly.

TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Transactional model of communication is the exchange of messages between sender and receiver
where each take turns to send or receive messages.
Here, both sender and receiver are known as communicators and their role reverses each time in the
communication process as both processes of sending and receiving occurs at the same time.

The communicators can be humans or machines but humans are taken as communicators in this
article to analyze general communication between humans. The model is mostly used for
interpersonal communication and is also called circular model of communication.

Transactional model is the process of continuous change and transformation where every component
is changing such as the people, their environments and the medium used. Due to this, it assumes
the communicators to be independent and act any way they want.

Since both sender and receiver are necessary to keep the communication alive in transactional model,
the communicators are also interdependent to each other. For example, transactional communication
is not possible if the receiver is not listening to sender.

The transactional model is the most general model of communication. Every day talk and interactions
are also a form of transactional model communication. It is more efficient for communicators with
similar environment and individual aspects. For instance, communication between people who know
each other is more efficient as they share same social system.

In transactional model, efficiency and reliability of communicated message also depends on the
medium used. For example, the same message might not be perceived by a person the same way
when it is send through a phone and when it is provided face to face. It is because of possible loss of
message on a phone call or absence of gestures.

Factors Affecting Transactional Model

There are many factors directly or indirectly affecting the communication process in transaction
model. These can be environmental noise or communication barriers. Environmental Noises can be
Physical noise, physiological noise or psychological noise.

Transactional model relates communication to social reality of an individual or a group of people in

social, cultural and relational contexts. Their responses cannot be predicted because they all have
different backgrounds and mental conditions. Communication pattern depends on various factors
such as physical, cultural, environmental, social, psychological, emotional, etc.

Cultural systems, social systems and relational situations are the most over- powering elements of the
communication in transactional model, while physical and psychological context has considerable
effect on the communication, enhancing or undermining it.

1. Social Context
Social context in communication refers to the norms, values, laws and other restrictions of a
society to communicate within a specific limit. It also includes rules that bind people‘s ability
to communicate. Society shapes the way a person communicates. Some of the examples are:
greeting people when meeting, thanking, apologizing, etc.

People can also learn communication from trial and error method, and its consequences
ranges from social exclusion to embarrassment. This model also adds that it‘s not just social
reality that help people in the communication process but communication also shapes self
and social reality in retu rn. Communication is not only for exchanging messages but also to
create and establish relationship helping people in the formation of a community.

2. Cultural Context
Cultural context is the lifestyle and identity of a person. Caste, class, race, ethnicity, gender,
etc are the contexts which promotes communication. If two people are from the same
cultural group, they will have better communication with each other.
Cultural identities are made by communication. It changes the communication pattern of a
person. Marginalization of cultural groups oppress their communication with the other parts
of the society. People become unsure of themselves when they communicate with
intercultural groups. Some people also take it as unacceptable.

People have a closed mindset about the other groups of people they communicate with
displaying the trait of Ethnocentrism. Experiences, attitudes, moods, cultural beliefs, social
up-bringing, mindset, their sense of reality and many other factors affect the responses and
the message exchange.

3. Relational Context
Relational context of communication relates to relationship history and manners.

A person talks with an old friend differently than a stranger. Manners take the role of
communication when it is with strangers. Manners come from pre-established norms and
values, and are more scripted making interaction difficult. Type of relationship and the roles
of people create differences in the way people communicate. Communication always
occurs on the common systems of both the parties.

Criticisms of Transactional Model

 Without verbal response, the sender cannot be sure that the receiver got the message as
intended. Feedback is an important component in the communication process, especially in
interpersonal communication as it gives a space to clarify misunderstandings.
  The transactional model gives the opportunity for a lot of noise because the communication is
simultaneous. For example, when many people are talking at the same time in a meeting, the
objective of the meeting will not be fulfilled.

Differences Between Transactional and Other Communication Models

TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OTHER MODELS
Used for interpersonal communication Used for Intrapersonal, interpersonal,
group or mass communications.
Senders and Receivers are known as Senders and receivers are different people
Communicators, they interchange their roles
Includes the role of context and environment Role of context and environment are not
mentioned in other models
Includes noise and communication Not necessarily have the concept of noise
barriers as factors
Talks about non-verbal communication Ignores non-verbal communication
Simultaneous feedback Feedback comes later in interaction
model and is not included in linear model
PRINCIPLES OF
COMMUNICATION
1. Principle of Clarity:
The idea or message to be communicated should be clearly spelt out. It should be worded
in such a way that the receiver understands the same thing which the sender wants to
convey. There should be no ambiguity in the message. It should be kept in mind that the
words do not speak themselves but the speaker gives them the meaning. A clear
message will evoke the same response from the other party. It is also essential that the
receiver is conversant with the language, inherent assumptions, and the mechanics of
communication.

2. Principle of Attention:
In order to make communication effective, the receiver‘s attention should be drawn
towards message. People are different in behavior, attention, emotions etc. so they may
respond differently to the message. Subordinates should act similarly as per the contents of
the message. The acts of a superior also draw the attention of subordinates and they
may follow what they observe. For example, if a superior is very punctual in coming to the
office then subordinates will also develop such habits. It is said that actions speak louder
than words.

3. Principle of Feedback:
The principle of feedback is very important to make the communication effective. There
should be feedback information from the recipient to know whether he has understood the
message in the same sense in which the sender has meant it.

4. Principle of Informality:
Formal communication is generally used for transmitting messages and other information.
Sometimes formal communication may not achieve the desired results, informal
communication may prove effective in such situations. Management should use informal
communication for assessing the reaction of employees towards various policies. Senior
management may informally convey certain decisions to the employees for getting their
feedback. So this principle states that informal communication is as important as formal
communication.

5. Principle of Consistency:
This principle states that communication should always be consistent with the policies,
plans, programs and objectives of the organization and not in conflict with them. If the
messages and communications are in conflict with the policies and programs then there will
be confusion in the minds of subordinates and they may not implement them properly.
Such a situation will be detrimental to the interests of the organization.

6. Principle of Timeliness:
This principle states that communication should be done at proper time so that it helps in
implementing plans. Any delay in communication may not serve any purpose rather
decisions become of historical importance only.

7. Principle of Adequacy:
The information communicated should be adequate and complete in all respects.
Inadequate information may delay action and create confusion. Inadequate
information also affects efficiency of the receiver; so adequate information is essential
 for taking proper decisions and making action plans.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
(acc. to Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018):

1. Communication is an interaction situation wherein the participants are affected by each

one‘s behavior:

Every message is simultaneously a stimulus to new behavior and a response to prior

behavior of the receiver. No message should be isolated from what has occurred before
between the communicants if we really want to understand the message. It should be
understood in the totality of the situation.

2. One does communicate:

We do communicate even when we are ignoring the message of another or
maintaining complete silence. An easy way to understand this would be to think what you
would do if someone, you did not want to interact with, passed a smile to you. Even by
ignoring him, you would still be communicating, ―I do not want to relate to you. Silence,
posture and all non-verbal behaviors are the ways we communicate even when we wish to
deny doing so.

3. The message received is not necessarily the message sent:

We usually relate to others as if there was only one reality the way we perceive the world.
We all live as separate individuals with different experiences and different views of reality‘.
How we interpret verbal and non -verbal messages may be quite different from the
meaning intended by the speaker (communicator). Even when several people are viewing
the same behavior, each interprets it differently. While talking or writing we are describing
only those experiences that occur inside us and they may not be the same for others
because every person, because of his different background, is unique.

4. Communication occurs simultaneously at more than one level:

We communicate on the level of the literal content of the information being conveyed as
well as on the relationship level. In other words, we do not convey information to the
receiver verbally only. By the context, in which the communication occurs, and by various
verbal and non-verbal cues, we are also telling the other person how we see our
relationship with him, how we see ourselves, and how he should interpret our messages.

This second level of communication is called meta-communication and refers to any

communication about communication or any verbal or non -verbal cues about the literal
content of the message sent. For example, I may say to another person, ―I‘m very happy
with you, and be serious indicating that I do not mean what I say. I may also verbally meta-
communicate by adding, ―I was only joking‖, which tells the receiver how he should
interpret my original statement.

The context in which communication occurs is another important component of meta-

communication. If I slap my wife while travelling in the bus, I would be telling the world
something quite different than if I were to do the same thing in my own house.
FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
1. Interpersonal communication is inescapable
We can't not communicate. The very attempt not to communicate communicates
something. Through not only words, but through tone of voice and through gesture,
posture, facial expression, etc., we constantly communicate to those around us. Through
these channels, we constantly receive communication from others. Even when you sleep,
you communicate. Remember a basic principle of communication in general: people are not
mind readers. Another way to put this is: people judge you by your behavior, not your
intent.

2. Interpersonal communication is irreversible

You can't really take back something once it has been said. The effect must inevitably
remain. Despite the instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that last statement the
witness made," the lawyer knows that it can't help but make an impression on the jury. A
Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never swallow it
again."

3. Interpersonal communication is complicated

No form of communication is simple. Because of the number of variables involved, even
simple requests are extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever we communicate
there are really at least six "people" involved: 1) who you think you are; 2) who you think
the other person is; 30 who you think the other person thinks you are; 4) who the other
person thinks /she is; 5) who the other person thinks you are; and 6) who the other person
thinks you think s/he is.

We don’t actually swap ideas, we swap symbols that stand for ideas. This also complicates
communication. Words (symbols) do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in
certain ways, and no two people use the same word exactly alike. Osmo Wiio gives us some
communication maxims similar to Murphy's law (Osmo Wiio, Wiio's Laws--and Some Others
(Espoo, Finland: Welin-Goos, 1978):
• If communication can fail, it will.
• If a message can be understood in different ways, it will be understood in just
that way which does the most harm.
• There is always somebody who knows better than you what you meant by your
message.
• The more communication there is, the more difficult it is for communication to
succeed.

These tongue-in-cheek maxims are not real principles; they simply humorously remind us of
the difficulty of accurate communication.

4. Interpersonal communication is contextual

In other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is:
• Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the interaction.
Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context.
 ("You" here refers to both participants in the interaction.)
• Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--the "mix."
• Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An
interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes
place in a bar.
• Environmental context deals with the physical “where" you are communicating.
Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are
examples of factors in the environmental context.
• Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the
interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it
is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid
eye contact. If the other person comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact
signals trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural context a basis for
misunderstanding.

ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION

Ethics is defined as a set of rules or guidelines; these are theories as to which is right or wrong. In
communication, ethics is considerable important because it would likely guide everyone to effective
communication. Theses ethical principles are universal in the sense that all people should consider
these things because of their vitality in the communication process and effectiveness.

Communication ethics emphasizes that morals influence the behavior of an individual, group, or
organization thereby affecting their communication. For instance, given the unethical
communication practice of a certain company of concealing the non-remittance of deducted
premiums from employees’ salaries to the SSS or the Social Security System (or GSIS or
Government Service Insurance System in the case of government offices), the company’s
accountability to its employees is undoubtedly affected. Compare this situation with that of
an organization that observes ethical practice and remits the employees‘ monthly contributions to
the SSS or GSIS regularly. It is important to note that one’s behavior should be regulated by
honesty, decency, truthfulness, sincerity, and moral uprightness.

Communication ethics is the notion that an individual's or group's behavior are governed by their
morals which in turn affects communication. Generally speaking communication ethics deals with
the moral good present in any form of human communication. This includes interpersonal
communication, mass mediated communication, and digital communication.

The questions that need to be asked are the following:

1. What do ethics have to do with communication?
2. How can ethics (the consideration of right and wrong) help us in crafting our
communications?
3. Is it possible to be an effective communicator and yet not an ethical communicator?

―Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is
fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and
communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical
communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness,
responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others."
– from the National Communication Association credo

Bernales, Balon and Biligan (2018) took the classic example of a charismatic, but immoral leader
in explaining the concept of ethics in communication. He understands how to persuade his
followers with dazzling rhetoric that appeals to their emotions. Is he an ethical communicator?
Communication ethics concerns not only the individual, but is of great concern to businesses,
corporations, and professional entities. A business with unethical communication practices is not
effective as one with ethical communication practices. For example, a business with unethical
communication practices may withhold evidence that it is harming the environment or breaking a
law through a lack of transparence; while a business with ethical practices will immediately press a
release to the affected parties. In this example, transparency makes the business more effective
because it notifies its clients, prospective or established, providers/ suppliers, or other affiliates of
the potential environmental hazard or law violation. In other words, in this example transparency
will encourage trust and good faith, that the effective business will not conceal what is in the
interest of its audience. (Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018).

Johnson (as cited in Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018) developed ten basics of Ethical
Communication using principles learned in Straight Talk and Nonviolent Communication as wells as
best practices for small group work in general:
1. Seek to ―elicit the best in communications and interactions with other group members.
2. Listen when others speak.
3. Speak non-judgmentally.
4. Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing your own thoughts, needs,
and feelings.
5. Seek to understand others (rather than to be ―right or ―more ethical than thou)
6. Avoid speaking for others, for example by characterizing what others have said without
checking your understanding, or by universalizing your opinions, beliefs, values, and
conclusions, assuming everyone shares them.
7. Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are comfortable sharing.
8. Respect the personal boundaries of others.
9. Avoid interrupting and side conversations.
10. Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all members have relatively equal ―air
time if they want it.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF
COMMUNICATION
1. Completeness
The message must be complete and geared to the receiver’s perception of the world. The
message must be based on facts and a complex message needs additional information and
or explanation. A good subdivision of subjects will clarify the message as a result of which
there will be a complete overview of what is said.

2. Concreteness
Concrete business communication is also about a clear message. This is often supported by
factual material such as research data and figures. The words used as well as the sentence
structure can be interpreted univocally. Nothing is left to the imagination.

3. Courtesy
In addition to considering the feelings and points of view of the target group, it is also
important to approach the audience in a friendly and courteous manner. Use of terms that
show respect for the receiver contribute towards effective communication. The same goes
for the manner in which you address someone. Not everyone will be charmed if you use a
familiar form of address and use of a formal address could come across as too distant. By
using the word they - a larger audience is immediately addressed.

4. Correctness
 A correct use of language has the preference. In written business communication,
grammatical errors must be avoided and stylistic lapses or a wrong use of verbs are not
sufficient either in verbal communication. A correct use of language increases
trustworthiness and the receiver will feel that they are taken seriously.

5. Clarity
Clear or plain language is characterized by explicitness, short sentences and concrete
words. Fuzzy language is absolutely forbidden, as are formal language and cliché
expressions. By avoiding parentheses and keeping to the point, the receiver will get a clear
picture of the content of the message. Briefly-worded information emphasizes the essence
of the message. Coherence means the connection of ideas at the idea level, and cohesion
means the connection of ideas at the sentence level.

6. Consideration
Communicating with the target group (Consideration). In order to communicate well, it is
important to re late to the target group and be involved. By taking the audience into
account, the message can be geared towards them. Factors that play a role in this are for
example: professional knowledge, level of education, age and interests.

7. Conciseness
A message is clear when the storyline is consistent and when this does not contain any
inconsistencies. When facts are mentioned, it is important that there is consistent,
supporting information. Systematically implementing a certain statement or notation
also contributes to clear business communication. When statements are varied, they
will confuse the receiver.

Observing a code of ethics is essential as it determines the kind of behavior that is proper
and desirable over one that is displeasing and offensive. A code of ethics sets the standards
to be observed by a person or a company that will create a good reputation or a positive
image not only for an individual but also for the organization. It will, therefore, pave
the way for the attainment of the desired results leading to the success of an individual
or the entire company. Success in decision-making will likewise impact the company’s
reputation.
2. INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
Communication examines the basic elements of interpersonal communication and culture as the
two relate to one another. Emphasis is given to the influence of culture on the interpretation of the
communication act and to the communication skills that enhances cross-cultural communication.
Communication requires the ability to understand language, but just think about how much of your
communication with even you friends is nonverbal: our body language, our attitude, the rituals
from hand-shaking to the stink eye. Some researchers estimate that up to 93% of all human
communication is nonverbal, although according to recent studies, it is actually closer to 60%.

It provides several commonly accepted academic and applied definitions to clarify this concept and
process. The term ―intercultural communication‖, represent broad ideas that are difficult to
express in just one way. Thus, we present several working definitions as starting points for exploring
this topic.

Intercultural communication refers to the communication between people from two different
cultures. (Chen & Starosta, 1998:28). It is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual
process, in which people create shared meanings. (Lustig & Koester, 2007:46). It also refers to the
effects on communication behavior, when different cultures interact together. Hence, one way of
viewing intercultural communication is as communication that unfolds in symbolic intercultural
spaces. (Arasaratnam, 2013:48).

Intercultural communication is the verbal and nonverbal interaction between people from different
cultural backgrounds. Basically, ―inter- is a prefix that means ―between and ―cultural means
from a culture, so intercultural communication is the communication between cultures. Sometimes
this is used to describe a single person trying to interact in a foreign environment but more often, it
is a two-way street, where people from both cultures are trying to improve their communication. It
is important to understand intercultural communication because it allows us for positive and
productive interaction. Intercultural communication refers to the effective communication between
people/ workers/ clients of different cultural background. It also includes managing thought
patterns and nonverbal communication.

Still, that means that more than half of communication is never spoken. So, intercultural
communication is going to take a lot more than just learning a language. It describes the wide range
of communication processes and problems that naturally appears within an organization or social
context made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.
It this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act,
communicate and perceived the world around them.

Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies,
linguistics, psychology and communication studies. It also referred to as the base of international
businesses. Several cross-cultural services providers assist with the development of intercultural
communication skills, in a way the ―interaction with speakers of other languages of equal terms
and respecting their identities.
Identity and culture are also studies within the discipline of communication to analyze how
globalization influences ways of thinking, beliefs, values, and identity, within and between cultural
environments. Language is an important example of a cultural component that is linked to
intercultural understanding.
COMMUNICATION AND GLOBALIZATION
As technology advances, the world is getting smaller. Today we are able to communicate with
people across the globe at the touch of a button. While globalization, or communication between
nations beyond their borders, is an old concept, with the onset of new technology globalization is
affecting the ways we communicate and learn in fascinating ways. We are expanding our
understanding of fellowship and as we become more connected, we are deepening our educational
experiences. The rise in the use of the internet in particular has been incredibly instrumental in
improving the ways in which we connect with one another.

Because of technologies like the internet, we have the opportunity to view diverse perspectives
that overlooks outside of our scope before. We are able to fully connect with someone who is
thousands of miles away in real time and the effects are profound.

The Effects of Globalization on Global Communication

1. Increased Business Opportunities

Many companies today hire employees that are located in other countries. Using
communication vehicles such as video calling make it simple to converse with colleagues
across the globe, almost making it feel as if they are in the same room. Technology also
makes it easier to connect with suppliers and customers all over the world, and to
streamline relationship through improved ordering, shipment tracking and so on. With this
kind of communication technology, many businesses are able to take advantage of
opportunities in different countries or cities, improving the economic outlook on a global
level.

2. Fewer Cultural Barriers

Many people perceive culture to be the root of communication challenges. When people
from two different cultures try to exchange information, the way they speak, their body
language or their mannerisms can be interpreted differently by the other person. The way
people approach problems and how they participate in communities is all influenced by
culture.

Globalization has made it possible, for example, for someone in Japan to understand how
someone in the U.S. goes about their day. With television and movies, cultural barriers are
becoming less prevalent. Being able to communicate effectively and frequently with
colleagues or friends across the planet helps people understand each other‘s cultures a
little better.

3. Creation of a Global Village

You‘ve likely heard of the phrase "global village," coined by theorist Marshall McLuhan.
Affected both by globalization and global communication, the global village is created when
distance and isolation no longer matter because people are connected by technology.
Wide-spread telephone and internet access have been life-changing for many people across
the world, especially those in developing countries. Many are now enrolling in universities
across the world without having to leave their desk chair. Virtual assistant jobs are
becoming commonplace, where employees from developing countries work with
companies in North America or Europe, providing administrative support and other
business services that can easily be conducted over the phone or via the internet
 LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL SETTING
Multiculturalism refers to the presence of people with several cultures in a specific setting. It is the
co- existence of diverse cultures, where culture includes racial, religious, or cultural groups and is
manifested in customary behaviors, cultural assumptions and values, patterns of thinking, and
communicative styles.

The world today is characterized by ever growing compacts resulting in communication between
people with different linguistic and cultural background.

One of the most common forms of global communication is an email. A person in one country types
a message and clicks the send button. The message is then encoded into packets which are sent
across the internet to the recipient. In another country, the receiver logs in and decodes the
message by opening the email, and retrieves the message.

Global communication becomes more complicated when there are multiple recipients from
different cultures with different languages all receiving the same message, as well as when there
are more layers added to the channel. For example, if a world leader makes a speech broadcast
across the globe, people from one region may rejoice at the news, while others may find it
offensive. In this case, the channel itself can involve many different layers, as translators, news,
editors and commentators each interpret the message differently before passing it on to the
intended audiences.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Intercultural communication (or cross-cultural communication) is a discipline that studies
communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication.
It describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within
an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and
educational backgrounds. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries
and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them.

Many people in intercultural business communication argue that culture determines how
individuals encode messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and the way
messages are interpreted. With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies situations
where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural
communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups
of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people
from other countries.

Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology,

cultural studies, linguistics, psychology and communication studies. Intercultural communication is
also referred to as the base for international businesses. Several cross-cultural service providers
assist with the development of intercultural communication skills. Research is a major part of
the development of intercultural communication skills. Intercultural communication is in a way
the 'interaction with speakers of other languages on equal terms and respecting their identities.

Identity and culture are also studied within the discipline of communication to analyze how
globalization influences ways of thinking, beliefs, values, and identity, within and between cultural
environments. Intercultural communication scholars approach theory with a dynamic outlook and
do not believe culture can be measured nor that cultures share universal attributes. Scholars
acknowledge that culture and communication shift along with societal changes and theories should
consider the constant shifting and nuances of the society.
The study of intercultural communication requires intercultural understanding, which is an ability to
understand and value cultural differences. Language is an example of an important cultural
component that is linked to intercultural understanding.

Functions of Intercultural Communication:

Private Function - are functions that indicated communication through the communication behavior
originating from an individual.

1. Express Social Identity - in the process of intercultural communication are some of the
communication behavior of individuals who used to express the behavior of social identity
is expressed through the act of speaking both verbal and non-verbal of language behavior
that is knowable and social identity.

2. Declares The Social Integration - core concept of social integration is to accept the unity
between individuals, between groups but still recognizes the differences of every element.
It should be understood that one of the goals of communication is to give the same
meaning for the message shared between the communicator and the communicant.

3. To the Knowledge - often interpersonal and intercultural communication increase

knowledge together, to learn the culture of each.

Social Function- means the relation between social action and the systems of which the action is a
part, alternatively, as the result of social action.

1. Supervision - practice intercultural communication between different

communicators and communicant culture of mutual monitoring functions. In any process
of intercultural communication function is useful to inform the "development" of the
environment.

2. Connection Between Culture - in the process of intercultural communication, the

communication function is carried out between two people of different cultures was a
bridge over the differences between them. The bridging functions can be controlled via
messages they exchanged, the two are explaining the differences of interpretation on a
message that produces the same meaning.

3. Value Socialization - socialization function is a function to teach and introduce the cultural
values of a society to another society.

4. Entertainment - entertaining functions are often performed in the process of

intercultural communication. For example, the arrival of outside artists shows the
differences between their cultures so that people learn the language and follow their style.

Barriers to Intercultural Communication

1. Anxiety - when you are anxious because of not knowing what you are expected to do, it is
only natural to focus on that feeling and not be totally present in the communication
transaction. For example, you may have experienced anxiety on your very first day on a
new college campus or in a new job. You may be so conscious of being new— and out of
place—and focus so much of your attention on that feeling that you make common
mistakes and appear awkward to others.

2. Assuming Similarity Instead Of Dissimilarity - when people are acting in a home manner in
the different culture it might cause a lot of problems. In order to prepare yourself for
 various circumstances it is very important to assume laws, habits, and attitudes of another
society.

3. Ethnocentrism – ethnocentrism or negatively judging aspects of another culture by the

standards of one‘s own culture. To be ethnocentric is to believe in the superiority of
one‘s own culture. Everything in a culture is consistent to that culture and makes sense if
you understood that culture. For example, assume that global warming is a fact and, as a
result, assume that summers in the United States average 43° C (109° F). It would be logical
to make adjustments: Rather than air condition buildings all day, you might close schools
and businesses in the afternoons to conserve energy. Such adjustments would make sense.
Why then do some people attribute sensible midday siestas in hot climates to laziness?

4. Language Problems - according to Jandt (2000) the definition of language is the set of
symbols shared by a community to communicate meanings and experiences. There are five
actual factors that generally produce the difficulties in the translation. They are lack of
equivalences in vocabulary, idioms, grammar and syntax, experiences, and concepts.
Indonesian students are having a lot of inconveniences with studying foreign languages for
the reason that in Indonesian language there is no gender rules. That is very complicated
for them to understand why for example the French word ―une table is feminine.

5. Nonverbal Misinterpretations - as another barrier to communication, it can be stated

that in a conversation this is more problematical to understand the nonverbal symbols
without sharing the same nonverbal codes. There are more than a few types of
nonverbal interaction: proxemics, kinesics, chronemics, paralanguage, olfactics, clothing
appearance, haptics, oculesics, etc. All of them are very different in every culture. As an
example, in a society where people don‘t kiss when they great each other, a kissing person
might be judged as a vulgar and without manners.

6. Stereotypes and Prejudices – both of them are to make a judgment about individuals
according to group membership. Stereotypes are the perceptions about that certain people
have particular qualities or abilities because they belong to a particular race, sex, or social
class. They can be positive and negative. Usually they are based on half-truths. Positive
examples of stereotyping are: Japanese people are good in mathematical sciences; French
are the gods in the kitchen. Negative: Russians– Mafia–Vodka–Prostitution –Cold winter;
the Arabs are terrorists. Prejudice can be defined as an unreasonable dislike and distrust of
people who are different from you in some way, especially because of their race, sex,
religion, etc. For instance, talking about Indian people in Arabic countries, it can be affirmed
that Indians do get less salary than other nationalities. The reason for this is that Middle
Eastern people are sure that the Indian race does not deserve something more, because it
is Indian.

Challenges of Intercultural Communication

Any moment that we‘re dealing with people different from ourselves, the likelihood is that they
carry a similar list of hopes and fears in their back pocket. Culture" is often at the root of
communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we
participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at
how differently people approach their work together. Our culture influences how we approach
problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities.

Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Differences

• Different Decision Making Styles. The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely
from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated. In
many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on
 holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. Be aware that individuals' expectations
about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame.

• Different Attitudes towards Disclosure. In some cultures it is not appropriate to be frank

about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about
personal information. Variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also
something to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views,
experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.

• Different Approaches to Knowing. Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it
comes to the ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider
information acquired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid
than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures preference for
affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. These different
approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or finding
ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library research to
understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to
visit places and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and
get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere. These are ways in which cultures, as a whole,
tend to vary from one another.

• Different Communication Styles. The way people communicate varies widely between, and
even within, cultures. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways.
For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies
from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.

• Different Attitudes toward Conflict. Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while
others view it as something to be avoided in many Eastern countries, open conflict is
experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out
quietly.

• Different Approaches toward Completing Tasks. From culture to culture, there are different
ways that people move toward completing tasks. Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach
more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more
emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-Americans.
European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships
develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these
cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value
relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.

Respecting Our Differences and Working Together

An appreciation of patterns of cultural difference can assist us in processing what it means to be

different in ways that are respectful of others, not faultfinding or damaging. We can learn to
collaborate across cultural lines as individuals and as a society. Being aware of cultural differences
doesn‘t have to divide us but should instead help us communicate with each other more effectively.
Communicating with people who are different from us, gives us hope and energizes us to take on
the challenge of improving our communities and world as a whole.

Guidelines for Multi-Cultural Collaboration

As we set to work on multicultural collaboration in our communities, we should keep the following
guidelines in mind:
• Learn from generalizations about other cultures, but don't use those generalizations to
stereotype, or oversimplify your ideas about another person.

• Don‘t assume that there‘s only one write way (yours) to communicate.

• Listen actively and empathetically.

• Respect other‘s choices about whether they would like to engage in communication with you.

• Suspend judgment and try and look at the situation as an outsider.

• Develop an understanding from the other person‘s point of view.

• Be aware of current power imbalances.

Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) was created by Dr. Milton Bennett
(1986, 1993) as a framework to explain the reactions of people to cultural difference. In both
academic and corporate settings, he observed that individuals confronted cultural difference in
some predictable ways as they learned to become more competent intercultural communicators.
Using concepts from cognitive psychology and constructivism, he organized these observations into
six stages of increasing sensitivity to cultural difference.

The underlying assumption of the model is that as one’s experience of cultural difference becomes
more complex and sophisticated, one’s competence in intercultural relations increases. Each stage
indicates a particular cognitive structure that is expressed in certain kinds of attitudes and behavior
related to cultural difference. By recognizing the underlying cognitive orientation toward cultural
difference, predictions about behavior and attitudes can be made and education can be tailored to
facilitate development into the next stage.

The first three DMIS stages are ethnocentric, meaning that one’s own culture is experienced as
central to reality in some way:

Denial of cultural difference is the state in which one’s own culture is experienced as the only real
one. Other cultures are avoided by maintaining psychological and/or physical isolation from
differences. People at Denial generally are disinterested in cultural difference, although they may
act aggressively to eliminate a difference if it impinges on them.

Defense against cultural difference is the state in which one’s own culture (or an adopted culture) is
experienced as the only good one. The world is organized into “us and them,” where “we” are
superior and “they” are inferior. People at Defense are threatened by cultural difference, so they
tend to be highly critical of other cultures, regardless of whether the others are their hosts, their
guests, or cultural newcomers to their society.

Minimization of cultural difference is the state in which elements of one’s own cultural world view
are experienced as universal. Because these absolutes obscure deep cultural differences, other
cultures may be trivialized or romanticized. People at Minimization expect similarities, and they
may become insistent about correcting others’ behavior to match their expectations.

The second three DMIS stages are ethnorelative, meaning that one’s own culture is experienced in
the context of other cultures.

Acceptance of cultural difference is the state in which one’s own culture is experienced as just one
of a number of equally complex worldviews. Acceptance does not mean agreement—cultural
difference may be judged negatively—but the judgment is not ethnocentric. People at Acceptance
are curious about and respectful toward cultural difference.

Adaptation to cultural difference is the state in which the experience of another culture yields
perception and behavior appropriate to that culture. One’s worldview is expanded to include
constructs from other worldviews. People at Adaptation are able to look at the world “through
different eyes” and may intentionally change their behavior to communicate more effectively in
another culture.

Integration of cultural difference is the state in which one’s experience of self is expanded to
include the movement in and out of different cultural worldviews. People at Integration often are
dealing with issues related to their own “cultural marginality.” This stage is not necessarily better
than Adaptation in most situations demanding intercultural competence, but it is common among
non-dominant minority groups, long-term expatriates, and “global nomads.”

Starting Points in Intercultural Communication

 Demonstrate your willingness to meet others at least halfway by learning a few phrases in
their language.

This is easy if you know that you’re going on holiday somewhere, but it’s also important
for expatriate assignments and other business trips. A few phrases, even if it’s only
‘Good morning’, ‘good evening’, and ‘thank you’, will go a long way.

There are plenty of free language resources available on the internet so there is no
excuse for ignorance.

If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to
him in his language, that goes to his heart.

 Talk to people who know the culture about common traps and problems.

Before you go, find people who know the region to which you’re travelling, and ask
their advice. Ask your co-workers what people commonly do that’s just ‘wrong’, or
what problems they have encountered, and learn from it. Listen carefully to their
answers, including what they don’t say, as this can tell you a lot.

 Adapt your behaviour, and don’t always expect others to adapt to you

This includes not being offended if someone unwittingly does something that you find
difficult to accept. You don’t have to accept it, but it’s best to explain politely why you
find it hard, not just go off in a sulk.

 Check your understanding and that of others

The best way to avoid misunderstandings is to listen carefully and check

understanding regularly in the course of a conversation. Ask questions to make sure
that you have understood, and ask others to recap what you have said to ensure that
they have understood you.

 Don’t be afraid to apologize

You can usually see quite quickly if you have caused offence. The fastest way to
manage that is to apologize, and ask what it was that you did. A confession of total
ignorance will often go a long way to mitigate offence. Ignoring it will just offend
 further.

 Use local television to learn about behavioral issues and norms

You wouldn’t want to rely on television dramas as your only source of information, but
they can provide useful insights. In the UK, for instance, Coronation Street or
EastEnders could give you an idea of what’s considered acceptable and unacceptable
behavior. Comedies are perhaps less reliable as they often use communication
difficulties to generate laughs.

 Reflect on your experience

As with so many aspects of life, a little reflection about your experience can help you to
put it in context, especially if you are able to discuss it with someone else in a similar
position.

3. VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF

SPOKEN AND WRITTEN
LANGUAGE
According to an article written by Gleaner, we have six language registers: formal, casual, intimate,
private, frozen and consultative. These registers can be use depending on the situation and people
we encounter. It is essential to use appropriate varieties and registers of language in certain
communication context because in different situations and people call for different registers. It
shows the level of formality and informality of the language used. When we use appropriate
varieties and register of language we‘re showing respect, interest, comfortableness and
professionalism.

However, we have different approach in language register when it comes to face-to-face

conversation and in written mode. We characterized face-to-face conversation as multi-modality
because we can use different registers and we considered the status, position or the way of living of
the person we‘re communicating with in order to know when and where to use or drop the
formality. While in writing a paper we commonly use the formal register since the construction of
sentences, correction of grammar and appropriate using of words really matter.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE

1. Permanence - means when students write something they already set in their mind to be
done in one session. They don‘t think that they can edit or revised their written to be better
because students think their written is subject to permanence. In this case teacher perhaps
notice all of students that they just write everything that comes in their written.

2. Production time - this part plays a crucial issue for the agents. In this part, students will
think about the deadline. The possible case in here is the students will just only focus on
the deadline and would resort to not give importance on the content itself. As the result,
their written work will not be maximized and or to be improved. Moreover this is a job for
the teachers to push students to think about the process of learning rather than the result
itself.
 3. Distance - having a relationship with the audience anticipation. Before students start to
write, they have to know who will be the audience to read their output.

4. Orthography - this part is talk about the technical of appearance. After writer consider
about the word, phrase and sentence that they will use students also consider about the
front, size and also the picture. All appearance has to connect with the topic and target of
the reader.

5. Complexity - this is talk about the sentence whether students use simple sentence combine
or complex sentence. We as a teacher will know the students‘progress of learning. And for
the academic writing, students should provide reference.

6. Vocabulary - talk about word richness we (teacher) can see what a new vocabulary that
they already acquired.

7. Formality - this is complex convention for academic writing (describe, explain, compare,
criticize, argue, etc). If the writer creates academic writing it means the product have to
formal. Because of that the language that they use has to formal and polite. The front or
size has to consistent with the guideline that they use (APA style, MLA etc).

Characteristics of Spoken Language

1. VARIATION IN SPEED
2. LOUDNESS OR QUIETNESS
3. GESTURES
4. INTONATION
5. STRESS
6. RHYTHM
7. PITCH RANGE
8. PAUSING AND PHRASING

Differences between Spoken and Written Language

Written:
 Tends to be more complex and intricate than speech with longer sentences and many
subordinate clauses. The punctuation and layout of written text also have no spoken
equivalent.
 Usually permanent and written texts cannot usually be changed once they have been
printed/written out
 Written text can communicate across time and space for as long as the particular language
and writing system is still understood.
 Writers can make use of punctuation, headings, layouts, colors and other graphical effects
in their written texts.
 Some grammatical constructions are only used in writing as are some kinds of vocabulary
such as some complex chemical and legal terms.

Spoken:
 Tends to be full or repetitions, incomplete sentences, corrections and interruptions with
the exception of formal speeches and other scripted forms of speech such as news reports
and scripts for plays and films.
 Usually transient unless recorded and speakers can correct themselves and change their
utterances as they go along.
 Speech is usually used for immediate interactions.
 Speech can us timing, tone, volume and tremble to add emotional context.
  Some types of vocabulary are used only or mainly speech. These include slang expressions,
and tags like y’know, like, etc.

The Five Most Common Language Register in Writing

1. Ceremonial Register
Ceremonial register is exactly how it sounds. This is the kind of language you’ll see in older
texts, like Shakespeare, the King James Bible, Tennyson’s poetry, and so on. It features a lot
of archaic language, and often uses unnecessary amounts of adjectives, with unusual or
outdated sentence structures. Unless you’re writing to mimic an older style, chances are
you won’t use this register.

Traits
 Archaic word choice
 Outdated or complex sentence structures
 ‘Purple prose’ (overly descriptive sentences)

Example
The King James Bible, Mark 1:3:

“The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths
straight.”

2. Formal Register
Formal register is more common than ceremonial register. You’ll probably see it in business
reports, research essays, high-level communications, and formal speeches. It’s
characterized by its use of complex syntax, lack of contractions, colloquialisms or idioms,
and more extensive (and possibly subject-specific) vocabulary, and is often written from an
objective, third-person perspective. Often, using a formal register means that text is
slightly less accessible to a general audience.

Traits
 Complex sentence structures
 Technical jargon
 Passive voice
 Uncommon word choice
 No slang or contractions

Where to Use
 Academic essays
 Business reports
 Business presentations
Example
Kim & Kim, ‘The Influence of Authenticity of Online Reviews on Trust Formation among
Travelers’:

“Based on the aforementioned notion, the following research model (see Figure 1) was
formulated to (1) investigate the influences of perceived authenticity of online reviews
about destinations on two aspects of travelers’ trust toward mega review sites (i.e.,
cognitive and affective); (2) examine the impacts of the trust toward the websites on
travelers’ trust and behavioral intention toward destinations the website recommended;
and (3) test the influence of destination trust on behavioral intention.”

3. Neutral Register
 A neutral register is similar to a formal register – the main difference is the higher level of
accessibility. Your syntax should be less complex (which often means shorter sentences).

You should use words that will clearly and effectively convey your message. For example,
the sentence you just read is written in a neutral register. Written in a formal register, it
might read like, “Ideally, vocabulary should be utilized that cogently and effectively conveys
the intended message.” See the difference?

A neutral register is best for when you’re trying to sound professional, but you still want a
broader audience to understand what you’re saying. You’ll often see it in textbooks,
speeches, news reporting, essays, reports and other types of academic or business writing.

Traits
 Common word choice
 No jargon and slang
 Relatively simple sentence structures

Where to Use
 Emails
 Website copy
 Advertising
 Reports
 Presentations
 Social media
 Blogs

Example
The New York Times, ‘1.5 Million Antibody Tests Show What Parts of N.Y.C. Were Hit
Hardest’:

“The data from the city is on a far larger scale than previously released information, and
includes all antibody test results reported to the city’s Department of Health.”

4. Informal Register
Informal register is the register often used by blog posts, informal speeches, magazine
articles, travel writing and advertising. Case in point: this entire post is written in a more-
or-less informal register. Use of colloquialisms, idioms, references to cultural knowledge,
shorter, snappier sentences and highly engaging text are all marks of an informal register.
You can use an informal register to capture the audience’s attention and engage with them
in an exciting manner.

Traits
 Colloquialisms
 Contractions
 Simple sentence structures
 High-context references
 Active voice
 Idioms

Where to Use
 Blogs
 Ads
 Social media
 In-house emails
 Presentations
 Example
The New York Times, ‘A Rhode Islander Reconciles Herself to Calamari’:

“‘My new home state of Rhode Island is trending over calamari and I have never been more
hungry and confused at the same time,’ tweeted one Rhode Islander. ‘It should be the clam
cake comeback state,’ I told my friend. Never heard of clam cakes? That’s because our
savory fritters dotted with our iconic chopped quahogs are utterly unique to the Ocean
State.”

5. Casual Register
Casual register is typically used while texting or writing to someone you know well. It will
probably feature lots of slang, abbreviations, colloquialisms and sentence fragments. In my
experience, casual writing often correlates very closely with how someone speaks. It’s very
rare you’ll use a casual register in a professional context, unless you’re writing social media
captions that use a deliberately relaxed brand voice.

Traits
 Slang
 Abbreviations
 Colloquialisms
 Sentence fragments
 Technically incorrect syntax
 Emojis

Where to Use
 Social media

Example
Hungry Facebook user:

“Why is the food truck with the awesome Dagwood dogs not at the showgrounds? Was
craving one this arvo and very sad to see the space empty ? Hope they come back.”
4. EXPLORING TEXTS REFLECTING
DIFFERENT CULTURES
A “text” isn‘t limited to something written down. A text can be a film, an artifact, anything in a
language and culture that conveys meaning. Think about the text that you use in your language
classroom: what‘s in the textbook? What do you read in class or even at home? How do you
describe the classroom, its design? Why do you think the chairs are placed facing the tables? Those
questions, with its finite answer would tell you that there are texts that are reflection of one‘s own
culture.

Text can be categorized into the following groups:

• Created texts: Texts authored by non-native speakers for non-native speakers to achieve pre-
determined curricular goals.
• Semi-authentic texts: Texts created by native and/or non-native speaker, based on
original language materials, but adapted to fit curricular needs.
• Authentic texts: Texts created by native speakers for native speakers for consumption in a
native environment.

Cultural texts are those objects, actions, and behaviors that reveal cultural meanings. A photo is an
image, but is also a cultural text, a picture with cultural information beyond just the picture itself.
Food and clothing also suggest cultural information, and it doesn‘t stop there. The entire place and
space, all of the people and interaction, all of the rituals and rules and the various forms in
which they manifest themselves, are ―readable texts, suitable for observation and analysis by
the ethnographer and writer—namely by you.

The initial description of a cultural text may make it seem as though everything is a cultural text.
While in some sense true, this doesn‘t mean that every text has particular cultural relevance.
Sometimes a book is just a book; a picture is just a picture. The difference between relevant cultural
texts, (one that has one connection with your project) and an irrelevant cultural text, (one that may
have nothing to do with your project), has to do with the meaning transferred to that text by the
people who create and/or use the text.

Identification of a cultural text is relatively easy. Take a look around the room or place you are in
right now and briefly catalog the people and/or thing you see. These objects and actions are
cultural texts.

How to Evaluate Messages and Images of Different Types of Text Reflecting Different
Culture

The following should do:

 Understand how the specified cultures live.
 How the people in the specified group communicate each other.
 Learn the symbolism of their culture.
 Be aware in every detail such as artifact, language, and symbolism.

Text is not literal text, but in semiotics refers to a combination of signs, signifies and mechanism like
metonymy. A text could be a sentence, paragraph an image, a story, or a collection of stories.

Collection of signs in a single photograph or painting, a video clip, a television show, a feature film
and whenever these signs come together in the land of semiotics, they become texts. These texts
can be understood, rearranged and put together in different combinations, with different meanings
to different groups of people. But cultural texts are not one-dimensional. A text is not simply
representative of one culture; it does not belong to one culture, even if it purposely excludes others
semiotically. Cultural texts are multi-dimensional, they are dynamic.

A cultural text is perhaps better understood as having cultural layers of understanding where
groups different in age, race, nationality, sexual orientation may read and understand a collection
of signs in different ways. Depending on the producer or the audience, the X`text itself has a kind of
flexibility in meaning to different people when it starts to operate culturally.

Formal and Informal Language

Formal and Informal language serve different purposes. The tone, the choice of words and the way
the words are put together vary between the two styles. Formal language is less personal than
informal language. It is used when writing for professional or academic purpose like university
assignments. Formal language does not use colloquialisms, contractions or first person pronouns
such as I or We.

Informal language is more casual and spontaneous. It is used when communicating with friends or
family either in writing or in conversation. It is used in writing personal emails, text messages and in
some business correspondents. The tone of informal language is more personal than formal
language.

Contractions
Informal: The improvements can‘t be introduced due to funding restrictions.
Formal: Improvements cannot be introduced due to funding restrictions.

Informal: I don‘t believe that the results are accurate.

Formal: The results are not believed to be accurate.
Informal: The research project won‘t continue next year.
Formal: The research project will not continue next year.

Phrasal Verbs
Informal: The balloon was blown up for the experiment.
Formal: The balloon was inflated for the experiment.

Informal: The patient got over his illness.

Formal: The patient recovered from his illness.

Informal: The results of the study were mixed up.

Formal: The results of the study were confused.

Slang/Colloquialisms
Informal: The mob was very rowdy during the protest against cuts to university funding.
Formal: The crowd was very rowdy during the protest against the cuts to university funding.

Informal: Lecturers still count on students to used correct grammars and punctuations in essays.
Formal: Lecturers expect students to use correct grammars and punctuations in essays.

Informal: It was raining cats and dogs. Formal: It was raining very heavily.

First Person Pronouns

Informal: I considered various research methods for the study.

Formal: Various research methods were considered for the study.

Informal: We believe the practice is unsustainable.

Formal: It is believed the practice is unsustainable.

Informal: During the interview I asked students about their experiences.

Formal: During the interview students were asked about their experiences.