Electricity & Magnetism: Topic Outline

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Physics Module 4
Electricity & Magnetism

Topic Outline
3. Magnetism
1. Electrostatics Magnets & the magnetic field
Ferromagnetism
Static electric charge.
Attraction & repulsion. Magnetic effects of electric current
Producing & explaining Field around a wire & solenoid
electrostatic effects. Electromagnets
Electric fields. Shapes & measurment.
Coulomb’s Law 2. Electric Circuits
Energy & voltage in an electric field
Electric current, voltage & resistance
Charge on the electron.
Ohm’s Law Non-ohmic resistors
Equipotentials
Real v. conventional current.
Voltage & potential difference
Series & parallel circuits
Kirchoff’s circuit laws
Total resistance, series & parallel
Electrical power & energy
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. Electrostatics
Static electric charges. Attraction & repulsion. Producing static charge.
Observing & explaining electrostatic effects & phenomena.
The electric field. Field shapes & measurement. Coulomb’s Law.
Energy & voltage in an electric field.
Charge on the electron. Fields & equipotentials.
2. Electric Circuits
Electric current, voltage & resistance. Ohm’s Law. Ohmic & non-ohmic resistors.
Factors affecting resistance. AC & DC. Real & conventional current.
Series & parallel circuits. Kirchoff’s circuit laws. Total resistance, series & parallel.
Electrical power & energy.
3. Magnetism
Charcteristics of magnets. The magnetic field. Explanations of ferromagnetism.
Electric currents create magnetic fields. Field around a straight wire.
Field of a solenoid. Electromagnets.
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keep it simple science

1. Electrostatics
Electric Charge To investigate electrical charge you have probably
experimented by rubbing different materials
Electric charge is one of the fundamental
together. One of the best combinations is to rub
properties of matter. Everything is made of atoms
perspex (a clear plastic) with silk.
and every atom contains particles which have
electric charge. There are 2 different types of Electrons rubbed off perspex rod.
charge, which we have labelled simply as Rod becomes positively charged.
“positive” (+ve) and “negative” (-ve).
You should already be aware that in the nucleus of ++++++

every atom are the protons, (carry +ve charge)
while in orbit around the nucleus are the electrons,
which carry -ve charge.
How Things Become Charged

Normally, the number of electrons and the number
of protons in each atom is exactly the same. The If you rub an ebonite rod (ebonite is a hardened
+ve charges and the -ve charges “cancel out” and rubber substance) with wool, it becomes negatively
no electrical effects are apparent. charged.
However, it is very easy to upset this balance by Only the (-ve) electrons move. The (+ve) charges
transferring electrons from the atoms of one (protons) cannot move because they are fixed in the
substance onto the atoms of a different substance. nucleus of the atoms.
Gentle friction is enough. Just rubbing 2 different

substances together can transfer electrons from one +
to the other.
+ +
electron rubbed off
+
one atom, onto Electrons rubbed off wool cloth.
another Rod becomes negatively charged.
If these substances are electrical

insulators, the charges cannot
flow away, so the substance stays
This atom still charged, at least for a while.
This atom still has all its (+ve) has all its (+ve)
protons, but has lost a (-ve) Now you will see that charged
protons, but has gained a (-ve) objects exert forces on each
electron. Overall, it now has a electron. Overall, it now has a
net (+ve) charge. other.
net (-ve) charge.
Forces Between Electrical Charges
How do electrical charges affect each other? Electroscopes
Opposites An electroscope is a device which detects electrical
+ Attract.
Force pulls them

together
charge, and allows you to study it. There are various
types of electroscope you might use, or see
demonstrated. The simplest type is shown.
Ball Electroscope
This is simply a light-weight ball (e.g.polystyrene)
hanging on a fine silk thread.
If no charge is present,
the ball hangs straight
Same Charges Repel each other. down.
Force pushes them apart.
+ + If a charged object is
nearby, the ball is
attracted to it.
®
Electrostatic Phenomena
Electroscopes (cont.) +
Why is the Ball Attracted? +
When a charged rod comes near, some electrons in the ball move, +
causing a separation of charges. The rod then attracts the nearer
charges, and the ball is pulled towards the rod.
If the rod touches the ball, electrons transfer (here, rod to ball) so the ball gets the same
charge as the rod. Now the ball is repelled by the rod because they have the same charge.
For the same reason, a charged rod will attract small,

light-weight objects, such as small pieces of paper.
As the rod approaches, charge separation
occurs in the piece of paper. The nearer part of
each piece of paper will have opposite charge
and be attracted to the rod.
After touching the rod, some pieces may fly off due to repulsion.
Static Discharge You may have
Things can get charged up, and they can also lose their seen a “van der
charge again. Often, they lose their charge by a “SPARK” Graaf” generator
jumping. A spark occurs when millions of electrons jump in action in the
through the air. laboratory.
It develops strong
A spark discharge always involves electrons jumping from a electrical charges
negatively charged object towards a more positively charged which are great for
object. Remember, only the (-ve) electrons can move. studying the
effects of charge,
and also great for
Earthing a Charge making discharge
The Earth itself is such a huge lump of atoms that it can sparks!
easily supply electrons to, or accept electrons from, a
charged object.
So, if electrons can flow between a charged object and the Friction with the air can
create a static charge on
Earth, either by sparking or by flowing through a conductor, a car, which is insulated
they will. The charged object loses its charge. We say it has
been “earthed”, or “discharged”. + from the Earth by its
rubber tyres.
Ever been “zapped” as you step from a car? + As you step out,
electrons flow through
Lightning + you to “earth” the car.
You get an electric
electron flow shock.
cloud to cloud electron In the dark you might
+ flow even see sparks!
+
+ +
+ + The ultimate in an “earth discharge” is lightning. Violent
+ winds inside a “thunderstorm” system cause static
charges to build up in the clouds.
electron
flow Earth
to cloud Some parts of a cloud become (+ve) and others (-ve).
electron Eventually, they may discharge by sparking, either from

flow cloud one cloud to another, or by “earthing”.
to Earth
As the electrons force their way through the air, a narrow
channel of air is heated to very high temperature and
glows briefly. That is the flash of lightning.
A “lightning rod” protects buildings by The sudden expansion of air in this “super-heated”
providing a conducting pathway for channel of air creates a shock wave of sound. This shock
electrons to flow through. wave is the sound of “thunder”.
® Electric Fields
Sliding down a
This confused- plastic “slippery-
looking cat has dip” has charged
somehow this girl with “static
developed electric electricity”. Since
charges on its fur
so that pellets of each hair has the
polystyrene are same charge, the
attracted. hairs repel each
Image by Sean McGrath. other.
CCA 2.0 licence. Image by Chris Darling.
CCA 2.0 licence.
How Do We Explain Static Electricity?

The forces are best explained by imagining that each electrical charge is surrounded by a “FORCE FIELD”.
Any electrical charge which is placed within the field will experience a force.
By definition, the direction of the force field lines is the direction

a positive (+ve) charge would move if placed in the field.
Field shape between two
SHAPES OF FIELDS AROUND POINT CHARGES opposite charges
(attracting each other)
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Field shape
between two
identical charges
(repelling each
other)
Note that all the electric fields above have irregular shapes and the strength of the field
(and any forces that occur) vary from point to point.
Field Between Parallel Charged Plates Positively (+ve) +
The only electrical field that is quite regular and has the Uniform
charged plate Field
same strength at each point is shown.
Between
Oppositely charged metal plates like this are often used in Plates
scientific experiments because they have a regular strength
and shape. This makes it easier to study the field &
behaviour of small electically-charged objects within it.
Measurement of Electrical Charge & Field Negatively (-ve) charged
The unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). 1 coulomb of charge is
quite a large amount, so “microcoulombs”(μ μC) are commonly used.
μ -6
1 C = 1 x 10 C. (“Coulomb” is named in honour of a French scientist.) Example Problem 1
When an electric charge
The electric field strength (E) is defined and measured as the force “q” = 6.50x10-4 C is placed in an
which a charge of +1 C would experience if placed in the field. Electric electric field, it experiences a
field is a VECTOR: it has a direction as well as a value. The direction is force of 8.15x10-2 N. What is the
the way a +ve charge would move. field strength at that point?
Since force is measured in newtons (N), and charge is in coulombs (C), Solution:
it follows that the unit of electric field strength is the “newton per E = F / q = 8.15x10-2 / 6.50x10-4
coulomb” (NC-1) E = 125 NC-1
This means if a charge “q” experiences an electric force “F”, then there
must be an electric field present, and its strength is F/q. Try Worksheet 1
Electric = Force / Charge Example Problem 2

Field
What force would be experienced by a charge of 4.68x10-6 C, when
placed in an electric field with strength 3.65x103 NC-1?
E = F or F = E.q Solution
E = F/q, so F = E.q = 3.65x103 x 4.68x10-6
q = 0.017082 (= 1.71 x 10-2 N)
®
Force Between Electric Charges
The Coulomb Constant
Electric effects & phenomena have been known has a value k = 8.988 x 109.
since ancient times. (Interesting research: find out the
derivation of our word “electric”.) To keep things as simple as possible, (KISS
Principle) we will use an approximate value of 9.0 x
In 1785, a french physicist, 109 in our examples.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
discovered what is now called The syllabus requires you to know that the
“Coulomb’s Law”. “coulomb constant” is actually more than just a
number: in fact, k= 1
If 2 point charges, q1 and q2 are 4πε0
separated by a distance “r”, then
the force acting on each charge is where the symbol ε0 (spoken as “epsilon naught”)
given by: is called the “permittivity constant”. “Permittivity”
refers to how well the medium between the charges
F = k.q1.q2 permits the electric field to pass through it.
r2 Using a value of 9x109 for the overall constant k is

F = force, in newtons. based on the permittivity of a vacuum (or air).
q1 & q2 = electric charge, in coulombs. However, if the charges are immersed in (for
r = distance, in metres. example) oil, then the permittivity will have a very
different value. In such a case, you would need to
k = a constant of proportionality, be given the appropriate value of “ε” for that
needed to make all our units work medium, then calculate the new value of the
properly... but there is more to learn! constant “k”.
q1 r In all our examples, we will stick to the KISS

q2
Principle. Our electric charges will all be in air or
vacuum and k = 9.0 x 109.
Example Problem 1
Two electric charges are separated by 15cm in air. The charge have values of +6x10-4 C and -2x10-5 C.
Take k = 9x109. What force will act on each of them?
Solution: F = k.q1.q2 / r2 = 9x109 x 6x10-4 x -2x10-5 / 0.152 = -4,800 N
What does this mean?

1. Since one charge is +ve and the other -ve, then the force must be one of attraction. The difference in
signs has generated the negative answer, but really, the names “positive” & “negative” are simply labels,
and NOT mathematical operators.
You can either:

• enter the charge signs into the formula and realise that if the answer is negative, then the force is an
attraction. Positive answers mean repulsion.
or
• ignore the charge signs when calculating, then use logic to determine if the force is an attraction or a
repulsion.
2. The other thing to learn here is that electric force is potent! The two charge values seem quite small, yet
a large force is generated. That’s why you don’t play with electricity... very dangerous stuff!
Example Problem 2
Two identical charged particles with charge of +3.5x10-6C are separated by air and Try
experiencing an electric repulsion force of 25 N. How far apart are they? Worksheet
2
Solution: F = k.q1.q2 / r2 , so r2 = k.q1.q2 / F = 9x109 x 3.5x10-6 x 3.5x10-6 / 25
r2 = 0.00441
∴ r = 0.00441 = 0.066 m (about 7 cm)
®
Energy & Voltage in an Electric Field
Voltage can be defined in at least 2 different ways:
Potential Energy in an Electric Field
Imagine a uniform electric field (E) such as the field
produced between 2 parallel metal plates with V = ΔU
opposite charges. If an electric charge (q) were to
be placed within the field, it will experience a force q
according to F = E.q as already covered.
Remember also, that the vector direction of the field V = voltage, in JC-1, or V.
is the direction that a +ve charge would move when
acted on by the force. ΔU = change in potential energy, in joules (J).
E q = size of the electric charge involved,

in coulombs (C).
A distance = d B
V = E.d or E= V
d
Now, suppose we could place an electrically V = voltage, in JC-1, or V.
charged particle at point A and let it go.
E = electric field strength, NC-1.
If it is a +ve charge it will experience a force to the
right and (if no friction) it will accelerate, thereby d = distance between the 2 points being
gaining a certain amount of kinetic energy by the compared within the field, in metres.
time it reaches point B.
If it is a negative charge and we want it to go to Before looking at examples of how to use these
point B, we would need to supply a force to push it. equations, let’s do a little algebra:
(against the electric force) Applying a force over a
distance means we would have to do “work” and E = V / d and you already know that E = F / q.
you are reminded that work = energy.
Therefore, V/d = F/q, so V = F.d / q.
Where is this going?
The points A and B need to be seen as having Also above we have that V = ΔU / q,
different amounts of potential energy within the
field. Potentially, a (+ve) charge can gain energy by Therefore, F.d / q = ΔU / q
accelerating from A to B, or a (-ve) charge can be
pushed from A to B by doing work on it. (If released Cancelling the charges, gives F.d = ΔU
from point B, the (-ve) charge would use that
potential energy to accelerate back to A.) This says “Work done” = “Change in Energy”.
Well, we already knew that! The point is, that it
So, different places “upstream” or “downstream” in proves that these equations are equivalent and
the field can be thought of as points of different inter-changeable. Use whichever applies.
potential energy. However, exactly how much
energy depends on the size of the charge involved.
Time for a new (and very useful) concept... Example Problem

Two parallel charged plates have a uniform electric
Voltage (“Potential Difference”) field of 28,000 NC-1 between them. They are 1.0cm
“Voltage” is a word you already know, but perhaps apart.
didn’t quite understand what it measures. a) What is the voltage across the plates?
Voltage is a measure of the amount of energy b) How much energy would be gained by a
(either lost or gained) by a charged particle as it charged particle (charge q = 5.2x10-6 C) which
moves “upstream” or “downstream” in an electric accelerates from one plate to the other?
field.
Solution:
Since it measures the energy per unit of charge, a) Use V = E.d = 28,000 x 0.01 = 280 V
you might guess that the units of voltage would be
joules per coulomb (JC-1). This is correct, but we b) Use V = ΔU / q
call this unit the “volt” (V). so ΔU = V.q = 280 x 5.2x10-6 = 1.46x10-3 J.
It is named after Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist who was very
important in the history of our understanding of electricity...
worth researching! Another example, next page...
® Using the Voltage Equations (cont.)

Example Problem 2
A uniform electric field is established between 2 metal plates with a potential difference (voltage) of
10,000V across them. The plates are 5cm apart in vacuum. A stream of electrons is accelerating between
the plates, gaining a total of 2.5 J of energy per second.
a) What is the strength of the electric field?
b) How many electrons are passing through the field per second? Try Worksheets 3 & 4
Solution: a) E = V / d = 10,000 / 0.05 = 2.0x105 NC-1.
b) V = ΔU / q so q = ΔU / V = 2.5 / 10,000 = 2.5 x 10-4 C.
This is the total charge per second. To find how many electrons, divide by the charge on one electron:
No.electrons = 2.5x10-4 / 1.6x10-19 = 1.56 x 1015 electrons
Charge on an Electron. Equipotentials

Charge on an Electron The distance A-D is geometrically more than A-B.
It should be no surprise to know that the most Does this mean that if a particle moved A-D that you
common charged “particle” you are likely to deal need to put a larger distance into the equation, for
with is the electron. Electrons are the charged example, V = E.d?
particles which create static charges when they
transfer from place to place and are the charges Is more work done (V = F.d / q) moving a charge
which flow in an electric current. A-D compared to A-B?
The amount of charge carried by an electron is:
Actually, No! The distance “d” in the equations must
(technically) be the vector component of
qe = -1.602 x 10-19 C displacement which is parallel to the field. The
You don’t need to remember this value... it’s on your displacements A-B and A-D are exactly the same in
Data Sheet. terms of their displacement vector parallel to the
electric field. Compared to point A, both points B&D
As you might expect, this value is a very small are equivalent in terms of their potential energy
amount of charge. In fact, you cannot get any within the field.
electric charge smaller than this... it is the
“quantum” of electric charge. All electric charges are The dotted line is called an “equipotential”. Every
a multiple of this value. point along this line has the same potential and no
work is done to move a charge along this line.
As you might guess, the charge carried by a proton
is: (Assuming no friction or other forces are acting on
the charge particle.) Note that equipotential lines are
qp = +1.602 x 10-19 C always perpendicular to electric field lines.
Study the example above, then try the worksheets.
Similarly, point C is equipotential with point A. If a
charge was moved from A to C to D to B, the energy
Equipotentials change & voltage change would be the same as
Below is the same diagram from the previous slide, moving from A-B directly.
but with extra points “C” & “D” added.
As another example, the diagram below shows
some equipotentials (dashed lines) in the field
E surrounding a point charge.
A distance = d B
C
D
Previously, we considered the energy effects of a

charged particle moving from A to B.
What about if it moved from A to D?

2. Electric Circuits
CURRENT = CHARGE
Electric Current TIME
If electric charges are I= q
located on insulators (e.g.
plastic) then the charge t
cannot move and you have I = electric current, in amps. (A)
static electricity. This can q = electric charge, in coulombs. (C)
attract things, or repel t = time, in seconds. (s)
other same-type charges,
such as when your hair
stands on end from Example Problem 1
“static”. If a total charge of 25.0 C flows through a circuit in
If, however, electric charges are located in a 10s, what is the current?
conductor (e.g. a metal wire) AND there is an
electric field present, then the charges will FLOW Solution: I = q / t = 25.0 / 10 = 2.5 A
THROUGH THE CONDUCTOR because of the force
applied to them by the field... this is ELECTRIC
CURRENT. Example Problem 2
If the current is 2.5A, how many electrons would
Electric current (symbol I) is defined as the rate of flow past in 1 minute?
flow of charge, and can be measured in Coulombs
per second. (C.s-1) Solution: I=q/t
so q = I. t = 2.5 x 60 = 150 C.
However, we call this unit the “ampere” (“amp” for
short, symbol “A”) in honour of yet another great No. of electrons in 150 C = 150 / 1.602 x 10-19
scientist, frenchman Andre-Marie Ampere. = 9.36 x 1020. Quite a few!
What Makes the Electrons Flow?

If you could see the atomic world inside
a copper wire, you’d see that the atoms Copper atom Loose electron
of copper can lose electrons so easily
that there are billions of “loose
electrons” hanging around between the
atoms.
These electrons are not going

anywhere, but can easily jump from
atom to atom.
Every battery or other power source produces an electric field. The field of a battery is produced by a build-
up of electrical charges due to chemical reactions. The electric field of “mains” power is produced by
magnetic effects in a generator at a power station.
When the wire becomes part of a circuit, the electric field instantly reaches through the wire and exerts a
force on every electric charge. The atoms within the copper wire cannot move, but the “loose” electrons
immediately gain energy from the field and begin flowing in the wire.
This flow of electrons is the electric current.
®
Current, Voltage & Resistance
Imagine a water tank supplying water to a garden
So what makes the charges flow? An electric field fountain. In the diagram, notice how much water is
provides a force that acts on each charge. spraying from the fountain, and how far it squirts
(remember E = F/q ?) into the air.
This “electromotive force” (emf) acts on each

charge, giving it ENERGY (measured in joules (J)).
“Voltage” is a measure of how much energy is given Water
to each unit of charge, so... Tank
1 volt (V) = 1 joule of energy per coulomb of charge Fountain
So, a 9 volt battery gives 9 joules of energy to each Now imagine exactly the same
coulomb of charge. water tank, same fountain,
A 12 V battery gives 12J to each coulomb of same size pipes, but the tank
electrons, and so on. Water has been raised onto a tower.
Tank
The bigger the voltage, the more energy is available
to an electric circuit and the MORE CURRENT
FLOWS.
One way to get an understanding of electrical

voltage and current is to use an analogy; a
comparison to a more familiar substance... water.
More Pressure = More Flow

Raising the water tank higher creates more water pressure. More pressure forces more water to flow...
there is a greater current of water in the pipe.
The combination of higher pressure and greater water flow means more energy is carried by the water.
There’s more of it, and it squirts higher into the air.
Another Factor... Resistance to Flow

Continuing the water analogy, imagine 2 water No! The narrow pipe has more resistance to water
pipes of different diameter. They are connected to flow, so less water current flows.
the same water supply and the pressure in the OR, imagine 2 pipes of equal diameter, but one is
pipes is exactly the same. Will the same amount of
rusted or half filled with sediment and “gunk”. It is
water flow?
partly clogged and water cannot flow through it as
Larger pipe, easily as through a clean pipe. The “gunk” causes
less resistance to flow... more resistance to the flow.
Same Pressure
current
Different wires, different light bulbs, etc in an
electrical circuit have different amounts of electrical
resistance. If there is more resistance, less current
less can flow. If there is less resistance, more current
current can flow.
Narrow pipe,
(For the same amount of voltage “pressure”.)
more resistance to flow...
The analogy to electricity is simple:

The water pressure is like VOLTAGE. Higher voltage = more pressure.
The water flow is like CURRENT of electricity. More current = more electrons flowing.
BUT...
If there is more resistance to the flow, less current can flow. (at same pressure)
More resistance = less current (at the same voltage)
®
Voltage & Work Done in a Circuit
You have already been introduced to the V= W or W = V.q
equation q
V = ΔU
q V = voltage, in JC-1, or V.
This describes “voltage” as the amount
of (potential) energy per unit of charge, W = work done on the charge, in joules (J).
gained or lost by a charged particle as it
moves through an electric field. q = size of the electric charge, in coulombs (C).
Since ΔU is equal to the “work done” on Example Problem

the charged particle, it follows that In electric circuit, a current of 5.0 A flows when a voltage of 240V is
applied.
V= W a) How much electric charge flows in 1 hour?
q b) How much work is done by the circuit in this time?
Solution: a) I = q / t so q = I.t = 5.0 x 60 x60 = 18,000 C

Try Worksheet 5
b) V = W / q so W = V.q = 240 x 18,000 = 4.32 x 106 J
Ohm’s Law
Transformer-
Practical Work off
Rectifier unit.
You may have carried out a “1st hand investigation” in which on AC
(Power pack)
you set up a simple electric circuit and measured the current
flow (in Amps) at various Voltage settings. When your data DC
was graphed, it may have looked like this:
The straight line graph shows a direct relationship between

Solid-state resistor,
voltage & current.
or resistance coil.
Ammeter
”
fit
measures
st
current thru
be
About 1830, Georg Ohm A resistor.

of
/I
(German) discovered this

ne
V
relationship and established

“li
t=
that the gradient of the graph

Voltage (V)
ien
is a constant value for any Voltmeter measures V

ad
voltage across resistor

given resistor. This value is
gr
now called “RESISTANCE”,

and may be thought of as a
value for how the current is
Example Problem 1
Experimental What current would flow through a 4.0Ω Ω
being retarded as it flows in
data points resistor if the voltage across the resistor
the circuit.
is 10 V ?
Current (A)
Solution: I = V / R = 10 / 4.0
= 2.5 A.
This relationship is now called “Ohm’s Law”
The unit of resistance is called the “ohm”.
The symbol used is the greek letter “omiga” (ΩΩ ).
Example Problem 2
Ω resistor is
In an electric circuit, a 5.00Ω
found to have 2.50A of current flowing
I = V / R or V = I. R or R = V / I through it. What is the voltage across the
V = voltage, V. resistor?
I = current, A. Try Worksheet 6
R = resistance, in ohms ( Ω ). Solution: V = I.R = 2.50 x 5.00 = 12.5 V
®
Non-Ohmic Resistance Non-Ohmic
keep it simple science Resistor
If you tried the Ohm’s Law experiment using a light bulb as your resistor, Graph
Voltage
the graph will come out rather differently:
The curve indicates that the resistance of the bulb keeps changing and
does not have a single value. The bulb does not follow Ohm’s Law
(straight line, single gradient value) and is said to be “NON-OHMIC”.
(The explanation is that light bulbs are designed to get hot so that they
glow and give off light. However, as they get hotter, the resistance
changes... the metal is “non-ohmic”)
Current
More About Conductors & Insulators
A conductor can now be understood as a substance with a very low resistance value, so that current flows
through it easily. An insulator is a substance with a very high resistance value which impedes current flow.
Generally, metals are good conductors. Silver & gold are excellent conductors, but we mostly use copper
and aluminium for electrical wiring because they are nearly as good as conductors, and a lot cheaper.
Good insulators include glass, plastic and paper. Although their resistance is very high, it’s all a matter of
Ohm’s Law. If a large enough voltage is applied, even a good insulator can “break down” and allow current
to flow.
Contrary to general belief, water itself is NOT a good conductor... the resistance of pure water is very high.
However, sea water, bath water or even tap water may have enough dissolved chemicals in it to increase the
conductivity (decrease the resistance) to dangerous levels when mains electricity (240 V) is involved.
Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Wire
Length Temperature
Everything else being equal, the LONGER conductor Generally in metals, the HOTTER they get, the
has MORE RESISTANCE. MORE RESISTANCE they develop.
This is why the “old-fashioned” light bulbs with a
wire filament are non-ohmic.
Longer wire = More Resistance
2 wires,
same thickness Shorter wire = Less Resistance
Type of Material
Metals are mostly good conductors while (for
example) glass & plastic are poor. Among the
Cross-sectional Area metals, some are better conductors than others... it
The LARGER the cross-sectional area, varies.
the LESS RESISTANCE.
Conducting Wire
2 wires, Thicker wire = Less Resistance Plastic
same length Insulation
Thinner wire = More Resistance
A Few Things to be Aware of...

Direct & Alternating Current
If the electric field is constant, then the charge will flow steadily in one direction.
This is called DIRECT CURRENT (DC). Batteries produce DC.
If the field keeps reversing its direction, so does the current. The charges will move back-and-forth. This is
called ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC). Generators produce AC. Our “mains” electricity supply is 50 Hz AC...
it switches direction 50 times per second. Continued next page...
®
More Things to be Aware of...
More About Voltage...
Real & Conventional Current “Potential Difference”
In the mid 19th century, when scientists figured out
that electric current was a flow of electric charges, The “voltage” produced by a power source is a
the obvious question was, “is it positives going this measure of how much energy per unit of charge
way, or negatives going the other way?” Back then ( J.C-1) is given to the charges by the electric field.
they couldn’t tell, but realised that in terms of
energy flow it was all the same anyhow, as long as However, when you measure the voltage across a
everyone was consistent about it. resistor you are measuring the ENERGY DIFFERENCE
(per charge) from one side of the resistor to the other.
So, they decided that current is a stream So, instead of measuring the energy gained by the
of (+ve) charges flowing with the electric field electrons, you are measuring the energy LOST by the
direction lines. Electric Field lines electrons as they push through the resistor.
(Energy per unit charge)
+ - (This energy is not really “lost”... it has tranformed into heat, light, etc.)
You may have measured this “POTENTIAL

DIFFERENCE” (P.D.) (or “Voltage Drop”) across
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT different resistors in a circuit similar to that shown in
a flow of (+ve) charges along the field lines the diagram.
Well, they had a 50-50 chance, but got it wrong! (You don’t
Power Source actually need 4
We now know that electric current in a wire is voltmeters as
shown in the
always the flow of (-ve) electrons in the opposite
direction. R=3Ω R=2Ω R=1Ω diagram.
Electric Field lines Just use one
+ - meter, but move

it to each
position shown
V V V to take a
6V 4V
2V reading.)
V
REAL CURRENT 12 V Total
a flow of (-ve) electrons up the field lines
You will have found that: Try Worksheets 7&8
However, we still use both descriptions.
• the higher the resistance, the greater the P.D,
You must accept that: because more energy is lost (converted) by charges
“Conventional current” is a flow of (+ve) charge crossing the resistor.
from (+ve) terminal to (-ve)
AND • the sum of the P.D.’s around the circuit is equal to
“Real current” is a flow of (-ve) electrons the other the total voltage available for the entire circuit.
way.
Series Circuits
In your home, each electrical circuit usually supplies power to several lights or power points. For example,
a “light circuit” might have 6 lights connected, each able to be switched on/off separately.
How are these lights in one circuit connected?
There are 2 basic ways to connect multiple components into a single circuit... in SERIES, or in PARALLEL.
The light bulbs are either all

In a series circuit the off on, or all off. They CANNOT
components are connected one AC be switched independently.
on
after the other, in a single
pathway for the current.. If one bulb “burns out” the
DC
circuit is broken and they all
The electricity has no choice. go out.
All the current must flow in
the single path through Continued over...
all these bulbs.
®
Series Circuits (cont.)
Ammeters measure
You may do laboratory work to measure the voltages and current in different
currents in different parts of a series circuit: parts of the circuit
The diagram shows a circuit for measuring voltages and current

in different parts of a series circuit.
AT VT
(You don’t actually need all these metres. You can have one of each
type, and move them to each location in turn.) Voltmeter measures
total for the circuit
What you may have found:
• Current is the same throughout the circuit.
(in this circuit IT = I1 = I2 ) R1 R2
A1 A2
• Voltages are different across different resistors., BUT they add
up to the total for the circuit. (in this circuit VT = V1 + V2 )
V1 V2
• Ohm’s Law is obeyed for each resistor, AND for the entire circuit.
Voltmeters measure P.D.

across each resistor
Parallel Circuits
off In a parallel circuit the components Total Voltage
AC are arranged in separate Total Current
on measurement
“branches” of the circuit. AT
DC In the diagram left, at each
“branch” the current divides and
Ammeters measure current

flows through ONE light bulb only. VT
through each resistor

Each bulb can be switched on/off
separately, and if one “burns out”, A1
the others continue to work.
V1
You will have done laboratory work
to measure voltages and currents A2
in different parts of a parallel
circuit. V2
The diagram right shows a typical
A3
circuit, although (as usual) you
don’t need all the metres at once.
V3 Voltmeters measure
Note that light bulbs are NOT suitable as resistors when making P.D. across each
measurements to analyse a circuit, because they are non-ohmic. resistor
What you would have found:
• Voltages are all the same across each resistor. (in the circuit above right VT = V1 = V2 = V3)
• Currents are different in each “branch”, but add up to the total current. ( IT = I1 + I2 + I3 )
• Ohm’s Law is obeyed in each “branch”, AND for the entire

circuit.
Ammeters & Voltmeters in Circuits
Ammeters measure the current (flow of charge) and so they Voltmeter
must be placed in SERIES with the component you wish to in parallel
measure current flow through. They have very low resistance, to Main with bulb
allow current through easily. Circuit
Parallel
Voltmeters measure the Potential Difference across a branch
component, and must be placed in PARALLEL with it. Voltmeters Ammeter
in Series
have extremely high resistance and must NEVER be placed in
with bulb
series.
® Series & Parallel Circuit Analysis & Calculations

Example Problem 1 Series Circuit Example Problem 2 Parallel Circuit

Total voltage = 12.0 V.
Total current AT 5.20 A
A1 VT VT
at AT = 5.20 A.
8.00 A 12.0V
Ammeter A1 reads 0.800A. R1
R1 R2 R3
A2 A3 Resistor R3 has A1
resistance of 4.50Ω Ω. V 0.800 A
V1 V2 V3 1
12.0 V 4.00 V 16.0 V a) What would be the

R2
readings on the A2
Ammeter A1 reads 8.00A. other 3 voltmeters?
a) What current flows through A2 and A3 ? b) Find the current at A3 V2
c) Find the current at A2 R3=4.50 Ω

A3
b) Find the resistance of each resistor R1, R2 & R3. d) Find the resistance
of R1 & R2.
V3
c) Predict the reading on voltmeter VT.
Solution: Try Worksheet 9
Solution: a) 12.0 V.
a) 8.00 A flows through both. (Voltages are the same in every branch of a
(current is the same in every part of a series circuit) parallel circuit)
b) Using Ohm’s Law: V = I.R so R = V / I b) V = I.R 12.0 = A3 x 4.50

∴ R1 = 12.0/8.00 = 1.50 Ω A3 = 12.0/4.50 = 2.67 A
R2 = 4.00/8.00 = 0.50 Ω c) Since (in any p’llel crt.) AT = A1 + A2 + A3

5.20 = 0.800 + A2 + 2.67
R3 = 16.0/8.00 = 2.00 Ω A2 = 1.73 A
d) V=I.R
c) VT = V1 + V2 + V3 (in a series circuit, P.D.’s R1: 12.0 = 0.800 x R1 R1 = 12.0/0.800 = 15.0 Ω
= 12.0 + 4.00 + 16.0 add up to the total
= 32.0 V source voltage) R2: 12.0 = 1.73 x R2 Ω
R2 = 12.0/1.73 = 6.94Ω
Electrical Circuits in the Home

A typical home is wired to contain a number of separate circuits.
Each circuit may contain many lights or power outlets and all of them are wired in parallel.
Why Always Parallel Circuits?

If you have several components on the same parallel circuit:
• they can be switched on/off independently.
• if one “burns out”, the others keep operating normally. (In series circuits, it’s one off - all off)
• The total resistance of the parallel circuit is less, and more usable POWER can be delivered to each
light or appliance.
So Why Not Have One Big Parallel Circuit for Everything?

If all the lights and appliances in your home were on just one parallel circuit, and everything was switched
on at the same time, the current flow in the main circuit line would be enormous. This would be very
dangerous. High current levels can cause wires to get hot, melt their insulation and perhaps start a fire.
Kirchoff’s Laws
®

These “laws” were expounded in 1845 by a German physicist, Gustav Kirchoff. We have already been
applying them in some of our examples, but they now need to be formally stated.
Kirchoff’s laws are basically statements of 2 different “conservation laws”.
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
Voltage is measured as the amount of energy per unit of charge.
Since it is an aspect of energy, then it cannot be created nor
destroyed... Voltage here is “EMF”
just the same as energy itself, voltage must be conserved.
R1 R2 R3
Consider the series circuit at right.
The voltage provided by the battery (or other power source) is
an “EMF”: an electro-motive force. It provides the energy to Voltages here are “voltage drops”
“push” charges around the circuit. This can be considered
as a positive quantity of energy.
It can be expressed as ΣV =
If you measure voltages across the resistors R1, R2 & R3 these
are “potential differences” or “voltage drops”. These may be
0
“ΣΣ” (sigma) means “sum of”.
considered as negative quantities, since they measure the
conversion of electrical energy (per unit of charge) into other In the circuit above
forms, such as heat. EMF + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law simply states that where V1, V2 & V3 are the (negative)
In a closed electrical loop, the algebraic sum of all values of voltage drop across each
the EMF voltages and all the potential differences resistor.
(voltage drops) is ZERO.
Kirchoff’s Current Law
This law is basically a statement of the fact that electric charge is a fundamental property of matter and, as
such, cannot be created nor destroyed. Like mass or energy, electric charge must be conserved.
Consider this section of a parallel circuit. Notice that a current I1 flows into
this junction of wires. I1 I2 I5
This current “splits” into 3 currents I2, I3 and I4. I3
Well, guess what? Charge must be conserved, so the sum of I2, I3 and I4
I4
must be equal to I1.
Kirchoff’s Current Law simply states that
At a junction in an electrical circuit, the sum of all currents flowing into the junction is
equal to the sum of all currents flowing out of the junction.
It can be expressed as ΣI=0

If currents flowing inwards are considered as positive amounts, while those flowing outwards are
considered negative, it all adds to zero.
Notice that on the other side of the diagram is another junction.
In this case, the sum of I2, I3 and I4 must be equal to I5. (and therefore, I1 = I5)
®
Total Resistance in Series & Parallel Circuits
Derivation of Series Resistance Formula
Series Circuit Resistance Since the circuit above has only one loop, the current
As you can probably predict from the cannot divide at any point. Therefore, from Kirchoff’s
preceding examples, if there are multiple Current Law, the current must be the same throughout. (“I”)
resistors arranged in series...
Since each resistor has a different resistance value, then
each one must have a different “voltage drop” across it, so
Power Source that Ohm’s Law works. Furthermore, from Kirchoff’s Voltage
Law we can say that:
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3
R1 R2 R3
Now, V = I.R so substituting: I.Rtotal = I.R1 + I.R2 + I.R3
However, all these currents (I) are the same, so we can

... then the total resistance is the simple sum divide throughout by I.
of the individual resistance values.
I.Rtotal = I.R1 + I.R2 + I.R3
Rseries = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
∴ Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
Derivation of this Formula

Parallel Circuit Resistance In the circuit shown, each
In a parallel circuit, it’s not so simple. resistor is in its own loop with Power Source
the EMF source, so the voltages
are the same (“V”) in each branch,
If you look at example problem 2 (two slides
from Kirchoff’s Voltage Law. R1
back) you will see that the 3 resistors had values
of 15.0, 6.94 and 4.50 ohms.
Since each resistor has a
For the whole circuit, voltage = 12.0V different resistance value, then R2
and current = 5.20 A. each one must have a different
current through it, so that
By Ohm’s Law, the total resistance must be: Ohm’s Law works.
R3
R = V / I = 12.0 / 5.20 = 2.31 Ω Furthermore, from Kirchoff’s Current Law
we know that the main current (Itotal)
So, the total resistance is actually lower than any divides at the junction, so that: Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3
of the individual resistors!
Now, I = V / R so substituting:
It turns out that the relationship is: V / Rtotal = V / R1 + V / R2 + V / R3
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ... but all these voltages (V) are the same, so we can divide
throughout by V.
Rparallel R1 R2 R3
V / Rtotal = V / R1 + V / R2 + V / R3
Try Worksheet 7 ∴ 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
Rtotal R1 R2 R3
Electrical Power & Energy

Electrical Power The unit of power should (therefore) be
You already know that “power” is defined as the the “joule per sec” ( J.s-1) but this unit
rate at which energy is transformed. is called a “watt” (W), in honour of
James Watt who engineered steam
Mathematically: engines and discovered a lot about the
Power = Energy concept of power.
time
Now, what about electrical power?
P= E or E = P.t Continued over... James Watt
t
® Electrical Power & Energy (cont.)

Example Problem
Deriving an Equation for Electrical Power In an electric circuit, a 240 V power supply
Start with the relationship between voltage & energy:
V = ΔU / q so ΔU = V.q causes a flow of current of 8.50 A.
a) What is the resistance of the circuit?
Now, power = the rate of transformation of energy, b) What power does the circuit use?
so P = ΔU / t. c) How much energy is consumed if this circuit
is left on for 3.00 hours?
Therefore, P = ΔU = V.q But q=I
t t t Solution:
So, P = V.I a) Ohm’s Law V = I.R
240 = 8.50 x R
Furthermore, if you combine the equations R = 240 / 8.50 = 28.2 Ω
P = E / t & P = V.I you get E / t = V.I
b) P = V.I
so E = V.I.t = 240 x 8.50
= 2,040 = 2.04x103 W (2.04 kW)
Power = Voltage x Current c) E= V.I.t
Try Worksheet 10 = 240 x 8.50 x (3 x 60 x 60) (time must be in sec.)
= 367,200 = 2.20x107 J
P = V.I
Electrical Energy = Voltage x Current x time E = V.I.t
The Kilowatt-Hour (kW.h) Example Problem
Measuring energy in joules can be quite inconvenient
because 1 joule is a very tiny amount. For this reason, In the problem above (part (c)) an energy
in everyday life, electrical energy is measured in consumption was calculated in joules. What is
“kilowatt-hours” (kW.h). the equivalent energy in kW.h?
An appliance with a power rating of 1,000W (=1 kW) if Solution:

allowed to run for 1 hour will consume 1 kW.h of The power delivery was calculated (part (b)) as
energy. 2.04 kW.
This power was consumed for 3 hrs,
On a domestic electricity bill, your home’s electricity
so energy = 2.04 x 3 = 6.12 kW.h
consumption is measured in kW.h and you pay per
kW.h used. At the time of writing, the price you’ll pay (Comparing answers shows that 1kW.h is about
was about 30 cents per kW.h. 3.5 million joules.)
Prac Work: Energy Conversion in a Heating Coil Thermometer

Metres measure measures temp.
The equipment set-up for a typical experiment is shown: change of water
The “heating coil” is a resistance wire which gets hot when Wires to voltage & current
electricity is forced through it. (Must be immersed when power Power
Pack
is on. Do NOT run it dry) A Also need a stop-
V watch to
measure exact
The energy change is: ELECTRICITY HEAT time of heating.
A measured quantity of water is heated for a measured Measured

period of time. The current and voltage in the circuit are quantity
recorded, as is the temperature change of the water. of water. Electrical
heating coil
Insulated
From these measurements the amount of electrical energy container
used by the electric circuit can be compared to the amount
of heat energy gained by the water. Typical Results
Electrical Data Heat Data
The amount of heat energy gained by the water will be Voltage = 12V mass of water = 100g = 0.100kg
Current = 2.0A start Temp. water = 15oC
ΔT
Q = m.c.Δ where cw = 4,183 Jkg-1K-1 Time circuit end Temp. water = 32oC
ON = 300 s. change in Temp. = 17oC = 17 K
while the amount of electrical energy supplied by the
electricity will be E = V.I.t Analysis
Electrical Energy Used E = V.I.t
Theoretically, these quantities should be equal, (with some E = 12 x 2.0 x 300 = 7,200 J (7.20 kJ)
experimental error allowance) according to the “Law of
Conservation of Energy”. Heat Energy Produced
ΔT = 0.100 x 4,183 x 17 = 7,111 J
Q = m.c.Δ (7.11 kJ)

3. Magnetism
Things You Already Know About Magnets
If you place a bar magnet on the bench and slowly The Magnetic Field
bring another bar magnet towards it you’ll quickly Just like gravity and electric charge, magnets can
find out several things: exert a force at a distance. In the same way that we
explain gravity & charge, magnets are best
They have 2 distinct ends, or “poles”, and the explained by imagining
magnetic force is concentrated at the “poles”. that a magnet is B
Magnets exert forces on each other. surrounded by
They can attract each other, then turn one around an invisible
and they repel each other. “force field”. N S
Opposite poles attract
This is a vector-field:
N s N s at any point it has
both strength and direction.
The strength (and units of measurement)

s N N s will be covered later. The direction of the field
Same poles repel is defined as the direction that an isolated north-
magnetic pole would move. Therefore, the vectors
Magnets Attract of a magnetic field always point outwards from a
“Ferromagnetic” Objects north pole and inwards towards a south pole.
You might carry out a simple investigation with a bar
magnet to find out what substances are attracted to Despite this definition, it seems that an “isolated
magnets. Some people think that magnets attract magnetic pole” (“monopole”) cannot exist. None
anything made of metal. have ever been discovered. If you cut a magnet in
half, each half becomes a smaller magnet complete
If you test some different metals, you will quickly with both N & S poles... they cannot be cut apart.
find out that magnets only attract “ferrous metals”.
(“Ferrous” = iron)
Earth’s Magnetic Field
The Earth’s geographical poles are the points
around which the Earth rotates on its axis.
These are metals containing iron, and include many
types of “steel”, although “stainless steel” is often The Earth also acts as if there was a huge bar
NOT attracted. “Steel” is a metal made of iron mixed magnet inside it and has a magnetic field with north
with some carbon and may include a variety of other and south magnetic poles.
metals mixed in.
The magnetic poles are close to, but not in the
It’s the iron (and a few other metals such as nickel & same places as the geographical poles.
cobalt) that a magnet attracts. The property of being
attracted to magnets is called A compass, of course, points at the magnetic poles.
“ferromagnetism”... see next slide. This is close to true north and south, but not quite
Finding Directions the same. Magnetic
Pole.
Geographic
Place a bar magnet in a small Pole. Earth’s Compasses
plastic container and float it in axis of point to
a tub of water. You’ll see that rotation. this.
the magnet and floating
container will swing arround to
always point in a particular
direction.
Equator
S N
The end of the magnet marked “N” always points in the

direction of north.
Since the north pole of the magnet is attracted towards

the Earth’s north pole, it follows that the Earth’s “North
Pole” is actually a magnetic south pole.
®
Explaining Magnetism
Permanent Magnets
Magnetic Fields Arise from Electricity So, how can you make a lump of ferromagnetic
As you will see (big time!) in a later module,
steel into a fridge-magnet?
magnetism & electricity are two aspects of the same
basic force. Each one can create the other.
If a strong magnetic field comes near a lump of soft
steel, all the randomly-oriented domains rotate
Since all matter, every atom, contains electrically-
slightly to align themselves with the field. This
charged particles, it follows that there is (at the sub-
temporarily turns the metal into a magnet, which
atomic level) lots of both electricity AND magnetism.
then is attracted to the source of the magnetic field.
However, most of the time the effects of these
abundant forces cancel out. You saw previously that
If the field is removed, the domains go back to their
static electricity only occurs when the (normal)
random arrangements and the metal no longer acts
balance of charges becomes unbalanced.
as a magnet. (Especially if you give it a few small
whacks to jolt the domains.)
Well, it’s the same with magnetism: normally the
multitude of tiny magnets within atoms all cancel
To make a permanent magnet, you need a “hard”
out. However, in some atoms this “cancelling” of
ferromagnetic alloy and apply a strong magnetic
magnetism isn’t quite perfect.
field whilst it’s molten. All the domains line up and
then become “frozen” as the metal solidifies. The
Ferromagnetism domains become fixed in place with all their
The full, modern explanation of ferromagnetism magnetic fields aligned permanently in the same
relies on understanding Quantum Mechanics, and direction, so they act as a magnet all the time.
we’re not there yet. Therefore, the following
explanation is incomplete and vastly simplified. A common alloy used is called “Alnico” which is
(KISS Principle!) steel with aluminium, nickel & cobalt. The domains
are locked in alignment and cannot easily move...
Electrons within an atom carry a (-ve) electric but it’s not a good idea to hit or drop magnets. Each
charge. Each electron also has a quantum value jolt can scramble some domains and weaken the
commonly called “spin”, but this is actually a small magnet’s strength.
magnetic effect. “Spin” can have only two, opposite
values, usually described as either “up” or “down”, Photo courtesy of Pieter Kuiper
but these are just arbitrary labels.
Long-story short:
In all atoms, electrons always form pairs with
opposite spin values.
(Attention Chemistry students! Spin-pairs of electrons are the
occupants of each “orbital” within the atomic orbits.)
Obviously, in many atoms there will be an “odd-

man-out” electron. This creates a tiny magnetic In nature, iron-containing minerals in molten lava
imbalance on that atom. In a mass of such atoms, become aligned with the Earth’s magnetic field as
the random arrangement of adjoining atoms tends to the lava cools and solidifies. The rocks which form
cancel out, so no macroscopic magnetic effects are have magnetic “signatures” which have become
evident and the substance is NOT attracted to a very important in Earth Science studies.
magnet.
The original magnets & early compasses were made
However, in atoms of iron, nickel & cobalt (plus of “lodestone”. This is a naturally-occurring iron ore
some compounds of certain “Rare-Earth” metals mineral with a permanent magnetic
such as Ytterbium) the metal forms “domains” field.
within the crystals. In these microscopic
regions, adjoining masses of atoms tend to
It is also possible to
align their magnetic fields to match their
“magnetise” a needle, or other
neighbours.
small steel object, by
repeatedly stroking it (in the
This means that each “domain” has a
same direction) with a
net magnetic field, shown by different
permanent magnet. What you
colours in this photograph.
are doing, of course, is
aligning all the domains in
All the different domains are randomly
such a way that the effect is
arranged, so the lump of iron does not act
more or less permanent.
like a magnet itself. However, it “feels” False-colour microscopic This is how compass
the attractions of a magnetic field. That’s why view of magnetic domains
within iron. needles were traditionally
a magnet will pick up nails, or stick to a steel fridge.
made.
This is “ferromagnetism”.
® Investigating the Magnetic Field

Magnetic Field Made Visible Fields
If a magnet is covered with a sheet of stiff paper S N S N
Attracting
(or clear plastic) and small iron particles
sprinkled on top, the iron powder lines up with
the magnetic field. Notice that magnetic field lines never cross each other
Fields
S N N S
Repelling
Electric Currents Create Magnetic Fields

To more easily draw and understand diagrams you
After all that, you now need to realise that must also learn the “arrow” technique to represent
permanent magnets are quite trivial compared to currents or field-lines that are perpendicular to the
what electricity can do to produce magnetic fields. page.
Magnetic Field Around Imagine an arrow coming straight out of the page at
a Wire Carrying Current you... all you see is its point ( • ). If an arrow is going
Every electric current produces a magnetic field. A down into the page, you only see its feathers ( x ).
wire carrying a current has a circular magnetic field
wrapped around it as shown. Use the R.H. Grip Rule on these diagrams to get the
Magnetic Field lines idea.
magnetic
Conventional
Current Flow
Ι fields
around
wire
wires
To predict the shape of such a field, use the “Right-
Hand Grip Rule”. Pretend you are gripping the wire wire with current wire with current
with your thumb pointing in the direction of the flow INTO page OUT OF page
of conventional current (+ve towards -ve).
Right Hand
The curling fingers show the Ι magnetic field into page
direction of the field.
If you wish to use the

I wire
real current ( -ve towards +ve)
then use your left hand. magnetic field out of page
Magnetic Field Strength “B”

The strength of the magnetic field (more The “Tesla” Unit
correctly called the “magnetic flux density”) This unit is named in honour of Nikola Tesla
around a straight wire carrying an electric (1856-1943) a Serbian immigrant to USA who
contributed enormously to modern electrical
current can be calculated as follows:
technology of motors, generators and electrical
supply grids. His name is also used by the
world’s largest manufacturer of electric cars,
B = μ0.I solar panels and high-tech lithium batteries.
π.r
2.π Example Problem
A long, straight wire is carrying a current of 5.25A.
B = strength of the magnetic field, teslas (T). What is the strength of the magnetic field around
I = current in the wire, in amps (A). the wire at a point 1.00 cm from the wire?
r = radial distance from the wire to the point
where the field is being measured, in metres.
μ0 = a constant, (pron: “mu-naught) called the “vacuum Solution: B = μ0.I / 2.π
π.r
permeability”. = 1.26x10-6 x 5.25 / 2x3.142x0.01
In vacuum (or air) its value = 1.26 x 10-6. = 1.05 x 10-4 T
(At this point, any discussion of the units of this constant
would be a violation of the KISS Principle!)
Is that answer a little or a lot?
®
More About Magnetic Fields
Field Strengths Magnetic Field of a Solenoid (cont.)
To help you get your head around magnetic field
strengths, here are some comparisons: If you curl your fingers in the same direction
as the flow of conventional current
Earth’s magnetic field at the equator 3.1 x 10-6 T in the coil...
(it’s stronger near the poles) Solenoid Coil N Right Hand
Strength of a typical fridge magnet 5 x 10-3 T N S

...then your
A really powerful rare-earth “supermagnet” 1.25 T thumb points
to the North Conventional
So, a strength of B = 1 T is really quite powerful. pole. current flow
Don’t ever get your fingers between a “supermagnet” and +
a piece of steel !! Ouch!
Field Strength
The answer to the problem on the previous page is really The strength of the field inside a solenoid is given by:
quite a small magnetic field, but nearly 100 times stronger
than the Earth’s magnetic field.
B = μ0.N.I
Field Shapes L
Generally, magnetic fields are irregular and can be
difficult to predict. However, just like electric fields, there B = strength of the magnetic field, teslas (T).
is a way to produce a uniform and regular magnetic field N = number of turns of wire in the coil.
which is therefore, very useful in our technology... I = current in the wire, in amps (A).
L = length of the solenoid, in metres. (m)
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid μ0 = “vacuum permeability” constant.
“Solenoid” is simply a fancy word for a cylindrical coil, or In vacuum (or air) its value = 1.26 x 10-6.
helix, of wire which is carrying an electric current.
Each loop of wire produces its own magnetic field, but all Try Worksheet 11
the adjacent fields interact to produce an intense, uniform Example Problem
field with parallel field lines inside the coil. The same long wire (from the previous example
problem) has been wound into a solenoid. It has 50
Outside, the field is weak & irregular, but the inside
is where the action is! Magnetic field of a Solenoid loops of wire and is 10cm long.
It is carrying a current of 5.25A. What is the
magnetic strength of the magnetic field inside the coil?
field lines
Solution: B = μ0.N.I / L
= 1.26x10-6 x 50 x 5.25 / 0.10
S N = 3.31 x 10-3 T
Notice that this is the same wire, same current as
before, but the magnetic field is now about 30
times stronger. Solenoids produce more intense
fields, plus the field is uniform and predictable.
Ι Coiled wire carrying
electric current
Solenoids & Electromagnets

ELECTROMAGNET
Although the magnetic field of a solenoid is much more intense than the field around a
straight wire, it is still not that impressive in terms of field strength. However, if a bar
Iron Solenoid coil of soft iron is inserted inside the coil, the transformation is spectacular! The solenoid
core becomes an “electromagnet”.
The field strength typically increases about 100 times

compared to that of the same solenoid with an air-core. Mathematically, the reason for this is
that the “permeability constant” involved is no longer that of air or vacuum, but the
permeability of the iron core. Iron carries the magnetic field force vectors very well indeed
and so has a much higher value.
And, of course, electromagnets have one enormous advantage over any permanent magnet...
the magnetic field of an electromagnet can be switched on and off with the electric current.
As you will see in a later module, electromagnets are the basis of electric motors,
generators and much more.
In many ways electromagnets are the basis of our electricity-based civilization!

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KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.

® KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

Electricity & Magnetism

What is this topic about?

keep it simple science

You should already be aware that in the nucleus of ++++++

How Things Become Charged

Gentle friction is enough. Just rubbing 2 different

If these substances are electrical

Force pulls them

For the same reason, a charged rod will attract small,

electron Eventually, they may discharge by sparking, either from

How Do We Explain Static Electricity?

By definition, the direction of the force field lines is the direction

Electric = Force / Charge Example Problem 2

r2 Using a value of 9x109 for the overall constant k is

q1 r In all our examples, we will stick to the KISS

Solution: F = k.q1.q2 / r2 = 9x109 x 6x10-4 x -2x10-5 / 0.152 = -4,800 N

What does this mean?

You can either:

E q = size of the electric charge involved,

Time for a new (and very useful) concept... Example Problem

® Using the Voltage Equations (cont.)

b) V = ΔU / q so q = ΔU / V = 2.5 / 10,000 = 2.5 x 10-4 C.

Charge on an Electron. Equipotentials

Previously, we considered the energy effects of a

What about if it moved from A to D?

keep it simple science

What Makes the Electrons Flow?

These electrons are not going

This flow of electrons is the electric current.

This “electromotive force” (emf) acts on each

One way to get an understanding of electrical

More Pressure = More Flow

Another Factor... Resistance to Flow

The analogy to electricity is simple:

Since ΔU is equal to the “work done” on Example Problem

Solution: a) I = q / t so q = I.t = 5.0 x 60 x60 = 18,000 C

The straight line graph shows a direct relationship between

About 1830, Georg Ohm A resistor.

(German) discovered this

relationship and established

that the gradient of the graph

is a constant value for any Voltmeter measures V

voltage across resistor

now called “RESISTANCE”,

A Few Things to be Aware of...

You may have measured this “POTENTIAL

+ - meter, but move

The light bulbs are either all

The diagram shows a circuit for measuring voltages and current

Voltmeters measure P.D.

Ammeters measure current

through each resistor

• Ohm’s Law is obeyed in each “branch”, AND for the entire

® Series & Parallel Circuit Analysis & Calculations

Example Problem 1 Series Circuit Example Problem 2 Parallel Circuit

12.0 V 4.00 V 16.0 V a) What would be the

c) Find the current at A2 R3=4.50 Ω