RET Lab 123
RET Lab 123
RET Lab 123
Submitted by:
Hoornain 17-ME-89
Submitted to:
Sir Zohaib
TAXILA
The energy industry is constantly debating energy demands, environmental impacts of energy
conversion, and the depletion of fossil fuels. For many years, renewable energy technologies have
been proposed to address these concerns. However, the transition from traditional power
generation methods, which are typically based on fossil fuels, to renewable energy generation
presents several challenges that are associated with emerging, or less established, technologies. In
this report a detailed analysis of emerging renewable energy technologies as well as the challenges
in the development is discussed. The report is concluded with the future aspects and development
2
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2
1 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................ 8
3
3.4 Central Receiver or Heliostat Field Reflector: ............................................................... 20
4 PV System:............................................................................................................................ 21
5.1.3 PV System:.............................................................................................................. 28
4
6.3.3 Technical challenges: .............................................................................................. 38
Conclusion: ................................................................................................................................... 56
References ..................................................................................................................................... 57
5
List of Figures
Figure 11.(a) Structure of solid-state sensitized solar cell comprised (b) Scheme for electron-
Figure 18:The link between various energy sectors via green hydrogen...................................... 35
Figure 20: The classification of technical challenges and system problems in FCEVs. .............. 38
6
Figure 22-Ocean Energy ............................................................................................................... 43
Figure 24 Horizontal Axis Turbines (left), Vertical Axis Turbines (middle), .............................. 45
Figure 32: Comparison between Initial investment cost and Payback time of mainstream
7
1 Introduction:
provide sustainable power generation for the future. While renewables are described as
‘alternative,’ some technologies are poised to compete with traditional power generation sources
and to meet the energy demands of buildings, cities, and regions. The introduction of renewable
energy systems to existing electrical grids occurs at the same time as the rapid depletion of fossil
fuels that are commonly fueling the traditional power generation sources. Additionally, greenhouse
gas emissions from burning fossil fuels also create environmental concerns such as ozone layer
depletion, acid rain, and global climate change. Renewable energy systems are energy systems that
generate electricity from renewable resources such as bio energy, geothermal energy, hydro
energy, ocean energy, wind energy, and solar energy. The use of renewable energy systems has
the potential to replace traditional methods of generating power from burning fossil fuels.
Countries with limited fossil fuel resources have more energy security since renewable energy
resources can be substituted as replacements for fossil fuels. Furthermore, air pollution reductions
can be achieved since power generation from renewable energy resources release less greenhouse
gases. Renewable energy systems can also contribute toward energy price stability and
affordability. The implementation of renewable energy systems into existing electrical grids is
becoming a natural next step to meet the energy demand for the future and to protect the
environment.
8
2 Wind Energy:
The future development of wind power presents a significant opportunity in terms of providing
low carbon energy. It also presents several challenges. It needs to be cost competitive compared
with the use of fossil fuels and other competitor renewable energy sources, most notably solar
photovoltaics. The expectation now is that developments should be subsidy-free. The wind
turbines of today have seen rapid developments in their underlying technology to increase their
competitiveness. Nevertheless, we can expect further developments in the next few years, and it is
This report describes the future emerging technologies (FETs) in the wind power sector based on
the opinion of European experts from a range of relevant technology areas. Although the
technologies need not be considered exclusive to Europe, the review draws heavily on the
European experience, particularly European projects. Many the FETs identified originate from
academic work within universities and research institutes. Some of the technologies identified are
being developed by university spinouts or start-up companies. A few areas identified are the result
before, during and after a workshop organized by the European Commission. The purpose of this
document is to consider different aspects of FETs in wind power such as Technology Readiness
Level (TRL) and the potential advantages and challenges that may ultimately characterize FET
development.
9
• A radically new concept, not achievable by incremental research on mainstream
technologies.
• Technology at an early stage of development, i.e., TRL should not be greater than 3.
The following technologies have a great emerging potential in the wind sector.
Airborne wind energy (AWE) is an umbrella name for concepts that convert wind energy into
electricity with the common feature of autonomous kites or unmanned aircraft, linked to the ground
by one or more tethers. AWE systems offer several potential advantages over conventional wind
turbines. They require less material than tower-based turbines, have the potential to be
manufactured at lower cost, can be deployed faster and can harness stronger and steadier winds by
Air borne wind uses two concepts; ground-gen and fly-gen. Ground-gen concepts are based on the
conversion of mechanical into electrical energy at ground level, while fly-gen concepts are based
Multiple Drone Airborne Wind Energy Systems (MDAWESs) represent an effective solution that
could introduce radically new perspectives in the field of airborne systems. An MDAWES is a
crosswind architecture which features multiple drones that are connected to the ground with a
The specific challenges of this technology that still need to be investigated are:
10
• Layout/Architecture choice: the best architecture in terms of number of drones,
• Control: during generation and during the two most critical phases of take-off and landing.
Fully autonomous take-off and landing is one of the current technical bottlenecks in the
autonomous, linear take-off system in compact space for a rigid tethered aircraft has been proved.
However, long-term extensive testing in all wind conditions would be required, and the landing
The main challenge lies in the low speed of the aircraft during take-off and landing, which results
in less controllability, coupled with the short tether length and the uncertainty of environmental
conditions.
11
Figure 2: Take-Off and Landing Systems
The main innovation of floating wind concepts, compared with mainstream offshore fixed
structure mounted turbines, lies with the floating support system. These floating structures have
no foundation on the seafloor, but are instead based on either semi-submersible, tension leg or spar
Many of the challenges associated with operating a floating wind farm in deep-water Atlantic
conditions have not yet been considered. In general, structural design of floating wind turbine
platforms depends on installation location, which needs to be fully analyzed and the platform
12
Figure 3: Offshore Platforms
The maximization of energy production from offshore sites is critical, both in relation to keeping
costs down and minimizing environmental impact. This is especially important for the more
exposed sites in Atlantic regions, which the wind industry will be moving into in the next decade.
Hybrid energy platforms take advantage of synergies and compatible aspects of different energy
The benefits of hybrid platforms lie in the synergies between the different forms of energy
production. The combination of elementary technologies on a single platform may have the
potential for higher overall production levels and to share infrastructure, e.g., platforms, cables,
substations, etc.
These hybrid devices present, compared to the single floating devices, an additional set of
challenges and development needs due to greater complexity and reliability problems. It was found
that for these concepts, wave energy technology contributed less than 10% of the total energy
production of the hybrid platform. In addition, for some combinations, the inclusion of a wave
13
energy converter tended to destabilize the platform, going against the fundamental principles of
the platform.
Larger rotor blades make it necessary to consider blade/rotor concepts that can adjust themselves
to non-homogeneous wind flow like gusts, turbulence spots, shear, etc. For very long blades, i.e.,
greater than 70 m, it is very hard to define the optimal operational point, since the inflow situations
may vary quite a lot along the blade. Therefore, a local optimal blade setting, i.e., adjusted to the
flow on a scale of meters or tens of meters, makes sense. This could reduce loads, increase, or
smooth out power output or help in wind turbine or wind farm control. [3]
Passive load alleviation systems are not controlled by operators or automatic systems. They can
be distributed along the blade span, e.g., Bend Twist Coupling (BTC), or placed in specific regions
14
of the blade. These technologies can use anisotropic (in the case of BTC), elastomeric (coating)
The low drag vortex generator is another type of passive system. This technology consists of a
small vane typically attached to the suction side of wings or blades, where it causes local mixing
in the boundary layer and thereby can delay or prevent flow separation. It can be used in to reduce
or mitigate separation in the root region and to prevent erosion of turbine blades.
The main potential of smart rotor technology would be in enabling and scaling up to larger wind
turbines (> 20 MW). Scaling up turbine size is seen as a viable option to reduce LCOE as the
balance of plant required represents a smaller fraction of the overall capital cost per unit of installed
capacity.
Vortex generators have been used on blades since the 1980s. They can slightly increase the power
output. The concept and its benefits, well known in aeronautics and road transport, are still being
studied for wind power applications. The main benefits lie in mitigation of blade wear and erosion
prevention.
The IPC and BTC, individually and together, have been wind tunnel tested, which would imply a
TRL of at least 4. Depending on how the blade is designed, the TRL of BTC may vary. In the more
mature cases, the TRL of BTC is 5–7, since some specific technology has been tested at large
scale, but it has not reached the market yet. Some manufacturing techniques are not viable now;
several components must be hand-made since there is not an industrial manufacturing process.
15
2.4 Wind Turbine with Tip-Rotors:
This conceptual technology consists of wind turbines where the traditional torque transmission by
gearbox and generator is substituted by a fast-rotating rotor/generator mounted on the tip region
of each blade. While conventional turbines extract power at a free wind speed of around 10 m/s by
conversion of torque, the tip-rotor converts power at around 70 m/s. The concept can be designed
for both two- or three-bladed turbines. The efficiency of the tip rotors to convert power could be
close to 100% at low tip speed ratios, as the usual Betz limitation of 59% does not apply for the
Since wind turbines with tip-rotors do not require a main shaft or gearbox, this technology aims at
cost and weight reduction, being particularly beneficial, for example, for floating offshore
concepts. It may be possible to make the main rotor with a fixed pitch, downwind, free yawing,
Concerning the degree of development of this technology, no prototype has yet been constructed
or tested. The TRL of such a concept is thus 1–2 with a possible scalability of the same order of
16
3 Solar Thermal:
As the renewables market is growing exponentially, new technologies are being brought to the
fore at a rapid pace. For example, solar technologies are becoming increasingly aesthetically
pleasing and inconspicuous. It is also likely that more building-integrated solar collectors (such as
the in-roof panel) will become readily available and standard in new build projects.
Another example of this is the combined solar photovoltaic and thermal (solar PVT) panel, which
can generate both electricity and heat. As solar PV panels are only around 15-20% efficient, the
excess energy can be used for heating. This technology is not currently widely available in the UK,
The current developmental projects are being investigated by the U.S. Department of Energy’s
Devices like the Full-Spectrum Stacked Solar-Thermal and PV Receiver are currently under
development and will see the sun’s rays filtered and split to provide both heat and electricity
A Low-Cost Hetero-Epitaxial Solar Cell for Hybrid Converter is currently being developed under
program. This will see a utility scale technology developed that uses a dish-shaped receiver to
concentrate the suns energy onto a receiver that splits the sunlight (via a color-selective filter), into
two components, one being sent to the solar cells for electricity and the other to a thermal receiver
A liquid Filter with Plasmonic Nanoparticles hybrid solar system is being developed by the
University of Tulsa that captures non-visible wavelengths of light to heat a fluid containing
microscopic light-absorbing nanoparticles. The liquid would also transmit the part of the sun’s
radiation spectrum most easily converted to electricity to a solar cell and pass waste heat back to
the fluid. This heat in the fluid will be stored to provide low-cost solar energy when the sun goes
down.
Design of linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) consists of an arrangement of linear strips that focus the
light of to an attached receiver arranged on a linear tower. It is like broken-up parabolic trough
collectors, but its shape is not parabola. The concentration ratio of LFR is less than that of PTC.
LFR operates at a lower efficiency and the lower operating temperatures are achieved.
One major drawback of this technology is that the LFR system requires large space between the
reflectors to avoid shading effect. However, this can be decreased by raising the height of absorber
18
towers, but by adopting this arrangement, the cost of the system is also increased. This type of
technology is suitable for deserts area where huge space is not an issue. [6]
Parabolic dish reflector (PDR) is a focal point type collector in which receiver or converting unit
is arranged at the focus point of the plate. It consists of two-axis tracking system which
concentrates the solar radiations onto the receiver. The tracking mechanism is like PTC, and the
The arrangement is like a satellite dish antenna. Receiver after absorbing the radiation transmits
the heat energy in a circulating fluid via a heat exchanger. PDR can achieve higher temperature
ranges more than 1500 °C because of orientation is always facing towards the sun and have a
19
Figure 8: Parabolic Dish Reflector
Multiple arrays of the flat mirror are arranged just like that all the reflectors reflect their incident
radiation to a common point, to get a higher temperature radiant energy, such field is known as
In this arrangement, an extensive amount of heat energy can be obtained to get the boiling water
or steam at a very higher temperature and pressure. Heat energy absorbed by the working fluid can
be utilized for industrial thermal power generation or heat applications. Water and molten salt are
the typical working fluids used in HFR. Central receiver is very efficient for high temperature due
to a single receiver and has a concentration ratio of 300–1500. These might be operated to produce
20
4 PV System:
Solar energy is simply the energy acquired from sun. Electromagnetic radiations coming from sun
towards earth are full of energy. We can harness this energy to fulfill our exponentially growing
energy needs. Solar PV is a system to convert solar radiations into electrical energy through solar
panels which are nothing, but silicon (mostly) based p-n junctions. Solar thermal is related to
heating of fluid through solar energy. The solar cells are composed of a variety of semiconductor
materials and are usually less than four human hairs tall. PV cells are linked together in chains to
form larger units known as modules or panels to increase their power output. Individual modules
can be used, or several modules can be added to form arrays. As part of a complete system, one or
Emerging PV technologies have the potential to disrupt the market incumbent crystalline silicon
(c-Si) technology. The question is whether the long-term viability of c-Si as the market leader has
a time limit. The challenge of future sponsors will be to ensure these technologies do not fall prey
to the lab-to-fab "valleys of death" that have endangered promising PV technologies in the past.
Developing effective methods of sourcing and allocating funding is also imperative for the future
of emerging PV technology, authors say. The top three potential disruptors are as: perovskite,
21
quantum-dot photovoltaics, and concentrated Photovoltaics. The onus is on the potential sponsors
possessing these qualifications to step in and deliver the support required. [10]
Most solar cells present on the market are based on silicon wafers; they are called first-generation
Perovskite solar cells are new 3rd-generation solar cells that appear to have a very good chance of
contributing to large scale solar energy production. They demonstrated a certified power
conversion efficiency (PCE) of 25.2% in 2019 surpassing the PCEs of the well-known high-
(CdTe) At present, the most challenging issue in perovskites is the long-term stability, which must
be cleared up.
technology. Efficiencies have quickly risen to 18% in just 2 years. The technology has stability
issues, including instant dissolution of the perovskites in a liquid electrolyte. The efficiency of the
22
cells is expected to rise to 20% in the future with the use of cheap organometal halide perovskite
materials. [11]
The base technology for perovskite solar cells is solid-state sensitized solar cells that are based on
dye sensitized Gratzel solar cells. In 1991, a low-cost photoelectrochemical solar cell based on
high surface area nanocrystalline TiO2 film sensitized with molecular dye was developed.
Although the PCE of dye-Sensitized cells was over 12%, issues such as electrolyte usage raised
concerns over leakage. This concern was solved by substituting a solid hole conductor for the
liquid electrolyte without changing the basic concept. No significant improvement is expected
from molecular type dyes with absorption coefficients of more than 0.5 × 104 cm^-1. To achieve
high PCE, a new light absorber with an absorption coefficient of 0. 5 × 104cm^-1 is required. This
would require a 10-mgm-thick TiO2 film to sufficiently harness the incoming light. The instability
of perovskite at high relative humidity is one issue that needs to be addressed. One method used
to solve this problem is the creation of a mixed halide perovskite. A long-term stable perovskite
solar cell was designed in 2012 by replacing liquid with solid HTM.
Figure 11.(a) Structure of solid-state sensitized solar cell comprised (b) Scheme for electron-transfer processes that
occur in solid
23
4.1.2 Organic photovoltaics (OPVs):
Organic solar cells have photoactive layers comprising in general a semiconducting polymer and
a fullerene derivative. Improvement from 2.5% in 2013 to 18% in 2020 in organic solar cell
performance is primarily credited to novel non-fullerene acceptors (NFA) Organic solar cells can
be made transparent or different colors, but this will lower the overall efficiency. Organic solar
cells are often built on a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) electrode material like indium tin
oxide (ITO) substrate. In literature, commonly three types of organic solar cells can be found. Two
or more sub-cells with complementary and/or congruent photo absorption profiles are linked by a
This technology is unlikely to challenge silicon's dominance for large-scale electricity generation.
It offers promise in applications where lower cost, flexibility, weight, low energy requirement,
durability, and low light conditions can be traded-off against efficiency. The light-absorbing layer
of organic solar cells provides flexibility so the cells can be tuned and optimized for different light
spectra. This new approach to powering indoor applications could prove in applications that
24
4.1.3 Quantum dot solar cell:
The solar photovoltaic industry is one of the world's most rapidly growing energy markets. The
solar power industry will expand by a factor of ten by 2030. A new technology that can offer
superior efficiencies and lower costs than traditional silicon PV panels is needed for solar energy
A quantum dot solar cell is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the absorbing photovoltaic
material. Quantum dots have bandgaps that are tunable across a wide range of energy levels by
Quantum dots are semiconducting particles that have been reduced below the size of the Exciton
Bohr radius. Their energy levels are tunable by changing their size, which in turn defines the
bandgap. Quantum dots have bandgaps that can be tuned into the far infrared, frequencies that are
typically difficult to achieve with traditional solar cells. They are desirable for solar cells because
they can be grown over a range of sizes, allowing them to express a variety of bandgap without
changing the underlying material or construction techniques. For the sun's photon distribution
spectrum, the Shockley-Queisser limit indicates that the maximum solar conversion efficiency
25
occurs in a material with a band gap of 1.34 eV. However, materials with lower band gaps will be
Quantum dot solar cells have the potential to increase the maximum attainable thermodynamic
conversion efficiency of solar photon conversion up to about 66%. The effect is based on utilizing
hot carriers in QD solar cells to generate and collect additional electron–hole pairs through
enhanced impact ionization processes. The authors discuss initial results on slowed hot electron
cooling in InP QDs and high-efficiency configurations that require slow hot carrier cooling times.
• They have a wide range of applications that can be found in windows as well as rooftops
[14].
26
5 Floating PV System:
The first floating PV system was built in 2007 in Aichi, Japan. Initially, these small-scale systems
were built for research and demonstration purposes. The first commercial installation was a 175
KWp (Kilowatt peak) system built at the Far Niente Winery in California in 2008. Medium-to-
large floating installations (larger than 1 MWp) began to emerge in 2013, but nowadays they are
Floating solar PV plants are an emerging form of PV systems that float on the surface of drinking
water reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation canals or remediation and tailing ponds
It is also known as pontoon. It is a sturdy structure that holds the solar panel. It is composed of a
structure and a floater and it allows the installation of the PV module.
27
5.1.2 Mooring System:
It is a permanent structure used to halt the free movement of the floating structure in water. This
allows adjusting water level fluctuations while maintaining its position in a southward direction.
The floating structure can be fixed to a point on the bottom of the waterway eliminating the need
to connect to the floating structure to the shore. This can be done with the help of anchor mooring.
5.1.3 PV System:
PV Generation equipment. Mostly crystalline solar PV modules have been used for the floating
solar systems.
5.1.4 Underwater Cable:
Floating and land-based PV systems have a similar layout, other than the fact that the PV arrays
and often the inverters are mounted on a floating platform. The direct current (DC) electricity is
generated by PV modules, gathered by combiner boxes, and finally converted to alternating current
(AC) by inverters. The PV systems, as well as the inverters, are anchored to the bottom, but it is
also possible to connect them to the mainland via floating power lines. The design of the anchoring
28
and mooring systems- which are used to keep in place the floating platforms, will depend on a
wide range of factors such as water level, soil conditions, float type, and wind load etc. [16]
According to the World Bank, with a global potential of 400 GW under very conservative
assumptions, floating solar could double the existing installed capacity of solar PV but without the
land acquisition that is required for ground-mounted installations. As there are more than 400,000
square kilometers (km2) of man-made reservoirs in the world, the floating solar has a theoretical
potential on a terawatt scale, purely from the perspective of the available surface area. Since 2013
the capacities of floating PV power plants have increased manifold. As of mid-2018, the
cumulative installed capacity of floating solar was approaching 1.1 gigawatt-peak (GWp), the
same milestone that ground-mounted PV reached in the year 2000. Currently, most of the
worldwide installed capacity of 1,100 MWp is in Asia, which is currently still leading the wave of
floating solar.
5.2 Advantages:
• Floating solar power generating systems typically generate more electricity than ground-
mount and rooftop systems due to the cooling effect of the water.
• As the PV system is placed on a water surface, it avoids all the hurdles of land acquisition
• Floating PV plants can reduce water loss due to evaporation, depending on the surface
covered and climate conditions. Also, around 7,000 ~ 20,000 liters of water per MW are
required in the cleaning of a plant. The cleaning water used in the floating PV system goes
into the water body again which can be reused leading to savings in water and its associated
cost.
29
• Geographically any water bodies with abundant sunlight can be used to install floating
plants. [17]
5.3 Challenges:
Being a relatively new technology, there are still many factors that will need to be analyzed in the
long term.
30
6 Fuel Cells:
A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction. Every fuel cell has two
electrodes called, respectively, the anode and cathode. The reactions that produce electricity take
place at the electrodes. Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged
particles from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the
electrodes.
Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen. One great appeal of fuel cells is that
they generate electricity with very little pollution–much of the hydrogen and oxygen used in
There are many technologies of fuel cells available on the market, and each one of those is
characterized by: the operative temperature range, the type of fuels which can be used, the type of
catalyst used by the cell and the efficiency ratio of the energy conversion.
31
The main technologies available on the market are the following
Due to their chemistry, fuel cells are very clean. Fuel cells that use pure hydrogen fuel are
completely carbon-free, with their only byproducts being electricity, heat, and water. Some types
of fuel cell systems can use hydrocarbon fuels like natural gas, biogas, methanol, and others. Fuel
cells are also scalable. This means that individual fuel cells can be joined with one another to form
stacks. In turn, these stacks can be combined into larger systems. Fuel cell systems vary greatly in
size and power, from combustion engine replacements for electric vehicles to large-scale, multi-
Listed below are a few of the most used fuel cells and the characteristics that make them unique.
✓ Low-to-Zero Emissions.
✓ High Efficiency.
✓ Reliability.
✓ Fuel Flexibility.
✓ Energy Security.
✓ Durability.
✓ Scalability.
32
Fuel cell technologies are expected to substantially reduce consumption of oil and emissions of
generation technologies. All fuel cells have the same basic configuration, an electrolyte and two
electrodes, but there are different types of fuel cells, based mainly on what kind of electrolyte
they use. Many combinations of fuel and oxidant are also possible. The fuel could be diesel or
methanol, while air, chlorine, or chlorine dioxide may serve as oxidants. Most fuel cells in use
The implementations of fuel cells (FCs) in the vehicle industry have gained great attention for the
last few decades owing to simple utilization, silent operation, high efficiency, and modular
structure. Technological advancements show that the use of FCs in electric vehicles (EVs) will
increase rapidly and cause a revolution, and will be an alternative to traditional vehicles in the
future. Commercial vehicles, projects, and research show that work is underway to ensure that
FCEVs have sufficient performance advances for their daily transportation needs.
Hydrogen produced through renewable energy sources (RESs), known as green hydrogen, can
provide clean energy to the main economy sectors such as industry, buildings, and transport [18].
When hydrogen burns, the only by-product is water – which is why hydrogen has been an alluring
zero-carbon energy source for decades. Yet the traditional process for producing hydrogen, in
which fossil fuels are exposed to steam, is not even remotely zero-carbon. Hydrogen produced this
way is called grey hydrogen; if the CO2 is captured and sequestered, it is called blue hydrogen.
Green hydrogen is different. It is produced through electrolysis, in which machines split water into
33
Figure 17: Green Hydrogen Production.
Historically, electrolysis required so much electricity that it made little sense to produce hydrogen
First, significant amounts of excess renewable electricity have become available at grid scale;
rather than storing excess electricity in arrays of batteries, the extra electricity can be used to drive
Second, electrolysers are becoming more efficient. Companies are working to develop
electrolysers that can produce green hydrogen as cheaply as grey or blue hydrogen, and analysts
Meanwhile, energy companies are starting to integrate electrolysers directly into renewable power
projects. In this way, the goal of 40% share of electricity as the dominant energy carrier in 2050
would be realized and hence, the decarbonized energy world envisaged by the Paris Agreement
will likely be reachable. Power systems, as the main infrastructure of large-scale electricity
generation and transmission, are forced to be operated even closer to their security limits due to
34
Figure 18:The link between various energy sectors via green hydrogen.
In today's life, fossil fuels meet the needs of the transportation sector in a significant amount and
bring various negative effects such as air pollution, noise, and global warming . Furthermore, the
rapid decline of underground petroleum resources that occur with overuse in fossil fuels is seen as
another major problem for the transportation sector .As a result of these effects, researchers and
industrialists have tended to efficient energy units such as battery and fuel cells (FCs). Among
these energy unit types, interest in FCs, which is a clean energy source, has been recently
increasing with industrial developments . Highly efficient operation and flexible power ratings of
FCs make them available for various transportation applications such as passenger cars, light
commercial vehicles, buses, and trucks. These transportation applications, which consist of an FC
instead of a battery, or combination with auxiliary energy generation units such as battery and/or
ultracapacitor (UC), are also called fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) .Most FCEVs are known as
low-pollutant vehicles that give off heat energy and water in addition to electrical power for kinetic
energy .In addition, FCEVs not only aid in supporting a clean ambient but also diminish the
35
Figure 19: Fuel Cells in Automotive Industry.
The high capital cost for fuel cells is by far the largest factor contributing to the limited market
penetration of this technology [19]. For fuel cells to compete realistically with other contemporary
power generation technologies, they must become more competitive from the standpoint of both
capital and installed cost. In the stationary power market, fuel cells could become competitive if
they reach an installed cost of $1,500 or less per kilowatt [20]. Currently, the cost is in the $4,000+
range per kilowatt. In the automobile sector, a competitive cost is on the order of $60 - $100 per
kilowatt, a much more stringent criterion. The high capital cost (on a $/kW basis) today has led to
36
Specific areas in which cost reductions are being investigated include:
Stack engineering and control is the next biggest hurdle once the above things are taken care of.
The biggest challenge is in the computer controlling of fuel cell stack for load variation with
minimum response time, better stack design), lowering of stack mass per unit volume and cyclic
endurance. Other challenges related to successful implementation of fuel cell technology are DC
through drop in voltage and power conditioner i.e., DC to AC conversion for utility services and
domestic appliances. Finally, the fuel cell vehicle or fuel cell for stationary power must be mass
produced and the development of automated mass production technology is very important in
terms of bulk production, cost reduction and reproducibility of fuel cell performance. Most of the
development work on MEA preparation is through hands-on experience and handheld technology
and it is very difficult to reproduce MEA with similar performance as some amount of manual
error always creeps in. Thus, automation and development of mass production technology of MEA
preparation and assembly line for stack production should be investigated very seriously especially
for FCVs.
37
6.3.3 Technical challenges:
In the FCEVs, operation of the vehicle components, including mechanical and electronic elements,
should be fulfilled the technical proficiency of integration with FC stacks .This is to ensure
efficient operation and safe trip by FCEVs . In this study, the technical challenges and system
problems in FCEVs are also classified and presented in figure. Technical challenges in the FCEV
Figure 20: The classification of technical challenges and system problems in FCEVs.
• FC Lifetime:
In today's vehicle market, FCs need to be as durable and robust as conventional engines. In FCs,
environmental factors such as start, shutdown, freezing, the suitability of oxygen pressure, relative
humidity and temperature are the most important factors to affect the lifetime of FCs . Besides, for
vehicle applications, the FC is subjected to complex operating situations such as variable start-stop
and exposure to too many different loads . Therefore, an FC's lifetime in Type I FCEVs is shorter
than the lifetime of the FCs used in other fixed applications. Also, Membrane degradation is one
38
of the weakest points for PEMFC durability, and therefore the lifetime of PEMFC is also highly
Hydrogen Supply:
FCEVs are divided into two main categories in terms of fuel supply: direct hydrogen and indirect
methanol FCEVs. In the case of direct hydrogen FCEVs, FC's output power is directly controlled
by DC/DC converter. However, the supplementary of direct hydrogen fuel and refueling of FCEV
are critical challenges for the reliability of FCEVs, which includes production, storage, and
transport of hydrogen fuel. These challenges decelerate the industrial growth of FCEV in
comparison to conventional battery EVs. The storage of sufficient hydrogen on-board a vehicle is
a challenge because of its low energy density. The insufficient hydrogen storage onboard results
in adequate drive range. To obtain an adequate drive range, the storage container must be either
too heavy or too large. There are a few storage methods in the literature such as pressurized tanks,
hydrogen uptake in metal-based compounds, and cryogenic liquid hydrogen . On the other side,
indirect FCEVs use methanol to produce hydrogen via an on-board catalytic reformer and this
hydrogen is pumped to FC stack. However, Catalyst material is made from platinum for anode and
Durability:
FCEVs need further maintenance and repair compared to conventional battery EVs for durability
conditions. In addition, the facilities for maintenance and repair are not enough. There is a
necessity for FCEVs maintenance and repair facilities because this technology is quite new and
does not have the benefits of battery EVs [21]. Besides, in FCEVs, unbalanced flow distribution
between FCs may cause an improper operational arrangement of cells and stacks. This situation
39
introduces high uncertainty and degradation of efficiency. Also, frequent maintenance and repair
can also simply be determined as a loss of voltage versus time. The degradation of FC components
has inverse effects on system durability. The voltage reduction for constant load at maximum
75 C0 is low in the range of 1−2μV/h. This voltage drop range may increase by orders of amplitude
once some circumstances occur, i.e., higher temperature values, start-stop cycles, load change.
Future aspects:
Despite numerous successes in recent years, FC technologies for automotive applications face
and researchers need intensive work in areas such as pure hydrogen production, built-in hydrogen
storage, FC durability and reliability, consumer's easy access to hydrogen and safety. In addition
to all these difficulties, the high costs are currently reducing the preferability of FCEVs. However,
considering the advantages of hydrogen FCEVs mentioned in the previous section, it is predicted
that the demand for such vehicles will increase by overcoming these difficulties. In addition,
increasing the security of the use of hydrogen and increasing the number of filling stations where
the consumer can reach hydrogen are the factors that will increase the demand for such vehicles .
It is thought that the production of passenger car manufacturers will increase to meet the demand
in the global transportation industry with the development of FCEV technologies. This situation
will increase the investments of these companies in this technology and accelerate the
it is expected that its share in the market will increase in the following years.
40
With the development of technologies used both in hydrogen production techniques and in
components such as FC and battery, the production costs of hydrogen FCEVs are expected to
decrease, and their production will increase to meet the demand that will arise accordingly. The
market size of hydrogen FC-based vehicles is worth $ 651.9 million in 2018 and is projected to
reach $ 42,038.9 million in 2026, which corresponds to an annual compound growth rate of 66.9%
from 2019 to 2026 . The key factors affecting the global market's growth include an increase in
infrastructure, the first high investment and technological progress in infrastructure, and future
commercial potential. Each of these factors is expected to have a definitive impact on the vehicle
market in predicting the number of vehicles. Figure shows the variations in the number of FCEVs
from 2013 to 2030 based on three regions: North America, Europe, and Asia-Pacific. The number
of FCEVs, which was only 20 in 2013, was increased to 11900 in 2018 [22]. It is also expected to
reach approximately 31000 at the end of 2020, with an increase of roughly 160% compared with
2018. It is stated that the total number forecasted in the number of FCEVs is 582400 for 2030, and
it is assumed that there will be a 1784% increase in the number of vehicles within the next decade.
41
The increase in the number of electric vehicles also means an increase in hydrogen demand for the
next decade . Nowadays, there are many methods such as steam treatment [23], purification of
waste gases, electrolysis is applied to obtain hydrogen. These studies are continuing intensively in
the storage of produced hydrogen . The FCs, which produce electricity using the hydrogen in the
tank and the oxygen received from the air directly, is an efficient method used especially in
passenger cars to obtain energy from hydrogen . For this reason, one of the most important
conditions in the marketing strategy of vehicles, which has an important role in the increase in the
number of FCEVs, is to provide easy access to hydrogen for storing and using in these vehicles. It
is obvious that if the drivers can easily reach the fuel stations for hydrogen, the preferred rates of
FCEVs will increase. Therefore, it is inevitable that the number of hydrogen fuel stations will also
increase for the next ten years, based on the forecast that the number of vehicles will increase
worldwide [24].
42
7 Ocean Energy:
Ocean energy refers to all forms of renewable energy derived from the sea. ocean is an enormous
source of power, as anyone who has been knocked over by a wave, seen them crash on the shore,
or been rolled about in a ship can attest. Water is some 832 times denser than air; and ocean energy
incorporates the forces of many resources: the sun, the wind, the movements of the earth, and the
gravitational pull of the moon. The coming years may witness an increased uptake of ocean energy.
In the longer run, more capacity additions are expected, as wave and tidal stream projects with
combined capacities of 2.83 GW were in the pipeline3 as of 2020. The International Renewable
Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates that around 10 GW could be commercially deployed by 2030.
[25]
Among other types of renewable energy, oceans contain energy in the form of:
• Tidal Energy
• Wave energy
43
7.1 Emerging technologies in Tidal Energy:
Tides are the result of the interaction of the gravity of the sun, earth, and moon. The rise and fall
of the tides – in some cases more than 12 m – creates potential energy. The flows due to flood and
ebb currents creates kinetic energy. Since the 1960s, only five projects have been developed
commercially in the period up to 2012. However, new technologies have advanced considerably
over the past few years and there are several ongoing full-scale demonstration projects. Tidal
Tidal range technologies harvest the potential energy created by the difference in head between
ebb tide and flood tide. tidal range energy is predictable, as the energy production is not influenced
by weather conditions, but rather by the cyclical constellations, the gravity of the moon, sun, and
earth, providing a predictable bi-week, biannual and annual cycle. New technologies developed
• Tidal ‘lagoons’
• Tidal ‘reefs’
• Tidal ‘fences’
44
7.1.2 Tidal current or Tidal stream Technologies:
Tidal current or tidal stream technologies convert the kinetic energy into useable energy. These
technologies have had more than 40 new devices introduced between the period 2006-2013.
• Reciprocating devices
• Other designs (rotating screw-like devices and tidal kites that carry turbines below their
wings.
Hybrid forms of tidal energy can be found in the form of multi-purpose platforms where both tidal
current and tidal range technologies are used for electricity generation. These platforms are in an
early developmental and innovative stage. A recent development is called “dynamic tidal power”
(DTP).
Wave energy converters capture the energy contained in ocean waves and use it to generate
45
7.2.1 Oscillating water Columns:
It uses trapped air pockets in a water column to drive a turbine. A new generation of floating OWC
integrated on spar-buoys are substantially increasing the power performance. Some representative
devices are:
• Oceanix (Australia).
Floating or submerged devices using the wave motion (up/down, forwards/ backwards, side to
• Oyster (Scotland),
• Seatricity (Cornwall),
• Pelamis (Scotland)
46
Figure 26-Pelamis (Scotland)
It uses reservoirs to create a head and subsequently drive turbines. Some representative devices
are:
• WaveCat (Spain)
47
8 Biomass Energy:
Biomass is organic source of energy derived from living or once living organisms. Sources of
biomass also called as feedstocks are waste, plants & wood. Wood may include lumber, saw dust,
wood pellets. Plant includes crops like sugar cane, corns, soybeans, and waste materials include
animal dung, papers, bagasse & cotton etc. we can extract energy from biomass directly or
indirectly. Heat and electricity production are direct ways by burning or combusting biomass.
Biofuel is considered an indirect way of harnessing biomass energy. Pakistan has huge potential
for biomass as Pakistan is an agricultural country and Agriculture sector (major crops, minor crops,
fisheries, forestry & livestock) share 21% of total GDP. [28]
There are number of complex challenges relevant to this fuel source as the proportion of carbon-
neutral biomass used in their generation portfolios grows. Several ground-breaking technologies
are expected to aid in the increased use of biomaterials. The researchers focused on many new
technologies that promise to expand the efficient use of biomass as a fuel for electric power
generation, reflecting the increasing role that biomaterials are playing in the electric power
generation industry. [29]
Proponents of biomass fuel point to number of benefits. Biomass energy sources like trees, for
example, are good for the atmosphere because they absorb carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2) as they rise. This
will help to balance the 𝐶𝑂2 emitted as they are used as a source of electricity. Using compost,
such as urban solid waste (MSW), will also save money on waste collection and landfill charges.
48
8.1 Optimizing Biomass Cofiring with Coal:
Cofiring of biomass, a carbon-neutral resource, with coal has recently exploded around the world
as way to offset 𝐶𝑂2 emissions. However, the varying nature of biomass makes determining the
best biomass blend/type for a given power plant difficult. This problem is currently being solved
by test-firing different mixtures, which takes a long time and costs a lot of money.
The fundamental properties of combustion and mineral matter transformation are incorporated into
BCAS, a web-based software. This method compares the propensities of all fuel-related
parameters involved in firing either coal/biomass mix, or even 100% biomass, in real time. It also
compares the amount of carbon in ash, erosion, and corrosion, emission of particulates, and oxides
of sulfur and nitrogen.
The software allows power plant operators to compare individual biomass samples to see whether
they are compatible with the coal they use. A secondary combustion software uses the same inputs
to evaluate total gas flow, fly ash, and sulfur oxides carryover for a given generation production,
in addition to evaluating the parameters specified. The findings obtained by plants using BCAS
show that the program can be used as a design and operational method to determine the best
biomass quality and quantity for cofiring with coal while staying within pollution regulations. [29]
49
glass, and other miscellaneous wastes make up the remaining materials. Fuel cell pressure has been
improved, anode and cathode exhaust gas expanders have been installed between the fuel cell and
the gasifier, new gas cleanup methods have been used, and an anode exhaust recycling loop has
been introduced in "A Novel MSW-Fired Heat Cycle," which is a Radovich cycle that helps to
maximize efficiency and minimize expense.
The revised system produces gas from MSW in a gasification vessel using steam and hot-bed
material. In this cycle, the combustion air or flue gas never combines with the fuel gas. Radovich
also considered syngas treatment, which starts with a gas mixture containing carbon monoxide,
𝐶𝑂2, and hydrogen.
50
9 Geothermal Energy:
Geothermal energy, whether as a source of electricity or to heat or cool buildings, has an enormous
potential and is one of the emerging technologies of renewable energy. Geothermal energy is the
form of thermal energy stored in the earth's crust. The origin of geothermal energy from the earth's
crust is from two major sources: 20% from the original formation of planet earth and 80% from
the radioactive decay of earth materials. The temperature difference between the core of the earth
and its surface is known as geothermal gradient, and it drives a continuous conduction of thermal
energy from the core to the surface in the form of heat. [30]
The potential of geothermal energy is at par with other mainstream renewable energy technologies.
A comparison between wind, solar, hydro, and geothermal energy with respect to initial investment
Figure 32: Comparison between Initial investment cost and Payback time of mainstream
Renewable’s technologies
51
The traditional approach of exploiting geothermal energy is to find the naturally occurring
reservoirs of superheated steam and hot water. Regional and local tectonic and geological
phenomena play a vital role in the sustainability of these naturally occurring reservoirs. Due to
these factors, conventional geothermal energy techniques are only restricted to those regions which
are rich in natural reservoirs. To overcome these limitations, an enhanced version of geothermal
Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), which is also known as Engineered Geothermal Energy
(EGE), does not depend on the occurrence of natural geothermal reservoirs. The reservoirs for
extracting the geothermal energy are enhanced or engineered in the EGS approach. This makes
EGS adaptable in more areas and especially in those regions, which lack in natural reservoirs. The
major advantages associated with EGS over conventional geothermal techniques are extended
lifetime, increased productivity, siting flexibility, expanded resources, sizing flexibility, and above
A complex set of parameters that controls the performance of EGS power plants includes a
reservoir, geological conditions, drilling of a well, and well completion. To extract thermal energy,
it is required to drill to depths where the rock temperature is sufficient to justify the investments.
The first step in building a power plant based on EGS technology is to develop an EGS reservoir
These are the five steps in developing an EGS reservoir. Step three is considered the most crucial
52
1. An injection well is drilled into hot basement rock that has limited permeability and
fluid content.
fractures.
extend fractures and re-open old fractures in the hot basement rock.
5. Finally, additional production wells are drilled to extract heat from large volumes
The pictorial view of the five steps involved in the development of an EGS reservoir is shown
below. [32]
53
There are many options for converting geothermal energy into electric power including direct
steam expansion, single and multi-stage steam flashing, organic binary Rankin cycles and two-
phase flow expanders as well as other forms of emerging technology. The problem with most of
these techniques is that the systems are not particularly efficient because of the relatively low
temperatures involved. This becomes a particular issue for water temperatures approaching the
lower limiting temperature of about 150 oC. However, the resource base of EGS is huge but it is
not distributed evenly. In active tectonic regions, a temperature of more than 150 °C at the depths
of less than 6 km is more common but it is not confined to those resources. There are areas in every
region with more favorable conditions than others. Therefore, with respect to electricity generation
in low potential areas, the development of greater efficiencies in the conversion processes used is
important.
Geothermal energy is an emerging source of energy. Geothermal power is already utilized around
the world. The total world geothermal power resources reached 9.9 GW in 2010, mainly from low
and medium temperature sources. There was a linear trend of about 400 MW increase per year
from 2010 to 2015. In 2015, it reached 11.8 GW. In next 4 years, it reached a power capacity of
14 GW in 2019. It is estimated that by 2050, it will reach a power capacity of about 140 GW
worldwide; in that case geothermal would encompass 8.3% of the world’s power generation and
serve 17% of the population, with 40 countries generating 100% of their power from geothermal
sources. Also, geothermal technology can eliminate over 1000 million tons of CO2 from the
54
Figure 34: Installed capacity (GW) of Geothermal power worldwide
There are some potential environmental impacts from the geothermal power development. These
impacts include gaseous emission, water pollution, land usage, induced seismicity, water use and
induced landslides etc. Despite these potential impacts of geothermal energy, current and long-
term geothermal energy technologies generally, present much lower environmental hazards as
EGS is emerging technologies that have the potential to significantly reduce the world’s
years off but its enormous potential demands investment for further research.
55
Conclusion:
The harnessing of the energy from renewable sources is the most emerging field around the world.
The ongoing progress in these fields promise a bright and green energy for the world. With
development of the renewable energy the environmental degradation and global warming is
declined to a great extent. Emerging technologies and ongoing research in fields such as 3rd
generation PV, green hydrogen , floating PV, enhanced geothermal systems, hybrid solar, air borne
wind and offshore floating etc. are expected to fulfill the energy demand in the world without
degrading the environment.Net installed renewable capacity will grow by nearly 4% globally in
2020, reaching almost 200 GW. Higher additions of wind and ocean energy are taking global
renewable capacity additions to a new record this year, accounting for almost 90% of the increase
56
References
[2] J. JM and M. D, "Dynamics of offshore floating wind turbines-analysis ofthree concepts," Wind Energy, vol.
69, p. 557, 2011.
[3] B. TK and v. K. GAM, "Review of state of the art in smart rotor control researchfor wind turbines. 2010;46:1–
27.," Prog Aerosp Sci, vol. 46, pp. 1-27, 2010.
[6] M. D, "Advances in solar thermal electricity technology," . Sol. Energy , vol. 76, pp. 19-36, 2004.
[8] B. D, V. R and S. P, "Innovation in concentrated solar power," Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, vol. 95, pp. 25-
2703, 2011.
[10] M. B. a. C. B. Nicole Mariotti, "Emerging Photovoltaic Technologies and Eco-Design—Criticisms and Potential
Improvements," 2020.
[12] "A short overview of the third-generation solar cells: concept, materials, and performance," [Online]. Available:
https://dracula-technologies.com/what-is-the-third-generation-of-photovoltaic..
[18] I. Staffell, D. Scamman, A. Abad, P. Balcombe, P. Dodds, P. Ekins, N. Shah and K. Ward, "The role of hydrogen
and fuel cells in the global energy system," Energy Environ. Sci, vol. 2, pp. 463-491, 2019.
57
[20] Mattey.J, "The Fuel Cell Industry Review," Fuel Cell Today, 2012.
[21] J. Wang, H. Wang and Y. Fan, "Techno-Economic challenges of fuel cell commercialization," Engineering, pp.
352-360, 2018.
[22] W. Han, G. Zhang, J. Xiao, P. Bénard and R. Chahine, "Demonstrations and marketing strategies of hydrogen
fuel cell vehicles in China," Int J Hydrogen Energy, p. 25, 2014.
[23] S. Hwangbo, S. Heo and C. Yoo, "Network modeling of future hydrogen production by combining conventional
steam methane reforming and a cascade of waste biogas treatment processes under uncertain demand
conditions," Energy Convers Manag, vol. 165, pp. 316-333, 2018.
[24] M. Üçok, "Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles -," IICEC energy and climate research paper, 2019.
[28] E. S.-M. a. A.-J. P.-M. Miguel-Angel Perea-Moreno, "Biomass as Renewable Energy: Worldwide Research
Trends," 2019.
[29] "New Technologies Advance Biomass for Power Generation," [Online]. Available:
https://www.powermag.com/.
[32] "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286478543_Enhanced_geothermal_systems_EGS_A_review,"
[Online].
58