See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/328306599

Fundamentals of Work Physiology

Chapter · October 2018

CITATIONS READS
0 2,943

1 author:

Ajeet Jaiswal
Central University of Tamil Nadu
135 PUBLICATIONS   84 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

A Socio economic, Nutritional and Health Evaluation among Worker of Different Sector of Textile Industries----MRP-MAJOR-ANTH-2013-29585 View project

PG e-Pathsala Project (A Gateway to all post Graduate Courses under National Mission on Education through Information and Communication and Technology (NMEICT) -
Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Govt. of India. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Ajeet Jaiswal on 16 October 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Paper No. : 09 Physiology and Sports Anthropology
Module : 03 Fundamentals of Work Physiology

Development Team
Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor
Principal Investigator Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Paper Coordinator Dr Rashmi Sinha

IGNOU, Delhi

Dr. Ajeet Jaiswal & Dr. RRM SIngh

Content Writer Department of Anthropology & Department of Physical Education
& Sports, Pondicherry University

Prof. Satwanti Kapoor

Content Reviewer
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 Description of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name 09 Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Module Name/Title Fundamentals of Work Physiology

Module Id 03

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 Contents
Introduction
Meaning
Fundamentals
Blood parameters during dynamic work
Thermoregulation during dynamic work
Hormonal regulation during dynamic work
Muscle Structure
Definition of muscle
Muscle structure and function
Aerobic metabolism
Anaerobic metabolism
Muscle efficiency
Circulatory system
Heart parameters
Blood flow distribution
Respiratory system
Fatigue
Physical fatigue
Mental fatigue
Summary
Conclusion

Learning objectives:
 The course provides introductory information in the field of work physiology
 The study of this module enables the students at postgraduate level to understand the
fundamentals of work physiology and how it impacts human beings.

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 INTRODUCTION
According to archeological and historical records, human physiology, as a kind of discipline, started
around 420 BC in ancient Greece at the Hippocratic School of Medicine. Hippocrates of Kos (460-370
BC) is considered by many as the "father of medicine". He established medicine as a separate
discipline and along with his students, he wrote extensively on physiology.
Some believe that Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC), who focused on the relationship between structure and
function, was the real pioneer of physiology.
Galen (Claudius Galenus, circa 129-200/216), a prominent Greek physician in Ancient Rome,
dissected animals and became by contemporary standards an expert anatomist and physiologist. He
said that monkeys that walked on two legs, like we do, would most probably provide researchers with
knowledge that could be applied to humans. Galen is known as the "founder of experimental
physiology".
It was not really until the 19th century that physiology started making rapid advancements. Matthias
Schleiden (1804-1881), a German botanist, and Theodor Schwann (1810-1882), a German
physiologist, were co-founders of the cell theory - the idea that every living thing is made up of cells;
with cells being the basic unit structure of everything that lives.
People perform widely different tasks in daily work situations. These tasks must be matched with
human capabilities to avoid “under loading”, in which human capacities are not utilized properly, as
well as “overloading”, which may cause the person to break down and suffer reduced performance
capacity or even permanent damage.

MEANING
Physiology is derived from Ancient Greek meaning it is the scientific study of the normal function in
living systems. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells,
and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the
size of the field it is divided into, among others, animal physiology (including that of human), plant
physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology (see microbial metabolism), bacterial physiology,
4

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 and viral physiology. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant
achievements in this discipline since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine,
a physiologic state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically, which is
centered on the abnormalities that occur in animal diseases, including humans.
FUNDAMENTALS OF WORK PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is concerned with work (which includes sports physiology) is closely related to
environmental physiology. In recent years the environmental factors with which the organism must
cope have become more varied, and work more often be done under difficult environment conditions
– in extreme climates, at high altitudes.
The study of work physiology is not concerned solely with the physical workloads encountered during
performance of a job or a sport and their effects on man. The work physiology must devote an ever
greater part of his attention to such psychological aspects – even the area of sports. When the work
load is too great, whatever nature, the body is over strained and health deteriorates. Human working
conditions cannot be established without knowledge of the principles of work physiology. Almost all
areas of physiology are involved in these relations; only by a practical approach can one set up
guidelines to work environment or machine for the worker. In this sense work physiology is a science
of optimization, in which human well-being is to be optimized.
BLOOD PARAMETERS DURING DYNAMIC WORK
During and after dynamic work there are many changes occur in the blood. Only occasionally do these
permit assessment of the degree of physical strain, but they are of special value in laboratory
diagnosis.
CHANGES IN BLOOD GAS LEVEL
During light physical work a healthy person shows only slight changes in arterial CO2 and O2 partial
pressures. Heavy work causes a distinct drop in Pco2 with no appreciable changes in Po2. This
situation reflects an overshooting increase in ventilation, brought about by a lactate-based acidosis in
blood and muscles.
CHANGES IN BLOOD CELLS
5

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 During physical work the hematocrit rises, as a result both of decreased plasma volume owing to
greater capillaries filtration and of the release of erythrocytes from their sites of production. An
increased in the number of leukocytes have also been observed.
CHANGES IN ACID-BASE STATUS OF THE BLOOD
Light physical work does not affect the acid-base balance, for all the additional carbonic acid
produced is released from the lungs. During heavy work metabolic acidosis is produced in proportion
to the rate of lactate production, which is compensated partially by respiration.
CHANGES IN FOODSTUFF IN THE BLOOD
The arterial glucose level of a healthy person hardly changes work. Only when strenuous work is
prolonged does the arterial glucose concentration decrease a sign of approaching exhaustion. The
blood lactate concentration on the other hand, varies widely with the degree of strain, depending on
the rate of its production in the anaerobically working muscle and the rate of elimination. Lactate is
broken down by oxidation in non-working skeletal muscle and in the myocardium.
CHANGES IN OTHER SUBSTANCES PRESENT IN THE BLOOD
During exercise the blood concentration of certain electrolytes and organic substances rises. These
changes are explained by changes in the permeability of the muscle membrane, which allows
intracellular components to escape into the bloodstream. The return to the initial concentrations in
some cases require several days.
THERMOREGULATION DURING DYNAMIC WORK
Sweating is generally regarded as a sign of hard work. The onset of visible sweating is exceeded,
whether because of increased heat production during exercise or insufficient heat loss owing to high
ambient temperature or humidity, improper clothing or absence of air movement and finally to
heating of the body by excessive thermal radiation.
As performance increases, other conditions being equal, the secretion of sweat increases about in
proportion to the rectal temperature. Because of the cooling effect of evaporation the skin
temperature during sweating is lower than in the case of extra glandular water loss.
HORMONAL REGULATION DURING DYNAMIC WORK
6

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 Two hormonal systems deserve special attention in the context of adjustments to work. During
physical work more adrenalin released into the blood, from the adrenal medulla in particular,
noradrenalin is released only in small amounts. Among other action, adrenalin mobilizes the glycogen
and fat de-posts, stimulates increased production of cyclic AMP and enhances cardiac activity and the
clarity of consciousness.
MUSCLE STRUCTURE

Fig-1: structure of a muscle. Courtesy: GOOGLE IMAGES

What is a Muscle?
The basic function of muscle is to generate force. Secondarily, muscles can provide some shape and
form to the organism. Anatomically and functionally, muscle can be divided into two types, smooth
and striated. Striated or striped muscle can be further divided into skeletal muscle and cardiac (heart)
muscle. Regardless of the type, all muscles share the following basic properties (Gowitzke and Milner
1988):
• Conductivity: A muscle has the ability to conduct an action potential.
• Irritability: When stimulated, the muscle will react.

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 • Contractility: A muscle can shorten or produce tension between its ends.
• Relaxation: A muscle can return to resting properties after contraction.
• Distensibility: A muscle can be stretched by a force outside of the muscle itself. The muscle is not
injured as long as it is not stretched past its physiological limits.
• Elasticity: The muscle will resist elongation and will return to its original position after passive or
active elongation. Elasticity is the opposite of distensibility.
Smooth muscle and striated muscle can easily be differentiated from each other in a variety of ways,
including appearance. For example, smooth muscle is uni-nucleated and contains sarcomeres (the
functional units of muscle) that are arranged at oblique angles to each other; under a light microscope
smooth muscle appears to be relatively featureless as a result of the orientation of its sarcomeres. On
the other hand, striated muscle contains protein arrays called myofibrils that are parallel to each other
and thus form striations or stripes. Cardiac muscle can be easily identified as distinct from skeletal
muscle by appearance and differences in function, such as an intrinsic ability to contract.
Muscle Structure and Function
Skeletal muscle is found in many sizes and various shapes. The small muscles of the eye may contain
only a few hundred cells, while the vastus lateralis (muscle of the outer thigh) may contain hundreds
of thousands of muscle cells. The shape of muscle is dependent on its general architecture, which in
turn helps to define the muscle’s function. Some muscles, such as the gluteal muscles, are quite thick;
some, such as the sartorius, are long and relatively slender; and others, such as the extensors of the
fingers, have very long tendons. These differences in muscle shape and architecture permit skeletal
muscle to function effectively over a relatively wide range of tasks.
Thicker muscles with a large cross-sectional area can produce great amounts of force; longer muscles
can contract over a greater distance and develop higher velocities of shortening; muscles with long
tendons can form pulley arrangements that allow large external movement (e.g., grasping by the
fingers) with relatively small movement of the muscles and tendons.
Some long slender muscles such as the sartorius and biceps femoris are divided by transverse fibrous
bands that form distinct sections or compartments (McComas 1996). Although fibers were previously
believed to run the length of these muscles, because of these compartments the longest possible
8

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 human muscle fiber is about 12 cm (4.7 in.) in length (McComas 1996). The individual compartments
can have different fiber type distributions and different cross-sectional areas (English and Ledbetter
1982).
Muscle fibers can be arranged into two basic structural patterns, fusiform and pinnate (also spelled
pennate). Most human muscles are fusiform, with the fibers largely arranged in parallel arrays along
the muscle’s longitudinal axis. In many of the larger muscles the fibers are inserted obliquely into the
tendon, and this arrangement resembles a feather (i.e., pinnation). The fibers in a pinnate muscle are
typically shorter than those of a fusiform muscle. The arrangement of pinnate muscle fibers can be
single or double, as in muscles of the forearm, or multipinnate, as in the gluteus maximus or deltoid.
About 85% of the mass of a muscle is made up of muscle fibers; the remaining 15% is mostly
connective tissue. Muscle is organized and largely shaped by the connective tissue, which is
composed of a ground substance, collagen, and reticular and elastin fibers of varying proportions. In
muscle, the connective tissue is largely responsible for transmitting forces, for example the
transmission of forces from the muscle to the bone by the tendon. The connective tissues’ elasticity
and distensibility help to ensure that the tension developed by the muscle is smoothly transmitted
and that a muscle will return to its original shape after being stretched. Thus, the connective tissue of
a muscle provides a framework for the concept of series and parallel elastic components within a
muscle. When a muscle is passively stretched or when it actively contracts, the resulting initial
tension is largely caused by the elastic properties of the connective tissue. During a contraction, the
muscle cannot actively develop force or perform work against a resistance until the elastic
components are stretched out and the muscle tension and resistance (load) are in equilibrium.
There are three levels of muscle tissue organization: epimysium, endomysium, and perimysium.
These three levels are a consequence of differing sizes and orientations of connective tissue fibers,
particularly collagen. The outside surface of a muscle is covered by a relatively thick and very tough
connective tissue, the epimysium, which separates it from surrounding muscles. Arteries and veins
run through the endomysium. The collagen fibers of the epimysium are woven into particularly tight
bundles that are wavy in appearance. These collagen bundles are connected to the perimysium. The
9

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 perimysium divides the muscle into bundles typically containing about 100 to 150 muscle fibers,
which form a fasciculus or fascicle.
The perimysium contains many large collagen bundles that encircle the outer surface of the muscle
fibers lying on the outside of a fascicle. Some of the collagen bundles encircle the fascicles in a cross
pattern, adding stability to the structure of the fascicle. Underneath the thicker perimysial sheets of
connective tissue is a much looser network of collagen fibers that run in various directions and connect
with the endomysium. The endomysium, which is made up of collagen fibers 60 to 120 nm in
diameter, surrounds each muscle fiber, again adding more stability. Capillaries run between individual
muscle fibers and lie within and are stabilized by the endomysium. Many of the endomysial fibers
connect with the perimysium and likely connect to the basement membrane, which lies on the outside
of the muscle cell sarcolemma (McComas 1996).

SARCOMERE CONSTRUCTION

Fig-2: Sarcomere Construction. Courtesy: WIKIPEDIA IMAGES

10

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 A sarcomere (Greek sarx "flesh", meros "part") is the basic unit of striated muscle tissue. Skeletal
muscles are composed of tubular muscle cells (myocytes called muscle fibers) which are formed in a
process known as myogenesis. Muscle fibers are composed of tubular myofibrils. Myofibrils are
composed of repeating sections of sarcomeres, which appear under the microscope as dark and light
bands. Sarcomeres are composed of long, fibrous proteins as filaments that slide past each other when
a muscle contracts or relaxes.
Two of the important proteins are myosin, which forms the thick filament, and actin, which forms the
thin filament. Myosin has a long, fibrous tail and a globular head, which binds to actin. The myosin
head also binds to ATP, which is the source of energy for muscle movement. Myosin can only bind to
actin when the binding sites on actin are exposed by calcium ions. Actin molecules are bound to the Z
line, which forms the borders of the sarcomere. Other bands appear when the sarcomere is relaxed.
A muscle fiber from a biceps muscle may contain 100,000 sarcomeres. The myofibrils of smooth
muscle cells are not arranged into sarcomeres.
BANDS
The sarcomeres are what give skeletal and cardiac muscles their striated appearance. A sarcomere is
defined as the segment between two neighbouring Z-lines (or Z-discs, or Z bodies). In electron
micrographs of cross-striated muscle, the Z-line (from the German "Zwischenscheibe", the disc in
between the I bands) appears as a series of dark lines. Surrounding the Z-line is the region of the I-
band (for isotropic). I-band is the zone of thin filaments that is not superimposed by thick filaments.
Following the I-band is the A-band (for anisotropic). Named for their properties under a
polarizing microscope. An A-band contains the entire length of a single thick filament. Within the A-
band is a paler region called the H-zone (from the German "heller", brighter). H-band is the zone of the
thick filaments that is not superimposed by the thin filaments. Inside the H-zone is a thin M-line (from
the German "Mittelscheibe", the disc in the middle of the sarcomere) formed of cross-connecting
elements of the cytoskeleton.
AEROBIC METABOLISM

11

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 Aerobic (oxygen-using) metabolism extracts energy from carbohydrate sources, fatty acids and
amino acids. While glycolysis yields two moles of ATP from one mole of glucose, full oxidation of
glucose by aerobic respiration produces around 30 moles of ATP

Fig-3: aerobic metabolism. Courtesy: GOOGLE IMAGES

Aerobic metabolism occurs in three phases. First, carbohydrates are oxidized to CO 2, producing the
energy-rich molecules NADH and FADH2. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are then passed along the
electron transport chain to the terminal electron acceptor O2. The free energy released in electron
transport is captured by coupling it to the export of protons across the mitochondrial inner
membrane. Finally, the free energy of the electrochemical proton gradient is used to synthesize ATP
from ADP, Pi and H+, and to export ATP from the mitochondria.
Many catabolic pathways (carbohydrate, amino acid, fatty acid, and ketone body) converge at the
TCA cycle. Many anabolic pathways depart from the TCA cycle, including synthesis of fatty acids,
12

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 amino acids, purine bases, heme, cholesterol, steroid hormones and ketone bodies. The TCA cycle
provides carbon skeletons in a variety of different oxidation states for these biochemical processes.
ANEROBIC METABOLISM
Anaerobic metabolism, or anaerobic energy expenditure, is a natural part of whole-
body metabolic energy expenditure. Fast twitch muscle (as compared to slow twitch muscle) operates
using anaerobic metabolic systems, such that any recruitment of fast twitch muscle fibers leads to
increased anaerobic energy expenditure.

Fig-4: Anaerobic Metabolism. Courtesy: GOOGLE IMAGES

Anaerobic metabolism refers to biological processes that produce energy for an organism without
using oxygen. It is based on chemical reactions within the body in which carbohydrates are broken
down to release chemical energy. This process occurs primarily when an organism needs a sudden,
short-term burst of energy or during periods of intense exertion. This is where anaerobic metabolism
is important. When an organism needs to rapidly increase its energy supply, anaerobic metabolism
allows it to do so immediately instead of waiting for enough oxygen to fuel increased aerobic
metabolism. It can also be used in combination with aerobic metabolism when high energy levels are
needed. For example, a human athlete running a short high-speed sprint uses this metabolism to

13

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 supply himself or herself with a short-term increase in energy, while someone going for an extended,
leisurely jog will rely on anaerobic metabolism when starting but eventually shift to primarily aerobic
metabolism once his or her body has had had time to adjust to the increased activity. If an athlete
engages in high-intensity activity for an extended period of time, both forms of metabolism can be
heavily exploited.
MUSCLE EFFECIENCY
 Muscle efficiency at work is only about 20%
 The rest is lost as heat
 This also increases body temperature
Muscular efficiency and thus work rate typically vary by as much as 20–30% when comparing
individuals with low vs. high efficiency despite controlling for oxygen consumption, training status,
diet and other factors. This represents a large amount of biological difference between individuals,
which directly influences physical stress and work productivity. The factors that determine and
influence the energy efficiency of human muscular movement is represented by the product of two
phenomena.
(a) The efficiency with which the chemical energy of glucose and/or fat is converted to ATP
through oxidative phosphorylation; and
(b) The efficiency with which the chemical energy of ATP hydrolysis is converted to work.
Mitochondrial efficiency was not different in endurance trained versus untrained individuals.
This implies that the large differences among individuals in cycling efficiency appear to be due largely
to the efficiency of transferring the chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis into physical work.
Although oxidative phosphorylation can have direct influence on cycling efficiency, the
authors acknowledge that it represents only part of the equation for work or cycling efficiency. We
are left with an emerging picture that cycling efficiency appears related to percentage MHC I and
somehow to UCP3 protein content. This study has made clear the fact that solving this puzzle requires
use of techniques at the molecular and whole body levels, both of which can only be interpreted
when controlling for the relative work rate
14

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Fig-5: Circulatory System. Courtesy: GOOGLE IMAGES

The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system, is an organ system that
permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino

15

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the
body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and
maintain homeostasis. The study of the blood flow is called hemodynamics. The study of the properties
of the blood flow is called hemorheology. The circulatory system is often seen to comprise both
the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph.
These are two separate systems. The passage of lymph for example takes a lot longer than that of
blood. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is
circulated by the heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and
waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it
has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The
cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning 'heart' and 'vessel') system comprises the blood, heart,
and blood vessels. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which
returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph. While humans, as
well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the
network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular
system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for
excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood. The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack
circulatory systems.
Functions of Circulatory System
 blood delivers nutrients and oxygen to the muscles
 carries away carbon dioxide and waste products
 heart - pressure generating blood pump
 lungs - site of oxygen and CO2 exchange
Heart Parameters
During the many years of investigations into cardiac physiology, several physical parameters have
been defined which are useful for studying the activity and regulation of this organ. These parameters
are listed below and discussed individually. Their role in cardiac physiology and pathophysiology can
be understood through their interlinks.
16

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
  The Ventricular End Diastolic Volume (VEDV) is the total amount of blood within a ventricle at
the end of Diastole. In other words, it is the volume of the ventricle when maximally filled,
immediately prior to onset of cardiac contraction
 The Ventricular End Systolic Volume (VESV) is the total volume of blood within a ventricle
after completion of systole. Consequently, it is the volume of the ventricle when minimally filled
immediately after systolic ejection of blood.
 Stroke Volume refers to the total volume of blood that is ejected by the heart in a single
contraction. The stroke volume for a typical heart at rest is roughly 70mL.
 Derivation: Stroke Volume = VEDV – VESV
 The "Heart Rate" refers to the number of contractions the heart undergoes in one minute
(Beats/min)
 The normal heart rate is between 60-100 beats/min
 Tachycardia is considered a heart rate above100 beats/min whereas bradycardia is considered
a heart rate below 60 beats/min
 The Cardiac Output (CO) refers to the total volume of blood ejected from the heart in one
minute (ml/min). On a most basic level the Cardiac Output is a generic proxy for total cardiac
function. In a resting individual the average cardiac output is roughly 5000mL/min.
 Derivation: Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate
BLOOD FLOW DISTRIBUTION
The rate and distribution of blood flow through the circulatory system is variable and depends
on several factors such as physical activity, cardiac output and venous return.

17

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 Fig-6: Blood distribution system. Courtesy: GOOGLE IMAGES
Physical Activity
 With exercise, metabolism speeds up and because of this the muscles require more oxygen
 So the heart beats faster to supply the muscles with more oxygen-rich blood
 In turn the speed of blood flow increases.

18

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 Fig-6: Blood flow chart. Courtesy: GOOGLE IMAGES
Cardiac Output
 Due to an increase in heart rate (and stroke volume) to meet demands, cardiac output (the
volume of blood pumped out of the heart in one minute) automatically increases
 The faster and harder the heart pumps, the higher the rate of blood circulation.
Venous Return
 Venous return is the return of blood to the heart via venules and veins

19

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
  If this is slow, the volume of blood pumped from the heart with each beat (stroke volume) is
lower
 This lowers cardiac output and reduces blood pressure and flow rate.
Venous return (blood returning to the heart) must constitute three fifths of the blood circulating the
body at any time in order to maintain a steady blood flow. At rest this is not a problem, however,
during exercise the blood pressure in the veins is not high enough to increase the level of venous return
and so maintain the higher stroke volume and cardiac output which exercise requires. A number of
mechanisms are used which help to increase venous return:
 Pocket Valves: located within the veins prevent the backflow of blood and help it towards the
heart
 Muscle Pump: Many veins are situated between skeletal muscles, which when they contract
and relax, squeeze on the veins and help push the blood back towards the heart.
 Smooth Muscle: The wall of each vein contains smooth muscle which contracts to help push
the blood back towards the heart
 Respiratory Pump: The respiratory pump helps return blood in the thoracic cavity and
abdomen back to the heart. Whilst exercising we breathe faster and deeper which rapidly
changes the pressure within the thorax between high and low to help to squeeze the blood in
the area back to the heart.
 Gravity: Veins in the upper body are aided by gravity in order to return blood to the heart.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

20

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 Fig-7: Respiratory System. Courtesy: GOOGLE IMAGES
The respiratory system (called also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological
system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism.
The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
an organism and the environment.
In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings, respiration takes place in the respiratory organs
called lungs. The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation,
and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation; this process is
collectively called breathing or ventilation. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of
the respiratory system include trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and diaphragm. Molecules of
oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external
environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs.
Red blood cells collect the oxygen from the lungs and carry it to the parts of the body where it
is needed, according to the American Lung Association. During the process, the red blood cells collect
the carbon dioxide and transport it back to the lungs, where it leaves the body when we exhale.
The human body needs oxygen to sustain itself. A decrease in oxygen is known as hypoxia and
a complete lack of oxygen is known as anoxia and, according to MedLine Plus. These conditions can
21

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 be fatal; after about four minutes without oxygen, brain cells begin dying, according to NYU Langone
Medical Center, which can lead to brain damage and ultimately death.
In humans, the average rate of breathing is dependent on age. A newborn's normal breathing
rate is about 40 times each minute and may slow to 20 to 40 times per minute when the baby is
sleeping, according to the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia.
For adults, the average resting respiratory rate for adults is 12 to 16 breaths per minute,
according to Johns Hopkins Medicine. Physical exertion also has an effect on respiratory rate, and
healthy adults can average 45 breaths per minute during strenuous exercise.

Fig-8: Respiratory capacities. Courtesy: GOOGLE IMAGES

Fatigue
Fatigue also called exhaustion, tiredness, languidness, languor, lassitude, and listlessness is a
subjective feeling of tiredness which is distinct from weakness, and has a gradual onset. Unlike
weakness, fatigue can be alleviated by periods of rest. Fatigue can have physical or mental causes.
22

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 Physical fatigue is the transient inability of a muscle to maintain optimal physical performance, and is
made more severe by intense physical exercise. Mental fatigue is a transient decrease in maximal
cognitive performance resulting from prolonged periods of cognitive activity. It can manifest
as somnolence, lethargy, or directed attention fatigue.
Medically, fatigue is a non-specific symptom, which means that it has many possible causes.
Fatigue is considered a symptom, rather than a sign because it is a subjective feeling reported by the
patient, rather than an objective one that can be observed by others. Fatigue and 'feelings of fatigue' are
often confused.
PHYSICAL FATIGUE
Physical or muscular fatigue is the temporary physical inability of a muscle to perform
optimally. The onset of muscular fatigue during physical activity is gradual, and depends upon an
individual's level of physical fitness, and also upon other factors, such as sleep deprivation and overall
health. It can be reversed by rest. Physical fatigue can be caused by a lack of energy in the muscle, by a
decrease of the efficiency of the neuromuscular junction or by a reduction of the drive originating from
the central nervous system. The central component of fatigue is triggered by an increase of the level
of serotonin in the central nervous system. During motor activity, serotonin released in synapses that
contact motoneurons promotes muscle contraction. During high level of motor activity, the amount
of serotonin released increases and a spillover occurs. Serotonin binds to extra-synaptic receptors
located on the axon initial segment of motoneurons with the result that nerve impulse initiation and
thereby muscle contraction is inhibited. Muscle strength testing can be used to determine the presence
of a neuromuscular disease, but cannot determine its etiology. Additional testing, such
as electromyography, can provide diagnostic information, but information gained from muscle strength
testing alone is not enough to diagnose most neuromuscular disorders Musculoskeletal structures may
have co-evolved with their corresponding brain structures in a way that allows them to adapt to
environmental conditions (e.g.—proprioception). People with multiple sclerosis experience a form of
overwhelming lassitude or tiredness that can occur at any time of the day, for any duration, and that
does not necessarily recur in a recognizable pattern for any given patient, referred to as "neurological
fatigue".

23

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 MENTAL FATIGUE
Mental fatigue is a temporary inability to maintain optimal cognitive performance. The onset of
mental fatigue during any cognitive activity is gradual, and depends upon an individual's cognitive
ability, and also upon other factors, such as sleep deprivation and overall health. Mental fatigue has
also been shown to decrease physical performance. It can manifest as somnolence, lethargy, or directed
attention fatigue. Decreased attention is known as ego depletion and occurs when the limited 'self-
regulatory capacity' is depleted. It may also be described as a more or less decreased level of
consciousness. In any case, this can be dangerous when performing tasks that require constant
concentration, such as operating large vehicles. For instance, a person who is sufficiently somnolent
may experience micro sleep. However, objective cognitive testing can be used to differentiate the
neurocognitive deficits of brain disease from those attributable to tiredness. The perception of mental
fatigue is believed to be modulated by the brain's reticular activating system (RAS).

SUMMARY
 The subject of work physiology is connected with how various organs and systems in a human
body react to changes in the environment that surrounds them and the activities that they
engage in.
 The human body is designed to adapt to various demands placed on it from time to time and is
likely to completely breakdown only in extreme cases.
 This ability to respond and adapt to different situations is what make our bodies very unique.
 But the efficiency of such adaptations will differ from person to person depending on his
health, fitness and attitude.
 How our systems react and adapt to exercises have been discussed individually and also the
fundamental functions of our physiology too have been presented in this chapter.
 The chemical reactions and changes that actually trigger the larger functions in the blood,
hormones, muscles and other organs are explained in detail.

24

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology
 CONCLUSION
It is a need that one has to be aware of how our physiology reacts to work. How human systems and
organs react and respond to any work will give deeper understanding of how people can prepare
themselves well to increase the efficiency of their body functions. The body is designed to adapt to
changes and demands with reasonable efficiency even for a person with inactive lifestyle. Only when
our body is pushed to the limits or to the extremes, it breaks down or cesses to function.

25

Physiology and Sports Anthropology

Anthropology Fundamentals of Work Physiology

View publication stats