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Chapter 14

Sensory Evaluation and

Consumer Acceptability

Mian Kamran Sharif, Masood Sadiq Butt, Hafiz Rizwan Sharif

and Muhammad Nasir*

Abstract
Sensory appraisal is a discipline of measurements strongly allied with precision,
accuracy and sensitivity to avoid from wrong assenting results. Sensory assessment
is comprised of techniques that involve psychology, statistics, food science,
physics, engineering, ergonomics, sociology, mathematics, humanities and various
other biological sciences. Imprecisely sensory evaluation is categorized into
objective and subjective testing. In former method, hedonic response of a product is
determined by skilled evaluators whereas in second method, consumers are
involved in the evaluation process. Hedonic assessment is the economical and ideal
method to find out the influence of variations in ingredients, manufacturing,
wrapping, or shelf life. The successful sensory evaluation in food industries is
achieved by linking sensory properties to physical, chemical, formulation and
process variables which enables manufacturing food products with maximum
consumer acceptance. This chapter briefly describes the field of sensory evaluation,

*
Mian Kamran Sharif˧ and Masood Sadiq Butt
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
˧
Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]

Hafiz Rizwan Sharif

State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology,
Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China.

Muhammad Nasir
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Faculty of Bio-Sciences, University of Veterinary
and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan.

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Tahir Zahoor and Masood Sadiq Butt
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
362 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

sensory perception, principles of good sensory testing, sensory evaluation methods

and application of sensory science to product development. An effective sensory
program is helpful in meeting end-user expectations and ultimately getting large
market share.
Keywords: Sensory evaluation; discriminatory testing; difference testing;
descriptive testing; affective testing; sensory perception; panelist considerations;
sensory evaluation in the food industry.

14.1. The Field of Sensory Evaluation

14.1.1. Sensory Evaluation
The discipline of hedonic response flourished swiftly in 20th century along with the
growth of food processing industries. It encompasses a set of techniques required
for the precise measurements of human reactions to foodstuff ultimately persuading
the consumer perceptions. According to the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT),
sensory evaluation is a scientific method used to evoke, measure, analyse and
interpret those responses to products as perceived through the senses of sight,
hearing, touch, smell and taste (Stone and Sidel 1993; IFT 2007). Since its advent
in 1940s, sensory assessment has been established as an exciting, dynamic and
continually evolving discipline that is now renowned as a scientific field in its own
right. The sensory professionals are regularly challenged with problems which call
upon widespread skills derived from array of disciplines, like bio-sciences,
psychology, statistics and often required to work with other experts from these
areas. Furthermore working with a human as ‘measuring instrument’ is challenging
due to great variability. Today’s lifestyle is entirely different; hypermarkets are
offering consumers a great range of food products. The competition between food
processing industries is escalating for more space in superstores; hence sensory
analysis has become vital part of food production. Sensory evaluation has emerged
as an essential component of food product development and standards for setting
up, testing, analyzing and interpreting sensory results are now at an advanced stage.
Moreover, innovations and advancements in electronic devices have further
simplified the evaluation process.

14.1.2. Role of Sensory Evaluation

There has been tremendous change in the role of sensory evaluation over the years.
In partnership with research and development as well as marketing departments it
helps in the formulation of profitable strategy. In the early stages of product
development, sensory testing can help to pinpoint the imperative sensory
characteristics driving acceptability. It can be useful to ascertain target consumers,
product competitors and assess the new ideas. Now a days, chemical and physical
properties of the product driving sensory attributes are ascertained by combining
data obtained from sensory and instrumental testing. Sensoric evaluation can
determine the impact of scaling up pilot samples to large-scale manufacture.
Sensory evaluation give assurances that inferior products are not released in the
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 363

market. In most of the cases, sensory evaluation is used to estimate shelf life of the
food products as sensory characteristics of the product depreciate ahead of
microbial quality. Customer evaluation is extensively employed in the investigation
arena. It explores new technologies for product development and understanding the
consumer behavior.

14.1.3. Successful Sensory Testing

Sensory analysis involves the inspection of a product by the senses i.e. sight,
smell, taste, touch and hearing for various quality attributes like appearance, flavor,
aroma, texture and sound. These characteristics of a food product are briefly
described below:
14.1.3.1. Appearance
Appearance is the first characteristics perceived by the human senses and play an
important role in the identification and final selection of food. This is the visual
perception of food comprised of color, shape, size, gloss, dullness and
transparency. The appearance of a meal have shown impact on appetite stimulation
or depression resulting in pleasure or total depression. The look of a food or
beverage impacts craveability and acceptance, before the product touches the lips.
This is because we eat with our eyes before we ever smell or taste.
14.1.3.2. Flavor
It is sensory phenomenon which is used to denote the sensations of odor, taste and
mouthfeel. Flavoring substances are aromatic compounds which are conceived by
the combination of taste and odor and perceived by the mouth and nose. Odor
improves the delight of eating e.g. aroma of freshly cooked rice and most of the
baked products. Taste helps in identification, acceptance and appreciation of food.
It is perceived by the taste buds on the tongue. There are four types of taste
perception: sweet, salty, sour and bitter. Sour and bitter are often confused. Lemon
juice has a sour taste whereas coffee has a bitter taste. In case of mouthfeel, nerves
present inside the mouth are enthused by chemical or thermal responses e.g.
coldness of ice cream or the fiery impression of pepper.
14.1.3.3. Aroma
Aroma is the first cousin of taste. These are volatile compounds which are
perceived by the odor receptors of olfactory tissues of the nasal cavity. Aromatic
compounds are released during the mastication process. Smell appraises the aroma
of food that is important in the gratitude of flavor. A pleasant smell makes food
delicious. To provoke a sensation of smell, the stuff must be in a gassy state.
Furthermore, aroma is valuable in perceiving fresh, rancid or intermittently
poisonous food.
364 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

14.1.3.4. Texture
Texture is perceived by a combination of senses i.e. touch, mouthfeel, sight and
hearing. It is one of the most imperative feature of a food. If a customer bites a
soggy biscuit or eats ice cream with sandy texture, it is improbable they will be
back. Texture is prerequisite in the acceptance of numerous foodstuffs e.g.
tenderness of meat and softness of bread. It also include the consistency, thickness,
fragility, chewiness and the size and shape of particles in food. Texture analyzer is
helpful to guarantee the target texture from the laboratory to the user’s kitchen.
14.1.3.5. Sound
Hearing deliberates the sounds made by food during preparation and ingesting e.g.
the crackle of fried food, the effervescence of drinks, the cracking of hard biscuits.
So, in sensory analysis, the senses are used to measure, analyse and interpret the
organoleptic or sensory properties of food.

14.2. Sensory Perception

14.2.1. Human senses
Sensoric attributes of the food products are perceived by the sensory organs like
eyes, tongue, nose, ear etc. by interacting with food components (Kemp et al.
2009). The biological mechanisms involved in perception are discussed below:
14.2.1.1. Vision
It is first food attribute which is critical in the selection or rejection of food. The
appearance of any product is accessed through the vision. Actually light waves
after striking with food stuff fall on the eye retina which is comprised of rods and
cones. Light energy after transforming into neural impulses reaches to the brain
through optic nerve. Rods respond to white light and communicate info regarding
the lightness of the color. Cones are receptive to diverse wavelengths of light
concerning to ‘color’. The brain deduces these indicators and we notice the
appearance (shape, size, color, etc.) of the product.
14.2.1.2. Taste
It involves the perception of constituents after being dissolved in saliva, oil or water
by taste receptors in the taste buds found superficially on the tongue and other parts
of the mouth or gullet. The consequential discernments can be divided into 5
various taste qualities – sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami.
• Sweet: sucrose, glucose, fructose, saccharine, aspartame
• Salty: sodium chloride, potassium chloride
• Sour: phosphoric acid, citric acid
• Bitter: quinine, caffeine
• Umami: Chinese salt
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 365

14.2.1.3. Smell
The aroma or odor associated with food products is sensed by olfactory receptors
present in nasal epithelium. Hence, for the detection of aroma or odor, volatile
molecules must be shifted to the nasal cavity. These compounds further move in the
nose during inhaling or breathing or during eating through the back of the throat. A
specific odor is the outcome of numerous volatile compounds, but sometimes
particular volatiles can be associated with a specific smell, e.g. Iso-amyl acetate.
14.2.1.4. Sound
It is detected by tiny hair cells in the ear stimulated by the sound waves. The
noise produced by food during eating contributes to the perceived texture of a food,
e.g. effervescence of a carbonated drink, crispness of an apple or puffed rice. The
sound waves produced during the consumption of food products are conducted by
the air and/or bones in the jaw and skull known as intra-oral perception.
14.2.1.5. Touch
Texture is a complicated phenomenon and it can be divided into categories
including mechanical (hardness and chewiness), geometric (graininess and
crumbliness) and mouth-feel (oiliness and moistness). Generally these
are professed during biting, chewing after swallowing.
Kinesthesis: Nerve fibers in the tendons, joints and muscles sense tension and
relaxation, allowing the perception of traits such as hardness or heaviness.
Somesthesis: Human skin including the tongue, surfaces of the oral cavity and lips
encompasses numerous tactile receptors to detect sensations related to touch, e.g.
particle size.
Chemesthesis: Some food constituents can arouse the trigeminal nerves situated in
the skin, mouth and nose to give hot, burning, tingling, cooling or astringent
sensations, e.g. capsaicin in chilli, piperine in pepper and carbon dioxide in
carbonated drinks. When sensed in the oral cavity, these are communally known as
mouth-feel.

14.2.2. Factors Affecting Sensory Measurements

Contrary to sensory gadgets, psychological or physiological factors can easily
affect human decisions. In order to diminish or eradicate such biasness, panelists
should pick right protocols and experimental design (Hough 2010). The possible
sources of error and recommended approaches for tumbling associated effects are
discussed below:
366 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

14.2.2.1. Psychological Factors

i) Expectation Error
The information about the samples to be assessed or objectives of the investigation
can influence the decision of the panelists because assessor inclined to find what is
desirable. Try to avoid including such persons in the panel who are familiar with
the product. Furthermore, minimum possible information should be shared with the
judges and don’t reveal info concerning the samples unless it is indispensable due
to religious integrity especially while using innovative ingredients. During sample
coding, use random 3-digit numerics rather colors or alphabets. Numbers like 15,
911, 1122 have specific links, hence should be avoided. Similarly, Codes such as
‘A’, ‘1’ or round numbers (e.g. 100, 250) can be related with a higher score.
ii) Suggestion Effect
Sensory evaluation should be carried out in designated facility in order to avoid the
influence of commentaries or sounds on the judgment. There should be separate
sensory booths for sample evaluation and judges should be discouraged for any
discussion related to samples before or after assessment except instructed to do so.
iii) Stimulus and Logical Error
Logical error happens when the stimulus is rationally allied with one or more of the
attributes under appraisal. This occurs when evaluators use extra info while making
a decision about the samples. For examples, food products with intense color are
supposed to be moreintense in flavor. Similarly, a thin cream layer is assumed as
poorer quality. Sometimes conducting sensory evaluation at an unusual time, may
prompt evaluators to think about a manufacture problem. Similarly use of costly
containers may lead appraisers to think that foodstuffs is of superior quality. Try to
disguise irrelevant variations and ensure that sample characteristics are consistent
using suitable colored illumination, coverings and ear guards.
iv) Distraction Error
Stimuli like radio, chatting and personal obsessions in the evaluation area can
easily influence the panelists. Use of electronic as well as communication devices
should be prohibited in the test area in order to create noise free
environment. Furthermore, create an atmosphere that inspires professionalism
amongst the evaluators.
v) Attribute Dumping
While designing sensory performa, efforts should be made to include all possible
attributes for optimum evaluation. It has been noticed that if judges are not given
the chance to rate all the traits they observe in the foods under assessment, they still
exhibit their opinion using existing attributes. For example, if samples are varying
in sweetness but no sweetness characteristic included in the performa, panelists
record this variation on a flavor intensity scale.
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 367

vi) Order Effect

This hedonic response of preceding sample can influence the attribute of the next
sample e.g. a sample is considered less sweet if next one is with greater intensity.
Furthermore, the sample position may affect the scoring e.g. sample placed at first
position is generally assigned higher scores in hedonic scale. Order effect can be
reduced through randomization or balancing the order of sample presentation. Use
a mock sample at position one is suggested for effective evaluation.
vii) Acclimatization
This happens where judges evaluate similar stuff repetitively. In order to diminish
the influence of adaptation, present spiked samples from time to time or vary
products.
viii) Halo Effect and Proximity Error
This usually happens while judging numerous traits in a single run especially by the
untrained assessors. In this case, scoring one attribute may influence the assessment
of other characteristics e.g. sweet sample may be regarded as stickier. Wherever
possible, assess one, or at least a limited number of qualities at a time. Furthermore,
try to use trained panelist and randomize the order of characteristic when
evaluation of several traits deemed necessary at once.
ix) Contrast and Convergence Effects
To reduce the contrast and convergence effects, randomize or balance the order of
presentation of samples and consider eliminating outlying samples from the
sample set.
x) Motivation Error
An interested judge perform sensory evaluation more consistently. Usually
assessors rate the samples based on their feeling about the food manufacturer or
team leader. This can be a concern especially if evaluation is being carried out by
the company employees. To minimize this error, try to do the sensory analysis in a
professional manner by giving regular feedback and due respect to the judges.
xi) Central Tendency Error
This is more likely to happen with untrained evaluators or when they are not
conversant with the product range. When using scales, judges mostly give scores to
the middle of the scale. Encourage them to use broad scale to differentiate between
the products and this is especially important when using unskilled assessors. There
is need of panelist training in the use of the scale and exposure of a wide range of
products in order to cope with central tendency error.
368 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

14.2.2.2. Physiological Factors

i) Adaptation
There is a strong association between reduction in sensitivity with the continuous
exposure of a stimulus and reduction in response to other stimuli. Subsequently,
sensory assessment is affected by the adaptation to a stimulus. These are known as
carry-over effects. To decrease the adaptation impacts, first confine the number of
samples to be evaluated. Then ensure sufficient time interval before proceeding to
the next sample to recover the sensory system. This duration ranges from a few
seconds to hours, contingent with the stimulant e.g. cooling can take 10 minutes to
retreat. The panelists should be provided appropriate palate cleansers in order to
ensure cleaning of oral cavity, e.g. milk may be desirable for some spicy
compounds.
ii) Physical Condition
Sensory evaluation is strongly influenced by the age, health, nutritional disorders,
hormonal state, stress level and mood of the assessors. Additionally, uses of
medicines further aggrieve the situation. In this situation, assessor’s screening is
suggested prior to testing or eliminate data of the panelist if medical conditions
affect the sensory performance. Sensory sessions should be schedules around a
similar time each day preferably between 10 and lunch. Furthermore, ask
evaluators to restrain from eating for at least an hour before evaluation.
iii) Perceptual Interactions between Stimuli
Certain stimuli can interact to cause suppression (existence of one ingredient
diminishes the perceived concentration of another, e.g. sourness reduces
apple flavor), potentiation (occurrence of one element surges the intensity of
another, e.g. Chinese salt accelerates the meat flavor) and synergy (intensity of a
mixture is greater than the intensity of the sum of the individual components, e.g.
sweetness and sourness impact on strawberry flavor).
14.2.2.3. Cultural Factors
This is especially important when working with assessors from diverse regions or
cultures. In some cultures, specific product codes may have significant
associations; eating in public is considered as a social offensive; religious
limitations may influence sample selection. In addition, the use of a scale can differ
across the cultures, e.g. some inclined to score lower than ‘average’ or much higher
while using the hedonic scale. For effective sensory evaluation, be aware of cultural
tendencies as these strongly influence many aspects of sensory testing such as
products, protocols, scale use and feedback.

14.3. Principles of Good Sensory Testing

Sensory assessment requires various kinds of controls which influence the
sensitivity of the tests. The major environmental controls include elimination of
psychological distraction, irrelevant odor and light stimulation. The ultimate goal is
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 369

to provide conducive environment. Preferably sensory testing must be done using

specially designed facilities. However, where such facilities do not exist,
researchers should create comfortable environment as closely as possible
(Chambers and Wolf 1996; Hough 2010).

14.3.1. General Requirements and Conditions for Sensory

Testing
14.3.1.1. Testing Facility
The sensory facility should be situated close to potential panelists in odor and noise
free area. The location should be conveniently accessible to the assessors with
minimal disturbance in normal routines. Inconvenient testing facility adversely
affects the motivation and performance of the judges. The laboratory should be
away from heavy flow of traffic in order to avoid confusion and noise. In a food
industry, this facility generally should not exist next to a lobby or cafeteria, due to
possibility of disturbing the evaluation process. However, this requirement may
appear to conflict with accessibility. Sensory laboratories may be near those areas
for accessibility purposes without compromising testing conditions if special
procedures to control noise and confusion, such as sound-proofing and waiting
rooms, are used. Sensory booth area must be easily accessible to the assessors and
there should be sufficient space for parking. The preferred place for sensory
laboratory is ground floor of a building. Furthermore, the traffic pattern of the
assessors should also be considered and access to the facility should bypass food
preparation and administration areas. A well-equipped and specially designed
sensory laboratory should have the following areas:
i. Waiting room area
ii. Briefing area
iii. Sample preparation area
iv. Evaluation area
v. Discussion area
i) Waiting Room Area
This area has long lasting impact on the panelist’s perceptions about the facility. It
should be comfortable and well lit. To reduce tediousness associated with waiting,
this area should have some light reading. In some facilities, a child care area is
available for the care of kids during the evaluation process. However, efforts should
be made to prevent the noise and interruption from this area to evaluation area.
Additionally, facility manager should try to curtail the waiting time by aligning the
evaluation process.
ii) Briefing Area
This area should be nearby to waiting room or placements can be done in the
waiting room itself by making seating arrangements in rows or semi-circle. This
type of organization will further be helpful for briefing the panelists about the
370 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

procedures, protocols and instructions before entering the test area. Additionally
any ambiguity can be addressed and assessors facing problems can be further
coached.
iii) Sample Preparation Area
This area is generally meant for food preparation and is usually equipped with
equipments commonly used in the preparatory operations and storage purpose. The
assessors should not have physical and visual access to this vicinity. Sample
preparation area usually differ depending upon the product lines being evaluated in
a particular facility e.g. there is no need of cooking utensils and ovens in a facility
designated for the evaluation of frozen products however freezers are required for
storage of the stuff. Similarly, a facility intended for meat evaluation would need
refrigerators, stove etc. Microwave ovens is generally required for heating of
samples before serving. Space is also required for the storage of samples under
various storage conditions, reference standards, utensils, rice cookers, tea pots,
serving trays, serving dishes, computer printouts etc. The counter space should be
sufficient to set up multiple sessions simultaneously. For the purpose, food service
trays and vertical carts can be used as a holding space. Food preparation facility
should be constructed with easy to clean materials. Ensure sufficient supply of
clean water for washing of dishes and trays as well as panelists for rinsing of mouth
between the samples. Additionally, trash cans should be available in the preparation
area. Above all building codes should be followed to avoid from fire hazards and
sewer issues in this area.
iv) Evaluation Area
Sensory testing can be carried out in a simple room large enough to accommodate
sensory booths. If these booths are not available, facility manager should atleast
arrange tables in a way that assessors may not interact with each other to avoid
from any influence on sensory evaluation. Preferably isolate the judges with
temporary booths which can be made using economical plywood. Additionally,
environment of the evaluation area should be noise free to avoid from any type of
disruption. Modern sensory facilities have computer screen in sensory booths and
space for placement of samples. Some companies prefer to use classroom style for
testing of products. This arrangement is especially meaningful when vocal
instructions have to be communicated to whole group instantly. Overall sensory
testing area should be isolated and comfortable with professional look. Use of
neutral or non-distracting colors is advisable. The number of booths in a facility
may range from 3-25 depending upon the space available. Ideal booth size is 1x1
meter. These booths should be divided with opaque separators about 1 m above the
counter top to prevent interaction and concentration of the panelists. There should
be enough corridor for the movement of the assessors. Furthermore, for disabled
persons instructions regarding width of the corridor, seating arrangements and
counter top height should be observed. The booth counter is usually 2.5 to 3.0
inches high and should be spacious to accommodate samples, score sheets etc. This
is usually 45x40 cm however it depends on the size of serving trays used in the
facility. These hatches are mostly sliding door style with the advantage of less
space occupied in the serving counter. The chief drawback of these doors is chance
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 371

of visualizing the preparation area. The fitting of sinks in the booth should be
avoided due to source of odor contamination and difficulty in maintenance. It is
better to use disposable water glasses rather than sinks.
v) Discussion Area
This is also called as conversation area. It should be simple and easily approachable
to the assessors. The final results of the sensory testing are mainly reliant on
assessors as they are sensory instruments hence foremost duty in the sensory
assessment is sufficient screening and training of the assessors. In consumer
acceptability studies, efforts should be made to provide conducive, pleasant and
quiet environment so that they may perform product evaluation without interfering
each other.
14.3.1.2. Sensory Laboratory Layout
One objective in designing a laboratory is to arrange the test area to achieve
efficient physical operations. A second objective is to design the facility to avoid
distraction of testers by the operation of the laboratory equipments/personnels or by
outside persons. A third objective is to minimize mutual distraction among
respondents. The testing area should be divided into at least three parts; one for
sample preparation and storage, second for briefing and discussion and third for
actual testing (Fig. 14.1). These areas must be separated adequately to eliminate
interference if preparation involves cooking, odorous, and visual materials. For
most types of tests, individual panel booths (Fig. 14.2) are essential to avoid mutual
distraction among testers. However, they should not be built so that respondents
feel completely isolated from others. It is important to provide a separate space
where test respondents can wait either before or after the test without disturbing
those who are testing. Briefing and discussion area can be used for this purpose.
This place also serve for social interaction, payment of stipends, or other business
that should not take place inside the actual room(s) used for testing.

Fig. 14.1 Layout of an ideal sensory testing facility (A: Briefing area; B: Testing
booths; C: Distribution and serving area; D: Preparation area; E: Store room; F:
Cup-boards; G: cooking ranges; H: Refrigerators & deep freezers
372 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

Fig. 14.2 Modern sensory panel booths

14.3.1.3. Climate Control

Sensory facility particularly evaluation and discussion areas should be odor free
and temperature controlled. There should be excellent arrangements for proper
ventilation. The use of disposable filters in the ventilation system pipes is
encouraged. Odor transfer from the food preparation area can be minimized with
slightly positive pressure in these areas. Overall these should be noise interruption
free. Signs necessitating calmness during testing times in the lobbies around these
areas are helpful. Furthermore, the noise created by nearby mechanical systems
including refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners and processing equipment should
also be curtailed. The temperature (20–26◦C) and relative humidity (50–55%) in
evaluation and discussion areas should be maintained. Efforts should be made to
make the environment comfortable for the testers. Lighting in these areas should
be comparable to intensity in workplaces and controllable with a regulator.
14.3.1.4. Odor Control
The testing area must be kept free from odors. Although it is very difficult to attain,
an air temperature and humidity control system with activated carbon filters could
be helpful in odor control. As suggested earlier, a slight positive air pressure in the
evaluation area is recommended to decrease invasion of air from the preparation
room and other areas. Air from the sample preparation room should be vented
directly outside the testing facility. Fresh air should not come from high odor
production areas such as manufacturing exhaust vents or garbage dumpsters.
Furthermore, all equipments and materials inside the room should either be odor-
free or have very low odor level. If extremely aromatic foodstuffs are to be
examined, dividers to help control odor transmission are indispensable. Air in the
testing facility may become tainted from the samples themselves, hence protocols
must be established while testing such materials so that odorous samples are
exposed for a minimum time and the atmosphere of the room can be reverted to
normal before the analysis of other samples.
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 373

14.3.1.5. Lighting
Overall illumination of the laboratory should be with luminous uplighters as these
are comparable to daylight in brightness and do not produce too much heat.
Colored lights are usually optional in testing facilities to disguise color variations
among the food products e.g. minced meat has tendency to change color and
develop odor during the storage. If odor is the critical descriptor, then the evaluator
has to disguise the color differences. In case of strawberry flavored yoghurt, if
panelist has to decide which sample has a stronger flavor? The sample with higher
red color intensity, can create doubt and biasness which can be eliminated by
keeping all samples under a red light. In consumer testing studies, it is very difficult
to create atmosphere and lightening conditions just like in laboratory setup. In this
regard, the serving samples can be placed in a particular sequence in order to
minimalize appearance comparisons. Furthermore, consumers can be requested to
consider only flavor or odor rather color of the product.
14.3.1.6. Time of the Day
Sensory tests should preferably be performed in the morning or afternoon.
However, trained panelist can do this job any time. Preferably try to avoid tests
after meals by better results.
14.3.1.7. Carriers
These are required for some food products to form a base for the food being tested
e.g. cream fillings in pastries. In sensory evaluation, the main goal is to make the
test more sensitive to find out product differences. However, use of carriers
minimizes assessor’s capability to distinguish difference due to alterations in the
flavor, texture and mouthfeel characteristics. Hence, carrier are not desirable in
some situations due to decrease in test sensitivity for perceiving sensual variations.
However food products which are frequently consumed along with other food stuff,
use of carrier is advisable. Similarly, in some situations it is suggested to do the test
both with and without carrier if time and capital permit. The sensory expert should
discuss with the customer whether the degree of realism in the test is a concern and
then decide about the use of carriers.
14.3.1.8. Serving Temperature
In sensory evaluation, samples should be served at temperature these are usually
consumed e.g. soup should be served hot and carbonated drinks must be cold.
However, in case of trained sensory panel temperature sometimes vary from normal
eating temperatures. Liquid milk can be served warm or cold depending upon the
objectives of the evaluation. International Dairy Federation recommends a
temperature of 16°C for liquid milk and 20°C for reconstituted powdered milk. It’s
better to serve milk at 16°C rather at 4◦C to boost the perception of volatile flavors.
If sensory evaluation is carried out at room temperature then sensory specialist
should record temperature during each session. Furthermore, holding time at the
specified temperature should be elaborated in the test protocol for the safety of the
product under assessment.
374 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

14.3.1.9. Sample Size

It depends upon the test objective however sample should be sufficient (about 30 g
or adequate for 2-3 sips) for the overall assessment of the product. In consumer
tests, this quantity is usually doubled. The sensory specialist specifies the sample
size keeping in view the objective of study, normal portion size and mouthfeel of
the product and number of characteristics to be evaluated. In some cases a
minimum amount to be eaten may be specified. This is especially significant in
consumer tests where some assessors may be timorous about tasting novel
products. Overall, sample size is decided keeping in view the factors like cost
associated with the product, its preparation and storage.
14.3.1.10. Serving Containers
It depends upon the circumstances and protocol established in sensory facilities.
Sometimes it is economical and time saving to use disposable containers and
sometimes dishes can be washed if number of samples are limited and sufficient
time is available. Additionally, in some testing facilities, use of disposable dishes is
discouraged due to environmental and financial restrictions. The choice of
container should not negatively affect the sensory attributes of the product. Mostly
cups and plates made from Styrofoam are preferred due to convenience in use, easy
labelling and economical nature. However these containers can badly affect the
flavor of hot drinks.
14.3.1.11. Number of Samples
The number of samples depends upon the nature of samples and test. In case of hot
and spicy foods, only 2-3 samples should be assessed in a sitting due to carryover
effects where as in case of bakery products 8-10 samples can be evaluated
simultaneously. In hedonic test a single sample may have to be tested for atleast 4-5
times and if 8-10 samples have be evaluated, sensory evaluation will be too
difficult. In a paired preference test there is little tiredness as judge tastes a sample
once for liking or disliking so the number of samples can be more. As a general
rule it must be considered that panelist can lose his or her motivation and
evaluation ability if too much samples are offered for evaluation in a session.
14.3.1.12. Coding and Order of Presentation
Generally samples are coded with arbitrary selected 3-digit numbers to avoid
biasness and order randomly to avoid artifacts associated with order
of presentation. Order of presentation can be random or balanced depending on the
test. In consumer tests the mostly the order of presentation is balanced whereas
randomized order of presentation is suggested for descriptive tests and order of
presentation is balanced in discrimination tests such as paired comparison or
triangle tests.
14.3.1.13. Procedure for Sample Preparation and Serving
Efforts should be made to standardize sample preparation techniques and serving
procedures except the variable(s) under appraisal e.g. if the effect of dietary fiber
incorporation in bread formulation is to be evaluated, all bread samples must be
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 375

baked under identical conditions. Cutting cheese samples into cubes by two
different technicians can impact the size slightly and ultimately appearance may
lead to biasness. While using carriers or combinations of products timing of this
process must be consistent. If breakfast cereal are evaluated by pouring in milk, the
time between pouring and tasting must be the same for all samples. The sensory
specialist should kept in mind the container type, sample size and shape, visual
appearance, serving temperature, use of carrier, number of samples in a session and
rinsing mouths between the samples.
14.3.1.14. Palate Cleansers
Trained evaluators generally use a palate cleanser during sensory evaluation to
reduce the residual materials from previous samples. The most frequently used
palate cleansers in sensory evaluation laboratories include water, bread, apples and
saltless crackers. Sensory standards recommend use of milk for products with
garlic or spices and warm water for products that leave an oily residue. Sometimes
carryover effects can be diminished by extending time duration between the
samples. During training sessions, assessors are offered a variety of palate cleansers
to find out the most suitable one for the product under consideration. Generally,
crackers, bread and apples are escorted with water. In consumer testing only water
serve the purpose as it has been observed that serving all these things make the
process more complex. Additionally, it has been noticed that in spite of instructions
it is difficult for them to remember eating a sample and then a piece of palate
cleanser followed by rinsing with water.
14.3.1.15. Swallowing and Expectoration
Swallowing is evaded in most of the sensory assessments and usually samples are
ejected except in some products and flavor systems e.g. throat burn is vital in
pepper samples. This is expected to provide less carry-over effects one product to
the next. Additionally consumption of product rich in fat and sugar can add
needless calories to evaluator’s diets. Obviously, swallowing can
affect consumer’s opinions on the products especially in studies where
acceptability is to be measured. However, the main benefit of ingestions in sensory
evaluation is the stimulation of receptors in the throat.
14.3.1.16. Instructions to Panelists
It is often necessary to give the instructions to the assessors on how to perform the
sensory evaluation both verbally before entering the evaluation area and in written
form on the score sheet. The instructions to panelists should be very clear and short.
These guidelines should be pre-tested one before the project attempts to follow
them. Furthermore, the instructions to the support staff should also be very clear
and preferably should be written in order to avoid any ambiguity among the
sensory specialist and technician. It is a good practice to develop standard operating
procedures available in the laboratory.
14.3.1.17. General Comfort
For concentration of the judges, the atmosphere of the sensory testing facility in
general and particularly testing room should be relaxed and comfortable.
376 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

Temperature and humidity of the testing area should be controlled to deliver steady
coziness. Besides selecting and installing fixtures, efforts should be made to
provide other facilities like coat closets, lockers and rest room so that evaluators
can perform the task with more concentration.

14.3.2. Panelist Considerations

14.3.2.1. Incentives
This is an effort to motivate the people to volunteer. Sensory specialist should be
ready to answer the question from a panelist “What is in it for me?” In academic
settings usually staff members and graduate students participate in sensory testing
on volunteer basis due to many reasons including positive feelings from helping out
in the testing program. In some cultures, the motivation will be sense of
social responsibility and desire to support group effort. Similarly in industry
sensory panel participation should be a volunteer activity. However with the
passage of time, the motivation for participation in sensory testing just only on
volunteer basis is declining in academia as well as industry leading towards
the concept of the token incentive. This incentive should be enough to motivate the
person for participation in the activity but not too much that it become the only
reason for the participation. Usually overpaid individuals may have no motivation
during the session and they are just in the activity for the money. In consumer
testing where there is little or no fidelity and long term concern and commitment,
the payment is of primary apprehension. In case of employees, snacks can be
served at a social break time. Here chance for social communication may become a
motivating factor. Free company products and small gifts are mostly used as
common incentives. However to ensure maximum participation of the assessors
larger gifts and social gifts like parties can be arranged. Sometimes appreciation
form the management considering panelist contribution towards research &
development also serve the purpose. Support for sensory evaluation must extend
through all levels of management from supervisors to top management.
14.3.2.2. Use of Human Subjects
The health and safety of the panelists should be the primary consideration and
sensory expert should follow the following guidelines while using human subjects:
• It is vital to get voluntary consent of the assessors for participation in the
project.
• The investigator must ensure that there will no health related risk
associated with the study.
• The assessor should be taken in confidence if any risk is associated with
the study.
• The subjects have the right to exercise their free choice in the evaluation.
• The results of the study should be useful for the society.
Most of the sensory studies pose no risk above the normal risks of everyday life.
However, in some cases physical risks may occasionally be present e.g. during
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 377

product development, various ingredients and food additives are tested before these
have achieved generally recognized as safe status. In this situation, the panelist
must be informed about the possible risks allied with the product under
consideration and their participation in this activity should be voluntary. In
advanced country Human Subjects Institutional Review Board approve the protocol
of the study regarding responsible use of human subjects in the research and
development.
14.3.2.3. Panelist Recruitment
The recruited subjects must be aware of their role in the evaluation and what is
expected from them during the study. The sensory specialist should provide
maximum information regarding time commitment and product categories before
their commitment for participation in the project. Information related to incentives
should be clearly shared. In academia, the sensory expert must obtained signed
consent form the assessors regarding volunteer participation in the study in order to
get approval from the institution’s Human Subjects Institutional Review Board. In
industry, sensory specialist must ensure approval of the panelist from their
supervisors.
14.3.2.4. Panelist Selection and Screening
Sensory expert has to screen assessors regarding sensory perception. For the
purpose, the sensory specialist carry out a variety of tests related to products under
investigation and some general tasks required by the panelist. However it is
suggested that screening test should be simple and not to over-test judges before
performing true product assessments. Too many screening tests could reduce the
motivation and eagerness of the assessors at the time of actual evaluation. In some
situations, medical screening is required before participation in the study.
14.3.2.5. Training of Panelists
It depends upon the level of sensory evaluation as in-depth training is required for
descriptive tests whereas only minimum training is prerequisite for discrimination
tests. During the training the panelists must realize that sensory evaluation is a
difficult task which requires full concentration and attention. For training purpose,
sometimes fresh assessors have to work with experienced judges who have been
trained for other product categories. Appreciation form the top management is a
source of motivation and encourage to the panelists.
14.3.2.6. Panelist Performance Assessment
Most of the food industries have panelist assessment and reporting programs in
place. Use of trained panelists over extended periods results in less motivation and
participation during evaluation sessions. The performance of trained assessors who
do not participate in sensory evaluation over extended period of time due to leave,
transfers and vacations may deteriorate and need re-training.
378 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

14.3.3. Test Location

Generally test locations include laboratory, central location, and home use; each
has associated merits and demerits:
14.3.3.1. Laboratory
In this case, employees or local citizens are the main participants for sensory
evaluation in a company or institution. The main advantages of sensory laboratory
include easy accessibility, carefully controlled atmosphere, prompt analysis of
results and evaluation of relatively large number of samples in a session. This type
of setup is helpful for shelf life studies where consumer have to taste six or seven
samples with different storage times. This procedure is easily accomplished in a
laboratory setup. A consumer can taste half of the samples followed by fifteen
minutes break for palate cleansing and then taste the leftover samples. The main
disadvantage of the laboratory location is that the site reflects that the products are
from the company and can thus create prejudiced results. Likewise,
standardized preparation procedures and product handling protocols might not
impressionist consumer experience and behavior at home.
14.3.3.2. Central Location
Sensory evaluation at a central location is generally carried out in a rented setup
probably unused portion of a restaurant. Assessors are captured when they are on
the way to shopping malls or street pavements. After initial screening thorough
some questions, selected ones are requested to contribute in a consumer testing.
Customarily they are incentivized with gifts after performing the tests. The main
advantage of central location tests is that subjects are true representatives of the
target population. For effective assessment, the number of questions and the
products should be limited due time limitations of the respondents. Generally,
nobody is ready to spare more than 15-20 minutes to perform these tests. These
type of tests can also be useful for shelf life studies (SSL) where usually 6-7
samples have to be evaluated which require about 15-20 minutes. However, efforts
should be made to keep the questionnaire very brief. In most of the SSL studies the
only answer we need from a consumer is whether he or she accepts or rejects the
sample. In this situation, a central location test would be suitable. The main
disadvantage of central location is that conditions are artificially compared to real
product usage at home, in a restaurant, or at a party.
14.3.3.3. Home Use Tests
These tests are performed to evaluate the real usage of the product at home and
usually carried out at the end of food product development stage. The main
advantages of home use tests are that the products are manufactured and consumed
under natural conditions of use; hence more elaborated information about the
general use can be gathered. Likewise, info can be collected over recurrent use of
the product rather than first imprint only. The drawbacks of home use tests include
more time consuming, poor sanitary control, testing of limited number of samples
usually 2-3 samples and little control over preparation and ingestion of samples.
Sanitary control is also of importance.
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 379

14.3.4. Selecting Consumers

Selection of the consumer is the heart of sensory assessment as results drawn from
a limited number of assessors have to be applied on target population. During
product development, huge amount is spent in conducting consumer tests. It is
always difficult to convenience the top management to devote resources for the
conduct of consumer acceptability tests; hence low cost solution are sought by
involving local residents or even workers of the industry. However, it is suggested
that certain guiding principles should be followed in this regard.
14.3.4.1. Number of Consumers
The number of consumers is linked with the panelists either they are trained or
untrained. In consumer acceptability studies, considering the average standard
error and a difference between sample means of 10% of the sensory scale, atleast
112 panelists are required for a particular set of parameters. In some cases, if
product acceptability has to be determined at three different locations in a country,
total 336 consumers and 112 at each location would be required to compare the
samples within each location.
14.3.4.2. Frequency of Product Consumption
In most of the sensory assessments, researchers prefer heavy users while
determining frequency of product consumption. If the product is a certain brand of
snack bars, heavy uses means individuals consuming this brand every day. To
determine frequency of the consumption, it is suggested to take a survey of 40-60
company employees or local residents in the neighborhood of institution and
inquire them how often they consume that brand of the snack bars. The result may
by 1 out of 40. Hence if total 100 heavy users are required then nearly 4000
consumers will have to be interviewed. This requires huge cost and time; hence, the
idea of heavy users is dropped and generally moderate or light users are
interviewed for selection of assessors to find out significant differences between the
samples.
14.3.4.3. Gender
In sensory self-life studies, gender differences have insignificant influence now a
days. Earlier it was assumed that women consume zero calorie or reduced calorie
products due to more weight conscious nature. Likewise, men were targeted for
alcoholic drinks. These types of differences have been diminished with the passage
of time as most of the products now a days are equally liked by the consumers
without gender discrimination.
14.3.4.4. Income Status
Income of the users is an important issues in some cases. For example, children of
high income families prefer chocolate based food bars while these item are not so
much liked by the children of low-income families. But it is always difficult to
screen out rich and poor families especially in countries or societies people are not
ready to confess how much they earn. In these situations, indirect questions are
asked like what type of car they have in their family and in what type of schools
380 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

they sent their children for education. The purpose of this activity is get rough idea
about the income status and to find out target assessors accordingly.
14.3.4.5. Employees and Local Residents
Food industries often use workers or local residents in product development
process due to associated high costs and time limitations. This type of sensory
evaluation could by biased due to existing information of the product sensory
properties leading towards possible rejection of the product even with small
changes in the sensoric attributes. The normal or target consumers are unable to
find out such small changes. Furthermore, factory workers usually find all samples
acceptable due to loyalty to their company. Hence, employees and local inhabitants
should be used in sensory assessment with cautions.

14.4. Sensory Evaluation Methods

Sensory evaluation plays significant role in quality control and marketing of the
products. It is frequently used in food industries for new product development and
recipe modification of the products. It is carried out to find out differences among
the products, nature of difference and possible acceptance or rejection of products
on the basis of differences. Sensory characteristics of food products can be assessed
by using discriminatory, difference, descriptive and affective methods (Kilcast
2010; Lawless 2013).Within each category there are various sensory tests that can
be carried out. Generally two types of sensory tests are common in practice.
Objective tests are usually conducted by the trained panelists and provide objective
data on the sensory properties of products. These are further divided into two
classes i.e. discrimination and descriptive tests. Discrimination tests are useful in
the assessment of sensory differences among the samples whereas descriptive tests
further elaborate the nature or magnitude of sensory differences. Likewise,
subjective tests deliver subjective data on the acceptability, liking and preference of
the products. These are generally carried out by inexperienced judges. These are
also famous as affective or consumer tests. The brief description of each type of
tests is given below:

14.4.1. Discriminatory Testing

These tests are mostly employed in sensory science to determine differences among
two or more samples. These tests are frequently used when differences among the
samples are not obvious but need to be explored. These tests are commonly
employed for screening and training of panelists, preliminary assessments, probing
sensitivity thresholds, quality assurance and quality control, screening raw
materials for consistency and inspecting the effect of ingredient/process changes,
e.g. for cost reduction or supplier change. For appreciation of primary tastes,
sensory evaluators are provided numerous coded samples which characterize
primary tastes (sweet, salty, sour, bitter) and is enquired to ascertain the taste of
each sample. In some cases, threshold tests are conducted to determine absolute
threshold (the lowermost concentration of an ingredient that can be perceived) or
recognition threshold (the bottommost concentration of a constituent vital for
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 381

identification of the material or taste). For the purpose, numerous coded samples
with different concentrations of a taste substance are offered to the judge to specify
point he/she can notice the taste. Likewise, judges are asked to taste the coded
samples having varying concentrations of a primary taste and rank them in order of
increasing concentration of that taste. Overall, discriminatory tests are swift and
can be performed by both simple and skilled evaluators. However, it is suggested
that sensory panel should not be a blend of both simple and skilled assessors.

14.4.2. Difference Testing

These tests are used in food industries to perceive minor differences in the samples
but not the size of the difference. These are usually carried out to find out
differences among the samples and how peoples notice and describe the difference.
Additionally, these are frequently used for screening and training of taste
assessors. These tests can be accomplished by skilled as well as unskilled panelists.
Difference testing is further classified into triangle test, paired comparison test,
duo-trio test, multiple comparison test and ranking. The brief description of each is
given below:
14.4.2.1. Triangle test
This test is valuable in quality control to detect ingredient substitution results and
odd product from various manufacturing lots. Triangle test can also be used for
screening panelists who are able to perceive a difference. These tests does not
customarily specify degree of amount of difference. For the purpose, the assessor
should be requested to postulate dissimilar attribute. In triangle testing, each
assessors gets three coded samples, two are identical and one is different. The task
is to pick out the unusual sample. If the judge isolates the odd sample correctly,
then the answers to questions 2 and 3 can be analyzed. If not, they are disregarded.

14.4.2.2. Paired Comparison Test

This test is also recognized as the 2-AFC test (2 samples, alternate forced choice
test). In this case, each evaluator is provided with two coded samples and the task is
to select the sample with the highest concentration of a pre-defined descriptor such
382 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

as sweetness. This test is only meant for a detectable difference and did not specify
the degree of difference. The likelihood of choosing the right sample by chance is
50%; hence, paired comparison test is more authoritative in finding differences
than triangle test. A paired comparison test is suitable for use in quality control;
nevertheless, the exact characteristic evaluated is clearly stated must be known
earlier.

14.4.2.3. Duo-Trio Test

In this case, 3 samples are provided to the judge; one is reference (labeled R) and
other two are coded. One coded sample is a duplicate of reference and other one is
dissimilar. The assessor is enquired to isolate the odd sample. This test is mostly
used with strong flavor products due to less tasting required. This test is less
effective than the triangle test because the probability of selecting the correct
answer by chance is 50%. Additionally, duo-trio test is less sensitive compared
with triangle test as it is easier to conjecture the right one.

14.4.2.4. Multiple Comparisons Test

This is just like paired comparisons test. In this case, a reference sample (labeled R)
is presented to the evaluator with numerous coded samples and each one is
compared with the reference sample on the basis of a specific attribute.
14.4.2.5. Ranking
This is a quick technique for evaluating numerous samples at once and is frequently
used for screening of 1 or 2 of the best samples in a group. The assessor is provided
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 383

with 3 or more coded samples and is asked to rank them for a specific trait. This
test is similar to ranking for a primary taste but uses food samples rather than pure
solutions.

14.4.3. Descriptive Testing

Descriptive tests are used in the food industry to elaborate the perceived sensory
traits of foods. These are meaningful in assessing differences among the samples,
their perceived sensory attributes and impact of variations in processing, packaging
and storage situations on the sensory characteristics of the respective product.
Descriptive testing is suitable for understanding the basis of product acceptability,
probing the influence of changes in recipe or process on sensoric attributes,
appraising critical parameters significant to quality control or shelf-life studies and
supervising research and development of food products. The following methods are
usually employed in descriptive testing:
14.4.3.1. Scoring Methods
These tests are also called as scaling methods and are used to find out the intensity
of some traits. The assessor uses a structured or unstructured scale to express
his/her decision. Scaling methods are helpful in establishing the size, intensity and
direction of the differences for a particular trait; hence these tests should be
executed by the skilled or trained personal. Usually a single attribute is rated on a
structured scale, labeled with numerics and/or descriptive terms like very sweet,
sweet and not sweet. The specific intervals on the scale are then transformed to
figures for analysis. In contrary, unstructured scale have verbal anchors at the ends
and/or the midpoint. The assessor marks the position of each sample on the scale
which is converted to a numeric value by the sensory specialist commonly by
gaging distance on the line. Scoring or scaling methods are mostly used in the food
industries for quantitative descriptive analysis.
14.4.3.2. Other Descriptive Methods
Quantitative descriptive analysis, flavor and texture profiles are usually determined
by highly skilled evaluators. Being the most sophisticated sensory methods, these
demand training and practice.

14.4.4. Affective Testing

These tests are mostly used to establish the consumer acceptability or preference
for a particular product through liking and disliking. Affective tests are employed
in the food industry to determine liking and disliking of consumer, preference of
384 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

one product over another and consumers intention to use a product. Generally a
fresh product is preferred over foodstuff close to end of shelf life. A rusk is
expected to lose some of its crispness and slight change in flavor. Consumers are
generally enquired whether they still consider these rusks acceptable in spite of
changes in sensoric attributes during the storage. The most commonly used
affective methods include paired preferences, ranking for preference and 9-point
hedonic scale. In paired preference the assessor is enquired to point out sample of
his preference among the two samples. A judge may choose one of the samples but
find neither one desirable. This test is quiet simple and easy to perform especially
when the desirability of one sample is known. In ranking for preference, the
assessor is requested to rank 2 or more samples for being favorite. In hedonic scale,
degree of liking for a specific product is assessed. The most commonly used
hedonic scales are 7-point hedonic scale and 9-point hedonic scale with expressions
stretching from dislike extremely to like extremely. By using hedonic scale, the
evaluator can compare the acceptability of numerous products. 9-point hedonic
scale is most commonly used in English speaking countries as well as in Pakistan.

14.5. Application of Sensory Science to Product

Development
14.5.1. Sensory Evaluation in the Food Industry
Sensory testing is used substantially in the food industry for product development,
recipe modification and the evaluation of products. It also plays a key role in
quality control and in the marketing of products. Product development is a
continuous process in the life cycle of foodstuff. Each year hundred thousand
products are manufactured. It has been estimated that 75% of new products fail
within a short duration after inception resulting in huge loss of financial and human
resources. This usually happens due to discrepancies between the consumer
expectations and sensory characteristics of the products. Sensory and consumer
testing during the product development process usually permits cost effective
distribution of satisfactory products diminishing the risk of product failure. Sensory
testing is usually carried out by the food industries using their own testing facilities
or sometimes sensory testing facilities of private companies or teaching and
research institutes. Sensory evaluation results are either calculated manually or by
using computer programs. Furthermore statistical analysis is carried out to ensure
the reliability and validity of the results.
Food industries frequently develop products to taste like another, e.g. own label
foods to taste like the brand leader. If a food is intended to taste like another, then a
difference test is used. This may be followed by a preference test to find out the
acceptability of the newly developed product among the customers.
14. Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Acceptability 385

Preference tests are used to find out the positioning of a company’s product with its
competitors. A ranking test may be done and if the results of are favorable to the
company, this may be offered to the retailers to persuade them to allocate more
shelf space to the company’s product. Cost and quality are important factors in the
food industry. A company may consider changing the supplier of one of the
ingredients in a product for economic reasons. It is important that consumers do not
detect that the product has been changed in any way. In this case the company may
use a panel of trained assessors to carry out difference tests to determine if the
testers can detect a difference from the original product. Companies may anticipate
changes to their existing products based on consumer demand e.g. healthy eating,
by replacing salt with a low sodium alternative. It is important that food companies
are attentive to the demands of the consumer in order to retain their market share.

14.5.2. Product Development in the Food Industry

Increased competition in the food industry has led to the development of new
products. There is also constant re-appraisal of existing products, leading to
improvements e.g. in flavor or packaging. Product development may involve
making a completely new food product - developing ideas for a new product by
drawing up the product profile e.g. shape, size; modifying an existing food product
- making changes to an original recipe e.g. adding or removing an ingredient to
improve flavor or changing the size or shape of a product and matching an existing
food product - copying other popular branded products of similar types. The
process of product development involves a series of complex stages, requiring the
combined talents of many specialists to make it successful. The main stages in
product development include conceiving an idea followed by its small scale testing,
product modification, consumer acceptability testing, fixing final specification,
large scale production and finally its launch. At the initiation, ideas are developed
for the new product and a specification is produced. Then this idea is tested on a
small scale. Research is carried out to formulate a number of recipes and specify
the ingredients to be used. Several versions are made, altering ingredients or
processes. In other words the products are prototyped, often by a professional chef
or food consultant. These developed products are evaluated by the trained panelist
to ensure that it exhibits the desired characteristics. The recipe may need to be
modified and further testing is carried out. The product is then tested on large scale
to determine consumer acceptability. The final product specification is then agreed
detailing the exact ingredients and methods of production. Food scientists work
together in a pilot plant to determine the best method of producing large quantities
of the product. The product is then produced on a large scale. This is done under
controlled conditions to maintain consistent product quality. Appropriate packaging
is chosen bearing in mind shelf-life considerations. Labelling is designed to meet
legal requirements. Finally the product is advertised and then launched. Sensory
analysis testing is carried out at many stages as the product is being developed.
 386 M.K. Sharif, M.S. Butt, H.R. Sharif and M. Nasir

14.6. Conclusions
Sensory evaluation encompasses a set of test methods and recognized techniques
for product presentation, statistical methods and strategies for elucidation of results.
Accurate application of sensory technique involves correct corresponding method
to the objectives of the tests followed by good communication between sensory
experts and end-users of the test results. In food industries, sensory evaluation
department not only interact with product development department but may also
deliver info to quality control, packaging, marketing and many other groups
throughout a company. The main advantages of sensory information includes
development of food products in an economical way by lowering risks in decisions
about product development and strategies for meeting consumer needs.

References
Chambers, E. and M.B., Wolf (1996). Sensory Testing Methods, 2nd ed. ASTM
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Hough, G. (2010). Sensory Shelf Life Estimation of Food Products. CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
IFT (Institute of food Technologists) (2007). Sensory Evaluation Methods. The
Society for the Food Technologists, Chicago, IL.
Kemp, S.E., T. Hollowood and J. Hort (2009). Sensory Evaluation A Practical
Handbook. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.
Kilcast, D. (2010). Sensory Analysis for Food and Beverage Quality Control: A
Practical Guide. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Great
Abington, Cambridge, U.K.
Lawless, H.T. (2013). Laboratory Exercises for Sensory Evaluation. Springer, New
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