WSC

2019

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TEAM DEBATES
The event for which WSC is most well-known for, the team debate is also one of
the hardest to master. With so many different styles and team compositions to
tackle, what is your part in all this and what does that part entail? In this part of
the guide I’ll cover all the speaker positions and overall team tactics to help you
get a footing in this part of WSC.

Packing list for Debate:

● Writing utensil
● Computer, phone, tablet (any electronic that can help you research)
● Notebook or notecards
● WSC Tag
● Water bottle (speaking loud can be quite taxing on your voice)

General Tips for Debate:

1. Write down the motion: As soon as the motion is revealed, write it down.
Get every member of your team to remember it and jot it down on their
notebooks or computers (wherever they’re taking notes). Trust me, it helps. I
was in a debate where my teammate botched the motion and it cost us the
round. Writing it down will help you refer to it both in the preparation and
debate stage.
2. Points first, then facts: I’ve no idea scholars from other countries are
taught to prepare their debate, but my teammates always make their points
first before finding facts to back it up. I find it far more effective, since
finding facts before points sometimes gives you difficulty when trying to find
reasoning for why the facts help your team. While we’re on the topic of
facts...
3. Find as much factual information as possible: I cannot stress this enough,
I’ve been in so many rooms as an adjudicator and debater where teams
have omitted facts from their entire debate. Facts are a key part of your
speech, the opposition team cannot go against them because they are
proven rock-solid facts. The more facts you include in your debate, the
better.
4. Share resources with your team: When you find a great website or
resource that you know a teammate could use to back up their points, give it
to them. Don’t just tell them about it and then move on, send the link to it
via email or let them read it from your screen. That way, they can commit
the source and fact to memory and be more confident when reciting it
during the debate.
5. If you can find a flaw, don’t use it: Whenever you think of a point, you
should always check if it’s a good point by analyzing it for any flaws. If your
own team can think of rebuttals for that point, then the enemy team will

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 probably find them too. Only use points that you’re certain have few or no
rebuttals at all. If however, the point has only a few weak rebuttals then..
6. Nullify rebuttals: If your point has a few obvious rebuttals that the enemy
team is sure to pick up on, then deny them the chance to make those
rebuttals by getting to them first. This can be done by finding a fact or
point that covers up the flaw and then stating it in the debate. For example,
an affirmative point for the motion that WSC is fun might be that there’s
always an element of fun to it. A rebuttal to this point might be that the fun
only comes from a few sources. You could then say in your point that
“though the enemy team might argue that this fun comes from only a few
events, I’d like to oppose that statement by saying that the amount of fun
that comes from these sources outweighs the amount of events are fun by a
lot.” I would not recommend using this tactic if you are a beginner in debate,
as it is highly likely the enemy team will turn that pre-rebuttal into a point
of their own.
7. Write rebuttals down as they are said: I’ve been in so many debates where
my team has a great rebuttal, but because we forgot to write down the
exact quoting of the rebuttal, we missed an opportunity to destroy the
enemy team. Whenever a rebuttal pops into your mind, write down not only
the rebuttal, but also what the opposition speaker said that caused the
rebuttal. So for example, instead of writing “no facts to back up point”, write
down “the ___speaker provided no evidence to backup their points, thus we
as the affirmative team are left to simply take their word for it”.
8. Conclude and prelude: After you’ve made your rebuttals, said your points
and given your evidence, you need to end your speech by wrapping up not
only what you’ve said; but also what your previous speakers have given to
your argument as whole. Adding onto that, introduce what your next
speaker will say by quickly mentioning their points. If you wish to add a little
flair at the end, be my guest. An example of this would be “In conclusion, I
as the first/second/third speaker of affirmative/negative team on the motion
that _____ have opened/furthered/developed/ended our argument by
stating that _________. Coupled with the points of my team’s previous
speakers, that _________, we hope we leave the room in no doubt that/we
have developed our case that (insert motion).
9. Use your hands, not your feet: Presentation is one of the 3 areas the
adjudicator will be assessing you on (along with strategy and content). It is
also one of the easiest is nail or mess up. The best way to do either of those
is how you use your appendages. Use your hands to help your debate by
gesturing with them when the time feels right (your body does this naturally
I find). Do not however, use your feet a lot or at all. I’ve seen so many
debaters lost points for presentation because they were rocking about or
moving around too much. Stay in one spot and remain there for most of
your debate, don’t rock back and forth or move around too much. Yes it’s
acceptable to step forward or put your foot down when delivering a
smashing good point, but don’t overdo it.
10. Use as few notes as possible: With presentation, eye contact and gestures
are among the two things I would recommend you get down right to score
maximum points on. For the latter, this tip works wonders. You don’t want to
be staring at a computer screen or notebook the whole 4 minutes of your
debate reading off some script. Just take a few notecards with you with
bullet points on them. Glance at them from time to time to help trigger your
thoughts and get your points right. I find that only writing the points and
the facts to back them up are enough to get you above a 6 on the
presentation scoring (provided you do everything else in presentation
correctly). Even better, memorize everything and go in with nothing (not
recommended for beginner debaters). Then you have both your hands free
to gesticulate the quality of your points.

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11. Speak with variation and volume: Again, how you deliver your debate is
very crucial if you wish to have another medal hung around your neck.
Speak with varying amounts of tone, volume and speed. Slow down and
repeat points or key pieces of evidence so it sinks in to the adjudicator and
opponent team. Raise your voice when concluding the debate, finishing your
point or slamming down a rebuttal. The room is your voice’s to dominate for
those 4 minutes, so how you dominate it is key to success. No one will
remember a person who speaks too fast and gives their points in a
monotonous voice.
12. Offense in the right amount: While I commend being a little arrogant to
the enemy team while delivering your debate, I condemn outright insulting
of the enemy team. Chances are the adjudicator will too and possibly mark
you down for that. Don’t get too tied down trying to make the enemy team
look dumb or their points hollow, mention it but then move on. It’s best to be
arrogant after you’ve delivered your points or given an excellent rebuttal.
Then you deserve to say that the points of the enemy team were “hollow,
shaky and weak” or any other negative terms you wish to use.
13. Make time your ally, not your enemy: Remember, you’ve got 4 minutes to
speak. That’s actually quite a bit of time to say quite a few things. But that
doesn’t mean you make your introduction and conclusion super long just to
fill up time. I’ve seen debaters whose introduction and conclusion alone take
up 3/4 of their debating time (and even then they struggle to reach 3
minutes). Points and rebuttals should take up most of your time, especially if
you’re second or third speaker (as further explained below). I tend to divide
my time in this way: introduction (recap of teams points) 15-30 seconds,
rebuttals 30 seconds - 1.5 minutes, points (with data) 1-2 minutes, conclusion
15-30 seconds. If you can’t divide the time that effectively (don’t worry, it
took me a few tries to nail it), then take the 3 minute signal for granted. If
the adjudicator has banged on the table, you should ideally already be
rolling through your points but not concluding them yet.
14. Be specific with feedback: Remember, your team is also scored on
feedback (though I’m not sure if it’ll count towards your final score. Don’t
just give general feedback along the lines of “You were good at projecting
your voice but you could have improved your points by adding more facts”.
Give specific examples where they could benefit from adding more facts,
actually mention the points or times where they could’ve used more facts.
The more specific your feedback is, the more the opponent team has to
improve on.
15. Teamwork makes the dreamwork: (insert cringe or meme here). Anyways,
your team chemistry actually plays a part in increasing your chances of
placing in the awards or even being included in the debate showcase. In the
15 minutes of preparation time, talk with your teammates, pass notes around
and share facts on screens. While the debate is going on, quietly write a few
notes for rebuttals or point construction on a note card and slip it to your
teammates. In the minute between speakers, quickly explain rebuttals and
points and share any last-minute facts. The more the adjudicator sees your
team coordinate, the higher they’ll score you on teamwork.
16. Abandon all hope ye who commit fallacies: In preparation for debates,
both during and before competitions, I recommend you brush up on the list
of logical fallacies (accessible with detailed explanations here). If you
commit a logical fallacy in a debate against a group who knows their
fallacies, congrats, you just put your entire argument in jeopardy of being
smashed. Before you give your points and while you’re preparing them, ask
every member in your team to read over it for any logical fallacies, that way
you can fix them and avoid a catastrophic defeat. Likewise, by familiarizing
yourself with the fallacies, you can call out speakers of the opposition if they
make one.

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Now let’s move onto some actual speaker positions and roles in general before
narrowing it down to negative and affirmative teams:

Speaker roles and Responsibilities:

First Speaker: As the first speaker, you are the introduction to the whole team
argument, the foundation upon which all other points will be based. It is your job to
open up the debate by going over the points or any specific focuses your team will
be mentioning, as well as providing (or correcting) definitions of the motion so
everyone knows what’s under debate. It is often said that first speakers are those
new recruits, who don’t need much to handle on their plates. While that is often the
case with many teams, I advise against doing this if avoidable, as it is often the
first speaker that leaves the strongest impression on the adjudicator (first
impressions are the most important). First speakers also give the enemy team their
first rebuttals and if your points are weak, well your foundation crumbles and you
have to start rebuilding all over again. So below are a few responsibilities and
requirements your first speaker should meet.

Responsibilities (affirmative team):

● Open up the debate
● Define key terms in the motion
● Provide a general overview of the points their team will be giving
● Give 1 or 2 fairly strong points, with some evidence to back it up
● Hand off the debate by preluding as to what the second and third speaker
will be saying

Responsibilities (negative team):

● Redefine any missed terms or badly defined ones
● Provide a general overview of the points their team will be giving
● Rebut the affirmative speakers first points
● Give their own points, with evidence to back it up
● Hand off the debate by preluding as to what’s up next in their teams’
arguments

In general, first speakers should be:

● Fairly confident at debating
● Have a strong voice with good actions
● Know how to open debates and define key terms properly
● Deliver 1 or 2 points with some examples/facts to back them up
● Masters at introducing and preluding what the team’s argument as a whole
is

Second Speaker: As second speaker, you are the main body of your team’s
argument. As such, your points should be very strong, impervious to rebuttal and
loaded with tons of facts. You can choose to add onto the first speaker’s points or
build off your own and branch out in another direction. As long as you can
somehow tie it back into the motion, it should be fine. It should also be noted that
as many facts as possible should be added here, because the third speaker of the

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opposite team can and will smash your points if there are none. However, another
responsibility you have is to rebut as much as possible. Rebuttals, points, facts,
conclusions and preludes to the third speaker are quite a bit to cram into 4
minutes. Therefore second speakers need to be masters of time management and
improvisation should events (or time) take a turn for the worst. Below are the
responsibilities and requirements of the second speaker:

Responsibilities:
● Lead on from the first speaker’s points
● Bolster the first speaker’s points with facts or information where possible
● Rebut the first speaker of the negative team’s points effectively and swiftly
● Redefine the motion if need be (very rarely, but it does happen)
● Prelude as to what the third speaker will be saying

In general, second speaker should be:

● Fairly experienced scholars (1 or 2 competitions under their belt)
● Confident with memorizing and reciting lots of facts
● Able to independently construct and deliver strong points, either original
ones or lead-ons from the first speaker
● Comfortable with rebutting the points put forth by the opposition
● Improvise on the fly if time limits what they can say
● Have excellent time-management when it comes to when you should be
saying what

Third Speaker: Now we come to what I consider the hardest and most daunting
position in a WSC team. If you are a third speaker, chances are you’re either the
best or most experienced on your team (and I applaud you if that is the case). As
a third speaker, the burden of finishing the debate and leaving the best impression
in the mind of the adjudicator. You’re the last shot your team has to secure the
win, the last opportunity to smash the opponent’s points, the last chance to deliver
some truly amazing points. Many teams believe that third speaker should only
focus on rebutting as many points as possible, a “good offense is the best defense”
strategy if you will, but oftentimes these rebuttals only fill 1 or 2 minutes of the 4
you’re given. While it is true that rebuttals are a signature ability of the third
speaker, points should also be included too, as these points will be the final ones
the adjudicator hears.

Responsibilities:
● Deliver the most rebuttals
● Recap the points of the entire team (briefly with a few facts)
● Give the strongest points (with critical reasoning, personal stories or some
facts to back them up)
● Have the best voice control and projection as well as use of hand gestures
● Conclude the entire debate by strongly affirming why their team is
for/against the motion
● Be ready to improvise on the spot if time squeezes your script
● During the preparation phase, find some points to give to your teammates
● In between speeches, think of rebuttals for them and the other speakers
● Check team’s speeches and rebuttals to ensure they are the best they can
be

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Responsibilities (Avan’s personal version):
● Spend 15 minutes of preparation thinking of points for both first and second
speaker
● Spend the total 3 minutes of in-between time to make my own points
● Be slightly arrogant to the opposition (roast them lightly and swiftly)
● Deliver 2 points with either personal experiences or facts to back them up
● Think of rebuttals for my entire team (including me)
● Project my voice louder than any other debater
● Use hand gestures to articulate my speech
● Conclude the entire debate by recapping all the points my team put forth

In general, the third speaker should be:

● The most experienced or best debater on your team
● Slightly arrogant and cocky
● Have the loudest natural voice
● Leader of the team
● Able to juggle tasks during both preparation and debate time
● Manage their 4 minutes with little error
● The best at rebutting
● Capable of quickly constructing points for the entire team and finding data
to back it up
● Writing rebuttals for the entire team as they are said

Debate Point Tactics: There are quite a few ways to successfully cover a
motion with your points, but which is more suited for the debating style of your
team? In this section I’ll go over a few that I’ve seen used in a few debates and
giving my personal view of whether they’re effective or not.

1. Divide and Conquer: The one my team (and many others) use, divide and
conquer is perhaps the most common team style there is. Essentially this
means each of your 3 speakers covers different areas separate from those
of the other speakers. So for example, if you were the affirmative team on
the motion that romantic entanglements improve life (I’ve been in this
position!); your first speaker could cover how those entanglements help
support you later on in life, your second speaker could mention a few facts
about the emotional benefits of romance and your third speaker could wrap
it up by giving a personal anecdote on how it gave them access to the best
feelings and memories they’ve ever had. Now granted, this does mean that
each of your speakers should be fairly adept at explaining their points and
giving evidence to back them up. However, it is well worth it in my opinion
because it means the adjudicator has more reasons to believe that your
stance on the motion is the correct one. It also gives the opposition quite a
daunting challenge to memorize and find rebuttals for as many of those
points as possible. It’s for these reasons that divide and conquer is an Avan-
approved strategy.
2. Sword and Shield: Ignoring the illustrious title I’ve bestowed upon this
strategy (I will do so for pretty much anything that doesn’t have an official
name), the sword and shield strategy is essentially where your first speaker
makes the points while the second and third speakers add some edges to it
while defending it from being rebutted. In the motion that romantic
entanglements improve life for example, your first speaker would mention

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 their points on emotional support and whatnot. The second speaker would
then add some facts to it while branching off with their own additions to the
points. The third speaker would then finish the shield by rebutting the
opponent’s points while nullifying any rebuttals the opposing team put forth.
While this strategy is one I recommend for beginners trying to get
comfortable with their speaker roles, it is not one that should be used in
competitions unless you know the opposing team is inexperienced or inept at
debating. Experienced teams will call you out for your lack of points, so will
the adjudicator. It is for this reason that the sword and shield strategy is not
an Avan-approved one.
3. Thematic focus: Second only to the divide and conquer strategy in terms of
popularity, the thematic focus strategy is exactly what it sounds like. Your
team chooses a specific concept/aspect of the motion you wish to cover (i.e
how romantic entanglements improve life by giving a sense of pride) and
then each speaker chooses their own point(s) that are related around the
topic. It is essential that the first speaker mention the focus that your team
is doing, otherwise the adjudicator will easily mistake it for the divide and
conquer strategy. The thematic focus allows your team to iterate their own
points, while ultimately tying it back into the motion by a very strong theme.
Consider your points the branches, while the theme is the trunk of the tree
to which everything is connected. This tactic is a very versatile one that is
especially helpful if not everyone in your team is completely experienced in
making their own, independent points. Thus thematic focus is an Avan-
approved way to debate.
4. 1-2-3: In my opinion, this is by far the worst strategy you could possible
utilize in a debate. The 1-2-3 strategy is where each speaker only does what
is essential to their role. The first speaker only defines the terms, explains
what their team will be bringing to the debate and (if they’re on the
negative team) make a few rebuttals. The second speaker will bring the
main points (as many as they can fit along with the facts) and make some
rebuttals. The third speaker only concludes with a lot of rebuttals and wraps
up their teams debate. If you wish to give your team a challenge (or am in
no way eager for the debate), then I will highly recommend this tactic. I see
limited point in using this otherwise, your 1st and 3rd speaker will be wasting
their time and potential points. Only your second speaker will be bringing
much to the table. This strategy is for sure not an Avan-approved strategy

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 COLLABORATIVE
WRITING TIPS
ON THE NATURE OF COLLABORATIVE WRITING
(A GUIDE)
The event that I find the hardest and dread the most, collaborative writing is
actually fairly simple to do good at. But for those new scholars reading this, let’s
break down the event.

Event Explanation:
Although the name suggests you’ll be writing with your team, you’ll actually be
doing all the writing by yourself. Your team will only help you plot out your writing
and proofread it once the writing time finishes. In the beginning of the event, each
member of the team will receive a writing packet filled with an introductory page
and several lined pages to write your piece. Then each team will receive a separate
sheet with all the motions for each categories on it. The motion is essentially what
you’re trying to prove/disprove (whichever side you choose) in your writing,
essentially a written debate. You then get 30 minutes to plan your essay along with
your team, during this time you have access to the internet and any other
resources that might help you. After that you have 60 minutes to actually craft
your masterpiece, during this time all resources and any communication with
teammates is banned. Once the timer rings and everyone applauds, the final 15
minutes are where you may hand your writing to the other people in your team for
proofreading and eliminating any errors.

So now that I’ve explained the format of this event, let’s go over the packing list
and a few key tips.

Packing list for Collaborative Writing:

● Writing utensil (they accept pen or pencil)
● Water bottle
● WSC tag
● Laptop, phone or other electronics (for research)
● Hotspot source (incase the internet refuses to work)

Tips:

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 1. Essays are banned: OK they’re not exactly banned, you won’t be
disqualified if you write a standard essay for your writing. They’re just so
“normal” that a judge can’t really score them that high for creativity or
engagement. Remember, a human from the WSC will be sitting down and
marking every essay they’ve been given. If they start reading a normal
PEEL Paragraph or other standard academic format, they’ll probably give
you moderate marks for creativity. They want something worth their time,
something that catches their eye, something unique from the rest. In the
next section I’ll discuss a few of these formats that might net you creativity
points.
2. Facts are family: You write an essay with no factual evidence, you might as
well say goodbye to a writing medal. Just like a debate, the more facts you
use to backup your points, the stronger your writing will turn out. Unlike in
debates however, you do need to cite your sources (just a small mention at
the end or beginning of the fact, no MLA or APA citation), lest the judges
mark you down for making up random facts. I’d recommend finding at least
a fact for each point, though ideally 2 per point would help.
3. Pre-buttals help: Another difference is that here, your only opponent is the
judge. Unlike in debate, no other scholar is trying to disprove the point your
essay is conveying, the judge will though. Chances are if your judge is a
trained WSC scorer, they’ll try to think of their own rebuttals to your points
and look for any flaws in them. Thus, you need to shield your essay from
these attacks by setting up preplaced rebuttals. This is as simple as writing
“though one might argue by saying that __________, it should be noted
that______” or something along those lines. If you can deflect those
rebuttals with facts too, that’ll help a lot.
4. Slow and neatly: One of the criteria to take into account when scoring an
essay is the legibility of your writing (I always struggle with this, my
handwriting would shame a 10-year old). So even though time is always
there as a sort of pressure point for you, remember that it’s better to write
slowly and think out your sentences than rush through everything but end up
with an essay that’s illegible. When it comes time to proofread, ask your
teammates to pick out any words that are illegible and fix them. The neater
your writing is, the less time a judge has to spend trying to guess what
you’re saying, the more points you rack for the leaderboards.
5. Complete the loop: Oftentimes you’ll be inclined to finish a point and then
move onto the next one. Don’t do this. Like in a standard paragraph, link the
point back to the motion and how it supports your stance. Don’t take for
granted the fact that the judge will do it for you, always complete the loop
of how your points helps you stance.
6. Conclude: At the end of all your points, wrap up your piece by stating them
again and tying it all back to the motion. Don’t just write something like “the
points put forth in this writing show why _____”. It’ll help you and the judge
when it comes to scoring organization and formatting.
7. Personal experiences are valid: In debates, you would be slammed for
using a personal experience on the basis that one story does not prove an
entire motion to be true or false. In collaborative writing however, the judge
isn’t so picky about that. If no facts can be found, using a personal or peer
experience is fine as an alternative. The more emotion it evokes, the more
valid it is to use.

Possible Formats:
As discussed above, one should never utilize a standard essay format in writing. So
below are a few ideas to help you score big in creativity and format:

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 1. Story
2. Playscript
3. Inner thoughts
4. Conversation

SCHOLAR'S
CHALLENGE: A
GUIDE
In my opinion the second-hardest event in the WSC, the Scholar’s Challenge calls upon all
your knowledge and study of the resources. A multiple-choice challenge of 120 questions
(20 for each category) where you’re allowed to fill in all 5 boxes if you wish to guess. Below
is a packing list and a few tips as to how to succeed in the Scholar’s Challenge, because it’s
here that you can rack up the most points for yourself and the team.

Packing list:
● Writing Utensil (ideally a pencil and eraser)
● Water bottle
● WSC Tag

General Tips:

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1. Study, study, study: If you’re an experienced scholar, you’re probably already doing
this, but I cannot stress how important it is to study. Whether that means spending a
few hours each week doing the resources and reading them or quizzing your
teammates on their knowledge of the resources, studying is the best way to ensure a
good score. Yes it is possible to place on a regional leaderboard if you just make
informed guesses, but remember, filling in the correct answer and nothing else nets
you the whole 1 points, as opposed to the 0.2 if you fill in all 5 boxes. The more you
study, the more you help yourself memorize the resources, the more likely you are to
get a medal (or even a trophy!) at competitions.
2. Order matters not: Oftentimes you’ll feel inclined to start from the beginning of the
questions and work your way to the back. While that’s fine if you’re knowledged in all
areas of the resources, it often means that you’ll be stretched for time if you really
spend time on each question. My advice is to find the category that you’ve focused
the most on (i.e literature) and do those questions first. That way you’ll at least net
some points from answering those questions correctly. From there you can choose
the next category you’ve studied and so on until you reach the category you
remember the least about.
3. Time is not a privilege you have: 1 hour might seem like a lot initially, but trust me
when I say that you’ll find yourself scrambling to answer the final 10 questions in the
last 5 minutes. Don’t spend more than 2 minutes on each question, or 1 minute if you
can help it. If you’re really stuck on a question, just fill in the boxes you believe are
the closest to the real answer (but not all 5, as explained in tip 4). If you spend about
a minute on each question, that leaves a little bit of time at the end for you to check
over all your answers and make some changes if necessary.
4. 5 and 1 are not magic: I find that lots of scholars are inclined to take the option of
filling out all 5 boxes if they have no clue what the answer is. Never do this. Even
though you’re guaranteed to get points for it, it’s only 0.2 points. Filling in only 1 isn’t
the best thing either, because you’re gambling on that 1 answer being correct. High
risk, high reward. I usually fill in 2 or 3 boxes, that ensures the best chance for a
correct answer while also allowing your points to remain fairly high. Only fill in 1 if
you’re completely certain it’s the correct answer, but never fill in all 5 options.
5. Check the numbers: I’ve made this mistake so many times. I look at a question
number and then fill out the previous or next answer on the answer sheet. Always
check first to make sure you’re filling out the correct question number, otherwise
you’ll find a blank row of boxes when you recheck your answers

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 HOW TO EXCEL AT THE
SCHOLAR'S BOWL
One of the less stress-inducing events of the WSC, the Scholar’s Bowl is the only event
where your team will collaborate for the entirety of the time. So below is the packing list and
general tips for mastery of the scholar’s bowl.

Packing List for Scholar’s Bowl:

● Water Bottle
● Clicker (provided by WSC)
● Phone for a quick selfie with the clicker

General Tips:
1. Assign a clicker master: Oftentimes, you’ll feel inclined to snatch the clicker away
and click your own answer. Do not do this, you’re just straining the team bond and
penalizing the amount of points you could be getting. Instead, assign one person
(usually the one lacking knowledge in the resources) to be the constant master of the
clicker. Have that person sit in the middle of the team, that way the other two people
who’ve studied the syllabus can provide their thoughts to the clicker master.
Generally, whichever answer suggestion the clicker master agrees with should be the
one you submit, unless only one person has a suggestion.
2. Study Again: Just like with the Scholar's Challenge, you can't expect to enter this
event with no knowledge of the syllabus and hope to place high on the leaderboards
(though miracles can rarely happen). The more each of your teammates studies their
own focuses (i.e each teammate studies 2 of the 6 resources), the more confident
your answers will be, the more likely you are to get a medal (or even trophy) for the
bowl.
3. Logic prevails: There will always be those questions where your entire team is
stumped, wishing they’d further studied that particular resource, or cursing their
memory for forgetting such a crucial fact. The only course of action then is to come to
a conclusion as to which answer is most logically the correct one. Better than
randomly guessing but slightly less effective than actually studying the syllabus.

13
4. Be quick about it: Even though time might seem that time is on your side, it’s more
ideal to get your first answer in within the first couple of moments you’re given. That
way, incase your team agrees on a different answer later, you can submit it on the
clicker without risking a timeout.
5. Sneak a peek: While I do not recommend excessive use of this tip, it doesn’t hurt to
try and sneakily glance at what teams around you are clicking. Even if you can’t hear
their answer, try to eavesdrop on their conversations and find out which options
aren’t the answer. In a counter to this tactic, whisper when discussing answers and
try to confuse potential eavesdroppers.

ADJUDICATING 101

14
The adjudicating in WSC is less than adequate in my opinion, all they literally do is pluck
volunteers (teachers, parents and even older students) to adjudicate debates. All they get is
usually the scoring sheet, motion sheet and a sheet worth of guidance as to how to
adjudicate. Unfortunately, that sheet isn’t exactly very detailed and frankly, the adjudicators
could do with a bit more advice. So here is my (Khun Mick approved) array of tips on how to
be a good adjudicator.

Packing sheet for adjudicators:

● Notebook or papers for jotting down notes
● Writing utensil
● Packet of scoring and motion sheets (given by WSC staff)
● Water bottle (debates take a surprisingly long time, 30+ minutes if each speaker
maximizes their time)
● Timer on a phone or other piece of technology

General Tips for Adjudicating:

Make sure all the team are settled before beginning: No need to rush the students, let
them take their seats, get out their laptops or other resources before you begin speaking.
Remember, the WSC debate is probably already behind schedule, no need to rush it any
faster than it’s already going. Wait until the students go quiet, turn their attention to you
before you begin speaking.

Get their team and speaker numbers first: Once you’ve begun speaking and are about to
reveal the motion, ask each team for their number and speaker order. Even though the
debate sheet tells you to ask for each individual speaker before they begin speaking, it’ll
save quite a bit of time and annoyance for the teams to have to mention that they’re speaker
A/B/C before they begin their debate. Just get this out of the way so your debate goes
smoothly from the get go.

Write the motion on any surface or keep the sheet in clear sight of both teams: Trust
me from experience, if you as an adjudicator only state the motion and give the teams a
quick glance at the sheet, they’ll probably forget it or botch the wording and that’ll
compromise their entire debate. When you show them the motion, let each team have a
good look at it, let them write it down and commit it to memory. They’ll tell you when they’ve
got it down, don’t assume they’ve done so until one of them says that to you. If possible,
write it in large wording on a whiteboard and announce it to the teams. If that’s not possible,
prop up the motion sheet so both teams can easily see it.

Timer in visible range: This is already pretty obvious, but as an adjudicator a timer is
necessary equipment that needs to be within your eye level. Ideally it shouldn’t be too hard
to look at, you can just take a quick glance every now and then to check and time and bang
on the table if they’ve hit the 3 or 4 minute mark.

Stick to the time limits: Again, pretty obvious. Debaters get 15 minutes from the moment
you reveal the motion to prepare. Once that time is up, the first speaker of the affirmative
should be called to make their speech. After every speech is done, the other team gets 1

15
minute to prepare for their next speaker. Each speaker only gets 4 minutes from when they
start talking, bang once loudly when they hit 3 minutes and bang constantly as soon as they
hit 4. Don’t just bang twice, they should be done with their debate, so keep banging until they
finish. It’s ideal to read out how long each speaker spoke for incase they want a mental note
of it for further improvement.

Score at the end: Many times you’ll feel tempted to mark the score of a speaker once
they’ve spoken for more than 2 minutes and you feel like you’ve heard most of what they’ve
got to say. Again, this is horrible and might cause mistakes later when the scoring machine
scans your paper. Wait until the speaker is finished, then utilize the 1 minute gap between
debaters to give your score. Spend a few moments reviewing what you heard and saw from
them and then give the score you feel best fits their speech.

Pay close attention to teamwork and feedback: Teamwork and feedback are 2 other
things you score the affirmative and negative teams for once everyone has spoken. This
means you need to watch each team in both the 15 minute preparation time and the 1
minute time gap and take some notes on how they work together.

Scoring:
Presentation: The first category is probably the one that’s hardest for debaters to nail
yet the easiest for adjudicators to score. This is essentially “how” the debater(s) deliver their
points, facts and rebuttals (if their position necessitates it). The biggest problem that judges
have here is the use of language and gestures, I have been in so many debates where
judges have marked me down in the category for using words they couldn’t understand (a
warning to all of you prolific in the english language). Below is a simple chart about what a
certain grade should look like:
Score What this looks like

2 The speaker’s voice is hard to

hear, their words are fairly hard
to comprehend. They move around
too much yet use no gestures to
articulate their speech. They use a
computer or phone and make
limited eye contact with the
adjudicator/audience.

3 The speaker’s voice is fairly soft,

their sentences can be heard but
at times they may stutter or go
completely silent for a few
minutes. They use a computer or
phone, make limited eye contact
with the audience but use a few
hand gestures to articulate their
speech.

16
 The speaker’s voice is clear, all of
4 their words can be heard and
understood properly. There is no
variation (i.e tone, volume, speed)
within the voice however and the
speaker still uses their computer
or phone to read a script. Some
eye contact is made but it is
mainly only for a few seconds. The
speaker uses some gestures to
articulate their speech but still
move around a bit (less so than in
the lower scores).

5 The speaker’s voice is clear,

understandable and projected
across the entire room. Their
gestures are more frequent and
relevant to what is being said,
more eye contact is made even
though they are still reading a
script. They hardly move around
at all but rock back and forth a
little sometimes.

6 The speaker’s voice is clear,

projected and uses variation
(tone, volume and speed) to
emphasize their points or
rebuttals. They remain completely
still (no rocking or moving) during
the debate and use hand gestures
a lot to articulate their debate.
They still read from a computer or
phone, yet make more eye contact
and only glance at their script a
few times.

7 The speaker’s voice is clear and

utilizes lots of variation to
masterfully emphasize their
points. They do not move around
at all and use lots of hand
gestures to add some flair to their
visual presentation. They do not
use a script and only have
notecards or no notes at all,
allowing them to make constant
eye contact both with the
adjudicator and the audience.
Strategy: This is probably the hardest one to score when adjudicating, yet it is
surprisingly easy to nail when you’re the debater. Strategy refers to the structure and layout
of their debate and probably encompasses the most “matter” in their speech. This includes

17
the validity and “wow-factor” if you will, of their points and rebuttals. Below is another chart
representing what each score looks like:
Score What this looks like

Speaker has made only points or

2 rebuttals (if rebuttals are
possible) and their points are
confusing, weak or
incomprehensible. Rebuttals are
few and weak, no specific
examples or facts given to back
them up. The introduction and
conclusion only state what the
speaker will be bringing to the
debate, not the entire team as a
whole.
Speaker has made only points or
3 rebuttals (if rebuttals are
possible) and their points are
confusing, weak or
incomprehensible. Rebuttals are
few and weak, no specific
examples or facts given to back
them up. The introduction and
conclusion only state what the
speaker will be bringing to the
debate, not the entire team as a
whole.
Speaker has made points and
4 rebuttals, their points are
acceptable, make sense and link
back to the motion in some way.
Their rebuttals are only few and
their strength is weak.
Introduction and conclusion
include brief explanation of what
their team has and will bring to
the debate.
Speaker has made points and
5 rebuttals, their points are
substantial, make perfect sense
and they strongly link it back to
the motion. Their points are also
connected to those of their team
(if possible) and they explain in-
depth what the next and previous
speaker will provide to ensure a
victory. Their rebuttals are
substantial, quite a few of them
and little pieces of data are used

18
 to back them up.

6 Speaker has made points and

rebuttals, their points are strong,
make complete sense and link to
the motion very well. Points are
strongly connected to those of
their team and they explain the
points of each speaker in their
team with mentions of any data
or stories they’ll use. Rebuttals are
strong, numerous ones and data is
used to back them up.

7 Speaker has made points and

rebuttals, their points are very
strong, have no errors and link
with the motion in every
conceivable way. Points are
strongly connected, varied and
link to those their team has
brought or will bring. Conclusion
and introduction include in-depth
explanations of the previous of
next points and how they link to
the motion/help the team prove
their side is correct. Rebuttals are
strong, using data and critical
thinking to outline logical fallacies
and other flaws inside them. A
little bit of arrogance is included,
indirectly insulting the enemy
team’s points/rebuttals.
Content: This is probably the easiest criteria on the debate sheet to score. Content
basically refers to how much is said by the speaker within the 4 minutes that they’re given.
However this also includes a bit of time-management and time supervision on your part. So
below is a breakdown of what content looks like and what score should be given:
Score What this looks like

Speaker spoke for less than or

2 exactly 90 seconds, only made a
simple introduction, 1 or 2
rebuttals and quickly delivered
their points. No conclusion was
made whatsoever regarding what
their team will bring to the
debate. No facts were given to
support their points.

19
 Speaker spoke for less than or
3 exactly 105 seconds (1 minute 45
seconds), they spent majority of
that time introducing their debate
and what their team will be
saying. They only spend about 15-
30 seconds on their actual points.
No conclusion was made
whatsoever to wrap up their
team’s progress so far. No facts
were given to support their points.

4 Speaker spoke for less than or

exactly 2 minutes, they spent a
minute of their time introducing
the debate and making a few
rebuttals. A minute was reserved
for points and a conclusion, but
the points only occupied about
30-40 seconds of that minute. A
fact or personal experience was
used to support their points.

5 Speaker spoke for less than or

exactly 2 minutes 30 seconds, they
spent less than a minute
introducing themselves and what
they’ll be saying. They spend
significantly more time however
on rebuttals and conclusions than
their actual points. Few facts were
used to support their points.
Speaker spoke for roughly 3
6 minutes 15 seconds, they spent
majority of that time with their
points, but also mention several
rebuttals, introductions and
conclusions. Some strong facts
were used to support their points
and some of their rebuttals
(where applicable).

7 Speaker spoke for more than 3

minutes 20 seconds and
masterfully focused 2 minutes of
that time on points. 1 minute was
reserved for the rebuttal and
introduction. 20 seconds were
spent on the conclusion. Many
strong facts and personal
experiences were used to support
their points and rebuttals.
Teamwork Criteria:

20
Score What this looks like

You do not see any cooperation

2 between team members. During
the preparation phase, they just
keep to themselves, writing and
researching on their own. During
the 1 minute time gap, they
silently pass notes but don’t talk
about it or just don’t interact at
all. Disrespectful behavior was
exhibited to some speakers.
You see limited cooperation and
3 only at a few times between team
members. During the preparation
phase they talk for only a few
seconds and only a few times.
They do not share any notes or
screens and mostly go it alone.
During the 1 minute time gap,
they silently pass notes and 1 of
them explains it briefly.
Disrespectful behavior was
exhibited to few speakers.
You see limited cooperation at
4 some times between team
members. During the preparation
phase they communicate for a bit
but then remain silent for majority
of the 15 minutes. They share a
few notes, 1 or 2 facts but no
major writing on each other’s
notebooks. During the 1 minute
time gap, they pass a few notes
and all members briefly discuss
them. They listened quietly to
each speaker but may have
giggled or exclaimed quietly at
one point.

5 You see some cooperation at

times between team members.
During the preparation phase
they share notes, some facts by
showing their screens and at times
spend more than a minute
discussing a potential point/fact.
During the 1 minute gap, they
pass notes and share a few facts
while discussing rebuttals and
points with one another. They

21
 listened quietly to each speaker
and didn’t distract the speaker
with their motions.

6 You see cooperation for most of

the time in the team. During the
preparation phase they
energetically share notes, facts
and once or twice one of them
gets up to talk to another person
or write something down on their
notes. During the 1 minute break
they pass notes, share facts and
discuss rebuttals and points rather
enthusiastically. They give
encouragement to each member
before or after they’ve spoken.
They listened quietly to each
speaker and didn’t distract the
speaker with their motions,
applauding them after they were
finished.

7 You see cooperation all the time

in the team. During the
preparation phase each member
passes notes, talks to all the other
teammates and sometimes they
get up to share facts or whisper
information into another ear.
During the 1 minute time gap 1
might open their technology to
find a fact, they pass notes to one
another and eagerly discuss them.
They give encouragement to each
member before and after they’ve
spoken. They listened quietly to
each speaker, made solid eye
contact and applauded them
after they were finished.
Feedback criteria:
Score What this looks like

2 Feedback is quickly done and

limited. Only nice feedback is
given and no improvements
are highlighted.

22
3 Feedback is done within 45
seconds and is limited in terms
of scope. Only 1 or 2
improvements are listed with
no further explanation of how
it will help the speaker(s) or
team grow as debaters. The
rest of their feedback is nice
for the sake of politeness.

4 Feedback is done within a

minute and is limited in terms
of scope. A few improvements
are listed with shallow
explanations. No specific
examples of points, facts or
rebuttals are included to
support the feedback. Most of
the feedback is positive.

5 Feedback is done within a

minute and 15 seconds and is
acceptable in terms of scope.
Several improvement are listed
with some explanation as to
how they will assist the
opposition. 1 or 2 specific
examples are given overall.
Each speaker devotes their
own feedback to their mirror
opposite on the other team (i.e
first speaker affirmative gives
feedback for first speaker
negative).

6 Feedback utilizes the whole 90

seconds and is filled with scope
and examples. Lots of
improvements and positives
are listed for each speaker as
well as the team overall. In-
depth explanations are
provided to justify the
improvements and specific
examples are given for each
speaker. Each speaker devotes
their own feedback to their
mirror opposite on the other
team (i.e first speaker
affirmative gives feedback for

23
 first speaker negative).

7 Feedback uses the whole 90

seconds and is crammed with
scope and examples. Lots of
improvements and positives
are listed for each speaker as
well as the team overall. In-
depth explanations are
provided to justify the
improvements and specific
examples are given for each
speaker. Each speaker devotes
their own feedback to their
mirror opposite on the other
team (i.e first speaker
affirmative gives feedback for
first speaker negative). A
comment or two is made about
the organization and debating
style of the team as a whole
and an improvement for it is
justified.

24
25
UNSOLVED MYSTERIES
Introductory Questions
Credits to my excellent teammate, Caitlin for completing some parts of this
resource!

● Is there a difference between a mystery and an unanswered question?

○ A mystery and an unanswered question are very similar indeed, but the key
difference lies in what restrictions exist in order to find the answer. An
unanswered question could be a mathematical formula yet to be discovered
by mankind, yet those searching for it are armed with all the tools and
information they need. A mystery however, often necessitates that some
information required to solve the mystery is missing, or that it has gone
unsolved for such a long period of time. Mysteries often have more
restrictions than unanswered questions.
● Are most mysteries solved by individuals, by governments, or by the private
sector?
○ Solving a mystery is a prospect that drives many parties. As with many things,
it depends on the mystery itself. In order of who gets involved, often
individuals will be the first to get to a mystery and those who carry on solving
it decades after it first came up. The government is often the anti-party here,
they don’t have much interest in mysteries unless it threatens them directly or
might provide some use to them if they solve it. In fact, it is often governments
who create mysteries, such as the fabled Area 51, an outcrop of desert in the
United States that many believe is the site of secret government research.
Finally we have the private sector, historically companies haven’t had much of
a hand in solving mysteries, they’re more concerned with getting money from
selling products. But on the occasion that a lucky individual does solve a
mystery, companies are often the first to publicise the matter and associate
themselves with either funding or assisting the lucky solver.
● Are some mysteries more worth solving than others?
○ Again, this depends on the mystery. Of course if a mystery involves the
disappearance of someone close to a party, then it is of the utmost
importance that those individuals solve the mystery (such as the ill-fated
MH370). In terms of more general “extraterrestrial mysteries”, these are often

26
 the projects of ambitious mystery hunters or professional organisations
attempting to lay claim to solving an enigma. If a mystery could concern
humanity’s safety, security or provide scientific enlightenment, then it is often
placed higher up in terms of “gotta go solve that one”.
● What distinguishes mysteries that are solved from those that go unsolved?
○ Well firstly, the fact that a mystery has been solved is rather incredible and
distinguishing in of itself. Yet often times, it is those mysteries that have
eluded answer for decades or even centuries that earn more prestige in the
world of mystery-solvers.
● Why are so many people fascinated by mysteries? What features might make
one mystery more fascinating than another?
○ Since humanity is naturally inquisitive and curious, we are fascinated by
mysteries in that they present a problem which logic alone cannot solve. In
this way, some mysteries foster humanity’s creativity and free-thinking spirit.
The main features that make one mystery more fascinating than another are
the facts presented in the mystery and how long its gone unsolved for. The
mystery of the ghost ship Mary Celeste is rather intriguing since the facts are
plentiful, yet the explanation continues to elude us. Whereas something as
long standing as Stonehenge or the Pyramids are fascinating in that eons
have passed since they were constructed. Though we have written records of
the latter, we can’t help but ponder whether it was just manpower that helped
build these magnificent structures.
● Can you think of any mysteries that are better left unsolved?
○ Mysteries that are better left unsolved are those whose solution won’t do
much good to the world. Whilst it would be an emotional relief and benefit to
aviation experts if MH370’s disappearance was finally resolved, it wouldn’t be
much good if only now we found out why the Mary Celeste was found adrift
with full supplies and no crew. Yet as humanity and technology gain more
abilities, I see little chance that we will stop searching for the answers that
continue to escape our grasp.
● Do people who solve mysteries have an obligation to share the solution?
○ This is a complicated matter (it often is portrayed so in pieces of media).
Once again, it falls to the actual mystery itself and what impact it will have on
humanity. People who solve them are under an obligation to share the
solution if they believe that it will help others overcome feelings of uncertainty
and doubt, or help progress a field of knowledge for the betterment of the
human race. Yet for other mysteries, particularly those whose answers might
hurt others and raise doubts amongst the academia of a certain field, it is up
to the individual to decide whether or not they will share it. The government is
often hesitant to do so, especially the US one. It is believed that inside Area
51 or some other secret intelligence building, hundreds of files contain
sensitive solutions to mysteries from another world.
● How do we deal with questions that we are unable to answer?
○ Simple, we keep on trying to answer them until either our funds run out or
humanity forgets about it (usually the former). When we truly decide that an
unanswered question is no longer worth solving (or no longer solvable), we
don’t forget it completely. Rather, those who bothered to try and solve it
record their progress so that the next generation of answer-seekers pick up
from where they left off. However, in some cases where we simply fail to
materialise any other evidence, we leave the explanation to logic. Occam’s
Razor (the scientific principle which states that the simplest solution is the
correct solution) often plays a large part here, for example with MH370,
instead of concluding that a wormhole appeared or that they’re now
languishing in some secret kingdom, logic dictates that the plane crashed into
the sea and all onboard perished.

27
 ● Can you imagine a circumstance in which someone would solve a mystery and
then decide to keep the solution secret?
○ Yes, many. Insert all US government memos about solved mysteries here.
Oh wait, nevermind those memos are classified, under lock and key and you
are liable to execution for attempting to uncover them. As mentioned before, if
the party who solved the mystery believes that others may be harmed from it,
or that the solution is simply too mind-boggling to even be considered, then it
is best kept to oneself.
● Have you ever had something happen in your life for which you lack an
explanation? Do you want that explanation?
○ Other than how I simply cannot attract girls with my methods and charm, no. I
would by the way, ve
○ tỷ much like that explanation.

Contending with the Unknown

● Investigative Methods
○ Guesses, Estimations, Hypotheses, Theories
■ Guesses: When one guesses, they make a random assumption with
little logic or facts to back it up. This is often the first stage humans
reach when a mystery pops up, we guess what happens until enough
evidence is found. Guesses are often lacking in detail (i.e Jack the
Ripper was fake)
■ Estimations: The second stage of investigative methods, estimations
are made with slightly (though only slightly) more evidence than
guesses. These estimations often have several more numbers within
them (i.e Jack the Ripper was more than 1 person colluding with each
other)
■ Hypotheses: A hypothesis is where substantial evidence or previous
reasoning is built upon to provide a more whole explanation. As this is
the third stage of investigative methods, hypotheses are often much
more detailed than guesses and have much more evidence to back
them up. Another interesting aspect is that once a hypothesis is
formed, then the actual mystery solving is narrowed down to
prove/disprove the hypothesis. For example, if one were to propose
that Jack the Ripper was more than 1 person, we would look at his
letters to see if the handwriting changes drastically.
■ Theories: Theories are the final stage of investigative methods. Once
we’ve gathered as much evidence as we believe possible (or as much
evidence as we believe exists), we form full-fledged explanations that
can be multiple paragraphs long and each assumption has a fact or
logical reason to back it up. Theories are often built up from the
hypothesis that had the most evidence to support it.
○ Inductive vs. Deductive vs. Abductive Reasoning
■ Inductive: Perhaps the lowest form of reasoning out of the three,
inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive and the one that we
try to avoid doing daily. Inductive reason is where one looks at specific
data and makes broad generalisations about that data. One goes from
the specific to the general, the opposite of the scientific method.
Here’s an example for Area 51: “Planes fly into Area 51, those planes
are red and white, therefore all red and white planes can fly into Area
51”. Even if all the aspects of a statement are true, the conclusion can
still be false. Here’s another example of that: “Daniel Berdichevsky
likes Havana, Daniel Berdichevsky is a US immigrant, therefore all US
immigrants like Havana”. Believe it or not, this is the type of reasoning

28
 that we use at the beginning of the scientific method. We look at
previous cases or sets of data and make generalizations about it, thus
forming a hypothesis that we can then test using deductive reasoning.
Speaking of which....
■ Deductive: If deductive reasoning sounds a lot like detective work,
that’s because it most resembles it (let me put on my Sherlock Holmes
nerdiness for this). Deductive reasoning is where we start out with a
general statement (or in the case of science, a hypothesis) and
examine specific cases to reach a logical conclusion. Scientists use
this type of reasoning to test hypotheses and mystery hunters to test
theories. Instead of going from the specific to the general like in
inductive reasoning, we go from the general to the specific. The
specifics of deductive reasoning lie in its steps: there are often 2
premises and then an inference based on those premises. A common
form of deductive reasoning is a syllogism, in which a major premise
and minor premise reach a logical conclusion. Here’s an example: the
premise“all crows are black” followed by the premise “this bird is a
crow” can be logically concluded by saying “therefore this bird is
black”. Syllogisms are also great ways of testing the validity of
conclusions to ensure that the reasoning is solid, a great way to
analyze your opponent’s points for flaws in debate!
■ Abductive: Not quite sharing anything with inductive or deductive
reasoning, abductive reasoning is what we would generally label the
type of investigative method mystery solvers are using. Simply put, in
the presence of incomplete data abductive reasoning attempts to use
that data to point to the most likely conclusion for that data. For
example, if you were to walk into your room and find your test ripped
up (a dream for most scholars I’m sure) as well as your pet in the
room, abductive reasoning would explain this data by saying that your
pet ripped up the homework. Now it might not have actually been your
pet, it might have been your mother or father, but the information
available points to the pet as being the most likely explanation.
○ Elements of the Scientific Method
■ Firstly, we must answer the question: what is the scientific method? In
layman's terms, the scientific method is how we find an explanation for
some event. In more complicated terms, it involves posing a question,
using logic or previous experiments to provide an informed guess
(using inductive reasoning initially) and then running a series of tests
to see whether or not specific data supports the explanation for the
question (using deductive reasoning to end with). Keep in mind that
not all scientific investigations follow this procedure, especially those
with tests that cannot be carried out practically (i.e wondering whether
dinosaurs could be tamed). As for who to thank for this, history
generally puts most of the praise on Francis Bacon, an english
philosopher who is credited with penning the scientific method. Yet
centuries before his writing was widely read, an Arabic scholar by the
name of Ibn Al-Haytham first preached the basis of the scientific
method (questioning the occurrences of the natural world, refusing to
submit to illogical or incomplete explanations, rigorous and controlled
tests to determine the true explanation). Below are all the steps of the
scientific method:
■ Ask a question
■ Do background research
■ Construct a hypothesis
■ Test with experiment(s)

29
 ■ Fix any faults in the procedure (should they exist)
■ Analyse Data and Draw Conclusions
■ Conclude by answering the question and the accuracy of the
hypothesis
○ Hard Evidence: Forensic Science
■ Hard Evidence: Interestingly, searching up “Hard Evidence” on the
internet provides very few results. The best explanation therefore is
one that resorts to logic. Hard Evidence is literally any piece of
evidence that cannot be disproven or otherwise. In science, this is
very rare, scientists are often finding that evidence can easily have
faults in it or some new case will appear that negates the evidence
validity. In terms of mysteries, hard evidence is usually used to refer to
whatever facts are on hand when the mystery was discovered. Often
there is photographic, physical or written proof of this evidence
existing.
■ Forensic Science: Derived from the latin word forensis, which means
a public debate or discussion, the modern contextual meaning of
forensic science is the application of the scientific method to solve
crimes or other events concerning the judiciary system (the law).
Forensic science can also loosely be applied to types of investigation
that focus on organic evidence (e.g fingerprints, DNA samples,
autopsies etc.). Within unsolved mysteries, forensic science is very
much present, seeing as some of the biggest unsolved mysteries
concerned inexplicable acts of crime (such as a certain British serial
killer whose identity remains unknown and whose alias rhymes with
“Mack the Kipper”).
● Philosophy of the Unexplained
○ known knowns | unknown unknowns | epistemology
■ Known knowns: Interestingly, though you might expect this phrase to
come from some Greek philosopher or Western writer, it in fact
originated in 2002 with the United States Secretary of Defence Donald
Rumsfeld. During a speech, he mentioned not just known knowns, but
also unknown unknowns and known unknowns (try saying those
phrases 5 times quickly). Known knowns are things we know we know
about, for example, we know that we know for sure this planet is
inhabitable.
■ Unknown unknowns: Unknown unknowns are things we don’t know
we don’t know, such as complex quantum concepts or some
mathematical theory yet to be discovered. This is often more used in
strategic planning and strategic planning, a common example is that
the typewriter businesses didn’t know that they didn’t know computers
would throw them all out of business. Within mysteries, this often
refers to facts we don’t know we aren’t aware of.
■ Epistemology: For those who take Theory of Knowledge (TOK), this
concept this essentially what you are studying (or rather, questioning).
Epistemology is the theory of knowledge and often concerns its scope,
methods, validity and accuracy. It is often used to debate what
differentiates justified belief and facts from opinion. The most
stereotypical but justified (pun not intended) question asked within this
field is “how do we know that we know?”
○ Johari window | belief vs. knowledge | intuition
■ Johari Window: As a throwback/crossover of last year’s science and
special area, the Johari window is a technique and model that helps
people better understand their relationship with themselves and
others. It was developed by psychologists Joseph Luft and Harrington

30
 Ingham, it should be noted that the word “Johari” comes from
combining their first names. Usually, the exercise involves a person
(the subject being analysed) and their peers selecting adjectives and
placing them in a grid based on who perceives what. In this model,
there are four quadrants: Open/Arena, Hidden/Facade, Blind Spot and
Unknown. The first of these is traits or characteristics of someone that
both that person and their peers believe exist. The second is where
only adjectives that the subject believes exist, the peers don’t see
them in the subject. The third is the opposite of the second, where
adjectives that only the peers chose. The final zone is where any
adjectives not selected by the subject nor the peers go, these are
either false and do not exist or are collectively ignored. See image at
the bottom of the page.
■ Belief vs. Knowledge: Belief and knowledge, two words that the IB
and other school systems love to play with in their courses. Belief is
often trust, faith or confidence in an explanation of something, whilst
knowledge is the understanding of a concept through the use of
practical investigations or pre-existing evidence. The line is thin here,
and often times we believe that we know something, when instead we
should know that it is just a belief (hehehe).
■ Intuition: Often interchangeably used with gut feeling, intuition is
something that one knows or believes in from instincts rather than
logical reasoning or hard evidence. Intuition is also used to describe
acquiring knowledge without proof or evidence, a fickle thing when it
comes to trying to prove mathematical theorems that you know are
true but can’t quite logically prove are.
● Contests to Uncover the Unknown: Effective or Not?
○ Millennium Prize Problems | Loebner Prize
■ Millennium Prize Problems: Exactly what it says on the label, the
Millennium Prize Problems are seven mathematical problems that
were stated by the Clay Mathematics Institute (a US non-profit
foundation) in March of 2000. A correct solution to any of these
problems, with a proof will land you 1 million dollars. To date, only 1 of
the 7 have been solved. In 2003 Russian mathematician Grigori
Perelman provided proof for the Poincare Conjecture, yet declined his
1 million dollar prize on the basis that his work was no greater of those
who came before him. These 7 problems are as follows: The Birch
and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture, Hodge conjecture, Navier–Stokes
existence and smoothness, P versus NP problem, Poincaré
conjecture, Riemann hypothesis, and Yang–Mills existence and mass
gap
■ Loebner Prize: The Loebner prize is an annual competition in the
field of artificial intelligence development. It works off the Turing test
(after Alan Turing, a British intelligence worker during the Second
World War who created a machine to solve the german enigma code).
In this test, a judge has a conversation with a real human being and a
computer program via online methods. The judge then decides which
is which, with the victory going to the artificial intelligence signifying a
winner. This competition is rather impressive yet also scary, the fact
that humanity can create machines which fool us into thinking they’re
humans.
○ One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge
■ One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge: Exactly what is says on
the label, the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge is a challenge
set by the James Randi Educational Foundation. It challenges the

31
 public to demonstrate seemingly supernatural or paranormal abilities
under controlled scientific conditions. It initially began in 1964 with
James Randi being challenged to “put his money where is his mouth
is” by a parapsychologist. Initially the prize was merely $1,000, yet
over the years it was increased, until in 1996 internet pioneer Rick
Adams donated the $1,000,000 for the prize. Unfortunately, the initial
restrictions for entering the competition discouraged many possible
entrants. In 2007 the guidelines were that one had to have an existing
profile in the media (i.e be famous or have some sort of appearance
on television) as well as the backing of a reputable academic. In 2011,
the entrant restrictions were opened to the general public. Whereas
once you had to submit press clippings and a letter from a reputable
academic, now you could submit either one of those or a public video
demonstrating your ability. Even with over a thousand entrants, none
have passed the qualifications to get their 1,000,000 dollars. In
September 2015, with James Randi no longer at JREF (having
resigned in January of that year) the challenge was officially
terminated.
● Additional Terms to Know
○ cognitive dissonance | whodunit | John/Jane Doe
■ Cognitive Dissonance: Yet again we get a flashback to last year’s
science curriculum. Cognitive dissonance is a psychological term used
to refer to a state where one has inconsistent beliefs or behaviours,
especially ones that conflict with each other. This is often a feeling of
discomfort when your beliefs are in conflict with your behaviour or new
information being presented to you. The theory was first described by
American social psychologist Leon Festinger and he explained that
the human mind has a natural tendency to ensure that both beliefs
and behaviour are consistent with one another. Inconsistency in either
can cause disharmony, something we tend to avoid. The degree of
dissonance that we actually experience, including the value of a
particular belief and the degree to which they are inconsistent.
■ Whodunit: Literally what it says, a whodunit is a plot-driven story or
play variety of the detective story in which the reader/audience is
given the chance to engage in the same deductive process as the
protagonist and their companions throughout the story. As the story
goes along, more facts or interesting pieces of evidence are brought
up, challenging the reader to make the correct deductions with
incomplete information (abductive reasoning right here). Essentially
think of every Sherlock Holmes, Hercule Poirot and other famous
detective stories. The identity of the criminal is often revealed at the
climax or end of the story. It is this literary feature that many authors
often add spins to, including purposely giving false evidence to
confuse or deceive readers suspicions.
■ John/Jane Doe: An interesting concept, John Doe and Jane Doe are
multiple-use names for males and females respectively. They are
used by many criminal investigation organisations or the government
when referring to persons whose true identity is unknown or is being
intentionally concealed. Usually this includes criminals who’ve yet to
be discovered, corpses yet to be identified or persons whose names
are hidden. These names are also used for hypothetical “everyman” in
other contexts, referring to everyday persons (hence the term
“Average Joe”) on the street with whom people can relate to. There
are variations of these names for criminal investigation organisations
around the world (i.e “Joe Bloggs” and “John Smith”)

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 ○ fata morgana | cold case | preternatural vs paranormal
■ Fata Morgana: How hilarious. A natural phenomenon whose first
word is my last name (and whose second word has another relation to
me, but that is a mystery I shall let you solve). A fata morgana,
actually named after sorceress Morgan Le Fay in the Legends of King
Arthur, is a mirage observed on bodies of water where objects on the
horizon appear as if they are floating in the sky, even in inverted
positions. This phenomenon has been observed on boats, islands and
even coastlines. The mirage occurs when light is refracted (or "bent")
by contrasting air temperatures. In oceans and seas, the air near the
surface is sometimes cooled by the water, so the temperature is
warmer at higher altitudes. Light passes through hot air more easily,
so it reaches the eyes of a far-off viewer after refracting above the
cooler air. The viewer’s brain expects that light travels in a straight
line, so it's fooled by the refraction and perceives that the far-off object
is floating above the water. As for the history of fata morganas, they
have been notorious for causing false explorations and are even used
to explain some mysteries. When observed in the Straits of Messina,
Italian sailors named these occurrences fata Morgana, in the belief
that the fairy (Fata in Italian) Morgana was luring sailors to their
deaths with mirages on the open ocean. In fact, one related mystery
we will explain later is the Flying Dutchman, the legend of a ship
doomed to sail the oceans forever, never being able to make port. It is
believed that this may have just been sailors observing fata morganas.
■ Cold Case: A cold case isn’t some detective or police investigation
that happens in freezing conditions. Rather, a cold case is an
investigation whose solution remains unknown (i.e the identity of the
criminal has yet to be discovered). Often, the file and data on a cold
case is kept in the archives, ready to be uncovered whenever new
evidence or technological methods comes up about the case. Perhaps
the most famous case of this type is Jack the Ripper, a serial killer
who stalked the streets of London in the 1880s. Though the police
have arrested and even convicted several persons they believed to
have been the Ripper, evidence has surfaced that goes against those
people being the serial killer.
■ Preternatural vs. Paranormal: Two words that, despite sounding
very similar, are worlds apart (quite literally). Preternatural is that
which appears to be outside or beyond the natural, in religion this
often meant the work of angels or demons. In science (and more
importantly, in mysteries), the word has been used to describe
phenomena that do not fit with known scientific explanations. That
does not mean we don’t have an explanation for them, fata morganas
can be classified as preternatural. It isn’t natural to see a ship or
distant horizon being lifted and flipped, but we can explain it through
some science. Paranormal is where that line dissolves. The
paranormal refers to events or phenomena which are not natural nor
can be explained by science, this often includes “ghostly sightings” or
“superpowers”. The main difference is that preternatural activity
exceeds the scientifically proven bounds of what is possible, whilst
paranormal activity actually goes against those laws in the first place.

Where Did They Come From?

● The Pyramids | Stonehenge | Hanging Gardens | Zuni language

33
○ The Pyramids: Take a trip to Egypt, ride a camel down to the valley of the
kings and a magnificent sight shall be yours to behold. There, in the valley of
rulers, stand giant limestone structures built 2,500 years ago to house the
remains of great kings. These are the pyramids of Egypt and perhaps one of
the most amazing structures ever devised and built by mankind. Yet before
scientists were able to discern the true methods used to construct these
marvels of engineering, humanity’s creativity was allowed to foster. The
building of the pyramids was a great mystery that perplexed humanity until
very recently. How did Egyptian workers get huge stone blocks, each
weighing almost 3 tonnes (some even more) from the quarries south of the
construction site, to move almost 100 meters into the air? For centuries, many
believed that the technology to do so simply did so simply did not exist back
then, they instead lent the construction to some supernatural force. Many
were convinced that the priests and architects who planned and oversaw
construction actually contacted beings from another world to come down and
use their levitating devices to bring up the stones. Yet with recent discoveries
and the power of technology, we now know that the Egyptians used rolling
wooden trunks as “flatbeds” and ropes to haul the gigantic stones into their
nesting places. Yet what remains a mystery to us now is the actual content of
the pyramids. Whilst many have been explored inside out, it is believed that
there were several “hidden rooms” inside the pyramids that housed
possessions of the dead (or perhaps even their relatives). Most recently, the
Great Pyramid gave up its secret, with scientists discovering a massive
hidden vault inside the pyramid using state-of the art technology (in 2017 too).
Though these massive structures may be well over 3,000 years old, it is likely
that they will spend another 3,000 years (assuming humanity lasts that long)
hiding their secrets and mysteries from us.
○ Stonehenge: A great mystery that continues to boggle our scientific minds to
this day. In the middle of the English countryside, 3 kilometres west of
Amesbury lies a ring of standing stones, each about 4 meters tall and
arranged in a cryptic pattern (see below). Scientists and archaeologists have
been puzzled for many centuries as to several points. The first of which is the
actual construction of the structure, whilst the second is what the actual
purpose of Stonehenge is. What we do know is rather loose. All we can
estimate is that Stonehenge was built in different stages, with the “pits” being
dug out and the stones being raised at different times. The main structure that
still stands was likely built in 3000 BC-2500 BC (Late Neolithic period, about
the same time the Egyptians were building their pyramids), probably by Celtic
druids and their followers. As for how the stones were raised into those
positions, please see the picture below. The purpose of Stonehenge remains
one of the greatest mysteries of our age. Initially, it was believed that the
stones were aligned in some sort of way to allow the druids (who actually
came 2,000 years after the construction of Stonehenge, so that theory’s
busted) to perform their rituals. A more plausible theory (and the one that is
most supported) is that Stonehenge was some sort of burial ground for the
high and mighty of whatever society built the structure. The discovery of
skeletons laid facing north supports this theory, supposedly saying that north
was a “holy direction” for whatever culture they had. A more outlandish theory
is that Stonehenge was built to accommodate alien spaceships (I’ll be honest,
I can imagine a flying saucer landing in that structure when it was built).
○ Hanging Gardens: Wow, we’re just taking an ancient world tour with this one
aren’t we? Well time for a stop in the Middle East. The Hanging Gardens of
Babylons were believed to have been a massive and beautiful garden
complex, right next to a palace known as the Marvel of Mankind. The Neo-
Babylonians, who ruled much of modern Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran in the 6th

34
 century BCE, built the complex because the wife of king Nebuchadnezzar II
(I would not like to have to type or write that frequently), missed the rolling
hills and green landscapes of her home village (some act of love that was).
The garden was a magnificent work of architecture and engineering. Written
accounts by Greek and Egyptian writers say that it was 120 meters wide and
long, reaching a height of over 24 meters (hence the name, hanging
gardens). The actual irrigation system for the garden is disputed, apparently a
mechanism similar to an Archimedean screw lifted water from a moat on the
ground to the different levels of the garden. Yet this might not be the case,
since Archimedes wasn’t around for another 350 years. Many things about
the Hanging Gardens are likely works of Greek and Egyptian imagination.
■ Yet the actual existence of the structure itself is one of the biggest
mysteries of ancient archaeology. Some believe that the gardens were
not in Babylon, but actually in Nineveh, another major city almost 350
miles away (close to modern-day Mosul, Iraq). Ancient writings from
Babylonian and Sumerian recorders appear to depict such a work of
construction in that city. Yet whether or not the Hanging Gardens did
actually exist, let alone live up to their (likely exaggerated)
descriptions, remains a mystery shrouded in the desert sands.
○ Zuni language: The Zuni language is a lingual mystery. In New Mexico and
Arizona, there remain about 9,500 Zuni people. Despite the fact that their
language shares some similarities with those of other Native American tribes,
it is quite unlike anything we’ve ever heard. The Zuni people themselves are
worth further investigation, since their religion and blood type are also unique
to their people. Apparently, the Zuni people are believed to have lived in
isolation for about 7,000 years, thus preventing their language from being
influenced or from influencing many others. So where did the Zuni Language
come from? The theory is rather shocking. The Zuni language was derived
from ancient Japanese, thanks to Buddhist monks setting sail for the New
World in 1350. Upon closer examination of both the physical body structure of
Zuni skeletons and their words, linguists have discovered striking similarities
between these Native Americans and the Ancient Japanese. If so, it could
rewrite our history books and also explain why America and Japan were
pretty close friends.
● Nazca Geoglyphs | Flying Dutchman | Giant Spheres of Costa Rica
○ Nazca Geoglyphs: Take a plane ride over the Nazca desert in Southern
Peru (or attempt a few days hike in scorching heat to a vantage point in that
desert) and something rather intriguing will come to your attention. A series of
white lines on the landscape, twisting and turning to form basic geometric
shapes and even identifiable designs. These are the nazca geoglyphs (more
commonly known as the Nazca lines). Some of these lines are 50 kilometres
long, while the designs (representing among other things; a hummingbird,
spider and monkey) are as long as the Empire State Building is tall (about
365 meters). Ever since 1926, many have studied the lines, chief among
which was the Lady of the Lines; a German by the name of Maria Reiche.
She would spend almost 40 years studying them, picking up where her
mentor (American Paul Rosok) left off. The creation of the lines is rather
simple, by removing Earth and rocks a “negative image” is created. This
results in a light-coloured and highly contrasting sand. As for their creators,
scientists and historians believe that the Nazca people, who flourished in the
area from the 1st to 8th century were responsible for drawing them. Their
purpose remains shrouded in mystery. Initially, it was believed that these
great lines were used to track the stars, with certain lines aligning with certain
constellations at specific times. However, this theory was quickly botched (for
what purpose would the stars be to a civilisation that didn’t base any rituals off

35
 of them?). Instead, the more popular theory is that these lines were used in
conjunction with rituals regarding water. The desert in which they and the
Nazca people who drew them did only receive an inch of water every year.
Perhaps these lines were pleas or symbols meant to appease the gods and
pray for water. Of course, there remains the conspiracy theory that the Nazca
people were instead an alien tribe and were trying to communicate with their
otherworldly brethren.
○ Flying Dutchman: Ah the Flying Dutchman, truly a great legend that I could
spend an entire hour lecturing someone on (perhaps I will in my videos). If
you’ve ever watched Pirates of the Caribbean or had any sort of amble into
marine mysteries, you’ll know that the Flying Dutchman is a ship. In Pirates of
the Caribbean, the Dutchman is a ship that sails the oceans of this world and
the oceans of the dead. Its captain: one Davy Jones (yes that one from Davy
Jones’s Locker) is said to have failed his job of ferrying the souls of the dead
from the world of the living to the dead. Calypso, a sea goddess whom he
was in love with (and the one who had given him both the task and the flying
dutchman) punished him for failing his duties by condemning him to sail the
seas for eternity. For only 1 day every 10 years, Jones could make land (this
last bit was because when Jones first came on land, Calypso failed to turn up,
talk about a late date gone wrong). In actual mariner’s legend, the Flying
Dutchman actually appeared (or rather, people believed it did) in the late 18th
century. Sailors around the Cape of Good Hope told strange tales of a ghost
ship on the horizon. It was said that this ship was a Dutchman, come to claim
the souls of those about to die and ferry them to the land of the dead. But of
course, before the legend of a ghost Flying Dutchman, came the tale of the
real Dutchman.
■ The most common origin story for the Flying Dutchman is that of
Captain Hendrick Van Der Decken, often called “The Dutchman”. His
ship was actually called “The Flying Dutchman” and in 1641 it
undertook a dangerous voyage from the Netherlands to the East
Indies (modern day Indonesia). On the return voyage, the crew ran
into a violent storm around the Cape of Good Hope. They begged the
captain to turn around and seek calmer waters until the storm
subsided, but Van Der Decken insisted that they continue. The ship
never made it to land ever again. Sailors then began to say that
Captain Van Der Decken, in attempting to defy his crew and sail
through the storm, condemned his ship and men to sail the seas for
eternity, never to make land again.
■ To date, there have been multiple sightings of the Dutchman, often
just before some sort of disaster on the vessel that sighted it. In reality
however, the Dutchman is simply a fata morgana, an optical illusion
that works by bending light off the atmospheric pressures near the
horizon. It makes objects that are actually beyond the horizon appear
as if they are flying and take on a ghostly image. Shame really, the
stories and legends are far more interesting than the actual
explanation.
○ Giant Spheres of Costa Rica: One of the greatest geological mysteries that
has baffled historians and scientists alike, the giant spheres of Costa Rica
were first discovered in the 1930s in the Diquis Delta. It is believed that they
were made by pounding stones into spherical shapes, though exactly using
what tools remains a mystery (after all, they are almost 1,800 years old).
These spheres range in size as well, from a few centimetres to almost 2
meters in diameter, weighing almost 15 tonnes at their heaviest. The stones
are believed to have been created between 600-1000, slightly before the
Spanish conquest of the region. The Diquis people, a now extinct tribe that

36
 lives in the area, has been accredited with forming these impressive
structures. Exactly for what purpose remains a mystery, those some agree
that they were placed on the path to the houses of chiefs. The more
fantastical myths argue that Atlanteans who came on land sculpted these
stones, others say that nature itself managed to dump them all over the area.
● Terracotta Warriors | Puma Punku | Ulfberht swords
○ Terracotta Warriors (Caitlin did this one, pretty clear from the Chinese
translations) (informational video): The Terracotta Warriors were discovered in
1974 by Chinese farmers digging a well in the Chinese province of Xi’an （西安).
Unbeknownst to those farmers they had just discovered the tomb of China’s first
emperor Qin Shi Huang Di (秦始皇帝). Qin Shi Huang instructed the construction of
the terracotta warriors for the purpose of protecting him in the afterlife as he feared
that the enemies he had slain in life would come and exact their revenge on him.
Along with the warriors there were also servants and favourite pets of the emperor in
the tomb. Further, lavish and exquisite items of the emperor’s life including rare
objects, utensils and replicas of the towers and palaces he used to live in and visit
were also found.
大家好！ 我叫唐家盈，以下是有关秦始皇兵马俑的讯息。秦始皇是第一个统
一中国的皇帝而且统一中国的文字和度量衡，。他即位之后马上开始兴建自己
的陵墓。
○ Puma Punku: Well, don’t we love our South American civilisations here?
First the mayans and now the incas, what next? (hint: it rhymes with hex). For
this specific mystery, we find ourselves in Western Bolivia. There lie the ruins
(and I mean ruins) of an ancient temple complex that predates even the incas
(syke). They were built by the Tiwanaku people, whose temples the Incas
were so impressed with, they believed that the gods once came from them.
Puma Punku, meaning “door of the puma”, was likely used between the 6th
and 7th century. Some of the stones and the overall design of the complex
(see photo gallery for more details) were so intricate and precise that many
have attributed their construction to ancient aliens (yeah, turns out the
Egyptians weren’t the only ones accused of calling extraterrestrials for
construction work). However they were made, at the peak of its time, Puma
Punku would’ve probably been home to over 400,000. The city itself was
likely decorated in ornate stones and carvings, as the number of skilled
craftsmen grew along with the civilisation (it eventually dominated the Lake
Titicaca Basin). Yet like so many great structures, Pumapunku was
mysteriously abandoned and left to ruin by nature (and looters) cruel hand.
Initially, historians believe that some sort of prolonged drought ravaged the
crops needed to sustain such a large city, causing many to seek better land
elsewhere. However, the occurrence of such a large drought doesn’t actually
coincide with the time period, the only major one happening almost decades
after the Tiwanaku civilisation collapsed. So historians now agree that some
sort of internal conflict and unrest caused the great Pumapunku works to be
torn apart and broken (yes, there are signs of pieces being broken by angry
protestors). Whatever the case, Pumapunku was still so majestic when the
Inca stumbled upon it 500 years later, that they believed the world began from
that spot.
○ Ulfberht Swords: Ah the medieval period, that time of human history where
the artworks where the most brutal (i.e a man being sawed in half for god
knows what). It was also a period where actual war was brutal (highly likely
more than a few unfortunates were cut in half). The wars of that time were
fought not using guns and bombs, but with swords and arrows. Yet swords
were pretty expensive back then, having one (especially a good one that
didn’t bend or break in the heat of battle) meant that you were likely pretty
high in society. The Ulfberht swords were the best of the best, swords that

37
 would never break or bend and could easily pierce chainmail armor (as well
as the flesh and bone beyond). To date, 170 swords have been found (sadly,
these swords couldn’t quite stand the test of time). The swords were likely
made in Francia, a region back then between Germany and France that was
very famous for the quality of its metallic weapons. The mystery of the
Ulfberht swords is actually twofold, who and how? Though it is likely that the
first person to start the business was called Ulfberht, it's unknown whether he
ran a family business or simply hired the best craftsmen around. Furthermore,
while we know how to make the swords now, doing so back then still remains
an enigma. Making a sword back then meant mixing iron and carbon to
produce steel, yet the balance had to be just right (too much carbon and the
sword will become brittle, too little and the sword will just bend). Perhaps the
method of using trace amounts of other materials was used, copied from Arab
smiths producing the famous “Damascus steel”. Yet the trade network
required for this feat to occur seems pretty unlikely at the time. Whatever the
case, we do know that the owners of these swords were likely Norse in origin
(read: Vikings) and were very rich.

Where Did They Go?

● Jack the Ripper | Dale Kerstetter | Mandy Hampton
○ Jack the Ripper: Ah good old Jack, there’s a serial killer if you’ve ever heard
of one. The very name of this fellow sent shivers down the women of 1888
London’s East End. Though Scotland Yard and the Metropolitan Police sent
their best detectives and bobbies against him, they would never catch the
Ripper. Then, just as quickly as he had made himself known, he disappeared
into the soupy London mist; never to emerge for another murder again. Or so
it is believed. Thus then, who is this man (if the Ripper can even be called
one) of legend?
■ Whitechapel, London, 1888. The industrial revolution has just finished.
Whilst many are reaping the rewards of industrialization, others are
struggling to barely make ends meet. In London’s East End,
immigrants from the Continent stay in drab boarding houses where
rooms cost less than a pound a day. It was in several districts here
that the Ripper quite literally, made his mark. The first murder
occurred on August 31st, one Mary Ann “Polly” Nichols was found
dead in Whitechapel district. While women of her position (harlots,
alcoholics and beggars) were commonly found dead (either due to
roughhousing or alcoholic abuse), she bore marks of a vicious and
unforgettable murder. Just 9 days later, Annie Chapman was
dispatched in an even more gruesome manner. Her intestines were
laid bare for all to see, her throat cut clean from left to right, portions of
her bladder and uterus were missing. The police knew that they were
dealing with a professional, one who clearly took delight in his trade.
Elizabeth Stride was the next victim on September 30th, she was
found in much the same fashion as those before her. Interestingly
though, this time someone might have actually interrupted the Ripper
while he was making his mark on the poor lady, causing him to flee
before her innards could be fully displayed. Yet just an hour later, he
found a new victim to finish his work on. Catherine Eddowes is
arguably the most famous Ripper victim, because of how well the
police documented her. The Ripper’s final victim was one Mary Jane
Kelly, the last “canonical” victim and the one with which the Ripper
painted his masterpiece. Unlike the other victims, Kelly was murdered
indoors on 9th November with many marks indicating the Ripper had

38
 come knocking. She was the most mutilated of all the victims, I won’t
lavish you with the details but essentially every body part the Ripper
could uncover he either cut out and displayed or mutilated beyond
recognition.
■ Then, came the end of the Whitechapel Terror (or so it is believed).
The police would never face such a difficult case in their time ever
again. The Ripper is even known to have sent letters to both Scotland
Yard and the Metropolitan Police, most infamously his “Letter From
Hell” wherein he attached half of a human kidney, stating that he’d
eaten the other one.
■ Throughout the decades, the police have kept the Ripper’s case open,
adamant that new evidence or technology can shed a light on the
madman who dared to wreak havoc on London in such a short period
of time. Many believe the Ripper to have been a Polish immigrant,
common in that area. Some more outlandish theories connect the
Ripper to Queen Victoria’s Grandson. Whatever the case, Jack the
Ripper’s legacy will likely echo through the ages for many decades to
come.
○ Dale Kerstetter:
■ Some mysteries are surprising and shocking in how they involve
regular people. Take the case of poor Dale Kerstetter. A security
guard and maintenance man working the night shift at Corning
Glassworks in Bradford, Pennsylvania, Dale was a simple man who
did his job well. Yet on the morning of September 12th 1987, when
security guard John Lindquist came to relieve him, Dale was nowhere
to be found. His pickup truck, keys and lunch were still on the facility
grounds. Upon going through security footage, authorities found that
Dale had conversed and walked with a masked man. This man was
then recorded stealing 250,000 dollars worth of platinum rods from the
grounds. The last sighting of this man was when he wheeled a cart full
of sacks to his waiting vehicle. Police suspect that Dale (or at least,
his body) was in one of those sacks. Whatever happened to Dale
Kerstetter, the police still have a cold case incase he reappears (or
new evidence surfaces).
○ Mandy Hampton: This one is slightly more interesting, instead of being the
disappearance of a real person, Mandy Hampton is actually the name of a
fictional character who was portrayed by Moira Kelly in the American serial
drama The West Wing. While she was a main character to the plot, her actual
appearances in season 1 began to lower as every episode went by. When
season 2 came around, fans of the series were shocked to discover that she
was no longer a cast member in the show. Since the plot made no connection
to her disappearance, people wondered why she had left so suddenly.
Director and series creator Aaron Sorkin later stated that the character was
just not working out for the actor, and that they had agreed to shake hands
and part ways after the first season.
● Amelia Earhart | Sodder Children| Edgar Allan Poe
○ Amelia Earhart: On July 2nd 1937, the world turned their eyes to the skies in
remembrance of Amelia Earhart. One of the most famous aviators in history,
Amelia Earhart was known for setting multiple aviation records and
progressing the field of woman in aviation. In the early 1920s and 30s,
aviation was still rather primitive. Planes were constructed out of wood and
canvas, with controls often being moved by wire. In keeping with the gender
roles of the day, the sky was declared no place for woman (let alone at the
cockpit of a plane). Amelia Earhart broke all these rules. In 1921 she gained
her flying wings (otherwise known in dumb terms as a flying license),

39
 apparently she got her first plane and flew it before she drove her first car
(high achiever). In 1922, her first steps to fame came when she set her first
record. She became the first woman to fly solo above 14,000 feet (4
kilometers). On May 20th 1932, Earhart became the first woman (and second
person) to cross the Atlantic Ocean in a plane on her (second only to famed
aviator Charles Lindbergh). Later that year, Amelia became the first woman to
fly nonstop across the United States. In 1929, Amelia Earhart became a
founding member of “The Ninety-Nines”, an international organization that
aimed to progress women in the field of piloting. On June 1st 1937, Amelia
Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan took off from Oakland, California in a
Lockheed 10E Electra in an attempt to become the first woman and duo to
circumnavigate the world. By the end of that month, they had only 7,000 more
miles to go. Yet the world would never see that Electra again. On July 2nd,
the plane left New Guinea for tiny Howland Island, their next refueling stop.
The US Coast Guard lost contact with the plane shortly afterwards. President
Franklin Delano Roosevelt authorized a massive two-week search by the
navy and air force for the Electra. But the sea would keep its secrets, on July
19th the pair were announced as “lost at sea”.
■ Over the years multiple theories would form as to where they had
actually gone. Many accept the evidence and theory that their plane
simply ran out of fuel, having not found Howland island and ditching in
the sea. Others say Noonan and Earhart made it to a deserted island,
where they survived until old age caused them to die. Recent
investigations to Gardner Island in Kiribati turned up some interesting
evidence, including a piece of plexiglass and woman’s show from the
1930s. Other believe the more outlandish theory that Noonan and
Earhart ventured into Japanese held territory and were captured.
Some think that the two were actually spies for the government and
had assumed false identities upon returning to the US.
○ Sodder Children: A mystery that I only recently learned of (i.e last year) and
one that is truly bone-chilling and slightly melancholy. The Sodder Children
names one of the US’s most notorious disappearance cases. What’s chilling
about it is not so much the fact that it occurred, but rather the extreme series
of coincidences and omens that happened on the night it occurred. 1:00 AM
Christmas Day 1945. A fire breaks out at the Sodder house in West Virginia.
George and Jennie Sodder, along with 4 of their 10 children (the 10th serving
abroad in the war), managed to escape their burning house. Yet with 5
children still trapped inside, George attempts to rescue them. That’s where
the coincidences begin to start unnaturally. First, the ladder often propped up
on the side of the house was not there (it was later found in a ditch 20 meters
away), George’s two trucks wouldn’t start (despite having worked perfectly
the day before the fire), the family phone wouldn’t work when they called the
fire department (despite working perfectly previously) and the firefighters
wouldn’t arrive until 8:00 AM (despite having been called by multiple
neighbours hours earlier). No human bones or remains were found in the
ruins, so the Sodders began to suspect that their children were never actually
in the house when the fire broke out. Many theories say that the Sodder
Children had been kidnapped by the Italian Mafia, whose presence was felt in
the community where the Sodders lived (indeed George was an Italian
immigrant who criticised Mussolini openly, much to the rage of his town).
○ Edgar Allan Poe: October 3rd, 1849. Joseph J. Walker, employee for the
Baltimore Sun, headed out to Gunner’s Hall, a public house often full of life.
Yet when he arrived there, he found a delirious and shabby-dressed man
lying in the gutter. This man was none other that famous horror writer Edgar
Allan Poe, one of if not the most critically acclaimed author of that time.

40
 Walker quickly asked if anyone who knew Poe could be called upon. Poe
quickly gave the address of one Joseph E. Snodgrass, whom he’d run into
while authoring stories. Just a week earlier on September 27th, Poe had left
Richmond Virginia for Philadelphia, where he had been beckoned by poet St.
Leon Loud to help edit some poems. Poe would never reach his final
destination, nor would he make it back to New York to escort his aunt to
Richmond for his upcoming wedding. Instead, Poe would spend the next days
slipping in and out of delirium (likely brought about by drink) and having
hallucinations. His attending physician, Dr. John J Moran, said that the figure
“Reynolds” was repeated multiple times (the identity of such a person remains
unknown to this day).
● Starlite | Roanoke | Library of Alexandria | DB Cooper
○ Starlite: This one is slightly more interesting. Starlite is not a person, but
rather a material. Specifically, starlite was a plastic developed by one Maurice
Ward, a hairdresser from Yorkshire England. The plastic had properties that
would’ve revolutionized industrial processes. It could withstand a nuclear
flash, easily beat heats of up to three times the melting point of diamonds,
and could be formed into any shape. Starlite was, quite literally, the “wonder
material” of our age. Or rather, it could’ve been. Ward was extremely
secretive with how he actually made the material, despite some of the biggest
companies like NASA or Boeing offering to pay millions for the right to his
process. Ward died in 2011 without ever commercializing or patenting his
plastic, and his family has remained tight-lipped on their plans for the secret.
○ Roanoke: Ah America, aren’t you responsible for your fair share of unsolved
mysteries? Area 51, Oak Island, Donald Trump’s stupidity. Yet by far one of
the oldest mysteries of this continent is that of Roanoke. Before we delve into
the actual details and theories however, time for a quick (ish) history lesson.
In 1584, Queen Elizabeth I grants explorer Sir Walter Raleigh a charter for the
colonisation of North America; hoping to make a fortune for Britain from the
New World. After a few hitches in the trip and upon their arrival, the Roanoke
settlement was established but then shortly abandoned in 1586. A small
detachment of 15 men were left behind to guard the settlement until the
english could return. Raleigh ordered a new expedition in 1587, under the
leadership of John White 150 men sailed for the Roanoke colony.
Surprisingly, only a single human skeleton was found when they arrived, with
no trace of the 14 other men having been uncovered. Undeterred, the colony
was rebuilt and expanded to include the 100 or so colonists now part of the
new land. Yet with hostilities from the native Indian tribes (with the exception
of the Croatoan tribe, whom John was able to foster good relations with).
After the killing of colonist George Howe by native americans, John left the
colony to sail back to the English mainland for supplies and reinforcements. It
was a bittersweet moment for the English colonist, whose daughter had just
given birth to Virginia Dare, the first British child to be born on American soil.
Yet with the Spanish Armada threatening the peace, John was forced to hold
off any return plans until August 18th 1590. Almost three years after leaving
America, John returned to find a ghost town. No skeletons or remains were
found, no sign that the settlement had ever been inhabited in the first place.
The only signs were CROATOAN carved into a fence post and CRO carved
into a nearby tree. These meant something to John, who’d told them to carve
these signs if they had to leave before his departure. Yet the one sign they
failed to find was that of a Maltese cross, this would mean that the colonists
had left under duress (likely the result of hostilities with the nearby natives).
John had initially planned to search further inland for his family, but a fierce
storm forced them to return to England. So what happened to the colonists of
Roanoke?

41
 ■ There are many explanations as to what occurred to them. The one
that many agree with is that the colonists, without the necessary
weapons or manpower to hold off the native tribes, decided to join
them. It is likely that the men were killed (yeah, that strategy of “if you
can’t fight them, join them” should probably add “only if you’ve made
sure that they won’t kill you after they do”). The women and children
were spared, with some of the ladies perhaps even marrying into the
tribe. Another commonly held theory is that the colonists were simply
tired of waiting (in their defence, three years is a long time) and
boarded a ship that John White left behind in their own attempt to
make it back. Other theories state that the colonists were wiped out by
a natural disaster, racked by disease or slowly starved to death.
Another theory exists however, a much happier one where the
colonists actually did move inland, but they didn't survive much longer
after that. Whatever happened to the Roanoke colony will likely
remain a mystery, but we do know that it may not be such for very
long. The “Lost Colony DNA project” may prove or disprove the first
theory, while the land upon which the Roanoke colonists moved inland
cannot be excavated (cause private property reasons).
○ Library of Alexandria: The city of Alexandria was the beacon of humanity
and civilisation in the ancient age. For centuries, it was the seat of great
empires and many more civilisations. Historians from that period often wrote
scroll upon scroll about the wonders of the city. It was here that the
Lighthouse of Alexandria could be found, guiding those seeking the
knowledge and culture of the great city towards its ports. Yet within the city
itself was another great wonder whose demise remains a mystery (the
lighthouse was destroyed after an earthquake). The Great Library of
Alexandria was the biggest ancient library in the world, often being called a
“universal library” in that it held scrolls and scriptures from all around the
known world. Yet somewhere along the line of its rich history, the library was
burned down in a mysterious fire. No archaeological remains have ever been
excavated, leading some to wonder whether the library even existed or if it
was simply an exaggeration. As for who started the fire that caused its
destruction, many would like to point fingers at one Julius Caesar (yes that
Julius Caesar), who ordered the entire harbour burned down when his army
was trapped by an Egyptian fleet in 48 BCE. However, others believe that
Theodosius I and perhaps an Arab Caliph were responsible.
○ DB Cooper: By far one of the most well-known and captivating mysteries
involving a single person; the mystery of DB Cooper (or rather, Dan Cooper
as police originally called him) is still shrouded in some uncertainty to this
day. November 24th, 1971, Portland International Airport. A man walks up to
the Northwest Airlines counter and asks for a ticket on flight 305, a 30-minute
trip to Seattle. The flight ticket is printed, with the name Dan Cooper on it.
Onboard the flight, the man calmly reveals that his briefcase is in fact a bomb
and sets out his demands. $200,000 in cash, 4 parachutes and a fuel truck to
refuel the plane upon arrival in Seattle. The police can do nothing but comply.
So after releasing all the passengers in Seattle, Cooper then orders the three
pilots (along with the lone flight attendant) to head for Reno, Nevada.
Somewhere along the route, Cooper attaches the bag of $20 dollar bills and
the parachutes to himself, before jumping out the plane; never to be seen
again. In the weeks following the incident, the government launched a
manhunt for the elusive Dan Cooper. A miscommunication with the press
meant that the nation instead called him “DB Cooper”. To date, there have
been several theories as to the whereabouts and identity of this hijacker.
None more so supported than that of Robert Rackstraw, a Vietnam veteran

42
 who reportedly sent a confession letter to the FBI a few years after the
incident. So far however, no one has been charged with the crime and DB
Cooper could still be out there.
● Mayan Civilization | Dinosaurs | Lost Tribes of Israel
○ Mayan Civilisation: In lieu of a National Geographic documentary; “The
Mayans predicted our end, but they couldn’t predict their own”. First a bit of
backstory (because there’s quite a bit of history in these mysteries, incase
you couldn’t tell). The Mayans were one of several Mesoamerican civilisations
that managed to last from about 1,800 BC to 900 AD. Unlike other
civilisations in the area that were spread out around multiple villages and
towns, the Mayans were centred on a single geographical area. This area
included the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize and other Central
American state. The Mayans were unique in that they came way before the
conquistadors and other conquerors of European origin (insert unexpected
Spanish Inquisition here). Instead, their civilisation died out around the 9th
century, more than 500 years before Christopher Columbus discovered the
New World. One by one, the many cities of the Mayans were abandoned and
left to ruin. Much like the dinosaurs, there are several scientific theories as to
what occurred to this great civilisation. Many scholars argue that the Mayans
had outgrown the land, their populations expanding beyond the capability of
the resources available to them. Others argue that the city-states, competing
for even more land and resources, began to war with one another. The final
explanation lies in a natural disaster, perhaps a prolonged drought that
decimated the annual harvest of crops. Whatever the case, by the time the
Spanish and Portuguese landed on the shores of the South American
continent and Latin American islands, the Mayans had been reduced to
scattered families living in simple farming villages.
○ Dinosaurs: By far one of the oldest mysteries on this list, the extinction of all
dinosaurs was a scientific mystery. Many believed that there was some sort of
“chain reaction” that occurred 65.5 million years ago. The exact cause of the
events still remains a mystery, but it did cause geological and climate
changes that allowed for the food supply or even the natural conditions of the
land to change. Many point fingers at a crater hole in Mexico, known as the
Chicxulub crater. They believe that when this meteor somehow impacted the
Earth (give our planet a break, its atmosphere wasn’t quite that developed
back then), the dust kicked up from the impact covered out the sun and
caused climates to drop. This caused plants to die, along with the herbivores
that relied on them, as well as the carnivores that relied on those dinosaurs.
○ Lost Tribes of Israel: The 12 tribes of Israel were believed to have all
descended from the 12 sons of Jacob. It was these tribes that formed a
confederation in modern day Israel, about the time of the Bronze Age. Yet
2,370 years ago, the neighbouring Assyrians invaded the Kingdom of Israel,
with their king Shalmaneser V exiling 10 of the 12 tribes to parts unknown
(supposedly beyond the mythical Sambation river). The Benjamin and Judah
tribes, who remained in the kingdom, became the modern-day Jewish people.
Over the centuries, what remained of the 10 tribes became a mystery. Some
claimed to have met traces of them in as far as Nigeria, China, Burma,
Central Asia, Ethiopia and even the West. Yet in 2010, the Israeli government
decided to end the question once and for all. It funded a genetic study to
determine the most likely answer: that the Pashtuns and Afghans carry DNA
which links them back to the 10 tribes of Israel. Ironically, the Pashtuns
(which have the most claim to be the descendants of these tribes), would also
have been the most hostile towards their religious beliefs.

Do They Exist? Did They Ever?

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● Atlantis | tenth planet | Land of Punt | El Dorado | Area 51
○ Atlantis: A city underneath the sea. A land of utopian culture and a species
lost to the centuries. This is Atlantis, a land first described by Greek
philosopher Plato in 360 B.C in his dialogues “Timaeus” and “Critias”. In these
works, he states that almost 9,000 years ago, a great city on the ocean sank
in a night and a day. This city was a utopian society, whose structures were
the stuff of legends and whose people were half-god, half-human. Yet in
being so advanced and utopian, they succumbed to the flaws and sins of man
(greediness, corruption and selfishness). The gods, angered by how their
offsprings had abused the knowledge and power of the cosmos, sent a
massive earthquake and fire that destroyed the buildings and sent the islands
upon which the city rested to the bottom of the ocean. Many have disregarded
Plato’s story as a myth, stating that Atlantis never existed. Others, namely
those treasure seekers and mystery hunters, have attempted to explain the
existence of this city, along with its civilization. Some believe it lies off the
coast of Spain, others believe it moves with the currents in the Atlantic, some
even think that its trapped underneath the Sahara desert (the irony is not
even remotely subtle). Yet the most widely-accepted theory is that of a Greek
island (thus fitting with the Plato origins). The island of Santorini, once a lush
area of the Minoan people, a second-millenium BC volcanic eruption sent the
entire island (along with its people) to the bottom of the ocean.
○ Tenth Planet: Poor Pluto, not only does it get demoted from planet status;
but it turns out its replacement is many thousands of kilometers beyond the
known edge of our solar system. Oh whoops sorry, wrong term. Yes believe it
or not, the “Tenth Planet” actually refers to a lost serial in the original 1966
Doctor Who series. The serial was meant to have been 4 episodes long, but
the final one was missing from the BBC archives after they were wiped the
programme from their databases. It was only in 2013 that the episode was
aired, with the missing parts being replaced with animated sections.
■ I was joking by the way, there is actually a tenth planet lurking at the
edges of our solar system (that’s what you get for not clicking the link
first). Scientists have announced the discovery of a Mars-shaped
object in our solar system, this planet is almost 63AU (astronomical
units, 1 of which equals 93 million miles) away from the sun.
○ Land of Punt: Once again we find ourselves going back to the Egyptians. Yet
not quite with their own civilisation, but one that has very strong ties to them.
The Land of Punt (or “Punt Land”), was a nation that had very good relations
with the pharaohs and the people of Egypt. Many scholars, taking cues from
ancient hieroglyphs and paintings on Egyptian ruins, believe that Punt was a
land in the Arabian peninsula, perhaps on the southern Coast of the Red Sea
(modern day Ethiopia and Djibouti). What we do know for sure is that this land
did in fact exist. Egyptian records and greek documents tell of Queen
Hatshepsut undertaking a voyage to Punt. Apparently, this was the land of the
gods, where the pharaohs came from. Punt has been described as a
flourishing landscape, full of lush greens and palm trees for miles. The land
was rich with resources like spices, gold and other precious minerals.
○ El Dorado: What is it with the Europeans and their obsession over exploiting
the New Land? As if the South American continent wasn’t enough to fill their
appetites, they began chasing myths in the belief it would bring great wealth
in the form of gold for those who discovered it. The story of El Dorado begins
in the 16th century, when Spanish newcomers to South America heard tales
of a tribe hidden high in the Andes mountains (in what is now modern-day
Columbia). It was said that when a new chief was elected this tribe would
perform a ritual that earned them their Old World name. According to legend,
the chief would be covered in gold dust and hundreds of gems would be cast

44
 into the Guatavita Lake to appease the gods. The Spanish, having found
tonnes of gold amongst the lowland Incas and Aztecs, decided that this land
had to be real. The name El Dorado, meaning “The gilded one” was bestowed
upon the fabled kingdom. Though the Spanish did find Lake Guavita (along
with hundreds of gold bars lining it), they could never find the city (or at least
the ruins) of this land. Even British explorer Sir Walter Raleigh made a crack
at it in 1617, losing his son to the Spanish in the attempt. Furious, he blamed
the messenger who brought the news of his son’s death, shortly afterwards
this poor man killed himself. Raleigh was later executed on the orders of King
James, who punished him for disobeying a direct order not to anger the
Spaniards. So then, where is El Dorado? We may never know, for perhaps
the Andes are just as good as the seas when it comes to keeping their
mysteries. However, perhaps the 1849 work of one Edgar Allan Poe contains
hints: “Over the Mountains of the Moon, down the Valley of the Shadow, ride,
boldly ride.... if you seek for El Dorado”.
○ Area 51: Interestingly, this mystery is unique in that it is entirely manmade.
Area 51 refers to a US military base in the middle of the Nevada desert. For
almost 60 years its been there, ever since it was first constructed in 1954. For
almost 60 years, alien-hunters and all kinds of people have been trying to
enter the area. The story of Area 51 goes back to the Cold War, when it was
initially built as a testing and training ground for the infamous U-2 spy plane.
From 1955, the base served as the area of operations for pilots destined to fly
this marvel of technology. Pilots flying commercial airlines reported seeing
“unidentified flying objects” with lights on miles above the base. This was just
the U2, likely out on a training flight 60,000 feet (18 kilometers) above the
ground. In the late 1950s, the U2 program was discontinued. Yet the Area
would still serve as an experimental training area for many air force projects.
In 1989, the rumours really began to circle. On a televised interview, former
employee Bob Lazar revealed that he had seen aliens (or at least their ships)
and had worked on them while in Area 51. The US government denied
anything, but in the face of this new theories began to circulate. Perhaps
inside the base was the remnants of the Roswell craft that crashed in 1947,
currently being studied by scientists to develop levitating circular disks of their
own. Perhaps inside one of the hangars lies a set used to film the 1969 moon
landing (NO, the moon landing did actually occur). Interestingly, you can still
see lights above the area in the early morning. Unfortunately, these aren’t the
lights of an alien spacecraft being tested, instead it's the contracted
commercial plane that goes by the callsign “Janet”, carrying the workers to
and from their home airports. Whatever the case, Area 51 will remain closed
to the prying eyes of those who dare attempt to spy on the US government’s
secret projects.
● Holy Grail | New Zealand | Fountain of Youth | Dark Matter
○ Holy Grail: Quite a religious artifact, the holy grail is believed to have been a
sort of cup, chalice, platter or other container of liquid that Jesus Christ drank
from at a Last Supper. It has also been theorised that Arimathea used the
grail to collect Jesus’s blood after the crucifixion. For centuries, scholars and
historians have all attempted to discover the true whereabouts of the grail. In
classic works of literature dating back to the 12th century, the grail is
described as having “great healing powers” and that whoever drinks from it
shall be cured of any illness or condition. The grail has also been told to give
eternal youth and happiness to whomever’s lips it touches. Whatever mythical
powers the grail is believed to be capable of, one thing remains clear: we
don’t actually know whether it existed. There have been over 200 claims of
this grail popping up all over the world, from South America to the Far East.

45
 The most popular claim is that of two Spanish historians, who believe the grail
was at a church in Leon (Northern Spain).
○ New Zealand: Firstly, New Zealand does exist (look at any map and find a
fish-shaped nation underneath Australia. Many scientists and geologists
agree that the land was formed after it broke apart from the Gondwana
supercontinent millions of years ago. However, an interesting tale is that
found in Maori legend, which states that the demigod Maui (yes, that one from
Moana), fished up the North island of New Zealand. On a fishing trip with his
brothers (all of whom despised their demigod brother). In order to win over
their favour, Maui crafted a fishing hook from an ancestral jawbone (don’t ask)
and hauled up the land of New Zealand (which is shaped rather like a fish, so
don’t blame him).
○ Fountain of Youth: If you’ve heard of the holy grail, you’ve probably also
heard of the Fountain of Youth. It does exactly what it says on the label, it
gives one the appearance and energy of their youthful selves (helpful,
considering that humans have for centuries despised old age). Yet the
existence of this “fountain” if it was even such a thing remains disputed. Many
believe that it was the natural springs in St. Augustine, Florida that generated
the legend of the fountain. One Spanish explorer by the name of Juan Ponce
De Leon is often attached to this legend, he is believed to have landed at
Florida in 1513, attempting to search for this elusive fountain. The Fountain of
Youth is probably the most disputed on this list in terms of its existence, we
don’t even know if Juan Ponce de Leon was actually trying to search for it
(apparently it could’ve been a joke by his enemies back home, after all he
was old and apparently “in the need for some youthful vigor”).
○ Dark Matter: How ironic, a mystery that relates the most to science has yet to
be proven by science itself. Dark Matter is essentially the stuff of which the
universe is theorised to be made of, apparently 85% of the universe (ever-
expanding mind you) is composed of this mysterious material. Scientists
believe that dark matter itself is made of some unknown subatomic material.
Apparently this substance is completely invisible to light (hence why we can’t
see it) and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. Scientists are adamant in
their belief that this material exists, due to the gravitational effects it asserts
on astronomical bodies.

What Were They?

● Monsieur Chouchani | Lori Erica Ruff | Atacama skeleton
○ Monsieur Chouchani: A teacher by any other name (quite literally that’s all
we know about him), Monsieur Chouchani was an anonymous and unknown
Jewish teacher who taught a small number of gifted students after World War
2. His students included French philosopher Emmanuel Levinas and
American writer Elie Wiesel. Very little is actually known about Monsieur
Chouchani, other than that he was Jewish and was purposefully enigmatic
about his details.
○ Lori Erica Ruff: Christmas Eve, 2010; Longview, Texas. A woman is found
dead in her own car, the cause of death being a self-inflicted shotgun wound.
The woman is Lori Erica Ruff, whose marriage to Blake Ruff recently fell out.
Or at least, she is believed to be Erica Ruff. 2 letters were left in the car, a
note addressed to the husband and another for the daughter (not to be
opened until she reached the age of 18). Inside the 11-page notes for the
husband were ramblings of one who was clearly unstable. So the Ruff family
decided to investigate her house in Leonard, Texas. Inside her private safe,
they made a shocking discovery. Lori Erica Ruff was not who she claimed to
be. The birth certificate of one Becky Sue Turner was discovered, along with

46
 a ruling by a judge that whoever held this name could change it to Lori Erica
Kennedy. Upon digging deeper into the identity of Becky Sue Turner, records
showed that she had died in a house fire at the age of 2. After hiring a private
detective working for the Social Security Administration, the family finally got
answers in 2016. After genetic testing and database research, a third cousin
was located who had relations with Ruff. After even more family tree
compiling, the cousin was finally located in Pennsylvania. Joe Velling, the
now retired private investigator for the SSA, made contact with the family. The
mystery of Lori Erica Ruff could finally be put to rest. She had been born in
1968 to Deanne and James Mclean, under the name Kimberly Mclean.
■ So how did this Pennsylvania born woman become an “identity thief”?
Apparently the story starts in 1986, when Kimberly decides to leave
her home after being unable to cope with the recent divorce of her
mother. So in 1988 California, she gets a copy of Becky Sue Turner’s
birth certificate. Later an Idaho ID card “proves” that she is Sue
Turner, despite the real one having died in 1971 at the age of 2. Just
months later, she legally changes her name to Lori Erica Kennedy.
The rest is history.
○ Atacama Skeleton: The Atacama skeleton (otherwise known as “Ata” by
mystery hunters), is theorized to have been an alien skeleton left on Earth by
the extraterrestrial beings who paid us a visit. The skeleton achieved this
theorization because of its unique features. The entire being (if it ever was
able to stand) was only 6 inches (15cm) tall, it had 2 ribs less than us humans
(10 instead of 12) and its skull ended in a ridge instead of forming a circular
shape. Genetic testing and other biological tests shows that this skeleton was
likely simply the result of many genetic mutations. 64 in fact, more
concentrated than any other specimen in history. The girl who this skeleton
belonged to was likely left in the care of a priest or other church figure (since
she was discovered in an abandoned village church in the Peruvian Atacama
desert). It was here that the serious mutations likely killed her.
● Taured Man | Somerton Man | bog bodies| Sky Object
○ Taured Man (Caitlin): The Taured Man’ or the ‘Man from Taured’ was a man
who arrived in Haneda Airport in 1954. This man approached the customs
officers with a passport originating from the country ‘Taured’. According to the
man, ‘Taured’ was a country between the border of France and Spain and
presented a passport with VISA stamps from all over the world. The
Japanese customs officials were reasonably skeptical of this man and
subsequently detained and placed in a hotel room while they were figuring out
what to do with this mysterious man from ‘Taured’. The next morning the
mysterious ‘Taured Man’ vanished from his hotel room and was never found.
Theories surrounding this man range from time travel, extraterrestrials to a
simple hoax.
○ Somerton Man: December 1st, 1948. A deceased man is found on Somerton
Beach, Adelaide Australia. He was nicely dressed in a suit and tie, had no
identification cards or tags on his clothes and the only clue was a piece of
paper in a secret pocket in his pants. Written on the paper was “Taman
Shud”, a phrase that appears at the end of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam
(and 11th century book of Persian poems). The words translate to “end” or
“finished”. In the weeks following the discovery, a businessman came forward
with a copy of the Rubaiyat, apparently it had been thrown into his car
through an open car window. As expected, the police found the final page,
where the words Taman Shud were torn out. More intriguing was the writing
on the back cover of the book. See the photo below (perhaps you’ll crack the
mystery yourself). The letters couldn’t be decoded, but the telephone number
led to the doorstep of a young nurse. The young nurse denied ever having

47
 any knowledge of the man. So the police kept the case open, whilst the
Somerton Man was buried, a plaster cast of his body was made. Yet a few
decades later, the nurse was later reinvestigated and she is believed to have
been the wife of the Somerton Man.
○ Bog Bodies (Caitlin): Ireland is known for many things: U2, me, the
incredible Tayto theme park and Bobby Sands. An unusual thing Ireland is
also known for are bog bodies, two examples of famous bog bodies are
known as “Old Croghan Man” and “Cashel Man”. Some other notable bog
bodies include those called “Tollund Man” from Denmark, “Lindow Man” from
the U.K., “Elling Woman” from Denmark, “Haraldskaer Woman” from Norway
and what once used to be known as “Windeby girl” but is now known as
“Windeby I”. Bog bodies are formed as a result of a corpse that are naturally
preserved in peat bogs. They differ from regular corpses because instead of
decomposing they are preserved as a result of the acidity, temperature, lack
of oxygen and other conditions that prevent the internal organs and skin from
completely decomposing. Some bog bodies have perfectly preserved skin,
hair or facial features. Many of the bog bodies have died violent deaths, some
bog bodies were sacrifices to primordial gods, ancient kings or peasants who
were buried.
○ Sky Object: This one is slightly more recent. December 2018 to be exact,
where a mysterious object was spotted and photographed by hundreds in
California. The object appeared to be making some sort of swirly trail. NASA
quickly confirmed that the object was most likely a meteor, Earth’s gravity
pulling it into the sea. The explanation for the unusual trail was a noctilucent
trail (NLC), where smoke from the meteor allows ice crystals to form around
the meteoric dust. Some still remain skeptical however, citing the work of
aliens or even mother nature.
● Greek Fire | Archimedes Death Ray | Mithridate | Havana Syndrome
○ Greek Fire: Firstly, if we’re going to be historically accurate, this shouldn’t be
called “Greek Fire” but instead it should be named “Byzantine Fire”. That’s
right, the Greeks never actually invented this fire for their own purposes. It
was instead the Greek-speaking Byzantine empire (The Eastern wing of the
Roman Empire in Italy), who invented and used this deadly substance in
combat. Apparently, a Syrian engineer by the name of Callinicus discovered
the formula for this fire in 673 AD. It was used to devastating effect against
the Arabs who were knocking at the door of the empire. Greek fire was
superior to any incendiary weapon in history (even our flamethrowers and
napalm bombs can’t compare to it). It was said to burn on water, stick onto
surfaces and was only extinguishable with vinegar or sand (and interestingly,
old urine). The fire was often deployed using a primitive version of modern
flamethrowers (see gallery below), or hurled towards the target in clay pots. It
is said that the actual formula for the creation of Greek fire was handed down
from emperor to emperor. In fact, enemies who captured both the fire itself
and the siphon that delivered it were unable to replicate either (a true wonder
weapon then). The secret obviously died when the Byzantine empire fell, and
over the centuries many have tried to recreate this weapon. Even modern day
technology cannot replicate the weapon (perhaps however, that’s a good
thing). Many believe that petroleum, naphtha, sulphur, resin and quicklime
were key ingredients. Yet the true formula and method will likely never be
discovered.
○ Archimedes Death Ray: Ah Archimedes, aren’t you a colorful character?
One moment you’re making huge leaps in the field of geometry, the next
you’re running through the streets naked shouting “Eureka” after discovering
buoyancy. Born in the city-state of Syracuse (Sicily, which was then a part of
Ancient Greece) in 287 BC, the great mathematician and inventor was soon

48
 called upon to use his intellect for war. In 214 BC, the Roman army came
knocking. So Archimedes devised ways of getting them to leave. Since Sicily
had no land bridge back then, the Roman navy was forced to land troops on
the island. To stop them, Archimedes invented a huge metal claw, operated
by a complex system of levers and pulleys from within the city. It could pick
up a Roman galley and dump it back in the ocean, leaving its crew drowning
or floundering for help. Yet also among his tools was the so-called “Death
Ray”. Unfortunately, the death ray was not some sort of doomsday device
that evokes Steampunk-like fantasies. Instead it was a system of mirrors that
concentrated sunlight onto the Roman ships. Apparently these mirrors could
easily burn the biggest of boats, leaving nothing but a burning hulk at the
bottom of the ocean. The historian Dalen was the first to mention the death
ray, almost 350 years after the siege of Syracuse ended. Yet the lack of any
other writing about it throws the entire idea into doubt. Perhaps the death ray
was some other contraption or maybe it never even existed. Current tests
with the system (including some on the popular Discovery Channel show
“Mythbusters”) have had mixed results. Whilst MIT researchers have been
able to prove that it could burn a ship, the conditions were simply too perfect
and not realistic enough.
○ Mithridate: Imagine a medicine that could fortify your body from any poison.
One whose origins date back to the time of Roman emperors and Greek
writers. This is Mithridate, a semi-mythical remedy with as many as 65
ingredients. It was believed to have been created by King Mithridates VI of
Pontus (a region of Greece) in the 1st century BC. Its use continued during
the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance. Until as late as 1786,
physicians in London possessed the recipe and were allowed to prescribe this
to patients. Apparently, the drug was so effective that when its creator wanted
to kill himself, no poison had any effect on his body (so logically, he asked his
soldier to run him through with a sword). The recipe was later discovered by
Pompey and improved by Nero’s physician.
○ Havana Syndrome: Wow, I’m going to have to give props to Daniel
Berdichevsky and the team to finding this mystery. The Havana Syndrome is
(much to the disappointment of us scholars), not some sort of medical
condition induced by repeatedly listening to the song on repeat. In late 2016
and until December 2018, US and Canadian staff stationed at their respective
embassies in Havana, Cuba have reported cases of sudden and unknown
brain injuries brought about by hearing some “buzzing”, “piercing squeals”
“grating metal” and “humming” sounds. The sounds came suddenly, along
with a sort of attack on the brain. Thus far, over 30 staff in total have been
sent back home due to these conditions. As for their cause, some scientists
believe that ultrasound or infrasound might be responsible, with Donald
Trump even accusing the Cuban government as using a “sonic attack”
weapon to incapacitate members of their civil service (oh Donald, your
accusations will never get old will they?). Perhaps radiofrequency radiation
might also be to blame, or a poorly created ultrasonic transmitter used to
eavesdrop (I might need one of those) could induce the sounds.

What the Heck?

● Magnetic pole reversals | Bermuda Triangle | Oak Island Money Pit
○ Magnetic Pole Reversals: Go investigate this interesting phenomenon with
the following links:
■ National Geographic
■ NASA
■ Livescience

49
○ Bermuda Triangle: December 5th, 1945. A flight of 5 Grumman TBM
torpedo bombers leaves Fort Lauderdale Florida, on a routine training mission
over the North Atlantic. They are never to return to base. Their disappearance
is one of many that plague the area, over the centuries at least 50 ships and
20 planes have been lost to the oceans (or perhaps, something else). The
Bermuda Triangle is a patch of ocean between Florida, Puerto Rico and
Bermuda Island, where mysterious disappearances occur. Surprisingly
however, the Bermuda Triangle isn’t actually as “fabled” as myths make it out
to be. It doesn’t claim more ships than any other part of the ocean, in fact
everyday commercial shipping runs peacefully through that stretch of water
with no anomalies. When the Bermuda does decide to claim a few lives, it
does so in a mysterious fashion. To date, most of the ships and planes that
were lost in the triangle are never found. Not even wreckage is left drifting on
the surface. For a time, the supernatural was associated with the Bermuda
triangle. People believed that wormholes, aliens and even Atlantis were
responsible for claiming the doomed vessels. Yet as is always the case with
mysteries, science has a few more theories that are probably the likely ones.
The first is that “Rogue waves”, huge walls of water more than 30 meters high
that appear out of nowhere. Theoretically, this would be enough force to
completely destroy any evidence of a wreck, or at least send the entire vessel
down to the bottom. Since the Bermuda Triangle lies in an area where
multiple storms can converge at once, this theory is probably the case for
ships. But what about planes? How did an entire squadron of US Navy
bombers disappear without trace? Well let’s go back to Flight 19 and uncover
some interesting (yet also unfortunate) details.
■ Lt. Charles Taylor, leader of Flight 19, reported that his squadron was
off course and was somewhere over the Florida keys. Navy command
at Fort Lauderdale told him to head north back to base. Yet due to
magnetic anomalies in the Bermuda Triangle, Taylor was actually
leading his squadron further out to sea instead of inland. Their planes
low on fuel, the squadron ditched in the ocean, never to be seen
again. Many believe that these magnetic anomalies are the cause of
navigational errors in aircraft.
○ Oak Island Money Pit: The Oak Island Money Pit is just one such mystery
that shows our lust for treasure. Especially if that treasure might have come
from the high seas. Yet the story of the Oak Island Money Pit is one of
discovery, tragedy and obsession. Oak Island is a 140-acre piece of land on
Canada’s Atlantic Coast off the shores of Nova Scotia. In 1795, a teenage
boy by the name of Daniel McGinnis first noticed flashing lights off the shores
of Nova Scotia. When he went to explore the island, he found a large circular
depression where oak trees had clearly been removed to make room
for...something. Eventually, McGinnis and his friends came to excavate the
area, but their efforts were thwarted whenever they reached the 108 feet
mark. For when this depth was reached, water would start to inexplicably fill
the hole. Over the years, many would try to dig deeper and uncover what
secrets the money pit was hiding. In 1861, tragedy struck when a man was
scalded by an exploding boiler in an attempt to excavate the hole further. The
theories as to what lies down there range from the logical to the slightly
absurd. The most supported theory is that of Pirate Treasure, the island was
a good haunt for these sea thieves in the 17th and 18th century. Others state
that the Knights Templar (a secret order going back to the crusades) buried
their loot here, including the holy grail. Others state that Marie Antoinette,
about to be executed during the French revolution, gave her jewels to a maid
and ordered them buried on this island. Some even state that a Viking ship
from the original expedition to Nova Scotia is buried under all that sand.

50
 Whatever the case, the current owners of the island, brothers Rick and Marty
Lagina, are still hard at work trying to uncover the mystery of the money pit.
● Deep Blue Hole | Dyatlov Pass incident | Hollinwell Showground
○ Deep Blue Hole: Otherwise known as the Great Blue Hole, the Deep Blue
Hole is a natural sinkhole near the centre of Lighthouse Reef, a small atoll 70
kilometers away from the mainland. The hole is circular in its formation,
measuring 318 meters in diameter and 124 meters deep. It is the second
largest structure of its kind, surpassed only by the Dragon Hole off the shores
of China. The site gained quite a reputation after famed oceanographer and
diver Jacques Cousteau brought his research ship there in 1971. As of late,
the hole has gained a reputation for holding marine secrets. The sediment
around it also holds something interesting, signs of a massive drought during
the 10th century. This drought may finally confirm the downfall of the Mayans.
As for what lies down there, scientists are just about to get to the bottom of it
(excuse the pun).
○ Dyatlov Pass Incident: If you thought some of the other disappearances on
this list were disturbing, they have nothing on the chilling (apologies for the
weather-related pun) mystery of the Dyatlov Pass. Our story begins on
January 31st 1959, nine college students from the Ural Polytechnic Institute
depart on a skiing trip to reach the peak of Otorten, a mountain in the
Northern Urals. Led by experienced hiker Igor Alekseievich Dyatlov, the team
were hampered by snowstorms that caused them to deviate from the path to
the mountain. Instead, they found themselves setting up camp near the top of
another mountain, Kholat Syakhl, a name that translates to “Dead Mountain”
in the native Mansi tongue (a rather ominous sign). It was on this chilling
mountain top that all nine hikers would lose their lives. When Dyatlov’s sports
club didn’t receive a telegram confirming the group’s arrival at Vizhai by
February 12th, the university sent another volunteer search and rescue
group. After the volunteer force found the campsite on February 26th, the
army and police were called in to witness the horrific scene. The tents of the
campers had been abandoned, torn open from the inside with all their
belongings still within. Eight or nine sets of footprints were later located,
leading away from the tents, these tracks later led the investigators to a
nearby wood almost 1.6 kilometers away from the campsite. Here the group
had set up a campfire and here lay 2 bodies from the campers. Despite the
temperature having been between -25°C and -30°C, the campers were found
wearing no shoes and only their underwear. They then found the three bodies
of more campers, including group leader Dyatlov. These bodies, despite
having some anomalies, had shown signs of hypothermia. So the Soviet
Union said that these unfortunate souls had been left to the mercy of the
harsh Siberian weather. That is, until four more bodies were located 2
months later. These were found in a ravine 75 meters deeper into the woods
where the campfire was set up. Three of the four had serious injuries, while
one simply showed signs of hypothermia. 1 showed significant skull damage,
while 2 exhibited chest fractures. The most haunting sight was that of
Lyudmila Dubinina; whose tongue, eyes and lips were missing. So what had
claimed the lives of these unfortunate students?
■ One theory states that nature merely disposed of them with an
avalanche, yet the authorities were adamant in saying that Dyatlov
knew better than to camp in such an area. Another states that the
Menk, a Russian yeti, descended upon the group and caused the
traumatic injuries. Yet the weirdest detail is still in the tents. Why were
the students running out of them in little more than underwear? Was
someone, or something coming to get them? Scientists have also
blamed paradoxical undressing, a condition of hypothermia where the

51
 brain believes that its actually getting warmer, so clothes are taken off
to cool down. Some have even theorized that the Soviet military had
been testing some sort of concussive weapon in the area, thus
explaining the hurried retreat from camp. Another interesting detail
came in the form of slight radioactive readings from the bodies. Was
the area secretly a testing site for nuclear weapons? Another plausible
theory was proposed by another group of campers who’d been
sleeping about 50 kilometers from the Dyatlov group. They reported
seeing “strange orange orbs” floating in the sky and heading towards
Death mountain. Perhaps an extraterrestrial race came knocking on
Siberia (not the first time it might’ve happened, see the Tunguska
event later on). Whatever the case, the mystery remains open and the
path to Otorten mountain has been renamed the Dyatlov Pass to
commemorate the 9 poor victims.
○ Hollinwell Showground: This might as well have been a tale from an Edgar
Allan Poe story. On July 13th 1986, 500 children and adults were crowded on
the Hollinwell Showground at Kirby-in-Ashfield England. It was one of the
biggest junior brass and marching bands competitions in the country. Yet as
the kazoos and drums started up, the shouts and cheers turned to horror as
300 children adults fell to the floor suddenly. All of them were unconscious,
though no serious conditions were found in hospital (all of them survived,
thank goodness). They reported having a “terribly burning sensation in their
mouths and eyes” before fainting, with some showing signs of
hyperventilation. The mystery of the Hollinwell showground is one that
manages to perplex people to this day. Some believe that “mass sociogenic
illnesses” had taken ahold of the cheerful occasion, whilst others blame a
pesticide that had been previously sprayed on the showgrounds. Whatever
the case, the Hollinwell Showground is notorious for its abrupt occurence and
lack of evidence.
● Solway Spaceman | Airfares
○ Solway Spaceman: In 1964, fireman Jim Templeton of Carlisle went out with
his family for a usual picnic. Once they’d set up their mat and were settling
down, Jim took a photo of his daughter Elizabeth sitting down in a nice dress.
Yet when the chemists exposed the photo, behind Elizabeth there appeared
to be a mysterious figure clad in a white suit and helmet. Many believed that a
spaceman or visitor from outer space had just been caught on film. The
Solway Spaceman gained even more notoriety after officials in Woomera,
Australia announced that they had seen two men matching that description
near the launch site of a Blue Streak missile (the launch was actually
cancelled due to those two men). Eventually however, experts simply agreed
that it had been an overexposure incident. Jim’s wife Annie had been nearby
with a blue dress. Perhaps she accidentally stepped into the frame and the
chemists allowed her blue dress to look white.
○ Airfares: Apparently this mystery is slightly less captivating than the others.
Have you ever gone onto an air ticketing website which promised an
affordable cost, only to have that price swapped out with a much higher one?
That’s essentially the process of airfares, where the price of a ticket goes
considerably higher despite looking initially low. Sometimes people do this on
purpose, to make some easy money deceiving travellers. Airline industry
experts deny this and instead say that its the result of “caching” where
information is stored in order to be retrieved quickly but perhaps with less
accuracy. We still need more investigations and IT audits on this one before
proving or disproving a theory.

What Do They Mean?

52
● Voynich manuscript | Kryptos | Cicada 3301 | Wow! Signal
○ Voynich Manuscript (Caitlin): The Voynich manuscript is an illustrated piece
that no one can ever read, no one knows what language it is written in and
(it's a likely possibility that) no one ever will. The manuscript has been carbon
dated to originate from around the 15th century in northern Italy, but no one
knows for sure. The script in the book is unique and incomprehensible. There
are some drawings and diagrams that accompany the text but similarly, they
are also incomprehensible. The drawings include images of herbs, recipes,
astronomy, biology, cosmology, and pharmaceutics. It is theorised that the
Voynich manuscript purpose is to be a “ pharmacopoeia “ or to provide
information and insight into the topics of early medicine and medieval
treatments. Some of the theories surrounding the Voynich manuscript include
the possible author(s), the origin of the manuscript, the language and the
content.
○ Kryptos: Kryptos is slightly less mysterious than the other ones, nor does it
involve any sort of extraterrestrial involvement. Rather, Kryptos is an artwork
in front of the CIA building in Langley, Virginia. Built on November 3rd 1990,
by artist Jim Sanborn, it bears four encrypted messages for the public to
decode. Of them, three have been decoded, with the fourth one becoming
one of the most famous unsolved ciphers of all time. Admittedly there are a
few spelling errors here and there, some on purpose others for the aesthetic
look. Here are the solutions to the three solved messages:
■ BETWEEN SUBTLE SHADING AND THE ABSENCE OF LIGHT LIES
THE NUANCE OF IQLUSION
■ IT WAS TOTALLY INVISIBLE HOWS THAT POSSIBLE ? THEY
USED THE EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD X THE INFORMATION WAS
GATHERED AND TRANSMITTED UNDERGRUUND TO AN
UNKNOWN LOCATION X DOES LANGLEY KNOW ABOUT THIS ?
THEY SHOULD ITS BURIED OUT THERE SOMEWHERE X WHO
KNOWS THE EXACT LOCATION ? ONLY WW THIS WAS HIS LAST
MESSAGE X THIRTY EIGHT DEGREES FIFTY SEVEN MINUTES
SIX POINT FIVE SECONDS NORTH SEVENTY SEVEN DEGREES
EIGHT MINUTES FORTY FOUR SECONDS WEST X LAYER TWO
■ SLOWLY DESPARATLY SLOWLY THE REMAINS OF PASSAGE
DEBRIS THAT ENCUMBERED THE LOWER PART OF THE
DOORWAY WAS REMOVED WITH TREMBLING HANDS I MADE A
TINY BREACH IN THE UPPER LEFT HAND CORNER AND THEN
WIDENING THE HOLE A LITTLE I INSERTED THE CANDLE AND
PEERED IN THE HOT AIR ESCAPING FROM THE CHAMBER
CAUSED THE FLAME TO FLICKER BUT PRESENTLY DETAILS OF
THE ROOM WITHIN EMERGED FROM THE MIST X CAN YOU SEE
ANYTHING Q ?
○ Cicada 3301: What an interesting internet mystery. Cicada 3301 is a
nickname given to an organisation which has thus far posted 3 sets of
puzzles to recruit codebreakers, cryptographers and possible even other
professions. Their goal has been cited as “recruiting intelligent individuals” by
presenting a series of puzzles for them to solve. No new puzzles have been
posted since 2015. Some believe that Cicada 3301 was put up as a secret
recruitment drive for NASA, CIA, FBI or other covert intelligence
organisations. Some believe it was even the work of an underground
anonymous group that aims to foster those with the right skills. This mystery
is most interesting because it is a prime example of how the internet can be
used to create humanity’s own enigmas.
○ Wow! Signal: For those of you who are active on the WSC facebook group,
you may have seen Daniel tease this mystery shortly before the entire

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 curriculum was released. The Wow! Signal was a nickname given to a
mysterious transmission from the cosmos, first detected in 1977 by
astronomer Jerry Ehman using the Big Ear radio telescope (in Ohio
University). It was a 72 second burst of radio waves that Ehman then wrote
“Wow!” next to, indicating his surprise at their existence. Over the 40 years
since that occurrence, the signal has never been reheard, but we may have
an explanation as to what caused it. Though many are adamant that this is
proof of alien life out there, the rumours have been put down once more. The
first clue lay in the frequency: 1,420 MHz, the same frequency that hydrogen
transmits. Coincidentally, there had been two comets with hydrogen clouds
millions of kilometers in diameter accompanying them when the Wow! Signal
was heard. Further coincidence was that the telescope just happened to be
pointed at the space in the stars where these comets were. Ok so maybe not
all that was coincidence. These two comets, 266/P Christensen and P/2008
Y2(Gibbs), were later seen again between November 2016 to February 2017.
So scientists put their theory to the test and found that not only was the Wow!
Signal replicated, but it could also have been generated by any other comet in
that area. Thus we have proof that the Wow! Signal was probably generated
by an astronomical object and not some extraterrestrial lifeform.
● Rongorongo | Toynbee tiles | Circleville letters | Linear B | quipu
○ Rongorongo: Ah Easter Island, fabled land of Easter rabbits/bunnies (not
really), home to huge stone heads and generally a pretty great place to visit
on holiday. Yet was there once a flourishing civilisation on this rocky outcrop
of land? Rongorongo appears to support that belief. Rongorongo refers to a
system of glyphs (writing symbols instead of letters) that were etched onto
wooden tablets using obsidian flakes or sharks teeth. Thus far, no one has
been able to decipher their meaning, which frustrates many who believe that
these remnants of the Easter Island people might tell stories about how their
nation collapsed. The glyphs were first discovered by Eugene Eyraud, a friar
of the Roman Catholic Church who landed on Easter Island as part of a
missionary on January 1864.
○ Toynbee Tiles: Again, slightly more modern than the other ciphers and
writings on this list. The Toynbee Tiles are messages embedded in the
asphalt of about 24 major cities in the United States and four South American
ones. Since their discovery in the 1980s, several hundred of these tiles have
been found. About the size of a license plate, the tiles generally follow this
sort of message: TOYNBEE IDEA/IN MOViE ‘2001/RESURRECT DEAD/ON
PLANET JUPITER. Upper and lower tabs of these tiles often contain political
statements or encourage readers to create their own tiles. It is unknown who
made these tiles and what their actual context is. What we do know is that the
main text draws on quite a bit from literature. A “2001 Space Odyssey”
focused on a man who was resurrected on his way to Jupiter, the Ray
Bradbury short story “Toynbee Convector” describes a time traveler who goes
back to the present to convince his contemporaries to build a future for
themselves. Finally, philosopher Arnold J. Toynbee has shared beliefs that
the afterlife is not automatic, it is man-made. The Toynbee Tiles are a playful
mystery however and some more may pop up soon in even more cities.
○ Circleville letters: This story may put some of you on the edge of your seat
(or wishing you’d never told your teammates that you’d take up studying
Special Area). The Circleville letters date back to 1976, when for a few weeks
some anonymous writer calling himself “The Circleville Writer” sent letters to
the citizens of that small town. Circleville is about 40 kilometers away from
Columbus, Ohio and the town was the sort of place where everyone knew
everyone else. The Circleville letters contained private pieces of information
that sometimes only the recipient knew, along with crude imagery and threats

54
 of violence if the person didn’t announce their secret. While many quickly
disposed of the letters, one Mary Gillespie was quickly singled out for them.
Mary drove a bus as a living and was married to Ron Gillespie. Her letters
concerned accusations about an affair with the superintendent of schools,
along with unsettling information that her house was being watched. Later
letters saw Mary and Ron threatened as a couple, with the final one indicating
that Mary had better come clean or else the entire news agency would know
her secret. Ron’s brother-in-law, Paul Freshour, was the prime suspect for the
two of them. On August 19th, 1977 the final twist in the madman’s plot was
complete. A phone call for Ron was picked up, with the husband storming out
of the house with a pistol in his hand. Hours later, his car was found smashed
up against a tree with his dead body inside. If the caller had been the letter-
writer, then the threat had been executed. An interesting detail was in the
gun, police notice it had been fired once, though where the shot landed was
never found. Furthermore, a primary investigation concluded that this was the
result of drunk driving, as Ron’s alcohol blood level was 1.5 times above the
legal limit. His friends protested this, claiming that Ron was a teetotal who
wouldn’t drink at all. Mary would continue with her lift, carrying on despite
more letters coming in. Then in 1982, while on her usual routine, she noticed
a sign that threatened the life of her daughter. Mary decided to end things
once and for all by removing the sign, only to find that it had been booby-
trapped to a hidden pistol. Police traced the serial number on the gun back to
Paul Freshour, who denied ever writing the letters or placing the booby-trap
(the pistol, he claimed, had been lost for a while). Regardless, the people of
Circleville had had enough of these threats, so the judge sentenced Freshour
to a 25 year term in prison, though he would only spend 10. Even though he
was imprisoned, the Circleville letters still kept coming, one even came to
Freshour himself. So the Circleville letters remain a mystery, with their writer
still out there.
○ Linear B: Despite such a boring name (honestly I thought this was some type
of computer code), Linear B is actually full of implications and discoveries for
us. Linear B refers to a Greek dialect and language known as Mycenaean,
named after Mycenae where the ruler Agamemnon was based at. The usage
of this language dates back to 1500 BC, where it spread from the island of
Crete to the southern part of the Greek mainland. It was in the early 20th
century that excavators and archaeologists at Knossos, Mycenae and Pylos
found tablets bearing this script. For many decades, archaeologists and
historians were baffled as to how to decipher this script. Luckily though, an
amateur British student by the name of Michael Ventris finally discovered the
secret to unlocking the language. Its thanks to his efforts that we are able to
decipher and read the language of the Ancient greeks, crucial in telling us of
their complex economic system and political agendas.
○ Quipu: Ah the ancient mesoamerican civilizations, once again we turn to you
to provide a mystery for our modern culture. The quipu was a method used by
the Incas in order to store information or communicate it throughout the many
cities of the empire. A normal quipu could often be composed of over
hundreds of different-colored knots and strings. Each knot or lack of one often
communicate a different thing. Inca often used quipu to record numbers or
remember stories to recount to the next generation. When the emperor
Atahualpa came into power, the quipu were forgotten as a form of
communication, in an effort to reinvent the Incan language.
● Phaistos Disc | Singapore Stone | Rohonc Codex
○ Phaistos Disc: Crete, 1908; archaeologists find a mysterious clay disk with
some Greek symbols on it. They are baffled as to what these symbols might
mean, or what the 4,000 year old clay disk was used for. The disk dates back

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 to 1700 BC, at the height of the Minoan civilization that called the island
home. Interestingly, deciphering this disk required combining the scripts from
Linear A and the recently uncovered Linear B. Recently, scientists believe
that this disk contained some sort of prayer to the Minoan gods. So that’s one
linguistic mystery solved.
○ Singapore Stone: At the mouth of the Singapore river lies a myth, shrouded
in local folklore and intertwined with the empires of Majapahit. At least, that’s
what scientists and historians believe the Singapore stone symbolizes. This
sandstone slab is now located in the National Museum of Singapore, where
you can view the writings and inscriptions on it. Historians believe that this
stone dates back to the 13th century, possibly even older. Thus far, the
inscription is undecipherable, but many believe that it is in Old Javanese or
even Sanskrit. Perhaps this stone is proof of an extension of the Majapahit
Kingdom that may have conquered the area. It certainly comes into alignment
with the folklore from the area. The 14th century strongman Badang is said to
have tossed a massive stone to the mouth of the Singapore River. On his
death the Rajah sent two stone pillars to be placed over his grace “at the
point of the straits of Singapore”.
○ Rohonc Codex: For the final language related mystery, we must travel to the
continent of Europe (a welcome change from the South Americas or Asia).
The Rohonc Codex is an illustrated manuscript (not unlike the Voynich
manuscript) by an unknown author in an unknown language. It came to be
discovered in Hungary during the early 19th century, with investigations being
performed until today. Many believe that the illustrations and writing were
some sort of combination of the native languages around during the time. Yet
many linguists and historians are in doubt as to whether this should be taken
seriously or simply dismissed as an elaborate hoax. Whatever the case, it
seems pitiful that the Rohonc Codex is not given as much of a limelight as the
Voynich Manuscript.

Mysteries of the Living

● Humans
○ function of the appendix | need for sleep | evolutionary Missing Link
■ Function of the appendix: Ah the appendix, it appears we’ve begun
our journey through the unsolved mysteries within our own lives. The
appendix is an organ of the body that generally sits between the small
intestine and large intestine, being a thin tube about 10 centimeters
long. The actual function of the appendix is unknown, doctors have yet
to decide whether this organ is actually used for anything. One theory
is that the appendix acts as a storehouse for “good bacteria”, that is
the microorganisms that will repopulate the digestive system after a
diarrheal illness. Other theories state that the appendix was a
byproduct of evolution, being a useless feature of the body (like our
tailbone) that our primate ancestors once used as part of their
digestive system (Darwin called it a cecum in his theories).
■ Need for Sleep: You might think this is a laughable mystery with an
answer even you could come up with (go ahead, be my guest). Yet in
reality, scientists and researchers have no idea why we need to sleep.
Sure eating allows us to gain energy and grow, reproducing allows us
to populate more cities, but sleep is just one of those things our body
tends to do on its own. One thing is for sure, sleep is important (yes,
I’m looking at you fellow scholar if its 11:00 or later). Tests on animals
and even ourselves have shown that sleep deprivation can easily lead
to unwanted side effects (lack of concentration, inability to perform

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 simple tasks, even death). But whenever we do sleep, the brain is still
at work. There are several theories as to why we sleep. One is that
the brain needs sleep as a time to restore its energy, another is that
the brain uses it to clear out waste energy produced during the day.
The most promising theory however, is one that links back to our
science theme for the 2018 season. Yes that’s right, the brain might
be undergoing plasticity changes and synapse alteration. Plasticity is
involved in how people store memories and learn new skills, those
without much sleep tend to forget things easily or have trouble paying
attention. Its believed that the brain reinforces the connections
between synapses and refreshes its memory banks.
■ Evolutionary Missing Link: Firstly, DO NOT use this term whenever
you are writing an answer to a science test or answering a biologist.
They will probably regard you in a lower light once you’ve used it. The
“Missing Link” is often used in popular culture to refer to any sort of
transitional fossil or signs that might link our evolutionary chain.
Scientists hate this term because it supports the theory of the Great
Chain of Being instead of traditional evolutionary theories. The
“missing link” assumes that evolution occurs in a linear pattern, with
only 1 “type” of the species existing at any one point in history. This is
incorrect, evolution is a branching process that sees many different
variations of the same species over a period of time (hence why we
humans once hung out with Neanderthals, before they all mysteriously
disappeared). So the evolutionary missing link refers to some sort of
creature that bridges the gap between ape and human; though several
have claimed to be the discoverers of such “transitional fossils”, none
are the absolute missing link.
○ right-handedness | fingerprints | laughter | yawning | dreaming
■ Right-handedness: Genetics, something we can thank or blame
(depending on what traits you wish you had or are grateful you do
have) for who we are. Yet when it comes to which hand you’d rather
write with or hold things with, science is baffled as to how that’s
decided. If genetics is still a theory, then why do 70 to 95% of people
worldwide prefer using their right hand over their left? Many believe
that this dates back to the middle ages, where those who were left
handed (probably due to some genetic mutation in the first place)
were often looked down upon in society. Ever since then, people with
left-handedness preferred to train themselves in using their right hand
(to avoid social shame and whatnot, understandable), causing their
descendants to inherit the same trait. There are of course, many more
scientific theories as to why we prefer the right over the left, but I’ll let
you sink your teeth into them.
■ Fingerprints: On the surface of each finger and toe you possess
something that truly makes you unique. Forget your intelligence,
personality or even appearance. Your fingerprint is the one thing that
no other person on this planet has. Literally, scientists have calculated
that there is a 1 in 64 billion chance that someone has the exact same
fingerprint as you. Even identical twins, who share a vast majority of
identical DNA, do not have identical fingerprints. So how do we get
these unique features? Well we need to once again turn to our old
friend genetics. Genetics are often the deciding factor in which of the
three features of fingerprints you’ll possess (loops, whorls or arches).
■ Laughter: Ah that insatiable desire to let out a chuckle, prolonged
hehehe or a loud hahaha. Laughter has been with humans since the
dawn of our species, even our primate ancestors possess the ability to

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 express joy through laughs. Yet why do we laugh and what does it do
to the body? Laughter in some stages even involves the muscles of
the body and our breathing patterns. Our face often scrunches up,
with our muscles practically incapable of any movement during
prolonged periods. Laugh for long enough and your lungs will no
longer be able to intake enough air to keep you conscious (yes,
fainting from laughter is a thing). As for what triggers laughter and
what it does to the brain, researchers have yet to discover exactly
what benefits it does to our mind. What we do know is that laughter
relieves stress and sends out positive hormones throughout the body.
■ Yawning: Yet another seemingly normal function of the human body
that science embarrassingly lacks an explanation for (isn’t it somewhat
funny that we have unlocked the secrets of atoms yet can’t even
explain why our mouths open to intake air for long periods?). Again,
we aren’t exactly sure why yawning occurs, or how the brain functions
whenever we do intake air. Common theories include fatigue and
boredom. If you’re yawning, it's a 50/50 chance you’re either in need
of sleep or need to do something slightly more captivating. Another
theory is that we yawn in response to others, as a sort of social
communication (weird way to evolve, but sure). Interestingly, you
yawn more in response to those whom you care more about.
■ Dreaming: This admittedly is expected. Whenever our brain drifts off
to sleep (which in of itself is a mystery), our mind can often present
visions or events in a fantastical or scarily realistic way. Our dreams
are often believed to reveal our subconscious to our eyes, uncovering
our greatest fears and deepest desires. Sometimes, our brain even
presents old memories to us, allowing us to revisit and even alter them
in ways we never could were we awake. It is in dreams that we can
find ideas, omens or signs of what to do in life. Scientists believe that
dreaming is a byproduct of the brain processes when we’re sleeping.
Apparently our brain uses this time to consolidate memories and
regulate emotions, with the dreams being reflections of both.
○ interstitium | blood types | altruism
■ Interstitium: Sorry Biology students, but your anatomy lessons may
now be slightly outdated (better go update those notes!). Scientists
believe that a network of fluid-filled tissue lining the entire body is
actually a new organ in of itself. Known as the interstitium (after the
term “interstices”, referring to the space between structures of the
body), it is believed to contain up to a fifth of the entire body’s fluids.
The fluid itself is thought to be lymph, a colorless liquid composed
mainly of white blood cells and produced by lymph nodes. Scientists
believe that further study of this organ is in order, perhaps it will give
us more answers about certain disorders (such as cancer) and shed a
light on more bodily functions (including interestingly, why our skin
wrinkles as we age).
■ Blood types: The very substance that fuels our bodies and gives us
life is actually an accident of evolution. More specifically, why humans
have different blood types (A, B, O, AB as well as positive or negative)
is due to the evolutionary branches of our species. One such cause is
disease, different blood types have been observed to be more
resistant towards diseases. For example, Africans tend to have O
blood types, which are more effective than A blood types at shielding
the body from malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. This is the
most popular theory, that our environmental diseases altered our
blood types and allowed us to pass them down generation by

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 generation. While research has yet to confirm that this is in fact true
(after all, there are European with O blood types and Africans with A
blood types), it appears to be the most logically supported one.
■ Altruism: Whenever you’ve helped out a friend on schoolwork, did
some chores for your parents or visited a relative in hospital, that’s
your body being altruistic. Altruism is the concept of acting out of
concern for others, where you let go of personal concerns and do
what is necessary to assist those around you. Altruism is rather
mysterious, we don’t know if our brains are coded with it from the get
go or if we slowly develop it over time. While our ancestors likely used
it to help others escape danger (and I mean our ape ancestors), it isn’t
always evident in some people (admittedly, I have trouble being
altruistic).
● Non-humans
○ vanishing honeybees | white-nose syndrome | immortal jellyfish
■ Vanishing honeybees: Ah bees, somehow you manage to just flip
the bird (apologies) when it comes to scientific and medicinal law.
Take their ability to fly for example, too big and wings too small (bee
movie reference), yet still they can become airborne like its normal.
Now, bees appear to be defying the laws of biology. Recently, from
about 2005 to even now, honeybees across America have been
vanishing from their hives in the hundreds. The official term is Colony
Collapse Disorder (CCD), wherein the majority of worker bees leave
the hive and never return. The only remnants are a few nurse bees
along with the queen bee (who often dies without any food from her
workers to nourish herself). Scientists have had many theories,
including pesticides, disease or noise. Their theories range from the
bees being weakened and then unable to find food, or simply getting
lost and never making it back home. Another theory that blames us
humans (sorry bees) is air pollution, in which the noxious fumes from
our cars cancels out the sweet scent of flowers that bees rely on in
order to pollinate them.
■ White-nose syndrome: Moving from bees, we explore yet another
airborne animal (though this time its flight capability is justified by
physics). Bats. Unfortunately this syndrome is slightly more worrying
than CCD and may even wipe out some bat species if no cure is
found. White-nose syndrome refers to a condition in which a bat
exhibits distinctive fungus growth on its nose and wings during
hibernation. First identified in 2006, it is estimated to have been found
in at least 33 US states and 7 Canadian provinces as of early 2018.
The disease is caused by the bats contracting Pseudogymnoascus
destructans, a fungus that attacks the skin of these creatures when
they’re hibernating. It causes bats to be far more active than normal,
burning up crucial fat stores that can’t be replenished during the long
winter months. To date, millions of bats have died, with some species
seeing more than 90% reduction rates. Scientists are scrambling to
find a cure, but thus far none has been successfully tested.
■ Immortal jellyfish: Great news scholar! Scientists have just found the
secret to immortality. Bad news, you’ll have to become a floating blob
less than 5mm wide and spend the rest of eternity in an endless cycle
of maturity and teenage puberty. That’s right, meet the immortal
Turritopsis dohrnii, a jellyfish which has so far been the only recorded
animal to be “immortal”. Now keep in mind, this should actually be
called the “regeneration jellyfish” to be more accurate, but immortal
just has that prowess to it. Anyways, the jellyfish accomplishes this

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 task by constantly going through a cycle of maturity and immaturity.
After mating, these jellyfish revert back to a polyp and then undergo
their entire life cycle again. That doesn’t mean they will live forever
though, a predator can easily devour such a creature or disease can
wreak havoc on it. Interestingly, there is no one area of the world
where these creatures exist, instead they’ve been spreading
worldwide by hitching rides on the ballast tanks of ships.
○ tardigrade indestructibility | animal intelligence | cryptids | baobab death
■ Tardigrade indestructibility: Perhaps even more remarkable than
the immortal jellyfish is the humble tardigrade, an animal which
measures 0.5mm long when fully grown. Tardigrades are water-
dwelling, but have been found in the most extreme biomes of our
planet (the frozen wastes of Antarctica, scorching African deserts and
even radioactive fallouts). The secret to the tardigrade is actually
something of a mystery. While its ability to last without water for
decades is also found in bacteria and single-celled organisms, its
ability to survive in space and radiation are beyond our current
knowledge.
■ Animal Intelligence: We don’t actually know how smart other animals
are. Certainly we’d like to believe that humans are the most intelligent
of them all, but there are other animals that have shown intelligence.
Parrots, crows and other birds have shown the ability to memorize
information and display their thoughts. Chimpanzees, orangutans and
other primates have been recorded using basic stone tools and
learning sign language. Dolphins, whales and other water-dwelling
mammals can communicate complex messages as well as navigate
through a featureless ocean. Even our canine companions or feline
fellows can perform feats given enough training.
■ Cryptids: What do Bigfoot, the Yeti or the Loch Ness monster have in
common? Science calls them all cryptids, after the Greek word for
“hide”. Cryptozoology is actually a field of science (unofficial mind you,
and frowned down upon by the other fields) that deals with trying to
find and study creatures such as cryptids. Popular culture defines
them as creatures from folklore whose existence is questionable.
Every civilization had them, from America’s bigfoot to the Himalayan
Yeti to the Scottish Loch Ness monster. We don’t even know if they
actually exist or are simply myths from a bygone era.
■ Baobab death: If there’s any organism whose demise we should pay
respects to, it's the mighty Baobab tree. Found in low-lying plains of
the African continent and in the remote Australian outback, the
Baobab tree is one of nature’s largest stationary organisms. Some can
grow to as wide as a bus is long and they’ve been around for as long
as 3,000 years. Yet since last year, many of them have been
mysteriously dying after living such a long life. Nine of the thirteen
oldest trees in Africa have been reported as dead, with their roots no
longer able to intake nutrients to sustain them. Exactly why remains a
mystery to researches, since baobabs have shown themselves as
extremely resilient lifeforms. Burning, bark stripping and root ripping
has little effect on them; they can simply regrow like they’ve been
doing it casually for the past centuries (they probably have considering
their age). Thus far, research has pointed fingers at climate change
(the usual suspect whenever a species suddenly dies) and its
alterations to the South African climate.
○ zebra stripes | Monarch migration | giant squid

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 ■ Zebra Stripes: Even more mysterious than whether zebras are white
with black stripes or black with white stripes (they’re black with white
stripes by the way, go look it up); is why they have stripes to begin
with. Why don’t we see horses or mules with stripes going down their
bodies? Why did evolution decide to give this nice little feature to the
African horse? Scientists are still divided on this. Three main theories
exist as to what purpose they actually serve. The first is that these
stripes form a camouflage screen over zebras that hides them from
predators (yeah black on white in the green African savannah is totally
camouflage). Another school of thought states that these stripes help
prevent diseases carried by flies and other insects, most notoriously
the tsetse fly (again, how does contrast provide some sort of
protection?). Yet the theory that is most supported is that these stripes
help regulate the temperature of zebras while they forage the African
landscape for places to feed. Zebras actually need to spend more time
out in the heat, since their digestive systems are nowhere near as
efficient as other grazers in the African wildlife. This theory has yet to
be fully confirmed, since many doubt that contrasting stripes provide a
cooling mechanism.
■ Monarch migration: Ah the Monarch butterfly, the most stereotypical
design for any butterfly that every kid draws when asked to color in the
wings. The Monarch butterfly is unique among other species in that it
has been observed to migrate en masse to overwintering sites in
Western California and even Mexico. Interestingly, not all monarchs
migrate, just a select subspecies that live throughout the North
American continent. Why then, do these beautiful creatures take such
large migration efforts that are described as a "phenomena of nature"?
■ Giant squid: Almost as feared as the Flying Dutchman is the legend
of the giant squid. For centuries, sailors have spread and heard tale of
a monster that lurks beneath the deep abyss of the ocean. From time
to time, these creatures have been found dead, washed up on shores
and displayed by the fishermen who found them. This is the giant
squid, a mercreature of great legend and modern day intrigue. How do
these creatures operate? What are their behavior patterns? Do sperm
whales truly battle it out with them miles under the surface? Scientists
are still trying to find out more about them. You’d think any creature
that can grow to be 10-13 (possibly even more) meters long would be
easy to locate, but since they live in specific areas and at depths
where no sunlight can be found, they’ve been eluding our surveillance
efforts for a while. In 2012 however, a Discovery Channel team finally
caught such a creature on camera. They made a documentary about
it, despite knowing so little to say. As technology allows us to reach
deeper depths and pierce through the darkest of areas, we may find
out more about this creature and why it tends to be more mysterious
about itself.

Cases & Guiding Questions

● Consider the case of this supposedly alien skeleton and the process by which
its actual origin was determined. Are there times when people would rather
that science leave certain questions unanswered?
○ The case of “this supposedly alien skeleton” is a rather interesting one that
challenges science’s ability to test for extraterrestrial life. Before we answer
that question however, it seems fitting that we give you the rundown of the

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 skeleton itself. Discovered near a church in an abandoned village in the
Chilean Atacama Desert, the skeleton (nicknamed “Ata” for the desert she
was found in) was once believed to have been proof that aliens did land on
Earth. Her body was clearly very different to that of us humans, whereas we
have 12 ribs she had 10. Her head narrows to a ridged peak instead of
forming a circular shape and she only stood 6 inches (15.24cm) tall. Using
genetic databases and other advanced scientific methods, researchers from
Stanford University concluded that this skeleton was indeed human (sorry
alien-hunters, better luck next time). In fact, Ata was simply unusual in the
fact that 64 skeletal mutations in her genes were present, more concentrated
than scientists have ever seen. It is likely due to these mutations that she
didn’t survive long, supposedly her mother left her with a priest for
safeguarding (in the hopes that she could be “cleansed” of these
imperfections). There have certainly been times where people wished that
scientists never stuck their noses into the businesses of others. Indeed when
the moon was first photographed in the 1900s, many were disheartened by
the fact that it was nothing more than a barren rock. For centuries humanity
had imagined the sorts of things they might find on that world, perhaps even
another intelligent species (or the more unusual cheese moon theory), yet in
the space of a day science dispelled all that wonder and imagination. Then
again, science is not some compassionate field that bends to the will of
humans. No matter how loud the protest is, science must always march
forwards in the name of human advancement and discovery.
● Where did the Neanderthals go? Scientists have proposed several theories to
explain the disappearance of the Neanderthal branch of the human family tree.
Discuss with your team: how would you feel if you discovered you were part-
Neanderthal? If the Neanderthals had survived, do you think “modern” humans
could have coexisted peacefully with them?
○ The article linked is rather old and points to some of the common theories
used by scientists to explain why we don’t see our Neanderthal cousins
roaming the lands anymore. Simply put, the Neanderthals were once hunter-
gatherer tribes whose genes were very similar to ours. In fact they were
believed to have been a subspecies of human evolution (sort of a “what went
wrong” with nature type experiment). They were much more primitive than the
direct descendants of modern humans and many believe that this may have
been the main cause for their extinction. Perhaps we had more technological
advances in terms of agriculture and hunting methods, perhaps our social
groups were larger and thus allowed our birth rates and mortality to increase.
Whatever the case, the Neanderthals were slowly either wiped out by climate
or lack of food. Some who chose to adopt human methods were soon
assimilated into our gene pool.
○ If I had discovered I were part-Neanderthal, that would explain many things
about me (not least my aggressive behavior) and I would demand an
explanation as to what happened to my great-ancestors. If the Neanderthals
had survived along with us, it is likely that they too would’ve evolved into
something even more similar to us. Modern humans would likely have been
able to coexist with them, since they would have essentially been our
estranged relatives from evolutionary differences.
● Consider the long-awaited discovery of the San Jose. Discuss with your team:
who has the right to lost treasure when it is finally found? Does solving a
mystery give you ownership over the results?
○ What is it about maritime mysteries that gives them a certain... flair over other
disappearances? Take this ship for example, every treasure-hunters dream to
find and salvage. The San Jose was a Spanish treasure galleon, huge ships
that plied the Spanish trade routes, carrying goods from all corners of the

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 world back to Europe. The San Jose was particularly prized for its reputation
and for the cargo it annually transported. Every year, laden with precious
gems and gold from the mines of South America, the San Jose would sail as
the flagship of a treasure fleet bound for the home waters of Spain. It was so
precious in fact, that the Spanish Navy dedicated an entire squadron of escort
warships just to protect the ship on its way home. But in June of 1708, the
War of the Spanish Succession tied up the escort vessels meant to guard the
prized San Jose back home. Regardless of this, fleet commander admiral
Jose Santos de Santillan decided to sail with just 3 escort vessels. Off the
coast of Colombia, the fleet encountered a squadron of the British Navy. Even
the 62 cannons of the San Jose were not enough to fend off the attack. The
doomed merchant vessel sank to the bottom of the ocean with her treasure
still in the hold. Now, more than 3 centuries after the sinking, the Colombian
Navy along with a team of marine archaeologists have announced that the
wreck of the San Jose, along with its treasure, has finally been found. Yet
what to do with the ship still remains disputed. Colombia is adamant that they
have earned the rights to salvage the vessel and create a museum for it.
Spain, which technically owned the ship, believes that it should be returned to
its rightful home. As of now, a foreign firm from Switzerland: Maritime
Archaeology Consultants, appears to have earned the rights to salvage the
prized ship for the Colombian state.
○ Lengthy maritime enthusiast explanation aside, mysteries often have a bit of a
complication when treasure is involved. Usually, the right goes to those who
discovered it, especially if the mystery was a purposefully created treasure
hunt for adventure seekers. However, in cases such as the San Jose, whose
owners are still around; it often comes down to splitting up the treasure or
making compromises.
● Are lost pets a mystery? How about lost socks?
○ Lost pets are not a mystery, they are merely following their animals instincts
somewhere. Perhaps one day they will return, but other humans will likely
encounter them before you ever do. Lost socks are usually perplexing, but a
detailed look through the dryer or washer might reveal a loose strand that
remains of the sock. Either that or, for some incomprehensible reason, the
sock was lost between when you took it off and when you put it for washing.
● Is there an ancient city lost beneath the waters of Fuxian Lake in the Yunnan
province of China? Researchers (and sources) disagree. Discuss with your
team: how could we best confirm whether such a city exists and, if so, its
historical origins? Does anyone have a stake in the outcome? Are there other
lost cities of interest around the world?
○ Perhaps there is an ancient city lost beneath the Fuxian lake. In 2001 divers
noticed interesting rock formations not native to the lake in weird structures.
Later carbon dating tests prove that these rocks date back to at least 1,750
BC (perhaps even earlier). Might this be a lost city of an ancient Chinese
Dynasty? If so, what is it doing at the bottom of a lake? Interestingly (or
rather, unfortunately), scientists and archaeologists have yet to find any real
interest in this mystery, a shame perhaps. The most logical way to discern the
existence of such a city would be to carry out more dives (ideally with a
camera) and perhaps attempt to salvage any pieces for lab testing. It's likely
that China will have a stake in the outcome, seeing as the city was likely built
at the behest of one of its many warlords or emperors.
○ Around the world there are plenty of lost cities. Structures that were once a
great hub of humanity, now long-forgotten or abandoned ruins due to some
mysterious reason. Tikal in Guatemala is one such example, a jewel in the
crown of Mayan city states. Angkor-Wat, once believed to have been a large
temple, may have been the religious seat of an ancient Cambodian

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 civilization. Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan, believed to be a relic of the Sumerians
or other Indus Valley civilizations. Wherever great civilizations once put down
roots, there are sure to be cities or other settlements that have (mostly) stood
the test of time.
● Did scientists really just discover a new human organ? What mysteries do
some people believe this new organ could explain? Discuss with your team:
what aspects about humans are the most mysterious to you?
○ Sorry Biology students, but your anatomy lessons may now be slightly
outdated (better go update those notes!). Scientists believe that a network of
fluid-filled tissue lining the entire body is actually a new organ in of itself.
Known as the interstitium (after the term “interstices”, referring to the space
between structures of the body), it is believed to contain up to a fifth of the
entire body’s fluids. The fluid itself is thought to be lymph, a colorless liquid
composed mainly of white blood cells and produced by lymph nodes.
Scientists believe that further study of this organ is in order, perhaps it will
give us more answers about certain disorders (such as cancer) and shed a
light on more bodily functions (including interestingly, why our skin wrinkles as
we age).
○ Human behavior is the most mysterious to me. Why girls and boys act the
way they do is most curious and I have made an effort to study that. It is my
firm belief that knowing how a certain person is likely to act and react will
allow you to forge closer bonds with them. To say nothing of the “modern
trends” my generation appears to love and personify (i.e the necessity to use
“hip” words where simple ones do not suffice).
● Discuss with your team: does this explanation of how the ancient pyramids
were built make sense to you, and why does it matter that we know how they
came to be? What are some other theories that people have posited to explain
their construction, and do any of them have past or present socio cultural
implications? Are there viable alternatives to scientific research for solving
mysteries from so long ago? Be sure to investigate other architectural
mysteries; are some more mysterious than others?
○ The pyramids of Ancient Egypt are a wonder of the ancient world (quite
literally, the great pyramids are the only wonders of the ancient world still
standing). Their constructions remains shrouded in mystery (though by this
time we can clearly rule out alien intervention as a construction method). The
article in question discusses an interesting process, wherein constructions
teams wetted the sand in front a large sled designed to transport the huge
limestone blocks to the construction site. Researchers have discovered that
wetting sand to an optimum level (about 2 -5 percent) allows the stiffness of
the material to increase. It still can’t be proven whether the Egyptians knew of
this, all we know is that their hieroglyphs considered pouring water in front of
a block destined for the pyramids was a ceremonial practice. It matters that
we know how the ancients built their pyramids so that we can dispel any
doubts about this archaeological wonder.
○ Nothing really beats scientific research when it comes to solving long ago
mysteries. Sure the mathematics might have some dabbling in the field of
construction, but speculation and theorization won’t get us very far. Luckily for
the pyramids, they still exist, so practical field work can be done to discover
as much about them as we can. Once that’s done, the artifacts are likely
analyzed by historians, whose dusty books and manuscripts hold the secrets
to deciphering the mysteries of the ancients.
○ As for the other architectural mysteries, all 10 of them stand out to be very
interesting indeed. I implore you to take the time to read about them
yourselves, for some are very unknown to us (both in terms of how much we
know about them and how popular they are to discuss)

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● In The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, it turns out that the smartest creatures
on Earth were not humans, but mice. While there is no evidence for this
particular theory, there is evidence that animals such as dolphins and octopi
might be exceptionally intelligent. Is there a way to decipher exactly how
intelligent they are—and would confirming their intelligence make a difference
in how we treat them?
○ Firstly, we have been trying to decipher how intelligent animals are for
centuries. Observing apes use stone tools in the African jungles, to decoding
the sonic communications sent by dolphins while they swim, humans have
been fascinated with the thought that some animals are superior to others in
their brain power. The best way to decipher exactly how intelligent they are is
to give them increasingly difficult tasks that we humans perform on an
everyday basis (though those tasks can be appropriated to their own
lifestyles). Confirming their intelligence would make a pretty big difference for
how we treat them, since we humans appear to believe that greater
intelligence is a sign of value (logical, but flawed in our emotional world). It
seems likely that we’d try harder to protect certain species whose intelligence
is higher than others.
● What conclusions might people have drawn (or jumped to) if this had
happened in 1976? What if it had happened in 2016? Discuss with your team:
to what extent are mysteries a product of their time? Are there mysteries today
that may seem quaint or nonsensical in the future?
○ Firstly, let’s dissect (pun unintended) the event in question. On the 3rd of
March 1876, large chunks of flesh fell over Olympia Springs in Bath County,
Kansas. Initially, it was believed that this meat was the result of cyanobacteria
colonies called nostoc falling due to rain. Yet with the skies clear, the only
explanation left (and the one that is accepted) is that this was the result of
multiple vultures vomiting projectiles of leftovers at the same time in the same
area (there were a large amount of these creatures above the house where
the meat came down on, according to eyewitnesses). Vultures often perform
this disgusting action either as a defense mechanism or to lighten themselves
for longer flights.
○ Had this event occurred in 1976, its likely people might have believed it to be
the work of aliens or foreign intelligence agencies. With the Cold War still in
full swing and the Space Race having been finished, they might have
assumed these chunks of meat were aliens attempting to communicate with
them. Had this happened in 2016, science would’ve probably found the
solution far quicker and few assumptions could’ve been made.
○ The extent to which mysteries are a product of their time is pretty low.
Mysteries have defied time about as well as girls have avoided me (self-
deprecating humour for the win). Many mysteries still being discussed now
are decades if not centuries old. What makes them a mystery isn’t so much
what happened during their time (surely the builders of Stonehenge knew it’s
purpose). Rather the lack of any proper documentation or false facts raises
questions about the true theories behind mysteries. Perhaps in 100 years
from now, science will advance to the point where we can solve many
mysteries in a single year (or you know, invent a time travel device to just go
witness the events).
● In 2002, the Secretary of Defense of the United States discussed the existence
of "known unknowns" and "unknown unknowns". What did he mean by these
two phrases? Could there also be, as philosopher Slavoj Žižek has suggested,
unknown knowns?
○ As explained in the section specifically for these terms, known unknowns are
essentially things we know can occur but are not certain will occur. These are
essentially risks, we know they can occur but are not quite sure of the

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 consequences when they do. For example, when one books a flight, we are
aware of the risk that the flight may have... difficulties; but are not quite
certain of the consequences of such difficulties. Philosopher Slavoj Zizek has
suggested unknowns knowns, essentially where the impact is unknown but
the existence is. Usually this term can be used to describe untapped
knowledge, more commonly mathematical formula. We know that they exist,
but the actual impact they could have on the world is unknown. Similarly,
within the context of unsolved mysteries, we know that a solution exists to
them, but we don’t know what consequences this solution could have on
society.
● Evaluate this suggested explanation for the mystery of the Flying Dutchman.
Then, consider with your team: are there other mysteries that could be
attributed to "fata morgana" or other tricks of light? To what degree should we
distrust what we see with our own eyes?
○ First, in order to satisfy maritime explanations, let’s settle some history behind
the “Flying Dutchman”. In the late 1700s, the age of trade and empires sees
European powers sending fleets of warships to escort cargo vessels with
precious goods. Around the Cape of Good Hope, a treacherous ocean
voyage sends many vessels to Davy Jones's Locker. Around the late 1700s,
locals living on the Cape began writing accounts of “ghost ships” appearing in
stormy weather. Sailors would soon attribute the sighting of this ship as an
omen for doom and disaster. As for what the Dutchman actually is, I’ll indulge
the more interesting historical theories before the boring scientific one (gee
mysteries really do get deflated by science don’t they?)
○ Captain Hendrick van der Decken, AKA “The Dutchman” (hence the name of
the ghost ship) was a renowned Dutch merchant who made his business
plying the trade routes between Europe and Asia. Yet on his final voyage
from the East Indies (modern-day Indonesia) back home in 1641, a storm
battered the Cape of Good Hope. While the crew begged their captain to turn
around and wait until the storm calmed, Van Der Decken ordered them to sail
further into the gale. Some believe he was drunk, others believe he was
insane; either way the storm sunk his ship and all hands on board were lost.
Written literature in 1790 and 1795 tell of a ghost ship that appears in stormy
weather, but the connection wasn’t made until Richard Wagner’s famous
1843 opera: “The Flying Dutchman”. In it, the common sailor’s myth is given a
poetic spin. Eternally damned for sailing further into the storm, the ship and its
crew now roam the oceans for eternity, never able to make port and rest their
souls.
○ Another historical story points to Captain Bernard Fokke (or Falkenberg) who
sailed for the Dutch East India Trading Company. He was able to make a
voyage from Amsterdam to Indonesia in 3 months (compared to the usual 9-
10 months). This led sailors to speculate that he’d been able to do so after
trading his soul for such speed while playing a game of dice with the devil.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge would use this story as imagery for his 1798 poem
Rime of the Ancient Mariner.
○ Sightings of the Dutchman have occurred throughout history. Sailors report
seeing a ghost ship floating on the horizon, yet when they reach the location
of the sighting, nothing is there. Science believes that this is fata morgana at
work again, showing ships that are beyond the horizon due to light bending
around the curvature of the Earth. There are several other mysteries that
might have been attributed to fata morgana, mostly ghost ships or mysterious
sightings on the horizon.
○ Our eyes are easily fooled, if an optical illusion can confuse our brain enough,
I see no reason why a few blinking lights in the sky can’t deceive us into
thinking some extraterrestrial craft is there.

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● Where did the ten “lost tribes of Israel” end up? One theory is that their
descendants now live in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Discuss with your team:
why would governments have an interest in finding evidence to support (or
disprove) such a theory? Why might it matter where the descendants of long-
ago people live today?
○ The 12 tribes of Israel were believed to have all descended from the 12 sons
of Jacob. It was these tribes that formed a confederation in modern day
Israel, about the time of the Bronze Age. Yet 2,370 years ago, the
neighboring Assyrians invaded the Kingdom of Israel, with their king
Shalmaneser V exiling 10 of the 12 tribes to parts unknown (supposedly
beyond the mythical Sambation river). The Benjamin and Judah tribes, who
remained in the kingdom, became the modern-day Jewish people. Over the
centuries, what remained of the 10 tribes became a mystery. Some claimed
to have met traces of them in as far as Nigeria, China, Burma, Central Asia,
Ethiopia and even the West. Yet in 2010, the Israeli government decided to
end the question once and for all. It funded a genetic study to determine the
most likely answer: that the Pashtuns and Afghans carry DNA which links
them back to the 10 tribes of Israel. Ironically, the Pashtuns (which have the
most claim to be the descendants of these tribes), would also have been the
most hostile towards their religious beliefs.
○ Governments are interested in funding efforts to prove/disprove this theory
because it is a source of national pride and cultural heritage. To finally trace
the paths of the 10 tribes would be a triumph for the people of Israel. It
matters that we find where our ancestors and descendants came from
because of the historical significance. Perhaps this discovery might raise
more questions than it answers. Particularly: why did the Pashtuns harbor the
Israelites despite them being extremely against the beliefs they held?
● Some mysteries are political: why did the United Kingdom vote for Brexit?
What’s the matter with Kansas? Are political mysteries actual mysteries, or
just unlikely outcomes that happen at about the expected rate?
○ I’m not even going to bother with this one. Sorry scholars, but the political
machinations of the US is something I’d rather not try and explain. I invite you
to read the paper and do your own research about it. As for the questions
however, I will gladly try my hand at answering them. Political mysteries are
not mysteries at all, they are just unexpected occurrences that we can explain
by investigating a certain factor or aspect (be it natural or manmade). The
thing about politics is that we try and predict their outcomes, yet in doing so
we set up expectations that leave us confused when the opposite happens.
● Did Shakespeare write Shakespeare’s plays—or did someone else write some
or all of them? Explore other instances in which the authorship of works has
come into question. Should the identity of the writer affect how we appreciate
his or her writing?
○ Ah Shakespeare, a genius of literature and a playwright whose name will be
honored for many centuries from now. Or will it? Thing is, we don’t actually
know if Shakespeare wrote his plays or simply signed them off. Since very
little is actually known about the personal life of the English playwright, we
don’t know whether all his plays (or indeed a vast majority of them) were his
ideas. Some believe that Shakespeare simply signed his name on plays that
he stole and tweaked from other playwrights and writers (most notably
Christopher Marlowe or Francis Bacon). Whatever the case, that still
shouldn’t affect how we appreciate his or her writing. We read hundreds of
thousands of books every year penned by ordinary people with ordinary lives,
yet we appreciate their writing much the same (or at least not much less) than
we do books written by huge names (i.e J.K Rowling, Rick Riordan etc.)

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● Consider these “six strange facts” about an astronomical object named
‘Oumuamua. Do you agree with the author that these strange facts could
launch a whole new age in space science? Discuss with your team: how would
the world react if it were proven ‘Muamua was a probe from a distant alien
civilization?
○ (I shall let you read the article as it does a much better job of explaining it
than I can) The author is indeed correct in that this interesting discovery of an
astronomical object that defies many of the predictions and conventions
astrologists once believed existed beyond our skies. Though initially we can
dismiss these as “one-offs” the constructions of ever more powerful
telescopes both on Earth and in orbit mean that humanity will eventually be
able to see billions of light years into the cosmos.
○ The world would likely have mixed reactions if this astronomical body were
revealed to be a probe from a distant alien civilization (I personally would find
it extremely cool and fascinating). The scientific body along with most of the
“alien-hunters” would observe it more closely and attempt to somehow send a
probe ourselves to interact with it. The governments would probably (as is
their duty), concern themselves with how close it is to Earth and what threat it
poses to the planet. Instead of asking the boffins at NASA to study and make
contact with this body, Trump would probably deploy his “Space Force” to
intercept and destroy it.
● Some have suggested it was an atomic weapon from outer space, or even a
collision of matter and antimatter; no one knows for sure what caused a giant
explosion in Siberia in 1908. Discuss with your team: was this “Tunguska
Event” a cautionary tale from which we should learn a lesson, or was it an
ultimately inexplicable one-off that we should let recede into history?
○ Perhaps one of the lesser-known unsolved mysteries of the 20th century (and
for good reason), the Tunguska event continues to perplex and puzzle all
manner of academia 111 years after it occurred. But before we get onto
answering the questions, it is always good to get a bit of backstory.
○ June 30th, 1908. Siberia. A massive explosion rips through the air near the
Podkamennaya Tunguska river. The fireball from the explosion may have
been anywhere from 50-100m wide, 2,000 square kilometers of forest was
obliterated, almost 80 million trees flattened. Civilization felt the tremors of
this almost cataclysmic event. In the nearest town 65 km away the effects
were felt clearly; windows smashed, residents felt the heat and some were
even thrown to the ground. Luckily, only one casualty is believed to have
been involved, a lone deer herder who died after the blast hurled him into a
tree. Hundreds of reindeer were unfortunately, also reduced to carcass in the
aftermath. Something huge had collided with the Earth and eyewitnesses
claim that “the sky was split in two” and that “high above the forest the whole
northern part of the sky appeared covered in fire”. This event was the most
powerful of its kind in history, more than 185 more powerful than the force
generated by the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Unfortunately, due to Russian
politics at the time (instability from worker’s riots and the First World War
around the corner), no research teams were able to reach the area until 1927,
almost 20 years after the event. What they concluded is now the most
accepted theory, a huge meteor entered the atmosphere, the kinetic energy
from its disintegration being converted into sound and heat. This would
explain the “banging sound” that locals hears, and the fireball that decimated
the ecosystem there. Yet so far little actual evidence has been found of
meteoric metals, so the Tunguska event remains a scientific cold case.
○ While the concern over the Tunguska event is justified scientifically,
practically there is little we can do to concern ourselves with this. The odds of
such a huge meteor (or other cosmic object) colliding with the Earth is

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 extremely low, and there is little we can do now to actually prevent that (no, a
city-shield made of vibranium is not going to be reality until at least 2100).
However, there are some lessons that mystery-hunters can learn from this.
The need for government funding and travel equipment back then hampered
early investigation efforts, yet now private sectors and individual fundraising
should be adequate. Once a mystery occurs, get to the site and get there
quickly. Mother Nature does not care if an outsider collides with the Earth,
she and time will claim the mysterious substance for their own.

NEGLECTED HISTORIES
Introductory Questions
Credits to my excellent teammate, Caitlin for completing some parts of this
resource!

● What is the difference between history, prehistory, and historiography?

○ History refers to the study of past events, people and societies through the
investigation of real evidence and writing. Prehistory is the study of humans
and other lifeforms before civilizations and writing (dating back to the use of

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 the first stone tools, circa 3.3 million years ago). Historiography is the study of
historical writings in an attempt to uncover how they interpreted history and
impacted our modern understanding of them. Here’s a practical example: if
you’re studying the Greek civilization from their writings, you’re studying
history. If you’re studying the stone tools first use by our ancestors, then that’s
prehistory. If however, you’re studying the methods used by Greek historians
in their documentation of history, then that’s historiography.
● Who decides what history is taught in school?
○ It depends on the school and what system it adheres to. For many public
schools (especially in the US and UK), the history being taught there is
national history. This is because the government has a large role in the
educational system, dictating which events of the US past to glorify and which
ones to shy away from. As a result of this, many US school children can recite
every victory won by the Americans during the War of Independence, while
they struggle to recall America’s messy and dodgy South American activities
during the Cold War. For private and international schools, the curriculum
they follow is the one that dictates what the students learn. In the IB for
example, history is more focused around the exploration of concepts, such as
conflict or geographical conditions. As such, an IB student can easily bring up
a historical event to support an argument, yet will struggle to recall the
specific details of that event.
● Do all history books tell the same story? If not, what leads them to tell different
stories? Do these stories ever contradict one another?
○ History books tend to tell the same story. Ever since historical bias and
revisionism appeared in the early 20th century, school systems have tried
their best to publish books with a wholly objective interpretation of history. No
details are censored due to national pride, likewise no victories are
overrepresented due to over inflating national pride. Of course, history books
with different authors tend to differ slightly based on the author’s own
research and education. For example, if you were to read a book about the
final months of WW2 from the Soviet side, chances are that book will be filled
with the victories and lessons the soviets gained. On the flip side, if that book
was from the German perspective, chances are that book will focus more on
the brutality of the soviets and the glorious defense of the German people.
Historically, there have been texts that contradict each other based on history
itself. During the Cold War for example, Americans were taught that the
history of the Soviet Union was one of mass genocides and failure (and that
their own history was one of glorious independence and rights), whilst those
in the Soviet Union were taught that their history was one of glorious
revolution and equality for all (and that the American history was one of
capitalist inequality as well as human rights failures).
● Do you learn the same history that your parents learned in school? If not, why
and how has it changed?
○ I certainly did not learn the same history that my parents learned at school.
Since my parents took a public education in Indonesia, their history lessons
mostly focused on the history of their country and its interactions with others. I
on the other hand, am learning about global history, from the 1800s to the
20th century to even recent events. The main difference is of course, the
school system. Since I take an international, private education, the curriculum
is far broader and varied than what my parents had. This is a common
example of how history classes change based on school type and location.
● Along these lines, explore the concept of historical revisionism. Discuss with
your team: are some reasons for “revising” history better than others? What
are common criticisms of revisionism?

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 ○ Firstly, let’s define this interesting (albeit complex) concept. Historical
revisionism is essentially when historians or scholars need to revise historical
works and the understanding of them due to new evidence about history. This
revisionist lens often comes in three different formats: the social/theoretical
perspective, the fact-checking perspective and the negative perspective.
Often it is this practice that leads us to question judgements based on
historical facts, or even the reliability of the historical sources we listened to in
the first place. To get a better understanding of the three different lens, I’ll use
an example from the website linked in the prompt. Thomas Jefferson is widely
regarded as a hero for the United States, after all he penned the Declaration
of Independence and served as the Third President of the US. However, a
recent DNA study has confirmed the (uncomfortable) biographical fact that he
had a slave mistress by the name of Sally Hemings, and the two had children
together. For revisionist, this could’ve been viewed through the lens in three
different ways.
■ The social/theoretical lens allowed historians specializing in African-
American history to explore the earliest interactions between the two
races in the United States.
■ The fact-checking lens meant that evidence of the affair and child
were enough to spur authors to explore this relationship further in
more recent biographical works about Thomas Jefferson.
■ The negative lens skeptics claimed that before evidence of this affair,
the rumour was simply a falsehood meant to undermine the reputation
of Jefferson.
○ Some reasons for revising history are slightly better than others. For example,
if we find that an entire nation or organization did things they claimed not to
have done (or vice versa), then clearly for the benefit of people who might’ve
been impacted by the event it is best to revise the history. Yet that’s where we
run into some complications, when the descendants or modern incarnations
of the wrong (or good) doer get involved. A common (and often memed)
example is the sensitive topic of the Armenian Genocide. Between 1915 and
1917, the Ottoman Empire (modern day Turkey) was undergoing a horrific
event known as the Armenian Genocide. More than 1.5 million were believed
to have died during this time, yet the Turkish government continues to deny
any allegations of the event. Revisionists have included it in most historical
works, but Turkish schools never cover the event.
● Are there episodes in your country’s past that are not frequently taught?
○ Unfortunately, there are several episodes in my country’s past that are not
frequently taught. We tend to shy away from the Suharto dictatorship that
ruled over Indonesia for 30 years from the 60s to the 90s. We also almost
never mention the “Killing Season” between 1965 and 1966, when millions
were killed under the allegations of leftist sympathizers or racial bias. There
are many other examples of history not being fully covered in countries.
Turkish students never hear of the Armenian Genocide, Japanese students
tend to not discuss the Rape of Nanking, whilst Russian students might not
be aware of the Holodomor Famine.
● Are there episodes in your country’s past that you would prefer not be taught,
or that you believe should be taught differently?
○ If a country is to commit themselves to the teaching of history, then it is
necessary to cover every single part of the country’s history. The study of
history aims to be as completely objective as possible, devoid of censorships
or partial biases.
● Is the idea of “history” biased against cultures and groups of people that keep
fewer written records? If so, how can historians tell their stories?

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 ○ History attempts to be wholly objective in its pursuit of the factual. Yet of
course, the existence of historical records often relates to how in-depth we
explore the past of a culture and group. Of course, we know little about the
Incas, Mayans and Aztecs because their culture did not have such an
advanced writing system (unlike those of the Sumerians, Greeks and
Romans). Historians tell their stories through other evidence, mainly the
archaeological ruins of their cities that we find some proof of their lives. In
other cases, we rely on the descriptions provided by other written records, for
example from the Egyptian hieroglyphs we were able to discover the
civilization of Punt.
● What matters more: the history of people who needed help, or the history of
the people who helped them?
○ Both are equally important, people who need help often are important to
investigate because of why they need help. To understand their pleas for
assistance in the first place, we need to understand the events or situations
leading up to the current situation. As for the people who helped them, we
need to regard their own history with equal importance. How did they gain the
resources or the motivation to help out those who needed it?
● What do you think historians will write about the year 2019 a hundred years
from now? Are there groups of people you think they will neglect?
○ Historians will likely write much about the year 2019. They will likely address
the geopolitical, regional and economical problems that were encountered.
Brexit will likely be a big deal, along with the situation in North Korea. As for
the more social aspects of this year, it is likely that they write about the many
rallys, campaigns and movements dedicated to minorities and other social
groups (i.e sexuality, gender, race). I certainly hope that the written records of
this year will not neglect any certain groups, though if I had to choose 1 it
would likely be the environmentalists (history doesn’t do very well with them).
However, the greater concern is whether they will be able to write anything
about us in the first place. If you were around for the Science last year, you
might recall something known as the “Digital Dark Age”. This is the fear that
our digital data on every event will soon not be readable or indeed findable by
the technology of the 22nd century.
● When everyone around you chooses to believe in a story that contradicts what
you have learned about the past, should you contradict them, stay quiet, or do
your best to find common ground? What if “everyone” includes your history
teacher—or your parents?
○ Firstly, we need to ensure that the term “story” is being used appropriately
here. There is no right or wrong in history, since it is open to interpretation by
whomever reads or studies it. Instead, we should try to view history from all
perspectives involved. For example, instead of viewing World War 2 as an
“attack on the American country” and a campaign to “drive back the Japanese
colonialists”, we need to also recognise that the “enemies” we refer to had
their own reasons for going to war. Often, the contradictions occur whenever
it comes to reasons, consequences or exact numbers. The most common
occurrence is that one person will deny any event from happening, while
another insists that it did. When this happens, the one who has the most
evidence on their side (hey, just like a debate) should probably speak up in
order to ensure that a “false” history with no evidence to back it up does not
spread.
● Is it more important to study the history of one person who made decisions
that affected a million people—or of the million people whom those decisions
affected?
○ Again, both. History does not tend to favor one or the other. We do not put
more emphasis on studying Hitler because he sentenced millions to death in

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 his “Final Solution”, nor do we put less emphasis on studying the Jews due to
their suffering at the hands of multiple groups throughout history. We should
place equal importance in both, for if we cannot grasp a full understanding
then we have no true understanding at all.

Invisible Children
Investigate historical debates on what it means to be a child
● A question to consider: are children omitted from so many histories because
they did not matter as much as adults—or because they did not have the
chance to speak as loudly?
○ Children are often omitted from so many histories because of the latter
reason. History tends to highlight those who mattered in events and children
are often included in some narratives. Generally if those children grew up into
famous adults (i.e practically every single ruler throughout history) then
history tends to go more in-depth with their history. Other times, we find that
children are remembered for how their small voices managed to stand out in
a crowd of millions. Anne Frank, Samantha Smith and Hector Pieterson are
famous for how they defied conventions that adults had set up and for the
legacy they left.
● “Being” versus “Becoming”: Explore the thoughts of Aristotle, John Locke,
and Jean-Jacques Rousseau on the nature of childhood. Which philosopher do
you think has had the most impact on how we think about childhood today?
○ I shall leave this question to you dear scholar, to explore for your own.
● Consider the work of Philippe Aries, who argued in Centuries of Childhood: A
Social History of Family Life that the modern notion of childhood was
“invented” in the 17th century. What evidence does he use to back his claims,
and what are some criticisms of his work? Discuss with your team: does
childhood need to be reinvented in the 21st century?
○ Within the book mentioned, Phillipe Aries discusses how the concept of
childhood never emerged until the late 17th century. Apparently, in the Middle
Ages children were instead considered as young adults, meant to do the
same work and duties as their parents. The evidence used to back up his
work is school curricula, social circles within families and even medieval
paintings. The book received praise but also criticism from many groups. In
1998, Hugh Cunningham of the American Historical Review stated that the
book had an influence that “remains profound” and added that the persuasion
Aries employed was successful. However, the other side often had harsh
judgement of the book, with famed historian Geoffrey Elton even calling it out
for using medieval paintings as a form of reliable evidence. I’ll leave you with
this 4-part criticism of the piece by Harry Hendrick; published in the 1992
edition of the Journal of the Economic History Society:
■ "Firstly that his data are either unrepresentative or unreliable.
Secondly that he takes evidence out of context, confuses prescription
with practice, and uses atypical examples. Thirdly, that he implicitly
denies the immutability of the special needs of children, for food,
clothing, shelter, affection and conversation. Fourthly, that he puts
undue emphasis on the work of moralists and educationalists while
saying little of economic and political factors."
● The idea of “teenagers” as a special group between children and adults
emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century. Discuss with your team: is
the concept of teenagers one that took too long to come about? Is it already
outdated? Would you agree, as this article suggests, that the United States
invented teenagers?

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 ○ The idea of “teenagers” as a social construct rather than a biological concept
is rather interesting and beggars some historical context. The first and second
article suggest that the United States invented teenagers (typical, considering
the US invented many things during that time period). The first is slightly more
in-depth, attributing the phenomenon and popularization of the term to three
specific events. The first was the transformation of the American society in
the late 1800s and early 1900s. With the US Civil War over and the nation
rebuilding itself as an industrial powerhouse, the shift from a localized
agrarian society to a centralized industrial one left many families with children
who had no choice but to work in the factories as well. It was not uncommon
in the 1900s or even 1910s to see a 16 year old toiling on the assembly line
next to their father and brother. Yet with the rise of unions and workers
societies, compulsory education was introduced in order to ensure higher
wages for the workers. It was during this time in high school that teenagers
were able to develop their own social rules and customs with no adults
around to dictate their actions. This kickstarter most of the other changes,
with a postwar economic boom allowing teenagers to gain more money
(allowance) from their parents to spend it on whatnot. Finally, the invention of
the automobile allowed teenagers to explore their adventurous spirits and
bust out of the normal conventions of staying put for life. Perhaps America did
invent the concept of teenagers, a group between adulthood and childhood
that broke many social norms and continues to break them in the name of
social exploration and interaction today.

What would it be like to be a child in or among (examples)...

● Ancient Egypt | medieval Europe | colonial America | 19th century England
○ Ancient Egypt: In Ancient Egypt, the beacon of civilization shone brightly
upon the children birthed in the presence of the Nile river. Children were
looked after to great extent, with mothers often staying by their side until they
were able to walk on their own two legs. In terms of education, schooling was
often provided by local village institutions attached to a temple or government
building. From the ages of 4 to 14, males were to attend schools with subjects
being varied for the time (common disciplines included History, Geography,
Mathematics, Science and Medicine). After that, the children were often
expected to help out their fathers in whatever profession they were involved
in. As such, many in the towns took up jobs in the fields or trading with their
fathers. In some major cities like Alexandria or Thebes, higher education was
offered (albeit with limited choices) to those who wished to take it. Often those
who graduated from these schools became priests, architects or even
doctors. Unfortunately, girls were not allowed to attend school. They were to
stay at home and learn how to become good wives by their mothers. This is
what a child in Ancient Egypt would’ve likely experienced.
○ Medieval Europe: The life of a child in Medieval Europe often depended
heavily on gender and hierarchy within society. Children born into common
families would often be looked after greatly by their mothers, whilst those born
into noble ones would have a team of servants dedicated to overseeing their
daily activities. It was believed that nursing would reduce fertility, so noble
wives rarely nursed their children. Logical given that only 50% of those born
would survive until the age of 1. At the age of about 6 or 7, children would
begin to attend school. This of course, depended on their aptitude and
parental preferences. Grammar school was where the children learned latin
grammar, rhetoric as well as logic. Science and the mathematics were often
shunned in this time, following the Roman example of education. Monastic
schools were often popular with children of the lower class, who donned black

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 robes to show that they were now scholars of theology. Whatever the case,
by the age of 14 schooling would finish for many and then it was off to get a
job. Girls once again stayed at home and learned how to become good
midwives and partners, whilst boys could enter into a wide array of jobs.
Often though, it was the business of their father that the boy entered into.
However, had they taken up an apprenticeship from another fellow (usually
this included craftsmiths, painters, potters and metal workers), then they
would likely remain in that business until they were able to go their own way
in the world. With the wars that often erupted between nations, it was not
uncommon for children as young as 16 to sign up for the army and take arms
against a foreign power in a foreign land.
○ Colonial America: When England established the 13 colonies in the 1600s,
the children had a rather interesting time over there. Common garb in the
period was frock coats and dresses for both males and females until they
were about 6 or 7 (even later for females who weren’t yet “independent”).
Boys would often go the Grammar school at the age of 8 and remain there
until they were 12. It was here that basic arithmetic and language was taught,
not much effort was put on the other subjects. Once again, girls were not
often seen at school, they were at home learning the ropes of how to become
good wives. After the ending of their education, boys would return home to
help fathers in whatever profession they were invested in.
○ 19th Century England: Ah Victorian England, what a lovely (or dreary) place
to be. The Industrial Revolution is reaching its peak, the British Empire is
expanding ever further and the overall quality of life is slowly yet surely
improving. But at the beginning of this age, the life of a child was one filled
with danger and death at every turn. Many children from lower-class families
(practically 8/10s of the entire population) would never set foot in a
classroom. They would spend their days (even from the age of 6!) in factories,
fields and mines. Those working in factories were often called upon to fit into
tight spaces between machinery and make repairs (a dangerous job that left
many without some fingers), those in the field were often better of, but those
in the mines had the worst of the pick (the fumes could pollute their lungs, the
explosions could kill them). Later in the 1833 Factory Act and 1847, the
government banned the employment of children under the ages of 9 in textile
factories and the age of 12 in coal mines. As the era progressed, more acts
and reforms were passed to improve working conditions for children, from
their pay to their hours. In the 1840s and 50s however, a new trend began to
emerge: ragged school. These were independent charity schools run by
people who charged no fee for educating those who couldn’t afford the
church-offered schools. In 1870, the Elementary Education Act set up
government intervention in schooling for the first time. In 1880, the
government made schooling to the age of 10 (and later 11) mandatory, whilst
the 1891 act made all board and church schools free of charge. It was at
these schools that children focused on the three R’s (sort of): Reading,
Writing, Arithmetic. The subjects were later expanded on in higher
institutions, such as Eton or Harrow.
● Dynastic China | the !Kung | the Yanomami
○ Dynastic China: Dynastic China was made up of many dynasties (duh) and
during these dynasties, many similarities existed between the educational
systems and the philosophies for what children were supposed to do. For
many, children would spend their early years in the company of their entire
family (yes, the entire extended family in one household, common even
nowadays). Only the rich were able to afford basic education for their children
and that came in the form of personal tutors. One such teacher was
Confucius, whose teachings all of China would follow for centuries to come. It

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 was he who first spread the idea that it was necessary for boys to learn (of
course, girls were never included in that thought process). Boys from poorer
families would often learn from their father (or grandfather) and take up
whatever business they got into. Peasant boys could often find themselves
drafted into the military if there was a war on (or the emperor was particularly
paranoid about his border safety). It was only during the Han period that
schooling was provided for free (for boys), girls were still sentenced to home
labor in order to learn what being a good wife meant.
■ Later on, education was refined to teach Chinese students how to
become good civil servants. This included scribes, officials and court
envoys who would serve the Emperor with unfettering loyalty.
Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty established the civil service
examination, with further reformations and adjustments by Emperor
Taizong of the Tang Dynasty. This mainstay of Chinese education
would remain until Yuan Shikai of the Qing dynasty dismantled it in the
20th century (the beginning of a Chinese democratic and then
communist government).
■ Over the next centuries, many dynasties and emperors would come
and go. Each would leave their mark on the educational system, some
would refine it for the better, others would dub it down to ensure they
could control the populace. For more explanations, I recommend
visiting this link.
○ The !Kung: Firstly, let’s break down the interesting group of people this
prompt refers to. The !Kung people are a sub-sect of the San, hunter-gatherer
tribes that have populated the sparse lands of the Kalahari desert (spanning
Botswana, Namibia and even South Africa). Though they may seem fairly
primitive in their ways, the !Kung have adapted to the modern age quite well.
By “quite well” I mean that they have managed to keep their traditions intact
without submitting to the wonders of our modern world. The !Kung refer to
themselves as the Jul’hoansi and speak Ju, a clicking language similar to the
Khoisan group. Since their lifestyles are often more nomadic than ours, the
education in the !Kung society relies on “learning through experiencing”. From
a young age, the boys were often taken on hunting trips with their fathers to
learn the tricks of this survival trade. The girls were also brought outside of
the village, where the women taught them how to find edible plants that could
be cooked alongside the meat the males brought back with them. In more
recent years, Western culture has permeated the education, with several
children being sent to local schools for basic primary education. Yet the most
entertaining source of knowledge for !Kung youngsters were the elders, who
could retell stories and myths of their tribe around the fireplace at night
(probably not a fireplace, but hey it's a nice image).
○ The Yanomami: If you thought the !Kung were isolated, think again. The
Yanomami people are a group of about 35,000 individuals from 200-250
different tribes occupying an area more than twice the size of Switzerland in
the Amazon rainforest. They occupy some of Southern Venezuela and Brazil
where the forest lies, living in fairly isolated villages miles from the nearest
town. They are the largest isolated tribe in South America and are proud of it.
The Yanomami learn to live off the land and learn as well through experience.
Youngsters are sent into the woods (regardless of gender) to learn how to
hunt, find edible plants and even build shelters if necessary. Since the tribal
rituals are often very closely-knit, the Yanomami children are taught the
lessons of the past from their elders. Yet with the threat of deforestation and
gold mining ever apparent, the Yanomami have received help from multiple
NGOs hoping to introduce more formal and varied education to the next
generation.

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Going to Schools
● Where and when did the first schools dedicated to the education of children
come about in different parts of the world?
○ This is actually a very interesting topic and I wholeheartedly recommend that
you delve into the specifics of it here. While it is somewhat difficult to pinpoint
the exact location and years, the general consensus gives the award of the
first formal school to Ancient Egypt (surprise surprise). It was in the Middle
Kingdom under the direction of Kheti (treasurer to Pharaoh Mentuhotep II)
that the first “schools” were set up. Evidence also shows that Mesopotamia,
Sumeria and other middle-eastern kingdoms also offered education for those
from certain background around the same time (3000 BC). Next to follow
would be China, with the Zhou Dynasty (1045 - 256 BC) establishing schools
in the capital city. These schools focused on the Six Arts: archery, calligraphy,
charioteering, music, rites and mathematics. The great civilizations of Greece
and Rome were soon to follow. It was in Greece that private education began
to evolve further, anyone with enough money could set up a school and
decide the curriculum for themselves. Later on, Aristotle and Plato (along with
many other notable philosophers) would setup the first institutions of higher
education: the Lyceum and Platonic Academy. The only exception was the
citystate of Sparta, where boys from the age of 7 were taken away to military
barracks to learn how to become the legendary warriors that distinguished the
city. By the middle of the 4th century, Rome soon followed, with similar results
(private schools by individuals and later state-sponsored schools).
■ By the Middle Ages, education had evolved. No longer were schools
set up in purposefully created buildings, instead the monasteries and
churches of the Roman Catholics became hubs of learning. It was
during the 11th and 12th century in Italy, England and France that the
first universities appeared (most notably Oxford and Cambridge).
However, even these impressive places of higher learning could not
compare with the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fes, Morocco.
Established in the 9th century, it remains open and holds the Guiness
World Record for the oldest school in the world.
■ In terms of the west, America would only get its school in 1635, with
the Boston Latin School forming the foundation of other educational
institutions. The British formal education was fully established by
1890, by which time education had become free (at least before
college) and mandatory for all until the age of 11.
● Where and when did governments first offer public education?
○ America gets the right to claim this prize. In 1635 the opening of the Boston
Latin School signified a new age in education’s evolution. The school was
open to the public and all classes could come and learn here (except females,
they still had about 200 years of prejudice in education). In Britain, the public
education system was reformed in the Victorian period. The Elementary
Education Act of 1870 introduced state-funded and organized schooling for
youngsters. Many other European and Asian countries would soon follow the
examples of these two (most notably Japan in the East and Germany in the
West).
● When did the first “boarding” schools emerge?
○ Ever since the medieval ages, Britain began sending its sons (but not
daughters) to boarding schools in Benedictine monasteries and churches. In
the 12th century, the Pope decreed that all Benedictine monasteries provide
charity schools. Later on, these schools formed the first “public schools” when
paying parents were attracted. In America, the first boarding schools emerged

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 in the 1700s and 1800s, the Fay School in Massachusetts is the oldest junior
boarding school (established 1866), whilst the oldest high-school boarding
institution is the West Nottingham Academy (established 1744).
● Explore historical alternatives to schools, including tutors and
apprenticeships. Discuss with your team: do these alternatives still have a
place in the world today? If a child asked to become an apprentice to a
computer programmer rather than attend school, would that be okay?
○ Tutors and apprenticeships, it can be argued, actually were the schools;
whilst formal education became the alternative later on. Ever since the
establishment of stationary kingdoms, civilizations and empires (each with a
vast multitude of cities and craftsmen), children have been sent off to learn a
new trade under the guidance of an experienced master. It was not
uncommon for parents to not see their child until they had completed their
apprenticeship 5-10 years later (possibly longer depending on the trade). In
fact, future US founding father Benjamin Franklin became an apprentice at a
printing business led by his brother James (he was bound to the job as an
indentured worker from the age of 12 to 21). Nowadays, apprenticeships are
still popular, with many students opting to experience professional (often blue-
collar) jobs with on-site training and sometimes classroom learning. This very
much still has a place in the world, as families with lower income have a
chance to see their child earn a living without emptying their wallets.
○ As for tutors, well they’ve been around even longer. Some of the most famous
philosophers and thinkers in Ancient History (read: Confucius and Aristotle)
were tutors who taught higher-class families. It was much easier for a family
(if they had the capital) to pay for a regular one-on-one teacher than to send
their child off to learn with others. In a way, tutoring has evolved to become a
more complementary form of education. Instead of relying solely on the tutor,
children consult them on certain subjects where they might require more
assistance or when homework is particularly troubling. Perhaps more
interesting is the rise of “super-tutors”, companies and individuals who are
paid thousands to prepare children for important exams (i.e the Chinese
Gaokao or South Korean Suneung). Tutoring may soon play a larger role than
public education, with parents preferring a personalized education than a
collectivist one. Read this article for more details. In a way, by looking at this
website you are being tutored in a slightly more general way, though perhaps
the practice debate option offered here better encapsulates tutoring rise (too
bad I’m not paid thousands for this, but I find the appreciation from scholars
more worth it).
● Where and when were the earliest academic competitions? Is the concept of
“extracurriculars” something that only came about in the 20th century?
○ This is honestly pretty hard. We don’t have any evidence of “academic
competitions” from Ancient record (supposedly students saw no point in
incentivising their work). Certainly the first academic competitions were held
within schools, with classes competing to see which one could outdo the
other (this likely emerged around the 19th and 20th century). Inter-school
events such as the US quiz bowl or UK mathematics competitions later
appeared in the 1970s and 80s. Ever since then the curriculum for academic
competitions has expanded, from the formal halls of a Model United Nations
committee to our own Alpaca-filled World Scholar’s Cup.
○ The concept of extracurriculars was indeed something that only came about
in the 20th century, when formal public education was widespread in the
western world. Children often found themselves with nothing to do after
school (homework was still light back then, lucky buggers). So the schools or
even external partner organizations would set up activities to partake in.
Initially this was simple a more formal time to play, with sports often occurring

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 after school. Later on the academics were expanded to include
extracurriculars of all calibres.

A History of Orphans
● Explore the historical treatment of orphans around the world, from ancient
Greece to the 21st century. Discuss with your team: if you had to be an orphan
in the past, where and when would you most want to be? Least?
○ The historical treatment of orphans has generally improved over the past few
centuries. In Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, society was particularly
harsh on orphans. Many parents (especially from lower-class families)
actually chose to leave their children in the marketplace as “orphans”. The
goal was that a rich family would adopt the child as a “toy” of some sorts for
their own children, allowing the parents to benefit from the income of this
child. More often than not however, orphans were either left to die on the
streets or were sought for more... nefarious purposes. Over the centuries,
orphans in the Middle Ages and even up to the 1600s were treated as such,
with adoption being the intended result but child mortality often prevented that
from being a reality. However, the responsibility of looking after orphans
during those time periods often fell upon the church or distant relative.
Interestingly, Ancient Greece and Rome had their own orphanages but these
were more like schools and hospitals for the homeless children and were
often only secured under certain circumstances. It was only in 1729 in
Mississippi that the first private orphanage opened. After that, the number of
institutes would continue to skyrocket until today.
○ If I had to be an orphan, I’d probably be find with an orphanage in the
Scandinavian countries (given their quality of life index). I can’t imagine
surviving as an orphan in Ancient Greece, Rome or Egypt however.
● Consider the Nigerian proverb “It takes a village to raise a child”. Are there
societies in which children are routinely raised in group settings? Discuss with
your team: does mainstream society overemphasize the importance of parents
raising their own children?
○ There are indeed many societies in which children are routinely raised in
group settings. Many African cultures (such as the Yoruba, Igbo, Sukuma and
Swahili) reflect this belief, with some having their own versions of the proverb
(i.e “one knee does not bring up a child”). Outside of Africa, I’m sure many
South American and even Native American tribes put a large emphasis on
raising their children thorough communal methods as well. In fact western
culture may be an anomaly in that they don’t find much benefit in raising
children as an extended family. I certainly think mainstream society
overemphasizes and overburdens the importance of parents raising their own
children. Many scientific investigations and indeed social studies have shown
that communal raising is far more beneficial than parents having done so.
● Some orphans still have one or two living parents. Discuss with your team:
under what circumstances would it be appropriate to separate a child from his
or her parents? Do different societies answer this question differently?
○ The main answer that societies have resolved to resort to in this circumstance
is that the parents simply cannot support the upbringing of a child. Either their
economic situation is nowhere near the level it should be to support a family,
or their actual geographical situation (i.e refugees or oppressed minorities)
would attract unwanted harm to the child. These circumstances are mainly
appropriate, it just goes to show how much love the parent has for their child.
“The greatest sign of your love is the ability to let those who you love go”.
● Research “the Stolen Generations”—a time in Australian history when
indigenous children were taken from their families to assimilate them into

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 “white” culture. Australia’s government has apologized for these policies. The
Canadian government has issued a similar apology for a similar policy.
Discuss with your team: is it ever possible to make adequate amends for the
mistakes of past generations? Are there other countries that have followed
similar policies but have yet to apologize—and does it matter if the policies
were official or unofficial?
○ The “Stolen Generations” is one of the darker periods of Australian history
that not many people are comfortably with. Between 1910 and 1970, Australia
embarked on a harsh and often unjust journey of “assimilation”. This policy
meant taking away aboriginal children and forcing them to forget or even
reject their traditional values/cultures in order to appreciate white cultures.
The basis of racism and the idea of “white supremacy” fueled much of this. It
can at times be possible to made adequate amends for the mistakes of the
past, the first is (like Australia has done) to apologize for the event and then
work to right what was wronged.
○ There are many countries that have attempted to follow similar policies but
failed to even apologize. Japan has yet to acknowledge or apologize for the
Nanking (Nanjing) Massacre (in which more than 300,000 Chinese civilians
and soldiers were raped or mutilated), Turkey has yet to apologize for the
Ottoman Empire’s campaign of the Armenian Genocide and Russia has yet to
even start amending with Ukraine for the Holodomor famine.
● Many people assume orphanages are bad, but others argue that they are the
best solution for children in need. Skim this positive perspective on
orphanages, then discuss with your team: what would the perfect modern
orphanage look like?
○ The perfect modern orphanage would likely be one where all children are
given the necessary facilities and equipment to explore the world around
them and let their playful nature escape. It is most certainly not a place to
discipline youngsters or attempt to get rid of them quickly. A good orphanage
is one that makes its children sad to leave when a family does decide to
adopt them. The responsibility of an orphanage nowadays is not so much to
find new families for the children, but to serve as a family in itself.
● Learn more about the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. What led to its
passage, and is it being upheld in your own country? Are there other UN
Conventions that you believe still need to be created and signed—for instance,
a UN Convention on the Rights of Online Gamers?
○ If you wish to truly learn about this Convention, please be my guest and read
the entire UN document here
○ The passage of the convention itself was more the UN Human Rights Agency
attempting to cover the massive area of childcare, especially those children
who no longer have a family due to conflict or were orphaned at birth. On the
20th of November 1989, the passage was opened for signing and was ratified
on the 2nd of September 1990. All members of the UN are party to it, except
(perhaps most ironically) the United States. Indonesia is doing a fairly good
job at upholding the convention and Thailand isn’t doing too bad as well.
○ YES, a UN Convention on the Rights of Online Gamers must be signed for
the protection and recognition of Online Gamer rights all over the world
(except those who call themselves “gamers” because they play Fortnite).

Rites of Passage
● Explore different rites of passage for children to adulthood, today and in the
past. How different are they across cultures and across history? Are they less
important today than they used to be?

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 ○ Ah the rite of passage. Something that we currently take for granted and don’t
quite realize was much harsher in the past. For many social groups and
cultures, the rite of passage marked an end and a beginning. Children
become adults, boys become men and girls become woman. The rite was
often designed to test the abilities of those who underwent it in order to see
whether or not they were ready for the next stage of their life. The only
exceptions to this were birth and death rites (but for the sake of simplicity and
specificity, we’ll keep this to adulthood rites). Historically, these rites were far
more tough and varied. The Maasai tribespeople in Africa for example, would
send those about to reach adulthood to go hunt a lion alone (yes, a real
African lion) in order to prove their strength and skills. Aboriginals and Native
Americans were known to send their children off into the wilderness for days
on end, fasting and searching for a direction to their adulthood.
○ Today, rites of passage are not as widespread or indeed as popularized in
Western culture as it was once. Indeed our interconnected (or should I say,
entangled?) world has done away with the need for “life-searching” passages
and “trials of manhood”. There are still many however, who persist in carrying
on the rites of passage their ancestors once undertook.
● Rites to research (examples):
○ kahs-wan | sweet sixteens | krypteia | quinceañera
■ Kahs-wan: Oh how I deplore having to write about Star Trek.
Essentially, the Kahs-wan was a coming of age ritual that adolescent
Vulcans (the species Spock was a part of) undertook. It required them
to spend 10 days in the Vulcan Forge (a desert on their home planet
Vulcan) without food, water or weapons. The origins of this passage
came from Ancient Vulcan times, where warriors who turned to logic
reasoned that they needed to maintain the tests of their courage and
strength, lest pure logic make them weak and helpless. For Vulcans,
failing the kahs-wan the first time was not a disgrace. Captain Spock
undertook his Kahs-wan early (it was initially scheduled for the 20th
day of the Tasmeen month in the year 8877) and survived, though his
pet sehlat died after a bite from the poisonous le-matya.
■ Sweet Sixteens: Perhaps the most mysterious celebration that I shall
never understand (why is this a thing?). A “sweet sixteen” is usually
celebrated when a teenage girl reaches the age of 16 (otherwise it
would be even more illogical). In the Victorian era (1800s Britain),
these were referred to as “debutante” parties, where girls were
presented to society in the hopes that they would find a husband
among the visitors. Commonly, the sweet sixteen still retains a few
traditions. The “sixteen candles” on the cake or other treat often
signify the 16 most important people in the celebrant’s life (it is they
who light a candle and the celebrant says one nice thing about them).
The father-daughter dance is also common, to signify the coming of
age of their little girls. Another event that often occurs is the
inheritance of a family heirloom from the previous owner, to show that
the young woman has achieved the maturity and responsibility
necessary to look after it. The final popular event is the shoe
ceremony, whereby the significant male figure in the female’s life
presents them with high-heeled shoes (along with helping them take
off their flat ones and slip on the new ones). Other times, the mother
will put a tiara on the girl’s head to finish the transition into adulthood.
■ Krypteia: Ah finally, a more brutal rite of passage. The Krypteia refers
to a Spartan rite otherwise known as “Helot Killing”. At the age of 7,
spartan children were taken away from their families and sent to
military training camps also known as Krypteia. After 11 years of

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 rigorous and often painful military training (during which many
perished), the Krypteia began. Boys 18 years old were sent into the
countryside with nothing but a knife and were told to kill as many
helots (state-owned slaves) as possible, all without being detected. If
they showed up back at camp in one piece and no slaves were
reported missing, then the rite was passed and the boy had become a
man.
■ Quinceañera: The mesoamerican version of the sweet sixteen takes
place a year earlier. The quinceanera refers to the 15th birthday of a
female, the age when in Aztec and other South American cultures,
she has transitioned into the age of adulthood. Similar to sweet
sixteens, the parties are elaborate, the girl dresses up in lavish gowns
and the entire village or town is often invited. Historically, there were
men and women (dames or chambelanes) who performed special
dances alongside the lucky 15 year old. It was the Shoe change
ceremony that sweet sixteens often inherited from this celebration.
Once again the purpose is very similar, present young women to
possible suitors (it is not uncommon for families and potential
husbands to present dowries or payments for the girl’s hand in
marriage.)
○ guan li/ji li | seijin shiki | chudakarana | “vision quests”
■ Guan li, Ji li (Caitlin): The Guan Li (冠礼) is a Confucian coming of age
ceremony for males, the ceremony is conducted when the participant has
reached the age of 20. The participant's father would give a small speech and
the participant would greet guests. The ceremony master would wash their
hands and place a fu tou (襆頭) on the participant’s head , the participant
would then change into a dark outfit which matches the fu tou. After saluting
the guests the participant would becoming a man. The participant of the Guan
Li will receive a style/courtesy name (表字), this name is representative of
the adulthood of the participant and the courtesy name is used by members of
the participant’s generation to address the participant. The Ji Li (笄礼) or the
hair pinning ceremony is the female counterpart of the Guan Li (冠礼). The
ceremony is held when the participant turns 15 years old, the 笄 character
refers to the bamboo hair pin (as can be seen from the 竹 部首). The
participant would tie her hair in a top bun, during the ceremony a master
(highly respected married woman) would put the hairpin on the participant’s
bun to signify that she was now an adult.
■ Seijin shiki: Ah Japan, even your coming of age ceremonies are
labelled with your signature trademarks. Seijin Shiki refers to coming
of age ceremonies, yet these are all celebrated on Seijin no Hi,
otherwise known as coming of age day. Occurring on the second
Monday of January, the public holiday celebrates those who have or
will reach the age of majority (recently changed from 20 to 18) since
April 2nd of the previous year and April 1st of the current one. The
ceremony is often rooted deeply with traditional and cultural values;
while celebrating the newfound liberties the adult can have, it also
reminds them of the newfound responsibilities and duties they must
undertake. During this day, most women and men dress up, either in
traditional kimonos and hakamas (for women and men respectively) or
more contemporary western dresses and suits. The day is often
marked by speeches at temples, invitations from prefectural offices
and evening parties by the new adults.
■ Chudakarana: Otherwise known as Mundan, the Chudakarana is one
of several Sanskara, rites of passage in Indian philosophies (first

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 described in Sanskrit texts). The Chudakarana refers to the first hair
cut of the baby, usually taking place between the age of 1 and 3. The
entire head of the baby is shaves or cut off, leaving only the Chuda or
Shikha, the tuft at the top of the head. The shaved hair is often offered
to the gods at a local temple or given to the holy Ganges river.
Traditions vary depending on the region, with several additions
(including the specific treatments of the head before and after the rite
of passage) being unique to a state. However the objective of the
ritual remains the same, shave off the hair that represents undesirable
traits from a past life and start anew with this new life.
■ “Vision quests”: perhaps the most stereotypical version of a rite of
passage; vision quests refer to an umbrella term of a group of rites
that many in Native American and even South American tribes
undertake. Though the specifics of the quest may vary, the general
consensus is that this is when teenagers about to reach adulthood find
their purpose in life and their direction within the community. After
rituals in the village by the Elders, the person will go to a prescribed
spot in the wilderness, where he/she (more often the former) will
remain for several days without food or water. During this time, they
remain vigilant for a vision. This comes either in the form of animals
acting strangely, objects shaped like deities or animals and even
hallucinogenic dreams of great visions. After experiencing this, they
return to the village in order to seek interpretation from the elders.
○ okuyi | bar/bat mitzvah | first car | walkabout
■ Okuyi: An interesting rite of passage indeed. Instead of being some
sort of individual test where the risk of failure is evident, an Okuyi
(otherwise known as Ukuyi or Mekuyo) is performed Bantu ethnic
groups in Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon and Gabon. It is often
performed at a funeral, birth, when a baby reaches 4 months or at the
transition to adolescence. During the ritual, the entire village gathers
around as a costumed main dancer (see image at slideshow below)
and several support dancers dance and sing. The celebrant is often
seated at the center of the circle of villagers, with the Ukuyi (the main
dancer in costume) coming close to bless them.
■ Bar/bat mitzvah: Perhaps one of the more religiously-cemented rites
of passage, the Jewish Bar mitzvah (“sons of commandment”) or Bat
mitzvah (“daughters of commandment”) are key celebrations and
ceremonies in the religion. They signify that the son or daughter is
now fully responsible for all their actions, their parents are no longer
held accountable for their sins. In doing so, they attain some more
responsibilities: please see the following links for more information.
■ Ceremony and Celebration
■ Overall
■ Bat Mitzvah
■ First car: Perhaps one of the more contemporary rites of passage out
there, the first car is a symbol of western teenagers moving on into
adulthood. No longer are they shackled to remain stationary and rely
on their parents, they now have the means to be free and explore the
world in their own way. Appearing around the 1950s and 60s, it was
common for middle and higher class families to give ownership of a
new (or slightly used) car to their sons and daughters when they
turned 18 (even younger in some countries). The handing over of the
keys signifies the parents letting go of their child and giving them their
permission to go out and make their own way in the world.

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 ■ Walkabout: Firstly, let’s call this rite of passage by a far nicer name:
“temporary mobility”. Walkabout refers to a rite of passage into
adolescence by Aboriginals undertaken between the age of 10 to 16.
During this time, young boys and girls are sent out into the wilderness
to live on their own for 6 months (and you thought the Native
American rite was long). During this time, they need to make their own
shelter and find their own food (not to mention survive the 196849
species of animals that want to kill them). They also need to find their
own way back at the end of the rite, through spiritual “song-lines” that
call out to the gods for guidance. A journey of the land and a journey
of mind if ever there was one.
● Discuss with your team: do rites of passage create an artificial divide between
childhood and adulthood, or are they important for helping children find their
place in the adult world?
○ Rites of passage can do both. While in more contemporary times with “sweet
sixteens and first cars”, they can create a materialistic and artificial divide
between childhood and adulthood. When one becomes the latter, they cannot
go back to the former. Yet for the more cultural and historical rites, it is indeed
a matter of helping children find their place in the world. Through some
rigorous and mentally challenging struggle, they are enlightened (either
through practical experience or spiritual intervention) as to what their destiny
is to be.
● If you could design a rite of passage for our world today, what would it be?
○ Spend a month with no technological devices.

Additional Discussion Questions

● How does a child’s gender, race, nationality, or class affect his or her
experience of childhood? Are there some cases in which it is good for children
to mature quickly and to skip ahead to adolescence and adulthood?
○ A child’s gender, race, nationality and class affect their childhood in many
different ways. Gender is not so much an issue as it was back in the 1800s or
even 1900s, but it still continues to prove troublesome in some countries.
Most notably, in Saudi Arabia and India girls are often given very few rights
and privileges when compared to boys (notoriously, Saudi girls are not
allowed to meet with Saudi boys after school). Race tends to be a problem in
the western world, with colored children often receiving more prejudice and
harm from their peers who believe that they are superior to them. Nationality
is extremely important. A child in Kenya will likely never surf the internet due
to the country’s economic situations, whilst a child in the Netherlands will
likely be able to surf the internet for hours in their childhood. Class is more of
an impact on how childhood evolves in the materialistic sense. A lower class
family in China will likely have their children work the fields in the countryside
and get little to no pocket money; whilst an upper class family in Saudi Arabia
will likely have more than 1 servant tend to their child.
○ There aren’t many cases in which skipping adolescence is a good idea.
During the initial 5-8 years of puberty, teenagers often require the time to
adjust to their biological changes and then cope with the steady increase in
responsibilities with their power.
● For much of history and even today in many places, poor and working-class
children have been expected to work. Discuss with your team: should children
be economic assets for their families? Do they have a debt to their parents—
and, if so, is that debt different now than it would have been a hundred years
ago? Is it child labor if kids become famous on YouTube or other social media
platforms?

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 ○ It is perhaps one of the most notable failures of our species that we expected
(and still do expect) children to work for us. The argument used throughout
history is that because the parents were kind enough to foster the child, they
must pay back their debt by being an economic asset. Such a debt does not
exist, how can we justify having children work by saying that its an economic
matter? Children have the right to grow up and explore their world before
even considering becoming an economic asset for their parents. If however it
is a debt, then it most certainly is different than it was 100 years ago. Back
then, children from as small as 6 could work in dirty factories or farms,
constantly facing danger whenever work placed them in a polluted or
hazardous areas. Nowadays human rights agencies and child protection laws
in many countries have prevented such debt repayment methods.
○ A child becoming a Youtube star and then giving some of the money
generated to their parents is not child labor. The child is willingly going on
Youtube or whatever social media in order to share their discoveries, promote
their thoughts or showcase their achievements. It is however, child labor if the
parent has demanded that the child set up the channel in the first place and
then give 90% of the proceeds to them.
● Should histories of childhood (and thinking about childhood in general) focus
more on unconventional childhoods—for instance, the experience of those
with physical disabilities or developmental differences?
○ Not at all. While we should give special mentions to these children for
overcoming their biological hurdles before society accepted them, normal
children who did extraordinary things also deserve their own sections in the
history books. We do not focus American history on the unconventional
presidents, instead we focus on all presidents but give special honors or
mentions to those who truly did extraordinary things (no place for Donald
Trump there, unless you count “president who f**ked up the most in his
term”).
● Research the modern use of the word “adulting”. Discuss with your team: what
does it suggest about childhood and adulthood today?
○ Adulting refers to the “practice of behaving in a way characteristic of adults,
often associated with the completion of mundane but necessary tasks”. Used
more by teenagers and pre-adults than actual adults themselves, the term
signifies how much society has progressed in the modern era. Children
nowadays are often striving to complete tasks that make them seem adult-
like, whilst teenagers absolutely ahorr having to act like adults until they reach
the age of adulthood.
● Every so often, a child has found himself or herself in a position of great
power: King Tut, Joffrey, Puyi, Ivan the Terrible, King Oyo, and many others.
Have such children shown themselves to be resilient in the face of the
challenges of leadership? Have they been subject to exploitation?
○ First, to satisfy the “historical” side of this question, it is necessary to give a
profile on some on some of the names mentioned there (their images will be
included in the slideshow below for viewing purposes). King Tut (otherwise
known as Tutankhamun), was the “boy-pharaoh” of Egypt who reigned at the
tender age of 8 or 9 from 1332 BC to 1323 (dying at the age of 18 or 19). Not
much occurred during his reign and he was often a puppet for the adult
members of his counsel or advisory panel. He is rather sadly, most
remembered for his tomb. It was in 1922 that Lord Howard Carter and a team
of British archaeologists discovered his tomb almost entirely intact (seems the
grave robbers took pity on this child mummy). It was a mysterious series of
deaths and occurrences after the tomb was opened (along with an ominous
inscription on the wall) that led to the association of the “Pharaoh’s Curse”

85
 with this boy king (seems he did wield some divine power after all, just
needed some time to get out of his body).
○ Aisin Gioro Puyi was the last Emperor of China, given the throne at the age of
2 by his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi. In 1912 he was forced to abdicate
the throne (well, we say forced in the sense that he was only 6 when he did
this) due to the Xinhai rebellion (China’s first steps toward a democracy and
then a communist state). He would live in exile in Manchuria, later becoming
the head of state there as a Japanese puppet emperor (apparently there were
plans to bring him back onto the Chinese throne had Japan defeated the
country in the Second Sino-Japanese War). However with the defeat of Japan
and the return of Manchuria to the Chinese, Mao Tse Tung and his
communist comrades sentenced the now adult Puyi to almost a decade in
prison. It was only in 1959 that he was pardoned and lived the rest of his life
as a humble gardener.
○ King Oyo is lesser among the 4 people mentioned and with some justification.
He is the current Omukama of Tooro, one of 5 kingdoms within Uganda.
Given the throne at the age of three, the ruler still attended school (albeit in
the presence of a bodyguard) and even had playmates in his royal cabinet.
He is currently 27 years old and continues to reign with a steady hand despite
having ascended to the throne at a period of turmoil in Uganda.
○ Ivan the Terrible was rather terrible when it came to being kind (obviously).
Yet before this First Tsar of All Rus (later Russia) came to be, he was the
Grand Prince of Moscow at the age of three and later crowned as the Tsar
(the post where he would expand Russia into what it is today and gain a
notorious reputation in the process) at the age of 17. His remarkable reign
saw the expansion of the Russian lands into an empire encompassing 2
continents and dozens of ethnicity groups (about 4,050,000 square kilometers
of land in total). Despite having gained the throne at such a young age (well
not that young compared to the other leaders but hey it was young back
then), Ivan the IV came to make all around him either fear or respect him
(otherwise it’d be a brutal execution for you).

The Stories of Those Who Serve

The Homemakers
● Adam Smith is one of the most important economists of all time. But who was
cooking his dinner? Henry David Thoreau retreated to Walden to become self-
sufficient—but his mother still did his laundry. Batman has had myriad Robins,
but only one Pennyworth. To what degree should we study those individuals
(frequently women) who supported the individuals (frequently men) most
featured in our textbooks?
○ History has been flawed in that it studies only the people who made a change
to our world. Instead, history should also focused on those who helped the
people make a change in the first place. Even if those people are no longer
mentioned or have faded into the past, they must be remembered for how
they contributed to the person contributing to the world. Adam Smith’s mother
for her ability to sustain her son whilst he toiled away on The Wealth of
Nations or Thoreau mother who looked after his dirty clothes in exchange for
job opportunities whilst in Walden. We should study these individuals to the
best of our ability in order to understand how those whom they made an
impact on changed society for the better.
● Explore the history of domestic labor in (examples)…
○ Colonial India | Latin America | Pre- and Post-World War Britain

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 ■ Colonial India: Domestic workers in Colonial India were often slaves
or lower-class families who were brought into the service of their
British masters. These workers were often given poor treatment, with
punishment being common if failure was consistent. Later on, as the
British began to soften their grip on the “Jewel in the crown of the
empire”, the domestic servants were given better rights and could
even achieve their own freedom if their masters decided that their
service had been exemplary.
■ Latin America: Getting slightly more modern with our time period
here, Latin America has had significant problems in protecting
domestic labor rights in its countries. The ILO (International Labor
Organization), notes that more than 18 million domestic workers are
employed in the region, with almost 80% percent of them being
subjected to informalities in their labor (i.e no official pay is decided
upon and conditions for them are often very squalid). Majority of these
people (about 93% in fact) are women and it's often difficult to get any
change implemented because society often accepts that this is the
way it needs to be as it is the way it has been for centuries.
■ Pre and Post-world war Britain: Perhaps the very image of domestic
labor in pre-world war Britain was a typical upper-class Victorian
household. The family would have a butler to oversee the team of
domestic laborers, with maids, cooks, housekeepers and even
nannies making up the domestic force in a single household. In the
1800s and early 1900s, this was how Britain looked like in domestic
labor. Yet at the turn of the century, the Industrial Revolution had left a
growing middle class. Though the demand for household servants
grew, the actual supply of them dwindled (many having paid for their
servitude or retired to make their own lives). Interestingly (or rather
unfortunately), it was uncommon to see orphans being “liberated” from
their positions to become servants (this counted as child labor). After
the 1st and 2nd world war, domestic labor in Britain took a severe
downturn. While the men went off to fight overseas, the women who
often dominated the domestic services transitioned to new jobs in
fields and factories (or even as support roles in the armed services),
ensuring that the men could carry on fighting to the bitter end. After
the war, this empowerment of women meant that many did not return
to their domestic labor positions before the war broke out.
○ South Africa | the United States | Indonesia
■ South Africa: South Africa’s history with domestic labor is similar to
those who faced colonization under British rule. When South Africa
became a British possession, it was not uncommon for “white
masters” to employ “colored servants” in their households. However
this was soon not the case, as South Africa also possessed a large
native population of Boer and Afrikaner people; meaning that the
territory was often at war with itself. After the Second Boer war in
1902, domestic labor was less popular, considering that much of the
population did not possess the economic power to afford a servant (or
even a team of them). In the later years as South Africa faced
apartheid, the embodiment of any white South African (either of
European, American or western origin) was the exploitation of a
colored or native person for domestic labor. After apartheid ended this
number still remains, with about 1.1 million (possibly more) South
Africans being employed in the Domestic labor service, unfortunately
out of that many people, 54,000 are under the age of 15 (child labor
once more).

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 ■ The United States: The history of domestic service in the United
States is often one filled with issues and regrettable decisions, but the
history still stands. Prior to 1865, slavery was often the main form of
domestic service, with many households in the South (where majority
of the agricultural households were) often having entire “slave
communities” on their plantations. After the civil war, slavery was
banished from the country but domestic service still reared its ugly
head. Many households still employed black servants, albeit this time
they were paid. In fact majority of the black women in the United
States during the 20th century were domestic servants, since their
ancestors didn’t have the education or experience to try out other jobs.
During the 1950s, 60s and 70s the civil rights movement meant that
many domestic servants could find their voice simply by refusing to
work or not living in the same household as their employers.
■ Indonesia: Great, now I’ve got to go and research domestic workers
and their mistreatment in my own country. Totally won’t be any bias
here whatsoever. So let’s get started.
■ Since Indonesia has a population of roughly 264 million (a
statistic we are very proud of I assure you), it should be logical
to expected a fair amount of that number to be employed in the
domestic services. In fact, the International Labour
Organisation puts the number at roughly 4.5 million within
Indonesia alone, with another 4.5 million being sent abroad. Of
this number, 80% of all domestic servants in the country are
females. Domestic service provides a large amount of money
to the economy, both in terms of the direct payments these
servants get as well as the money produced by their
employers (who now find more time to contribute to
economically productive activities). However, there have been
multiple movements in the country to give these workers better
rights in multiple aspects. Firstly their wages; Indonesian
domestic servants earn only about 1-1.5 million rupiah (60-80
dollars) a month, in some areas that’s less than 30% of the
provincial minimum. Another problem is their working hours,
many domestic servants work at least 12 hours a day, 7 days a
week, as opposed to the 40 hour per week guideline set by the
ILO. Third is their mistreatment. Many workers are given
inadequate living spaces at their employer’s house, abused
and punished for poor jobs and most notoriously, executed for
disobeying their employers. The latter is slightly more common
abroad, especially in countries such as the Middle East, where
majority of Indonesian servants find themselves if they go out
of the country. The problem is mainly due to the informality of
the contracts; many domestic servants aren’t even recognised
as such because they operate in the grey economy. Their
earnings and agreements are not monitored by government
agencies nor reported by their employers.
● Historical and Modern Institutions (examples):
○ au pairs | nannies | butlers | amahs
■ Au pairs: Derived from French, au pair roughly translates to “at par”
or “equal to”. This indicates that the au pair is meant to become a
temporary member of their host family, not a subservient outsider like
domestic servants. Au pairs are almost always foreign workers who
live and work for a host family in another country. Au pairs often take
on shared responsibility for household maintenance and childcare,

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 with a monetary allowance being given for their own use. Au pair
arrangements are often subjected to strict government restrictions,
which limit the age range of au pairs as well as their working hours. In
Europe and North America, these agreements often define the age
range as between 16 and 24, along with the necessity that they work
part-time and study the language of the country they work in. In fact
the 1969 European Agreement on Au Pair Placement defines all these
guidelines per country. The concept of an au pair emerged after the
Second World War, when taxes and the economy prevented many
middle class families from gaining their own domestic workers. Below
are some common duties of au pairs:
■ Waking up children
■ Taking the kids to school
■ Helping the children with their homework
■ Doing the children’s laundry
■ Making up the children’s beds
■ Cooking light meals for the children to take to school
■ Helping parents with house chores from time to time
■ Nannies: Commonly associated with childcare in a domestic
household is the nanny. A concept that has existed since the age of
empires in the 18th century, the nanny is usually a women who
remains in the service of their employing family for decades (often for
several generations in some cases). The nanny is responsible for
looking after the children of the family when the parents are either out
of the house or not yet awake. Nannies often report to the lady of the
house on any development with the children, though they can at times
even be considered a part of the family after some time. In colonial
history, nannies were often in the employ of colonial administrators
(especially in British India, the Dutch East Indies and French Africa).
Many nannies would remain with their families from birth to death, with
the family taking them along on family vacations or moving trips.
■ Butlers: When we think of a household staff, the image of a sharply
dressed (sometimes elderly) man with impeccable manners and a
seemingly all-encompassing retinue of skills likely comes to mind. This
is the butler, the head servant of a household and often responsible
for the duties of the other servants. In Victorian, Elizabethan and
Ancient Times, the butler would oversee the housekeeping, cooking
and even childcare staff and make sure the entire household
functioned as an efficient, punctual unit. Butlers often reported directly
to their employers on any complications, news or progress. Modern
butlers are still employed in that sense, being huge stores of
information about upcoming family events and even having schools
dedicated to their training. Butlers are often paid lucrative amounts
nowadays (anywhere from $50,000 - $150,000 annually) and often
live on the household in their own separate quarters.
■ Amahs: Amahs were Chinese nannies or servants who often left the
rural countryside and went to go work in wealthy households in big
cities (i.e Beijing or Shanghai) and possibly Hong Kong. Amahs were
also referred to by Portuguese as maids and nannies who worked for
colonial administrators back when Portugal had an empire. The
etymology of the word is still disputed, some linguists believe it came
from the Portuguese word ama meaning “nurse”. Others argue that it
came from the English translation of the Chinese ah mah (ah being a
common prefix and mah meaning “little mother”). In modern terms it’s

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 more politically-correct (something I hope to never need to type again)
to refer to these people as helpers rather than servants.
○ ayahs | governesses | house girls
■ Ayahs: Ayahs were simply another name for domestic servants and
housekeepers (as well as nannies or butlers) that looked after
European families in South Asia (this included British India and the
Dutch East Indies). The word is likely to have originated from
Portuguese and you’d be better off not saying it in Indonesia, as ayah
actually means “father” or “dad” in Bahasa.
■ Governesses: Of all the positions in this list, the governess is one of if
not the most awkward. Originating in the Victorian Era and persisting
until Post WW1 Europe, governesses were middle-class women with
a decent education who were given the post of teaching the children in
a household. In those times, it was much more preferable for
aristocracy and other nobility to hire a governess than send their
children to boarding schools for months. In this way, governesses
could tailor teaching material to the children’s own needs and gain a
fairly substantial income. Traditionally, governesses taught the “Three
R’s” to their charges (reading,writing, arithmetic), thought they could
also teach the girl how to specialise in certain “desirable” skills (i.e
playing the piano, painting or poetry). The governess was often
isolated in their own employer’s household, eating in isolation and
keeping away from other servants. By definition, she wasn’t a member
of the staff nor a member of the host family; so she often kept to
herself and didn’t help the children with their actual physical needs
(that job fell to the nannies and maids who looked after them).
■ House Girls: A girl or young woman often employed in a household
with some of their own responsibilities. She could be the only female
member of the staff or part of a team that oversaw the cleaning and
maintenance of the household.
○ house elves | housewife vs. stay-at-home mother
■ House elves: Of course the WSC decides to drop another fictional
reference in its history curriculum. If you’ve ever watched Harry Potter,
you’ll likely remember one particular character who first popped up in
the Chamber of Secrets and met his most unfortunate (and tear-
jerking) end in The Deathly Hallows. I am of course, referring to
Dobby, house elf to the Malfoys until Harry Potter freed him. Along
with Kreacher (house elf for the Blacks), house elves were a common
recurring appearance in the Harry Potter universe. Often mistreated
and even abused by their owners, house elves are held by law and
duty to punish themselves for disobeying any direct orders from their
masters. They are however, able to find loopholes in their master’s
orders and utilise them from time to time. House elves actually find it
fitting if they are punished for not doing their duties and even the
notion of being paid or being granted vacations makes them feel
absolutely disgraced (Dobby being the main exception). House elves
were able to be freed if their masters provided them with a piece of
clothing, Dobby was freed in this manner when Harry presented a
sock to him. House elves don’t rely on their magic very often, but
sometimes the unique ability to apparate where normal wizards and
witches cannot comes in handy (especially if Dobby needs to
discreetly visit Harry Potter to warm him about attending Hogwarts for
the second year).
■ Housewife vs. stay-at-home mother: The key difference here (and
there’s not much else beyond it) is that housewives do not need to

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 have children to be considered a housewife. They simply need to
choose not to take an active job and instead spent their days at home,
tending to the household and looking after the elders if they live in the
same house. Stay-at-home mothers on the other hand, are staying at
home to take care of children in addition to looking after the house and
managing the shopping. Stay-at-home mothers often remain at home
until their child goes off to school, by which point they can either
resume their previous jobs or continue to be a stay-at-home mother
and housewife. I’ll leave this article here for you to read about the
benefits and opinions on these two positions.
● Discussion Questions
○ In a 2011 speech, American comedian Amy Poehler thanked the nannies
who care for her children and those of other working women. Discuss
with your team: is domestic help common in your country? If so, is it a
sufficiently regulated industry?
■ I will refer to my points on the Indonesia prompt for this one.
○ In many countries, domestic workers are migrants from poorer
countries. Does this migration represent an economic opportunity for
the migrant workers, or are they being misled into jobs that shortchange
them?
■ Historically speaking, the former may have been expected and even
preferred. There were migrants from China, Latin America and even
Ireland flocking to America in the thousands to find a better life, lured
by the promise of the “American Dream”. Though these people were
hoping for a job in a high-rise office with pay beyond their belief, they
were more likely expecting a decent job with heavy manual labor
which would allow them to then pay for the education to move up the
ranks. Nowadays however, many migrant workers are being caught in
the trap of domestic service and begging. Refugees from Syria, Iraq
and even North Africa can come to places like Italy and Greece
expecting some rights and a good job. Yet more likely than not, these
migrants will find themselves in a household serving as domestic
servants, with nowhere near enough income to allow them to rent an
apartment or leave for better positions.
○ In the 1970s, some feminists around the world argued that women
should be paid for housework. Explore the history of the “Wages for
Housework” campaign. Discuss with your team: should homemakers be
paid—and, if so, by whom?
■ In the hopes of not angering any feminists reading this page, I will
redirect you to this Wikipedia page and this News Article about the
campaign referred to in the prompt. Personally I find it the
responsibility of the employers to pay the homemakers, after all it was
they who hired them in the first place and provided them with the
duties for their day-to-day activities. It should however, be an
increasingly government or organisational role to look after the rights
of these homemakers, not every employer can be trusted with the
proper payment and care of their domestic household workers.
Governments should monitor and regulate the terms and conditions by
which household employees can work.
○ Read this article about a school for butlers and discuss with your team:
would butlers in modern society play a different role than in the past? If
so, does the same apply to other kinds of domestic help? Was there a
“golden age” for servants?
■ I shall let you read the article in your own time and learn about this
most interesting academy for butlers. Modern butlers are rather rare,

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 in an age of technology and DIY households, we see little need to pay
a person to look after our apartments and condominiums. The only
main place where butlers have a place is in institutions of power (i.e
Buckingham Palace, White House, Saudi Royal Palace). Butlers are
still present for the super rich however, especially for many upper
class families in the Middle East. In fact most butlers find service with
Saudi, Omani, Emirati and Qatari households. Their role has certainly
changed. They no longer look after their own team of staff, instead
they themselves must be the “do-all” man (or woman) who looks after
every need and whim of each family member. The golden age of
servants was likely during the Victorian era up until the end of World
War 2. During this time, domestic servitude was a decent industry with
acceptable wages and much better living conditions than many
domestic workers find themselves in now. Butlers back then were paid
thousands of dollars for the management of their teams.

The Enslaved
● Explore the history of slavery around the world. Questions to consider: how
and when did the institution of slavery begin in each of these regions? When,
why, and how did it end—or did it?
○ the Americas | sub-Saharan Africa | the Russian Empire
■ The Americas: 1619, the New World. A Dutch ship makes port at the
colony town of Jamestown, Virginia. Onboard are supplies from
Europe and a new type of cargo. 20 African men disembark from the
vessel, in chains they walk towards their new masters. The age of
slavery in America has begun. Over the next 2 centuries, great
European powers would contest their dominance over the Slave trade,
a lucrative business that brought in millions every year (but don’t take
my word for it, take this TEDed talk instead). Spain, Britain, Portugal,
France and even The Netherlands would compete to see who could
ship the most slaves out of Africa to their colonies abroad. Slavery in
the Americas was mostly controlled by Spain, who brought millions
from Africa to their colonies in the Caribbean (Haiti, Cuba and Puerto
Rico) to work on the tobacco, cotton and sugarcane plantations that
were then sent back to Europe to be traded in the thousands of
tonnes. In America, slavery gained its roots when European settler
(mainly those from Spain and also Britain), shipped their own slaves
from Africa. The journey was harsh, with “slave-ships” being notorious
for their cramped conditions and horrible treatment of this “cargo”. The
northern states weren’t as involved in slavery as the southern states,
with many cotton gin plantations there having anywhere from 10-50
slaves working on the premises. It would continue this way for many
decades, with the occasional rebellion, congress act and other legal
actions slowly granting rights to the slaves. The final act would come
in the US Civil War, when Abraham Lincoln gave the “Emancipation
Proclamation” in 1863, declaring that all slaves were now free men
and no longer served their white masters. For the next two years
however, many former slaves died on the battlefields of the US Civil
War trying to gain their freedom. With the Union states victorious,
slavery was abolished in the US and black men were now able to gain
some freedom. I’ll let this History channel link explain more.
■ Sub-Saharan Africa: Slavery in Africa was somewhat similar to how
the European then came along and took slaves from them (it’s rewind

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 time!). Starting from the time of African empires (such as the Mali
empire in the East and the Ethiopian Empire around the Horn of
Africa), there have been reports of slaves being used and abused by
their masters. African slave trade was also a lucrative business, with
caravans of slaves being auctioned off in cities some hundreds of
kilometers from their families. In many cases, entire families were
brought under the servitude of their masters. After the “Scramble for
Africa” by European nations (read: Britain, France, Belgium, Germany)
in the late 19th and early 20th century, slavery in all forms was
abolished by the European overlords (Britain was actually the first of
those nations to abolish slavery in the Slave Trade Act of 1807). Some
pursued the eradication of slavery with slightly more vigor and
commitment than others. The French allowed Moroccans and
Algerians to continue possessing slaves until 1848, whilst the Spanish
and Belgians continued to oppress slaves until the turn of the 20th
century. The British should probably be commemorated for their
services in attempting to halt Sub-Saharan African slavery. In 1808,
after passing the Slave Trade Act, the British Navy created the West
Africa Squadron, a fleet of warships specifically tasked with patrolling
the West Coast of Africa and intercepting any European or African
ships attempting to cross the Atlantic with slaves on board. In the
modern age, slavery in sub-saharan Africa could very well still exist,
with countries like Somalia and South Sudan being prime areas for
slave traders to operate underground.
■ The Russian Empire: Ah the Russian Empire. The old Imperialist
white forces that dared to oppress millions and ignore their cries for
freedom. Thank goodness the rise of the Bolsheviks and the liberation
of the people occurred. Slavery was not a concept the glorious and
powerful Soviet Union entertained.
■ (Throat clearing noise). Nevermind that patriotic Communist
tirade, allow me to delve into the interesting history of slavery
in the Russian Empire. Russia was actually one of the first
countries to transition from slavery to a slightly more fortunate
term, known as serfdom. Before Russia was fully united under
Ivan the Terrible, slavery was practised in the Kievan Rus and
Muscovy. Back then, slaves were referred to in legal terms as
kholopy. Their masters had complete control over their lives.
They could kill them, sell them off or even use them to pay
debts. One could become a kholop as a result of capture,
criminal offenses, selling themselves off or even marrying a
kholop. Interestingly however, the master took responsibility in
front of the law for any of the kholop’s actions, so if a kholop
committed a crime his master could be the one punished for
being unable to control their slave (unlike other legal systems,
where the slaves went to court or were often executed where
they stood). From the 10th century to the 17th century, Russia
became a major involuntary exporter of slaves to outside
countries. This included Mongols when they came knocking in
1382 (the only group to have ever successfully invaded Russia
in the winter!), Germans, Lithuanians and even Romans. After
the unification of Russia and the reign of Peter the Great,
slavery was officially abolished in 1723. Afterwards, Russia
would rely on serfs for its manual labour.
○ ancient Greece and Rome | the ancient Near East and Egypt

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■ Ancient Greece: How odd that some great Greek writers like
Aristotle, who pioneered the idea of nation-states, also wrote that
slavery was natural and even necessary to the success of a
civilisation. Anyways, like the other great civilisations of ancient times,
slavery was practised in Ancient Greece. The civilisation actually had
many different categories of slaves (explored later on) and each was
given their own set of duties and rights. Slaves in Ancient Greece
were actually nowhere near as shunned as they were in much later
civilisations. Slaves in partake in practically every activity except
politics, which was the duty of citizens. Most Greek slaves were
located on agricultural plantations, especially in Athens or Sparta (the
latter being infamous for its helot system of slave-soldiers). These
slaves often belonged in the dozens to a single family. Slaves were
also common in mines, spending hours digging out marble and other
precious rocks for Greek construction projects. Domestic slaves were
also common, with many rich families in Athens possessing at least 2
by the 5th century BCE.
■ Ancient Rome: Whilst the Greeks were treating their slaves with
dignity and some respect, the Romans were not exactly doing that. It’s
true that Roman slavery was different to colonial slavery in that slaves
were not based on race. Rome never actually practised the trade of
slavery, preferring to source its slaves from prisoners of war, pirates
and bandits as well as incoming slave merchants from Turkey and
Greece. However, in a cruel twist of fate, desperate lower-class
Roman families were known to simply orphan their children or sell
them off as slaves. As a slave, life was harsh. Masters could beat,
brand, punish and even kill you for the simplest offense. Slavery was
actually accepted as the norm and the slaves themselves were often
put to work in all sorts of industries. From the agricultural fields of the
countryside to the great constructions sites of Roman aqueducts and
roads. Slaves were so commonplace that they merged well with the
population, to the point where the Senate considered forcing them to
wear specific clothing to identify themselves (this plan was later
scrapped over fear that slaves could then rebel en masse). Another
main difference between modern slaves and those of the Romans was
the presence of manumission, the ability of slaves to earn their
freedom. Roman slave owners freed their slaves in the hundreds at
times, especially if they felt that their services to them had been
repaid. More common was the ability of slaves to buy their freedom
through years of work, ensuring obedience and general work
efficiency. Formal manumission was done through a magistrate and
the freed slave was given full Roman citizenship and rights (except the
ability to hold office, though their children could do this when they
reached the age).
■ Perhaps more legendary however, are the warrior slaves who
earned their freedom through years performing for the
entertainment of the public. The most famous of these slaves
(otherwise known as gladiators) was Spartacus, who led a
gladiator and slave uprising (I’ll let this TedEd video explain it
in slightly more detail). Gladiators were similar to normal
slaves, though their duties were just a tad bit more... lethal
(you know fighting lions and battling to the death everyday is
just ever so slightly more dangerous than working with huge
bricks and confounding logistics at an aqueduct site).

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 ■ Near East: For the purpose of this analysis and explanation, I’m going
to narrow the “Near East” to more of the “Middle East”. Specifically I’m
going to focus more on the slavery of the Ottoman Empire. Since the
empire’s founding, slavery constituted a large portion of the economy
and population. In fact, slavery was so important that expeditions were
specifically launched with the purpose of finding slaves (these were
known as organized enslavement operations). Because the Ottoman
Empire connected Europe and Asia, it served as a global trading hub
for many goods, including slaves. Eastern European prisoners of war
could find themselves becoming slaves to North African Arab masters.
In Constantinople (modern day Istanbul), a fifth of the population was
slaves. However, Ottoman slaves were different in that they were
mostly at the forefront of politics and could even occupy positions of
great power. Castrated harem guards and the elite janissary corps
were often made up of captured slaves that were then freed and
retrained in Ottoman ways. Officials in the Ottoman Empire were
actually also slaves, bought from other traders and then educated for
their fanatical loyalty to the Sultan and the empire.
■ Egypt: And so we round out our trio of “great ancient civilisations” by
focusing on Egypt. This one is slightly more complicated, because the
Egyptians referred to slaves not as a single group, but based on their
own positions and archetypes that they were in. I’ll talk more about
these Egyptian examples down below, but for now we’ll focus on the
most common and probably the most stereotyped form of Egyptian
slavery: forced labour. Whenever the government required a large
manual labour force, be it for construction projects (those pyramids
didn’t build themselves), expeditions or war campaigns. Local villages
and towns were often called upon to provide a certain quota of able-
bodied men, not just common farmers and sculptors but any possible
skilled workmen as well (women were forbidden from working in such
disciplines back then). Rather than answering and being owned by an
individual, these “slave laborers” were expected to do their duty as a
contribution to the state.
○ Dynastic China | the ancient Middle East | Haiti
■ Dynastic China: Dear god this is going to be long. I know Caitlin was
likely going to do this so I’ll leave this section with a Wikipedia link
since the history of slavery in Dynastic China changes with every
dynasty (read: A LOT OF CHANGES).
■ Ancient Middle East: The oldest records of slavery in these region
date back to the 18th century BCE, with Babylonian masters having
several slaves at their beck and call. Unlike more contemporary forms
of slavery however, these slaves were granted the right to own
property if they could afford it, merely offering their services to others if
they had debts to pay or were simply unable to find other jobs.
Interestingly, in Mesopotamia female slaves were more common than
male slaves when it came to working in temples and domestic
households (uncommon at the time). Again however, like Egypt many
slaves were simply at the beck and call of the royal household. These
laborers were often the spoils of war or former criminals sentenced to
servitude and they often helped build the infrastructure and cities of
that day and age. Slave policies back then were still pretty harsh, they
could be punished for disobedience or attempting to escape. They
could however, also earn their freedom through paying for it.
■ Haiti: On August 22nd, the small French colony of Saint-Dominique
bore witness to one of the greatest spectacles in human history. That

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 night, slaves from all over the island gathered together in the Haitian
slave revolt. Caught unaware and unable to fight back, the French
masters were either killed or forced to retreat back home. 12 years
later, the island of Haiti won its independence from France. This is the
first and only time a slave revolt succeeded in gaining the
independence of a nation and it is legendary among many historians
who specialise in the Atlantic slave trade study. This freedom from
slavery was well-earned, with Haiti becoming the first black-run
republic with no slavery at all. Its founders decided on the Declaration
of Independence to simply state “We have dared to be free, let us be
thus by ourselves and for ourselves.” Prior to this historical event, the
island had been devastated by the slave trade, with the local populace
all but wiped out after Columbus and the Spanish came knocking in
the 15th and 16th century. The subsequent French colonisation wasn’t
much better, with the Atlantic slave trade booming and bringing
hundreds more servants to this small island.
● Types of Slavery
○ chattel slavery | indentured servitude | debt bondage
■ Chattel Slavery: Perhaps the more common and more recognised
form of slavery, chattel slavery is where slaves are property forever.
There is no legal way for these slaves to gain their freedom, their
children and grandchildren will be automatically enslaved the moment
they are born and they can be sold or purchased at the whim of their
masters. European courts often encourage and propagated this type
of slavery, with remnants of it appearing in North America and the
Caribbean. Often it was a shock to society if a master suddenly
decided to free his slaves from their servitude, not to much benefit
though (these slaves would never become full citizens or gain the
rights of others around them). In Ancient Egypt, chattel slaves were
common amongst the royal households and higher-class families, but
they could earn their freedom if their owners decided that their service
had been commemorable.
■ Indentured Servitude: If you’ve been around for the WSC since last
year, you likely studied contracts in the Social Studies area. Had you
dug deep enough, you would’ve discovered indentured servitude as a
darker form of forced contracts. During the early age of the American
colonies, many found themselves unable to gain passage to the
interior of the nation and required money to start a business or
purchase lodgings. So they simply entered into an indentured
servitude contract, whereby the person promised to serve the
employer for a set period of time (usually 4-10 years) in certain duties
in exchange for food, shelter and any other basic needs. Once the
contract expired, the indentured servant was freed and could even
earn plots of land if their service had been notable. As of today,
indentured servitude is forbidden in majority of nations and is banned
under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a form of slavery.
■ Debt Bondage: The most modern incarnation of slavery, debt
bondage is a sort of “safeguard slavery” in the sense that it is pledge
of a person’s services with no payment as the repayment of a debt or
other obligation. Within this contract however, the terms of the debt
and the period of servitude is often left very vague, meaning that the
employer could very well ask for indefinite servitude. This type of
slavery was common in ancient civilisation, especially Ancient Rome
and Egypt, where masters could simply ask their slaves to work longer
under the reasoning that their “debt” hadn’t been fully repaid.

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 ○ forced labor | pawnship | slaves vs. enslaved people
■ Forced labor: Perhaps more common now than any other form of
slavery, forced labor is what it says on the tin. The forced extraction of
services from an individual who has either been threatened with a
penalty without voluntarily giving their services to the employing party.
In ancient times, especially Rome, Greece and Egypt, this meant
calling upon the local populace to provide workers for huge national
projects (construction, war, expedition). This continued to persist into
history, with the government taking a more active role in forced labour
workforces. As late as the 20th century, the Soviet government was
known for using millions of “forced laborers” to toil for hours in wartime
factories in the harsh urals (no mention of the gulags that these
people found themselves it, I’m trying to restrain my communist side).
The most common form of forced labour was for military service;
conscription. In the later stages of history (and especially during
wartime), it was not uncommon for governments to force thousands
into the armed forces or threaten them at gunpoint (ironic, recruit
people against their will to shoot a gun at others by holding a gun to
their head).
■ Pawnship:
■ Slaves vs. enslaved people: Very similar words. Slaves is used to
describe the actual people who are forced to work for nothing for
practically their entire lives; whilst enslaved people are used to refer to
those who have been forced into the slave labour either through
indentured servitude, forced labour or other forms.
○ domestic slavery | military slavery
■ Domestic slavery: Basically the use of slaves in domestic
households as unpaid servants. Common during the colonial era,
African empire era and Americas during the Spanish/French rule.
■ Military slavery: Otherwise known as conscription, military slavery
has dated back to Mesopotamia and continues to this day (albeit with
a lot more formalities and policies). Often times, governments call
upon a sizeable amount of their population to sign up for the armed
services and be in that service branch for a specific amount of time.
Conscription began universally in 1790 during the French Revolution,
when the revolutionaries realised that they needed more coercive
ways to raise a standing army to defend from foreign threats. More
common nowadays is the civil service form of military slavery,
whereby governments force people of a certain age (usually manhood
in many countries) to undergo military training. Thailand for example,
has the notorious ror dor training camp, in which students between the
ages of 16-18 are conscripted for military training on Saturdays.
● Research enslaved people who rose to fame and/or power. Below are some
examples. Did they find their way to success despite their subjugated origins,
or because of them?
○ Harriet Tubman | Aesop | Bilal ibn Rabah | Epictetus | Jean-Jacques
Dessalines
■ Harriet Tubman: One of the most famous slave stories in history,
Harriet Tubman was an African-American slave during the 1800s in
America. Born on a plantation in Maryland in 1820, young Araminta
Ross (as her parents named her) spent much of her younger years
tending to the fields or helping out indoors (though she much rather
preferred heavy manual labour in agriculture than domestic service).
At age 12, Harriet was injured gravely when a supervisor threw a
heavy weight at her head, after she stepped in to protect a fugitive

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 slave. The injury later rendered her with headaches and narcolepsy
(the inability to control sleep). After meeting a free black slave named
John Tubman, Harriet changed her last name but was still not
recognised as a free woman (despite her former owner having stated
that her entire family would be free after his death, which had already
passed). On September 17th 1849, along with her brothers (who later
bailed out), Harriet rode the Underground Railway to safety in
Pennsylvania. Yet despite her newfound freedom, she still felt as if
though it were her duty to free the rest of her brethren. So from then
on until the beginning of the civil war, Harriet Tubman was a conductor
on the Underground Railway, guiding some 70 (possibly more) slaves
to freedom. While seen as a guiding figure, she was also feared as a
conductor. She was known to carry a gun, both to provide protection
and “convince” her passengers who might be doubting themselves.
She was even known to drug babies and young kids to prevent them
from alerting nearby catchers with their cries. At the outbreak of the
civil war, Harriet Tubman also became the head of an espionage
network for the Union. She spent the war relaying information about
Confederate troop movements and supplies, as well as freeing black
slave soldiers from Confederate forces to form black Union regiments.
■ Aesop: Here’s a good puzzle. What do The Hanging Gardens of
Babylon and a famous Greek slave whose stories were the stuff of
myths have in common? Well, we don’t know if either of them actually
existed. Aesop was (if he ever lived) a Greek fabulist and storywriter
who is most well-known for his fables which send morales in the
space of a few hundred words. The problem is whether or not he
actually wrote these tales or simply passed them on through speech.
From Greek writings (namely those of the historian Herodotus and
philosopher Aristotle), we know that Aesop was born in 620 BCE on
the Black Sea Coast (then known as a province called Thrace). He
was a slave on the island of Samos, where it is said that he earned his
freedom through great storytelling and literacy (a value highly sought
and considered a social status in Ancient Greece). Apparently he
would also free himself by telling tales to his masters (assuming he
passed through several owners) about the ironics of their employment
of him. Even more mysterious is how he managed to secure positions
of power, serving as advisors to some kings and even being the right-
hand man to the councils of kingdom. Apparently in 564 BCE the poor
fellow met his end when he insulted the Delphians whilst on a
diplomatic mission (not exactly a model diplomat are we?). Enraged,
the Delphi court made some trumped-up charge of temple theft and
threw the former slave off a cliff to his end (it is said that this act
caused the Delphians to have a famine).
■ Bilal Ibn Rabah: One of the more religious-centred explanations on
this list, Bilal Ibn Rabah was one of the most trusted and loyal
compatriots (or Sahabah) of the prophet Muhammad. Born in the holy
city of Mecca, he was considered the first muezzin and chosen by
Muhammad himself to give the call to prayer because of his beautiful
voice. Born in 580 AD, Rabah was the son of an Arab slave from the
Banu Jumah tribe, yet also the son of a former princess of Abyssinia
(Ethiopia). His master, Umayyah ibn Khallaf, recognised the young
slave’s obedience and efficiency and was even entrusted the keys to
the Idols of Arabia (the statues and other figures of paganistic worship
that were kept in the Ka’bah). When Muhammad first preached Islam
to the populace, Rabah was one of the few who would denounce

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 pagan worship and convert to the religion. His master was furious and
the tribe subjected him to forms of torture beyond description (if you’ve
just eaten or are about to, I shall spare you the picture). Word of his
devotion to Islam and Allah despite such cruelty reached some of
Muhammad’s companions, Muhammad then sent Abu Bakr (his
father-in-law) to negotiate for the release of Rabah, succeeding by
trading 3 pagan slaves in exchange. Rabah would then continue to
accompany Muhammad in his travels, even being present to fight for
Islam at the Battle of Badr.
■ Epictetus: If you believe in the concept of “fate” and that life is
already laid out for us, beyond our control and naturally accept that;
then there’s a high chance you believe in the teaching of Epictetus. A
Greek stoic philosopher born as a slave in Hierapolis (Turkey) and
living in Rome until his banishment. Born in 55 A.D, Epictetus would
serve as a slave in Rome to Epaphroditus, secretary to the notorious
emperor Nero (who supposedly fiddled while Rome burned). Early in
life, he gained a passion for philosophy and earned the permission of
his master to study Stoic philosophy, sometime during this period he
also became crippled (reasons vary with source, some claim his leg
was broken by his master, others say he was born with it). In 68 A.D,
Epictetus was freed after the death of Nero and began teaching
philosophy in the capital. Yet 25 years later, emperor Domitian
banished all philosophers from the city and caused Epictetus to move
to Greece. He would spend the rest of his life here, teaching his
beliefs and propagating Stoic philosophy.
■ Jean-Jacques Dessalines: Throughout history there have been
many rulers with unlikely origin stories. Empress Catherine of Russia
was a Prussian noble at birth, Toyotomi Hideyoshi a sandal-bearer,
Jacques Dessalines a slave. Born in 1758 to a slave family on the
island of Haiti to parents of unknown name or origin, Jacques
Dessalines would take part in the slave uprising of 1791. Leading the
charge against French troops and plantation owners, Dessalines
would see his colonial masters ousted from their territory. It would be
he who proclaimed the Haitian Declaration of Independence and
become the first emperor of Haiti (known as Emperor Jacques I). Yet
after just a year of his rule, he was brutally assassinated while on the
way to stomp out some rebellions.
○ Juan Latino | Leo Africanus | Miguel de Cervantes | Ng Akew | Qutb-ud-
din
■ Juan Latino: Spanish black university professor and once a former
slave.
■ Leo Africanus: In the early 16th century, there was one name that
any scholar of the European world was familiarized with. Though
you’d be forgiven for not knowing that name. Sir Isaac Newton had yet
to be born and have an apple fall on his head, whilst it would be
another 30 years until Galileo Galilei told the world that the sun was
the centre of the solar system. This scholar is somewhat notable from
other members on this list because his slavery was very brief and he
wasn’t actually born a slave. In fact, when Leo Africanus was captured
by Spanish Berbers (pirates who operated in the Mediterranean, near
the island of Djerba and Crete) in 1518; he was already 24 years of
age and well-versed in the academia of the time. Born in Granada
sometime in 1494, the young Leo would study at the great University
of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Egypt (the oldest continually operating
university in the world). He would travel through much of North Africa,

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 or Maghreb as it was known back then. He would accompany his
uncle on a diplomatic trip to Timbuktu, find himself in Istanbul on
another such trip and later wind up in Rosetta whilst the Ottomans
were laying siege to the Egyptian state. After his capture in 1518, Leo
was imprisoned on the island of Rhodes, before being brought before
Pope Leo X (name buddies!) in Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome. It is said
that his captors recognised his intelligence and spared him from the
usual sentence Muslim captors without a ransom had (slavery on
Christian galleys). Later freed and given pension as a persuasion to
stay, Leo was baptized in 1520. After a few more years travelling
around North Africa and Arabia, Leo Africanus sent his manuscript for
his masterpiece, e Della descrittione dell’Africa et delle cose notabili
che iui sono (Description of Africa). It was for this work that he was
most well remembered, with many European institutes using it as a
resource for African history and geography in the later years. In an era
before empires even looked to the African continent, Leo Africanus
charted part of their maps and information for them. His later life is
actually a mystery, we don’t quite know whether he died in Rome,
Tunis or returned to his family in Granada for the final years of his life.
■ Miguel de Cervantes: For those book-lovers amongst you, this name
might ring a bell. Miguel de Cervantes is credited with one of the most
famous works in Western literature, forming part of the canon for
many school curriculums until today. I am of course, referring to his
masterpiece, Don Quixote. After the Bible, Don Quixote is the most-
translated book in the world and Cervantes is credited as having an
impact on the Spanish language almost as much as Shakespeare had
one on the English language. Yet before his rise to fame in the ranks
of authors and schoolchildren, Miguel de Cervantes served in the
Spanish Navy infantry (the equivalent of modern day Marines), worked
as a purchasing agent for the Spanish Armada (basically buying ships
and guns for war) and landed himself in jail for 3 years thanks to tax
discrepancies (what a coloured life he lived). Yet more interesting
perhaps, and more relevant to this section, is the fact that Miguel de
Cervantes actually became a slave for 5 years after being captured by
Barbary pirates (the same forces that captured Leo Africanus, though
this time his intelligence didn’t impress them like Leo’s did). According
to baptism records, young Miguel was born in a small city just north of
Madrid in September 1547. It is unknown why the young student was
exiled from Spain entirely in 1569, though we do know that he headed
for Rome shortly thereafter (common for aspiring young renaissance
men of the time). After a short stint as an artist in Italy and study of
Italian literature, Miguel returned to Spain (sort of) in 1570, signing up
for the Spanish Navy Marines on the island of Naples (then a
possession of the Spanish crown). The next year Miguel saw active
combat at the Battle of Lepanto, a famous naval battle that saw the
Galley Fleet of the Holy League (a coalition of Spanish and Italian city-
states) defeat the Ottoman fleet. Miguel was actually wounded
severely in the battle, receiving two gunshot wounds to the chest and
one that rendered his left arm useless. After 6 months in hospital to
heal up, Miguel returned to the field for the next 4 years, witnessing
battles and partaking in expedition. On 6th September 1575, Miguel
boarded a Spanish galley, the Sol, bound for Barcelona from Naples.
On the 26th of September, within sight of the Catalan coast, Ottoman
pirates attacked the Sol and captured Miguel de Cervantes. Taken to
Algiers, then a major cosmopolitan hub of the Ottoman Empire, Miguel

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 would serve as a slave for 5 years. Despite making 4 unsuccessful
escape attempts, the author would finally receive his freedom in 1580
after his parents and the Trinitarians (an order of believers in the Holy
Trinity) paid a ransom. Miguel would go on to use his experience as a
slave in his literary works, most notably the Captive’s tale in Don
Quixote, as well as two plays set in Algiers.
■ Ng Akew: Slightly less famous in history, though a very captivating
story nonetheless, the story of Ng Akew takes place during the 1800s,
a period of tumultuous political and geographical struggles in China
(known as the “Century of Humiliation”). Once part of the Tanka ethnic
group in China (a group that was characterised by living in junks on
the coastal towns of China), Ng Akew was a slave to British opium
smuggler James Bridget Endicott, operating from Hong Kong. I could
go into why the British had opium smugglers in China in the first place,
but that could easily take a 1000 word essay. In short, the First Opium
War that had occurred just 10 years earlier (in 1839) was due to
Chinese aggression over illegal British trade operations with the
infamous drug (apparently millions of tonnes were smuggled in every
year during that time). Even after the war, the Chinese authorities
refused to accept opium legally within their lands, so the British simply
resorted to funding smugglers in order to get rich from the profits (the
Chinese armed forces were no match for the fast ships of the
smugglers). In 1849, Ng was given a share of Endicott’s cargo, which
she sold along the coast with her own boat (having used the
experience as a Tanka child). However, it was was occurred during
this time that made her an international controversy. During her stint
as a smuggler, pirates captured both her cargo and boat. Undeterred,
Ng went directly to the pirate base and negotiated for her
compensation. Shortly after this, an American merchant ship was
attacked by those pirates (along with Ng Akew onboard) and its cargo
stolen. When that cargo was later discovered in the hold of Ng Akew’s
ship, it was assumed that this was the “compensation” the she’d
demanded from the pirates. Since she could not be proven guilty of
assisting them in the theft, she was freed and returned to her master.
Endicott later gave Ng a plot of land in Hong Kong, letting her become
a free and wealthy homeowner (while he himself retired to Macau). Ng
Akew’s case would cause great controversy in the world, here was a
slave who had escaped the net of justice, unthinkable at the time.
■ Qutb-ud-din: Certainly one of the older figures on this list, Qutb-ud-
din returns to the category of slaves who assumed a great position of
power later on in their life. Born in 1150 to Turkic parents in Turkistan,
Qutb (otherwise known as Aibak) was sold as a slave and raised in
Persia, where he was under the servitude of a local Qazi (a sort of
judge in Sharia court). After this master died, he was sold off to
another, this time Muhammad of Ghor, Sultan of the Ghurid empire
(sort of a job promotion). During this time, he was promoted to
become the “Amir-i-Akhur”, “Master of Slave”. After being promoted to
military command and even serving as an able general of Muhammad
of Ghor, his master entrusted the conquest of northwest India to him in
1193. He would go on to conquer the region between the Ganges and
Yamuna rivers, before turning his attention to the resilient Rajputs. In
1206, with the assassination of his master, Aibak was the only
successor to the throne (rather surprising that a former slave becomes
the Sultan of an entire empire). For the next 4 years, Aibak would go
on to rebuild and construct new mosques in Delhi and Ajmer. Though

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 perhaps his most famous project was the planning and initial
overseeing of the construction of the Qutb Minar, a minaret that is also
UNESCO world heritage site in Delhi. In 1210, the ruler would meet
his end after injuries sustained during a polo match (apparently he fell
off his horse). Buried in Lahore, Qutb would be known as the first
Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty (literally, “slave” dynasty) and the first
ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
○ Aybak | Spartacus | Toussaint L’Ouverture | Olaudah Equiano
■ Aybak: One of the less frightening stories on this list, the story of Izz
al-Din Aybak is not a conventional slave story. Similar to Qutb, Aybak
was a Mamluk slave (a word used by Arabs to refer to any slave
soldiers and rulers of slave origins) who served the court of Ayyubid
sultan as-Salih Ayyub in 1240. Raising himself to the position of Emir
(commander) as well as working as a Jashkinir (taster of the Sultan’s
food and drink as well as cupbearer), Aybak would develop a
notorious reputation amongst the people of Egypt for his cunning and
cruelty. In 1249, his master met his end during the Frankish invasion
of Damietta, whilst the heir apparent to the throne (his son,
Turanshah), was assassinated the year afterwards. With no one to
carry on the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks seized control of the
throne and Ayabk was appointed as Atabeg, commander in chief of
the armed forces (then second only to the Sultan). Over the next 4
years, political turmoil within the kingdom itself would see Aybak crush
multiple rebellions and lead campaigns against other usurpers.
Interestingly, the sultana of Egypt would marry Aybak and then
abdicate the throne to him in July 1250. He would only rule for 5 days,
before a 6 year old from the Syrian branch of the Ayyubid family was
placed on the throne to quell rebellious voices in Baghdad and Syria.
In 1254, he would lead an effort to assume the throne, before kicking
out his former Mamluk allies. In 1257 he would meet his end after he
was murdered due to wife jealousy (yeah, of all the reasons he
could’ve been killed, some scandal raises the most controversy).
■ Spartacus: 73 BC, Capua, Italy. A group of gladiators and slaves
rebel against their masters. Seizing kitchen utensils, the warriors freed
their way out of their school and seized several wagons filled with
gladiatorial weapons and armor. Though the city garrison was
deployed, the experienced warriors easily cut through them,
plundering Capua and the surrounding region, slowly growing in
number as more were convinced to break their chains and join the
ranks. On Mount Vesuvius, these slaves chose their leaders. Gallics
Crixus and Oenomaus, along with one other that would descend into
the annals of historical legend and myth: Spartacus. Over the
centuries, hundreds of books, plays, TV shows and even movies have
been directed about the life of this infamous former slave. Yet little is
actually known about his early life. We do know that Spartacus was
born in 111 B.C, somewhere along the Strymon river in modern-day
Bulgaria. Greek essayist Plutarch described him as a “Thracian of
nomadic stock”, whilst historian Appian described him as “a Thracian
by birth, who had once served with the Romans, but had since been a
prisoner and sold for a gladiator”. We don’t actually know what
Spartacus did in order to be enslaved, some say he deserted the
Roman army, others say that Roman legions hunted him down after
he committed a crime. Whatever the case, Spartacus would train as a
gladiator in the school (or ludus) to perform in front of thousands to the
death (either against other gladiators of vicious animals). Yet after he

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 led the small rebellion in Capua, Spartacus would go on to symbolise
the word “freedom”. At the time of the rebellion, the senate in Rome
was unconcerned with a minor conflict, they were still tangled up with
wars in Spain and the Pontic empire in modern-day Turkey. Yet
praetor Claudius Gaber was dispatched with 3000 men to surround
and siege the rebel’s camp on Mount Vesuvius. In a great feat of
tactical ingenuity, the slaves outmaneuvered the much larger Roman
force, flanking them by climbing down the volcano with ropes of vine.
Later a second expedition led by Praetor Varinius was ambushed by
Spartacus’ guerillas, steadily growing in number after bands of slaves
heard news of this “army of freedom”. In the summer of 72 BC, the
Roman senate, concerned over the successes and growing numbers
of Spartacus’ force, dispatched 2 legions (almost 10,000 men in total)
to eliminate this threat once and for all. Yet in the ensuing battle,
Spartacus’ force was victorious, albeit with some losses. Crixus, one
of the leaders and lieutenants of the force, was slain during the battle.
To honor him, Spartacus forced the Roman prisoners captured to
partake in funeral games, the same games he and his men had once
partaken in when they were slaves. But after his movement gained
over 120,000 followers, Spartacus began to have logistical problems
managing such a huge force. In 71 BC, the richest Roman citizen,
Marcus Licinius Crassus, was charged with directing the war against
these former slaves (later known as the Third Servile War). Leading 8
legions of almost 40,000 men to trap the slaves in the toe of Italy.
After being betrayed by pirates and failing to build their own rafts,
Spartacus’ remaining men met Crassus on the battlefield. Spartacus
himself was last seen attempting to slay Crassus before a centurion
ran a sword through him (though historian Appian says his body was
never recovered). In the end, Crassus was victorious, with the Roman
authority showing its nasty side: 6,000 prisoners were crucified along
the Appian way, a road from Rome to Brindisi, passing along Capua;
the former home of Spartacus.
■ Historians are still debating what Spartacus was actually
attempting to do when he turned his army South. The alps
were wide open for him, he could’ve simply marched over the
mountains to Gaul and let his men disperse as free people. Yet
many within his army wanted to continue plundering, as
revenge for all the wrongs that had been wrought upon them.
Many still dreamt of marching on Rome itself, taking the capital
and assuming leadership over the entire empire, allowing all
slaves to break their chains. Whatever the case, we do know
that Spartacus was probably not aiming to abolish slavery
entirely in Rome, rather he was simply trying to escape and
earn his freedom. Yet the warrior slave who’d fought for his
right to be free and those of hundreds of thousands of others,
continues to be immortalised for his deeds.
■ Toussaint L’Ouverture: If you cast your mind back to the beginning
of this section (or simply scroll up to it), you might remember Jean-
Jacques Dessalines. An african slave in Haiti who would become the
country’s first emperor after its successful slave rebellion. Well, here’s
another fellow whom Dessalines actually knew and fought alongside
with. Toussaint L’Ouverture was born a slave on the Caribbean island
of Saint-Domingue (then the name for Haiti) in 1743. During his
education, his free godfather apparently tutored him in philosophy (he
had a passion for Epictetus, another slave on this list), Creole, French

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 and other basic subjects of the time. Initially, historians believed that
he was slave until the rebellion in 1791, yet documents reveal he was
actually freed by his former master in 1776 due to his skill and
managerial prowess. He actually had his own slaves, working a coffee
plantation he owned on behalf of his former master (an ironic twist if
ever I’ve heard one). In fact, when the rebellion broke out in 1791,
Toussaint was already 50 years of age (incredibly old for slave at that
time) and not willing to join the rebels. Yet when the fighting spread to
his corner of the island, he decided to take up the cause, echoing the
beliefs of those philosophers whose thoughts on equal rights of man
he believed in (John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau). Joining the
rebels under Georges Biassou, Toussaint set to work as a medical
doctor to the troops. After gaining a reputation for saving the lives of
his men, he was given command of 600 black soldiers, which later
grew to almost 4,000 loyal followers. Among them was Jean-Jacques
Dessalines, who’d become an able lieutenant alongside Toussaint.
During this time, Spain and Britain sought an opportunity to harass the
French and force them to give up their precious Caribbean colonies;
so that their own empires might grow. The Spanish actually supported
the slave revolt and the British sent their own troops to corner the
French on the island. In 1794, after France agreed to free all slaves,
Toussaint switches sides and began fighting against his former black
commanders. The Spanish were driven back to their former side of the
island and the British troops were forced to withdraw after
overwhelming casualties. After that, relative peace came to the island,
with Toussaint taking command of the entire government. He was
loved amongst all people there, for his decision to allow emigre
plantation owners to return stimulated the economy. Military discipline
was used to convince former slaves to work, but instead of being
beaten they were given equal shares in the profits from their
plantations. In 1802 however, Napoleon Bonaparte was growing
nervous about Toussaint, who might at any time cast off the French
chains preventing him from making Haiti truly independent. So he
ordered a colonial governor on the island to invite Toussaint for a
parley, only for him to be captured and sent to France a prisoner. He
would die in prison the following year, having been interrogated for
alleged details about an upcoming black revolt. His legacy for freeing
slaves and equal rights for all rings through the ages, with his work
allowing Haiti to become the first free colony thanks to a slave revolt.
■ Olaudah: 10 years before Toussaint gained his freedom, Olaudah
Equiano (then known as Gustavus Vassa) earned his own through
intelligent trading and careful saving. Born in 1745 to farmers in
Igboland, Nigeria, Olaudah was captured and taken to the Caribbean
(as most African children were at the time) before being sold as a
slave to work in the Royal Navy. He then transferred servitude to a
Quaker trader, before earning his freedom in 1766. After moving to
London, Olaudah would begin to make a name for himself as one of
the great abolitionists of the time. He joined the abolitionist group
Sons of Africa, made up of well-known former African slaves who
were living in Britain. Throughout his time he would write his
masterpiece and legacy, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of
Olaudah Equiano, published in 1789. Its depiction of the horrors of
slavery made great contributions for parliament to approve the Slave
Trade Act of 1807, abolishing slavery in all British African colonies.
Though Olaudah was dead a decade before the historic government

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 act passed, his name was remembered as one of the key abolitionists
who helped set millions of his brothers free.
● Discussion Questions
○ Historically, many industrial workers lived in “factory villages” which
kept them close to their work and in which they might even be
pressured to spend their earnings at company-operated shops. Discuss
with your team: would this situation be comparable to slavery, or would
such a comparison be going a step too far? How about the lives of
workers who live in modern-day factory towns, or who work in industrial
agriculture? How about cruise ship workers?
■ This isn’t exactly a form of slavery, as by definition slavery is the
“application of property laws upon people”. These workers are not
considered property, merely they are being treated poorly and their
free will/rights oppressed. They took the job without involuntarily being
forced to do so and were probably aware of the possible job
conditions at the time of recruitment. Again, the three examples shown
are not slavery examples. These workers are free to leave their job if
they wish to do so and were voluntarily signed up in the first place.
Granted their conditions are very similar to those of slaves, but at least
they are given some pay and are not subject to the level of brutality
that many slaves faced for disobedience.
○ Should countries make reparations to the descendants of past slaves?
If so, should future generations similarly compensate the descendants
of other groups who have faced systematic socioeconomic limitations—
such as women who were underpaid?
■ For the first question I certainly think that reparations are in order.
Slavery was worldwide for much of recent history and it was thanks to
colonial slavery by Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, The
Netherlands and other European powers that Africa had its male
population significantly reduced. While these millions of slaves toiled
under the sun in horrible conditions with no pay for the profit of their
overseers, back home their countries were not going anywhere in
terms of development. The reason why Africa is the most
underdeveloped continent today is because for much of its recent
history, its resources were used by the west and not by the regional
colonial governments who could’ve used it to improve their quality of
life. Even in Asia and South America this is the case, though slightly
less evident in those areas due to the lesser extent of colonialism that
arrived on its shores. Nowadays it seems very important to give
reparations, after all in a way these white masters were responsible
for the world in which the descendants of the slaves find themselves
in.
○ Brazil was the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery. Why do
you think it took longer than its neighbors? Was the pressure to end
slavery gradual or sudden, and internal or external? How did society
adjust afterward? Discuss with your team: what can we learn from the
experience of Brazil about the government’s role in changing long-time
institutions?
■ In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Americas to finally
abolish slavery, with the “Golden Act” promulgated on May 13th by
Princess Isabel. The reason why Brazil took so long compared to
other nations, who’d outlawed slavery in the decades before, is due to
a multitude of reasons. Brazil was the last major colony of the
Portuguese Empire at the time and it was one of the most precious in
terms of resources. Cotton, Tobacco, precious minerals, wood,

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 sugarcane and a slew of other goods made Portugal a formidable
trade partner. As such, Brazil was more dependent on slaves than
other colonies around it, because the machinery needed to capitalise
on this market was not within the affordability of the Portuguese, who
were looked down upon by other empires (read: Britain, France).
Furthermore, since Brazil’s economy and leadership was practically
an oligarchy, made up of powerful economic elites who controlled
swathes of land and oversaw the trade business; they preferred slow
and steady change to rapid reform. They didn’t want to risk
antagonising the population, for fear of retaliation or even rebellion. In
1845 the actual process to abolishment began with the Aberdeen act,
with slow reforms coming in the following years. Yet another
interesting fact was the external pressure from the home country itself,
Portugal. In 1808 Napoleon Bonaparte and the French Army were at
the gates of Lisbon and the Royal Family feared for their lives. So they
fled to their colony in Brazil, with Rio De Janeiro becoming the beacon
of Portuguese civilisation for a while. As such, the slaves were
paramount in the rapid construction and development of this once
backwater city with limited quality of life. Even after the royal family
returned in 1820 (leaving behind Pedro I to declare independence 2
years later). So a mix of internal and external pressure caused the
delay of abolishment in Brazil.
○ In some parts of the world, slaves were treated as low-ranking family
members or could earn their freedom after a set period. People could
sometimes even enter slavery by choice. Discuss with your team: under
what circumstances might someone choose to be enslaved? Should
people be allowed to enslave themselves?
■ There are very few circumstances in which one might choose to be
enslaved. Perhaps someone wishing to escape their current life and
find a new home might take the prospect of slavery as a gateway to a
new world in which they could build themselves a nice life. People
should no longer be allowed to enslave themselves because of the
conditions and horrible threats they can face while on the job. Slavery
is a dark mark on humanity’s history, and it should no longer be
allowed to rear its ugly head.

The Poor: Perspectives and Prospects

● A question to consider: what does it mean to be poor? Do we use the term too
loosely, and has its meaning changed over time?
○ The term “poor” is now used in a more materialistic sense. Poor is used to
refer to the lack of money required to live at a reasonable standard as set
within different societies. We often associate being “poor” with being in a state
of poverty, someone can’t afford the basic needs to life and therefore is likely
not going to have a great time on this planet. For much of human history, the
strict guidelines on what was considered “poor” has shifted over depending
on civilisations, but generally being “poor” never really meant being unable to
afford the basic needs of life. In Industrial Revolution Europe, being “poor”
meant that while you could still afford a room and food, it wasn’t the greatest
room or the most delicious food. In fact many people during that time were
considered “poor” simply because they were in the lower classes of society,
not because they were in absolute poverty. We don’t use the term too loosely
now, we tend to analyse the situation demographically and then determine
which part of the world is “poor”.

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● Explore the difference between relative and absolute poverty. Discuss with
your team: If you live in a society in which everyone has a smartphone and you
can only afford a flip phone, are you poor?
○ As the name likely suggests, relative poverty is where a person cannot earn
enough income to maintain the average living standard in their
country/society. This is often used in demographics for more regional
statistics, whilst absolute poverty is more favoured in terms of global trend
analysis. Absolute poverty was defined by the UN in 1995 as “"a condition
characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food,
safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and
information.”
○ If we lived in a society in which everyone had a smartphone and my team
could only afford flip phones, then in terms of relative poverty we are poor in
terms of our access to information. We might not be able to surf the web like
all the other people can, but we still have access to the other parts of life that
allow us to have a standard quality of living. If however, we only had a flip
phone and nothing else, then that would suggest both relative and absolute
poverty.
● Consider the commonly repeated trope that poor people lead happier, simpler
lives. Discuss with your team: is this just a myth? If so, what purpose does it
serve? If not, should more people try to be poor?
○ The myth of “less is more” is one that doesn’t tend to follow the numbers in
today’s world. The article linked actually refers to the 2016 World Happiness
Report, where it was discovered that none of the top 20 countries were those
with high levels of poverty, instead most of those countries were found
towards the bottom of the list. The main purpose it serves is more
philosophical and rooted in a time where “poor” meant you couldn’t afford the
modern tools of the time. This was more of the 1800s and 1900s, where
people with the basic needs were still considered poor because the rest of
society had radios and televisions. The main purpose was to show how
leaving a less materialistic life can lead you to realising the true value of those
moments where happiness can come from natural things. More people
shouldn’t try to be poor because of how happy it might make them, indeed
nowadays poverty is often attached with other things. Most countries with
high rates of poverty have poor life expectancy, are marred by political and
geographical conflict and do not possess the rights necessary for people to
speak their mind.
● Industrialization is commonly seen as a path to economic development, but
many historians argue that it can create a new class of urban poor. What has
been the impact of industrialization on poverty and wealth in your own
country?
○ Indonesia has an interesting story with industrialization. As a former colony of
the Dutch for almost 350 years, Indonesia was never really one to
industrialize its economy. The Dutch mainly subsisted off our rubber, spice
and tin trade through forced labour or even slavery. It wasn’t until we won our
independence in 1945 (1947 according to the Dutch), that our government
began to slowly address the issue of industrialization. In the 1950s and 60s
we began rapidly undertaking this process, attempting to orchestrate an
export-oriented economy similar to that of Thailand or India at the time. The
Asian Financial Crisis in the mid 1990s halted our modernization and the
decrease in value of the Indonesian rupiah meant that many would go
underneath the poverty line. Nowadays Indonesia is slowly improving, with
more and more people slowly escaping the poverty line each year. In 2018
the government announced that 9.82% of the country’s 255 million strong
population was under the poverty line, rapid decrease from the 49% at the

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 beginning of the 1990s. Yet after closer investigation it was revealed that the
“poverty line” was actually just 11,000 rupiah a day ($0.76USD).
● Consider the historical factors affecting poverty. Of the following, which do
you think have the greatest impact?
○ climate | health and disease | agriculture | natural resources
■ Climate: Climate is one of the biggest “starting” factors of poverty.
Generally speaking a climate in history would’ve determined what your
country could do with its economy. America wouldn’t have been able
to grow crops like sugarcane in most of its states because the crop
requires a tropical climate to grow in. Likewise, African states can’t
invest in massive infrastructure efforts to reduce poverty because their
huge deserts and sprawling savannahs limit their ability to construct
roads. Climate also plays a large part in the majority of jobs that your
people will take. A colder climate often means more people will seek
white-collar jobs to avoid staying outside too much, whilst a country
with tropical climates won’t mind an economy based on farming.
■ Health and Disease: Obviously this is also a largely important factor
of poverty. If your people are constantly wracked by disease and are
unable to move from their homes, then they cannot contribute to the
economy and they themselves cannot earn enough to sustain a
standard of living acceptable for that society. Another consequence of
this economic stagnancy is that then the government can’t invest in
better healthcare, so the cycle repeats itself endlessly until either
enough money is made to improve the healthcare or the country is
commonly hit by disease.
■ Agriculture: Agriculture within the poverty sense is rather important.
You’d be surprised if I told you that agriculture both possess the ability
to create more poverty and also solve the same amount, but I’ll let this
article explain that economic concept to you. Agriculture in general is
a great indicator of why a country has poverty, but it isn’t necessarily a
predictor of whether a country might suffer from high rates of poverty
in the future. This is because agriculture is a fairly nature-reliant job.
Succeeding as a farmer depends on a good harvest, a drought or
famine could easily bring about poverty to your household. Even if
there is a good harvest, market rates for crops you grow might not be
in your favour, depending on the supply and demand of them.
Agriculture however, if used correctly, can drag millions out of the
poverty line because of how little education is required to participate in
it but also because of how profitable it can be if all the factors align.
■ Natural resources: One of the more historically important factors of
poverty was natural resources. One big reason why European nations
were vying to expand their borders overseas was because of the host
of natural resources that could be sourced from that land. If that
natural resource was rare, then all the better for the colonizer. The
Dutch established a monopoly on the spice trade when they colonised
the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia), the Spanish gained a
monopoly on cotton and sugarcane with their plantation islands in the
Caribbean, whilst the British established monopolies on opium and tea
from India. As a result of this, many nations were left with natural
resources that they didn’t have the capital to harvest, allowing them to
continue being exploited by foreign investors with the machinery and
local manpower to do so. That’s one of the biggest problems facing
Africa now, with Asian and European companies playing a dominating
role in many of the mining and construction sectors of the economy.

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 Natural resources can lead to poverty if a country cannot utilise them
properly and lets others use them.
○ access to food and water | education | poverty cycle | geography
■ Access to food and water: Obviously as two of the key indicators of
poverty, food and water are the most important necessities of life.
Being unable to obtain a sustainable and year-round source of either
would indicate that a country has a much higher population living
below the poverty line (in absolute poverty actually). Many sub-
saharan African countries such as Sudan and the Congo rely on
seasonal supplies of water and drought in these areas can wreak
havoc on the populace. Food is slightly more complicated, because its
mass production and our ability to chemically create it doesn’t
necessarily mean that a country with no farmers will starve and find
themselves in poverty. Rather, countries that do not possess the
economy to import foodstuffs and rely instead on their local
agricultural production are at higher risk of poverty becoming
widespread.
■ Education: Slightly less important now than it was in the past,
education is one of the indicators that might suggest why a country
has such a poor economy and likewise high poverty rates. Nowadays,
people without education can still find a decent job with enough pay to
sustain themselves, but that also depends on the work opportunities
and industries of the country. Generally speaking, the greater the
access to higher education, the more people able to find a successful
job, the less likely those people are to fall into poverty. Students in the
western world can easily obtain higher education, whilst those in
Africa struggle to go beyond even high school at times.
■ Poverty cycle: A term used in economics, the poverty cycle refers to
how those trapped in poverty are unlikely to escape it through their
own means unless an external force or intervention lifts them out of
poverty. A family in poverty will not be able to afford the capital or
resources to lift them out, so they’ll probably sink even lower into
poverty.
■ Geography: This is actually a very interesting concept. The
geography of a country is one of those “natural” factors that humans
have no effect on. This usually dictates the direction of the economy
and the likelihood of poverty. Most of the poorest countries in the
world are landlocked African and South American countries, since
their nonexistent access to the sea prevents them from taking part in
international trade (and they do not possess the capital to ship their
cargo by air). Generally, speaking the more access a country has to a
body of water, the better it will fare in international economics and thus
prevent mass poverty rates. However, landlocked countries can also
do pretty well if they know how to manage their trade properly.
Switzerland, Austria and Kazakhstan are three of the most notable
examples of successful landlocked countries whose trading policies
have allowed them to avoid poverty.
● Explore the history of poverty in each of the following countries. Which of
these countries has seen the great reduction in poverty—and is it a model that
other countries could follow? Which ones are the poorest countries in their
regions?
○ Nigeria | the Congo | India | China | the United States
■ Nigeria: You’d think that Nigeria is actually not that bad compared to
its neighbors in terms of poverty. Indeed it is the largest African
economy with the greatest growth annually (about 1-2% every year).

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 However, the greatest shock is that Nigeria is the country with the
highest number of people in extreme poverty worldwide. A 2018 report
by The World Clock estimates that 86.9 million people live below the
extreme poverty line, that’s almost 50% of the entire population.
Poverty is only rising in the country, with the governments of the past
mishandling the rich oil reserves found in the country. The wealth
distribution is insanely unequal. The five richest men in the country are
worth 29.9 billion dollars, enough to put the entire nation out of
poverty. Yet the main source of the problem is within the government.
Subsequent parties and leaders have been unable to connect with
their citizens, the political elite almost squander the Nigerian
resources for their own gain. To put it into perspective, between 1960
(independence) and 2005, 20 trillion dollars were stolen from the
national treasury by public office holders, that’s more than the entire
GDP of the United States in 2012.
■ The Congo: When one searches up “The Congo”, the first results
show for the Democratic Republic of The Congo (which is not at all
democratic but hey hey neither is “The People’s Democratic Republic
of Korea”). Thus I shall be focusing on that particular nation. The
Congo isn’t doing well to be frank. Much like Nigeria, the government
has been unable to capitalise on the rich resources hidden underneath
the soil of the land, an estimated $29 billion worth of mineral ores and
precious gems could be earned from mining the countryside. Yet
much of that activity is ruled by foreign investment, the west exploits
The Congo by signing million dollar deals to gain practically everything
from its mines. As a result, the government puts most of the money
into the military and its own profits, not caring about the fact that there
are hardly any paved roads in the country. Since the main industry for
the population is farming, with antiquated tools and methods, the
poverty rate is overwhelmingly high. About half of the 77 million
people live in extreme poverty (less than $1 a day), with a large
amount of the populace falling ill to epidemics of malaria, dengue
fever, AIDS and HIV.
■ India: For much of its independent history, India has claimed the
uneasy title of “country with highest amount of people in poverty.” Yet
just last year, Nigeria overtook the massive Asian subcontinent for that
title. Keep in mind that, while India apparently only has 5% of people
in extreme poverty, in a land where 1.4 billion people live, that
translates to roughly 70 million people. Luckily however, the creation
of new jobs and modernization across rural areas has allowed for the
country to reverse its fortunes (quite literally). Whereas in Nigeria the
population outgrows the economy, causing even more poverty, in
India the opposite is true. World Bank experts predict that by 2021,
fewer than 3% of Indians will live in extreme poverty, something of a
monumental event for the country. The main problem lies not in the
poor economic management of the country, rather the bulging
populace. With so many mouths to feed, children to teach and bodies
to take care of, India has a long way to go before it can safely say that
it’s avoided the poverty trap that has haunted it for much of the 1900s.
■ China: The story of Chinese poverty is one of heroic growth and
amazing work. Would it boggle your mind if I told you that just 41
years ago, 9 out of 10 people out of the billion-strong population lived
underneath the $2 a day income line? Yet now, The World Bank
estimates that less than 1% of persons live underneath the absolute
poverty ratio. Statistics differ depending on what measure of poverty

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 you use and who you ask, but the general consensus is that China
has done a “Great Leap Forward” (sorry for the Maoist pun) in
reducing poverty. Urban poverty has been all but eliminated, the main
problem now lies in tackling rural poverty. In the rural provinces of
China, agriculture is the main business and poor infrastructure
prevents companies from building factories or other workplaces where
thousands can be employed to pull themselves out of poverty. As of
now, the Communist Party of China is attempting to lift millions more
out of poverty, aiming to decrease the poverty headcount to 0 by
2020. Massive infrastructure and industrial investments in the rural
countryside are underway, but the specifics are still being debated by
the politburo and Xi Jinping.
■ The United States: I will not speak about such a capitalist country
that claims itself to be the ideal model for poverty reduction. If you
wish, please read the following website about the demographics of
poverty in the United States.
○ Mexico | Norway | Ireland | Haiti | the Soviet Union
■ Mexico: Mexico is the poorest country in North America, with poverty
rates estimated to be about 42% overall. That includes the 9% of the
population living in extreme poverty, whilst the remaining 33% live in
moderate poverty. The main problem hampering Mexico’s economic
ability to aid those in poverty is its industry. Mexico is highly
dependent on the manufacturing of commodities in order to produce
income. The government is also facing another internal threat to
poverty; the gangs that rule Mexican suburbs and cities. These gangs
often extort a large amount of money and detract from the national
income due to their sale of illicit drugs or other goods. Mexico needs
to first tackle this political and factional instability before it can get to
the main problem of economic growth. It is these people and
government officials who own most of the wealth, similar to Nigeria in
wealth disparity.
■ Norway: A shining beacon of development in economic and social
policies, Norway can claim itself to have practically no poverty. Not a
single person in Norway lives in absolute poverty, with even homeless
refugees being able to make more than $1.9 a day. The main reason
for this is Norway’s huge economy. The nation is reported to have the
largest sovereign wealth fund, with well over 800 billion dollars
stockpiled (4% of which makes up the annual budget of the
government). As such, Norway has been able to fund many social
welfare programs that allow for individuals to earn more money
without having to spend money on healthcare or education. This is the
result of a largely oil-based economy, yet Norway faces more
challenges on the horizon. About 4 out of 10 immigrants in Norway
live in moderate poverty according to the UN, with about 27,000
immigrants residing in the scandinavian country (and growing in the
future). The government also needs to be aware of the declining value
of oil, with sustainable energy dominating the industries of Europe
nowadays. Somehow Norway must learn to rely on other things than
oil if it wishes to continue being one of the lowest poverty infested
countries.
■ Ireland: For fear of angering my teammate Caitlin at accusing her
country of being lower than it actually is, here is a great article that
explains the situation.
■ Haiti: On the list, Haiti takes the spot of poorest country in the western
hemisphere. An ominous title indeed, but one that has staggering

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 statistics to justify it. According to the United Nations Development
Program, 59% of Haitians (equivalent to roughly 6 million of the 10.4
million strong populace) live under $2 a day, whilst 24.7% of Haitians
in 2013 lived in extreme poverty (equivalent to 2.5 million back then).
The wealth disparity is horrible unequal, as expected. The CIA World
Factbook ranks Haiti 4th on the Gini coefficient (basically a measure
for the distribution of wealth in the country), with 20% of the
households earning 64% of the wealth. There are many more
interesting facts I could list here, but this demographics site has a
good list for you to read. Haiti’s problems are threefold, quite unlike
any other country on this list. Firstly, Haiti is prone to be the victim of
natural disaster. From the disastrous earthquake and tsunami in 2010
to devastating Hurricane Matthew in 2016, the country has been
battered by its geographical and meteorological status. Constantly
having to poor millions into disaster relief means the government can’t
direct funding where its needed, such as public services or
infrastructure development. Secondly, the lack of international funding
has crippled the local economy. Venezuela, once a provider of loans
and subsidies, is no longer able to sustain that activity (thanks
Maduro) and as such Haiti finds itself unable to grow its economy as
fast as other countries in the region. Finally, a line of poor
governments ever since it gained independence means that when
Haiti did have the chance to reduce poverty, greed never allowed it to
actually happen. Haiti’s got a longer way than many other nations to
go before it can even consider lifting itself beyond the extreme poverty
line.
■ The Soviet Union: HOW DARE THE WORLD SCHOLAR’S CUP
EVEN ACCUSE THE GLORIOUS MOTHERLAND OF BEING
PLAGUED BY SUCH A CAPITALIST DISEASE. WE WILL NOT
TOLERATE THIS KIND OF ACCUSATION.
■ (throat clearing noise). Apologies for that short outburst, I let
my communist side get the better of me. The Soviet Union is
on a whole other level of investigation to the other countries on
this list, as the government structure of the country meant that
its economic policies and distribution of wealth allowed for
interesting results. Prior to WW2, the leadership of the Soviet
Union was still struggling to transform a backwards agrarian
economy into a modern industrial power, millions died in
famines and there was still a high rate of poverty at the time.
After World War 2 however, with the reduction of the
population thanks to war casualties and the massive
infrastructure development efforts undertaken, the government
slowly but surely removed extreme poverty from the nation.
People still had access to food, water and shelter, but their
incomes weren’t exactly allowing them to move on up in life. It
was only in a 1989 report by the newspaper Komsomolskaya
Pravda that revealed the true extent of poverty in the Soviet
Union. About 20% of the population (compared to 14% in the
United States) lived in moderate poverty, unable to make more
than 75 rubles a month ($1.14). The main reason why poverty
was disguised in the first place is the government welfare
programs. Soviet citizens didn’t need to pay for housing or
education or healthcare, but their limited wages and high
working hours meant that many couldn’t afford food. To put
that into perspective, the average Soviet worker works 10

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 times more than an American one to earn a pound of meat, 4.5
times more to earn a quart of milk and three times longer for a
pound of potatoes. The government at the time wasn’t
planning on any nation-wide initiatives to reduce poverty,
though pension laws may increase allowances to help raise
some of the 4-5 million people out of poverty.
● Consider some of the following strategies for battling poverty in different parts
of the world. Have some proven more effective than others?
○ population control | welfare | dole
■ Population control: One of the most important factors in deciding
whether or not a country can suffer from poverty, the amount of
people a nation needs to provide jobs and basic necessities for can
lead the nation to deprivation of wealth. Population control is often one
of the last-resort options for governments, something they won’t
consider unless absolutely necessary. The most well-known form of
population control is that of China, with its one-child policy having
been relaxed to a two-child policy in 2016. Set up in 1979, the one
child policy was a way for the government to halt population growth
while allowing the economy to catch up with the populace. As of now,
no other major countries have established population control, though
in the future major nations such as India and the United States might
consider the option to avoid their population outgrowing their
economy.
■ Welfare: Welfare is one of the more commonly utilised methods of
alleviating poverty, but it can be very hard to maintain and initiate in
the first place. Welfare programs basically refer to any government or
organisation funded program for the masses that grant social services
to protect citizens from the insecurities of economic life and the risks
of a capitalist society. The most notable countries who utilise social
welfare programs are the Scandinavian nations (Denmark, Finland,
Sweden, Norway). Welfare can help a lot in alleviating poverty in
countries, but it is often the most expensive and complicated program
to set up.
■ Dole: No not the food company. Dole refers to the practise of
governments giving state benefits to the unemployed. The reason
you’ve probably not heard of the term is because it is uniquely British
in origin and use. The term “on the Dole” was used in WW1 to refer to
“doling out”, the handing out of charitable amounts of food or money,
common during that time to help the unemployed survive. Nowadays
most governments provide social welfare rights and benefits to the
unemployed in developed countries, with workers who are unable to
find jobs receiving enough money from the national treasury each
month to sustain themselves, while also receiving other benefits to
ensure they can find jobs.
○ minimum wage laws | food stamps
■ Minimum wage laws: This topic is slightly more complicated and is
currently being debated in terms of its effectiveness. The basic
concept of minimum wage is that the government sets a law on how
much businesses need to pay their employees for a certain amount of
work. While effective in the past, avoiding companies paying far too
little in order to alleviate poverty. As of now however, minimum is
under flak, as the amount of money set is often a reflection of the
nation’s economy. More developed nations have higher minimum
wages, whilst the lower developed countries struggle to provide a
good working amount for their people. I’ll let you explore the

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 controversies and arguments for and against minimum wage on your
own, but as of now the policy isn’t that great compared to how it was
in the past.
■ Food stamps: This is somewhat of a relic of the past type program.
Yet in America it is still being used (though first, let’s break down the
basic concept). Food stamps are what they say on the tin (or should I
say, paper?). They are essentially pieces of government-issued
stamps that are handed out to people in poverty or those without the
means to purchase their own food (i.e elderly, retired, injured war
veterans etc.). Households who receive the stamps can use it to
purchase food or other commodities, depending on how much the
food stamp represents. The food stamp is a great way to alleviate
poverty, since the family no longer needs to spend so much on the
foods that they will survive on.
■ America is the only nation now that has such a program.
Known as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
(SNAP), the food stamp program in the US helps low and no
income people who cannot afford the prices of commercialized
goods at a supermarket. First begun in 1939 under the
leadership of Henry A. Wallace (Secretary of Agriculture), the
food stamp program aimed to equal out the amount of hungry
people and those who could afford their food. Initially, only
goods in surplus could be purchased by the stamps, with the
Department of Agriculture determining what was on sale at a
certain period of time. Over the next 4 years, the FSP (Food
Stamp Program as it was known back then) reached over 20
million Americans, suffering from the knockback of the Great
Depression. Over the next couple of decades, subsequent
presidents would reform the food stamp to become more
formal and wide-reaching to the masses.
○ donation | tithe | alms | zakat | harambee
■ Donation: Simply put, a donation is any sort of giving act that
transfers commodities or capital to other people. Donations are the
most stereotypical form of assisting those who are less fortunate than
us, but in reality it isn’t that effective. Give someone $100 and they’ll
still come back to you the next day with nothing in their pockets.
Large-scale donations by human rights and aid organisation (such as
the Red Cross or UNHCR) are slightly more effective, since they also
provide more goods that will last for slightly longer than other ones.
■ Tithe: In slightly older use, a “tithe” refers to one-tenth of something,
usually paid as part of contributions to a religious organisation or
compulsory tax to the government (a more primitive form of the
progressive tax, where those with more money pay more taxes). In the
modern day and age, the government has been known to take some
of these tithes from the religious institutes (a tithe of a tithe, if you will)
and use it to fund their own poverty-relief programs. I highly suggest
you take a look at these countries in the Wikipedia link as a basis for
further research.
■ Alms: A general umbrella term used more in religious than
economical circles, alms refer to the act of giving to others as an act of
virtue. It can be done through materialistic aims (i.e giving someone
food, shelter, or money) or through skills (i.e teaching someone a
particular life skill). This is usually a more individually encouraged and
motivated activity than an organised government effort, but there are
examples of governments forcing those capable of doing so to pay

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 alms in order to alleviate the suffering of those in poverty and level out
the wealth disparity.
■ Zakat: The Islamic version of alms, Zakat is one of the five key pillars
of Islam and it calls for all capable muslims to give a part of their
income/wealth to charity. In the Quran, it is regarded as a type of
worship and self-purification, allowing yourself to give part of your
earnings to help others live a healthy and prosperous life as well. In
the past, Zakat was simply given directly to the families who required
it, using a calculation system that was actually pretty advanced for the
time (see details here). Nowadays. Many muslim-majority countries
have their governments organise specific Zakat giving events, where
Zakat collectors can take inventory of those profits given in and
distribute it among those who need it.
■ Harambee: If you didn’t think about the deceased gorilla who died
tragically in 2016 after dragging a toddler into their zoo home, I
commend you for being mature. Harambee is not a relative of
Harambe, though both originated from the same continent and
possibly the same region. Harambee refers to the Kenyan tradition of
“self-help events”, whereby entire village communities get together to
help each other out through donations and activities. The term itself
actually mean “put all together” in Swahili and is the country’s official
motto, appearing on its coat of arms.
○ dāna | ukusisa & ukwenana | tzedaka
■ Dana: Yet another religious word on this list, the “Dana” is a Sanskrit
and Pali word that essentially describes generosity, charity and the
giving of alms in Indian philosophies. This word is more commonly
found in Hindu, Buddhist, Jainism and Sikhism texts and often takes
the form of giving to an individual in distress or need. In Hinduism, the
word refers to the act of relinquishing ownership of something and
giving it to someone without expecting anything in return. While
typically practised at the individual level, charity for public benefit is
also discussed (using the word utsarga). This often means donations
for larger projects that benefit more people, examples include the
construction of public facilities or improvement of the environmental
situation. In Buddhism, the action is usually directed specifically at
monastic or spiritually-enlightened people and those who perform it
are cleansing and purifying the mind (letting go of materialistic
attachments in the interest of spiritual wealth).
■ Ukusisa and Ukwanana: A very interesting tradition more than an
economic policy, Ukusisa (nothing on the Ukwanana I’m afraid) is
native to South African indigenous people. If someone from outside
the community comes to live with them for some period of time, they
will be provided with a cow and be informed that the milk from this cow
will be for them. If the visiting person accepts the cow, they are then
bound to ensure that any future offsprings of that cow (female calves
in particular) will be given to the village. This also tells the community
that you won’t be leaving anytime soon and open the floodgates for
more donations. A plot of land, a husband (or wife depending on
who’s visiting) and integration into the community will follow. Ukusisa
embodies giving something in a way that brings a person into the
community.
■ Tzedakah: We’ve come full circle with our religious poverty-alleviating
measures here. Tzedakah is a Jewish concept that refers to the
obligation to do what is right, essentially every Jewish person’s duty to
uphold justice and seek out the right course of action. Derived from

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 the Hebrew word tzedek meaning “justice”, historical Jewish
communities would impose tzedaka in much the same way
governments today impose taxes. In the Torah, the initial statement
was that Jews would give 10% of their earnings to the poor every 3
years, with a further percentage of their annual income every year.
Differing from other religious charity concepts, Tzedakah is often
looked upon as an obligation that any Jew must undertake, regardless
of their economic standing. Maimonides (a medieval Jewish
philosopher) thought up an eight-level hierarchy of Tzedaka, the
highest form of which meant giving a recipient something that would
allow them to become self-sufficient (i.e a partnership, life skill, loan).
Donations were the second highest view and are more common
nowadays as part of Jewish society.

Case Studies in Poverty and Philanthropy

● Look into the English Poor Laws. What inspired them, and were they effective?
Do you and your team find any aspects of them objectionable - and is there
anything in them that you would want to see implemented more widely today?
○ Long before the emergence of the welfare state concept, individual country
governments were either not concerning themselves with the poor or were
leaving those affairs to the church and other members of society. Yet in the
late 16th century, Britain began enacting and codifying laws that would be
updated and revisited several times for the next 300 years (up until the end of
World War 2). These would become known as the “Poor Laws”, government
actions meant to alleviate poverty and end the plights of poor people in
England and Wales. The earliest Poor Laws came in Medieval times, with
Edward III enacting them on June 18th 1349. The first ones came in response
to the Black Death, then ravaging its way through Europe. With workers dying
all around them, the British employers needed to find people willing to work
on the fields and produce goods. As manual labour became more precious,
wages for workers rose significantly, causing many goods to skyrocket in
cost. The first laws mandated that any workers fit to serve were to be in the
employ of a landowner and that wages would return to pre-plague levels
immediately, regardless of how many workers remained (harsh, I know).
○ The next set of Poor Laws were enacted during the reign of a very famous
English king, one known for both his imposing physique and tendency to
behead his wives: Henry VIII. After the dissolution of the Monasteries in the
early 1500s, any existing poor relief in the country disappeared. So Henry the
8th’s father, Henry VII, enacted the first set of Tudor Poor Laws in 1495;
known as the “Beggars and Vagabonds Act”. It essentially mandated the
same things as the previous Poor laws: that all able-bodied beggars and
vagabonds be put to work with normal wages and that any caught without
jobs were to be punished (the specific treatment concerned stocks and
starvation). While this set of laws did little to actually solve poverty, it did at
least prevent it from building up in one area, as most beggars were relocated
to their province of origin.
○ The evolution of the Poor Laws would continue over the next lines of Kings
and Queens to rule England (and later expand to include the British Empire).
It would try to eliminate widespread poverty by ensuring idle workers were
given jobs with decent pay ASAP. In 1948 the laws would be put down, with
the emergence of government-funded welfare programs taking control of the
poverty-alleviating measures.

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 ○ There are some aspects of the poor laws that I myself find very questionable.
The use of liberal punishments on idle slaves and beggars is the biggest one,
indeed the use of whipping and stocks to dissuade beggars from not being
employed didn’t do much to help remove poverty. Indeed the forced
employment of peasants, beggars and vagrants might as well have been
considered an early form of slavery in Britain (a sign of things to come in the
world). There aren’t many concepts of the Poor Laws that would work in
today’s world, with most of the situational and sociopolitical factors having
changed a lot since the time of Edward III.
● Consider the common saying, “Give a man a fish, and you feed him for a day.
Teach a man to fish, and you feed him for a lifetime.” Discuss with your team:
how true is this statement? Does it make too many assumptions about the
supply of fish?
○ The first time I heard that saying, I was in awe at how wise and smart the
person who said it must have been (admittedly back then I also thought that
the world used to be black and white because the concept of color film was
new to me). This statement is generally true. Giving someone the fruit of your
efforts will result in them eating that fruit. Teaching someone how to harvest
their own fruits will result in them being able to eat the harvest of their own
efforts (my own twist on this saying!). I think the WSC is deviating away from
the point of the saying by asking us to think about the supply of fish. If you will
allow me one pun (and I will likely not ask this kindly again every other time),
that aspect doesn’t hold water when it comes to the materialistic
representation of a charitable object.
● Along the lines, the poor are especially susceptible to the consequences of
drought and famine. Consider the circumstances of some of the deadliest
famines in recorded history, then discuss with your team: if you had to choose
between teaching people how to fish and teaching them how to read, which
would make the most sense?
○ Firstly, to once again (and certainly not the last time!) satisfy my lust for
historical knowledge and sharing it; we shall delve quickly into the history of
famines.
○ Some of the most famous famines in human history include the Great Famine
of 1845 in Ireland, when a potato disease coupled with political suppression
from Britain caused the deaths of 1.5 Irish civilians. The Russian Famine of
1921 was even more disastrous, clocking in at an estimated 5 million deaths.
The cause was due to political turmoil, Russia was in the midst of a
revolutionary war that saw the White Imperialists on one side and the Red
Bolsheviks on the other. Bolshevik soldiers often forced peasants at gunpoint
to surrender their stocks of food, meaning that many refused to grow any
knowing that they could literally not eat the fruit of their harvest. A decade
later, another famine would come to haunt Russia. Otherwise known as the
Holodomor, this largely Ukrainian based disaster caused the deaths of at
least 10 million, the byproduct of collectivisation and land redistribution.
○ In this day and age, the choice between teaching children the skills they might
need to survive in manual labour compared to teaching them the skills they
need to further their life is one not easily made. I’d have to say that it depends
where these children and people are. If they live in an African country whose
economy is reliant on agriculture or fisheries, then perhaps teaching them to
join their fellow citizens with line and hook is better. If however, these people
live in an area where fishing or other manual labour is already taken care of,
then perhaps allowing them access to the wealth of knowledge and
information stored in words will allow them to further progress their society.
● One historian at Duke University has argued that the experience of the
Ottoman Empire teaches us that when the courts protect a group of individuals

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 from the consequences of business mistakes—whether the elite or the poor—
that group’s economic prospects can suffer, because no one will want to loan
them money. Discuss with your team: do you agree with this argument?
Should there be special protections for anyone in an economy, or do they
inevitably backfire?
○ The professor in question is one whose findings are very interesting indeed.
Simply put, in the 17th and 18th century, Ottoman courts were notorious for
favouring Muslims, men and elites when it came to business mistakes. They
didn’t charge these groups nearly as much as women, non-muslims and
commoners. As a result, money lenders and businesses charged the first
group more interest in order to make up for the risk of losing their money.
Since the courts gave them an incentive to break contracts, the businesses
had to counteract it with a greater consequence if they did. The argument put
is that our modern bankruptcy laws backfire because of the same reasons the
Ottoman courts did, instead of protecting their desired group (the poor) they
actually do more harm against them. Economy is one of those fickle things
that tend to do as it pleases and at times it can go against people (sort of
sounds like Donald Trump!). The risk of these policies backfiring however, is
personally too much to risk implementing them in the first place.
● Some people believe that governments should help the poor; others argue that
we should turn to philanthropy and private charity. Discuss with your team:
who is most responsible for looking out for the well-being of those in need?
○ This argument has been going on for a while and it really shifts depending on
where you are in the world. For some, the government (being the “voice of the
people” and “leaders of the nation”) have it as one of their duties to see all
citizens of their country lifted out of poverty and become as equal as possible
(Communism for the win uraaah!). However, there are others who say that
more common-folk, such as those making up philanthropy-related
organisations are more effective. I personally would like to see a program in a
nation where the two cooperate more closely and then make my judgement
as to which is more important from there.
● Consider some of the world’s best-known historical philanthropists, from
Andrew Carnegie to Cornelius Vanderbilt. Critics would argue that their
philanthropy, like that of individuals such as Bill and Melinda Gates today, is
inherently undemocratic, as it over-empowers wealthy individuals who can
invest huge resources to pursue their own agendas. Discuss with your team:
should the government (or a coalition of governments) take a more active role
in administering privately funded charities?
○ Considering the philanthropic activities of historical figures, who have caused
their fair share of controversy at simply donating a large amount of their
earnings to “charitable organisations” who might in fact simply be pursuing
their own agendas; it seems likely that government intervention might be
needed here. Indeed every now and then we hear news of some scandal or
scam where a reputable person of considerable net worth has been donating
money to their own causes instead of directing it towards the improvement of
welfare as they stated they would. I wouldn’t go so far as to call it
undemocratic (after all does a democracy not stand for the rights of
individuals and their impact on the larger public as a whole?) but perhaps a
worldwide organisation should cooperate closely with all privately funded
charities to make sure that money is where the philanthropist’s mouth is.
● Check out the Free Rice initiative, then discuss with your team: is adding a
game-playing element to this donation program a good strategy for increasing
engagement, or should the United Nations Food Program simply be donating
all the rice they can at any given time?

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 ○ What a most interesting program indeed. The Free Rice Initiative is part of the
United Nations Food Program whereby participants answer questions on
basic grammar and vocabulary. For every correct answer, 10 grains of rice
are donated through the UNFD to end world hunger. While I do applaud their
genius in adding a game-playing element to this donation program, engaging
more people and inciting curiosity about world hunger (hopefully resulting in
even more involvement later on), it might suffer later on in its use from limited
usership and eventually be completely forgotten. I think that gamifying any
process of donation should be done to complement pre-existing efforts, as a
way to get public minds focused on the topic and getting more support for the
program.
● Four Americans were recently sentenced to prison as a result of their leaving
food and water for migrants in a protected wildlife refuge. Discuss with your
team: should they have been allowed to go free because of their motives?
Should the laws ever limit or regulate charitable giving?
○ The 4 aid workers should probably have been given some sort of warning and
then told to work under supervision, but not something so harsh as to
sentence them to prison perhaps (America’s justice system can be
underwhelmingly stupid and overwhelmingly harsh at the same time). Laws
should not need to limit or regulate charity giving nowadays, with most
charities turning from giving fish to teaching people how to fish (god I love that
saying).
● Does the value of a charitable act or donation depend on the motive of the
person (or persons) behind it? Are anonymous donations more virtuous than
those for which people take credit? Explore some of the many writings on this
topic, including the linked piece by the ethicist Peter Singer, and then decide
with your team: would you turn down a donation from someone who had
earned their money in ethically questionable ways? If so, would you refuse to
accept an anonymous donation unless you knew its source?
○ Ehem, I apologise on behalf of the WSC for the lack of a linked piece, either
this got lost in the resource preparation packet or technology decided to block
our learning. Regardless, I think the value of a donation should have no
change depending on the motive of the person most of the time. If this person
was simply doing so for PR or recognition, then perhaps it could be slightly
devalued but in no way should the donation be turned down or wasted. I
probably would turn down a donation from someone who’d performed shady
actions to gain the donation in the first place, but I wouldn’t refuse to accept
an anonymous donation since it still helps me out.

Concluding Questions
● Who lives, who dies, who rewrites the story? Spend time with your team
researching instances when some would argue that history has been (or
should be) "rewritten" to erase - or promote - the struggles and achievements
of certain people or peoples. Are some reasons for rewriting history better than
others? In looking at the past, who should be the ultimate arbiter of what really
happened and who really mattered? Below are some examples to help launch
your exploration.
○ Deleting the Holodomor
○ Revisionism in Malaysia
○ Hindu Nationalism
○ History Classes in Texas
○ Christopher Columbus
■ These couple of instances are very interesting and I wholeheartedly
suggest that you explore them on your own, as those websites do a

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 much better job of explaining concepts than I can do concisely.
Anyways moving on:
■ History is one of those subjects whose interpretation and education is
not exactly “uniform”. Many different countries, regions and even cities
have varying historical curriculums based on the connotations they
associate with figures and events. For example, Russian students
never learn about the Holodomor because it negatively showers their
history, whilst Turkish students actually believe that it was the
Ottomans who were the victims of the Armenian Genocide (contrary to
the actual statistics). The ultimate arbiter of what we learn in History
class should probably be some sort of universal governing body of
historians, professors, teachers and government liaisons that
compromise little when it comes to sensitive historical matters. A
history book must be as all-encompassing and as close to truth as a
math or science book is, showing humanity at its best and worst
throughout the centuries.
● The simple story is that Rome fell to the "barbarians". But who were the
"barbarians" - why were they named that, and by whom? Is it what they called
themselves - and, if not, what did they call themselves? Can you think of any
times when a group has embraced a label you might have expected it to reject?
○ The term “barbarians” was actually used by the Romans themselves in
justifying and describing their “righteous conquests”. For much of its history,
Roman generals and even future emperors would lead the troops of the
empire to attack Germanic, Frankish and even Celts in the interests of
expanding the borders of S.P.Q.R to the four corners of the known world
(which at that time was just Europe, Africa and Asia). Yet after much internal
strife and economic crises, the Romans finally buckled under the repeated
raids and attacks by their enemies. In the 300s however, Rome was no longer
the glory of civilisation it had once been. A successful series of raids and
pillages reduced “the Eternal City” to a shadow of its former self. In 410 the
Visigoth King Alaric sacked the city, followed in 455 by the Vandals. Many put
the third strike, the final death blow, the final act of the Roman empire to be in
476, when Germanic leader Odoacer staged a revolt that deposed then
emperor Romulus Augustulus. The barbarians likely referred to themselves
as their own names, Visigoths and Ostrogoths or other ethnic groups at the
time. I actually can’t quite find mention of a group of people who embraced
their names from other cultures, mostly because those names were either
never heard or were agreed with.
● Published in 1980, Howard Zinn’s A People’s History of the United States retold
American history through the lens of those whose voices had been left out of
standard textbooks: indigenous populations, women, enslaved people, and
immigrants. Research the history of this book to understand what has made it
so controversial. Then, discuss with your team: does your nation’s history
need a similar retelling? Is it possible for such efforts to go too far?
○ Efforts like these can’t go too far, since every member of a nation’s history
should get their say in the actual perspective and interpretation of events. I
think Indonesian history is encompassing enough as of now, I certainly
haven’t heard of any perspectives that have been overruled or shadowed by
more popular ones.
● Sometimes, a large event can be lost in the shadow of even larger one. Such
was the case of the Spanish Flu, which occurred after World War I and may
have killed even more people. Are our methods of recording history to blame
for this mass forgetting? Can you imagine any overlooked events today
gaining more recognition over time?

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 ○ Let’s take a moment to talk about the Spanish Flu, or rather the 1918
Influenza Pandemic. November 1918, the guns on the Western front fall
silent. World War 1 has come to an end. Yet even as the church bells of
Europe rang in celebration and the streets of cities were filled with cheering
woman and children, an unseen terror was plaguing Europe and America.
Spurred on by the horrid conditions of war, clustered living spaces and
nightmarish sanitation, the Spanish Flu is estimated to have wiped out 50-100
million people, more than 3 times the number of dead in the war that had
come before it. Our methods of recording history were indeed to blame for
this mass-forgetting. Our newspapers, books and even records downplayed
the reports of pandemics for fear that they would corrupt the political and
social victories that had been won in the past 4 years (as if). There are many
overlooked events of the past that are slowly gaining more recognition today.
The Holodomor, Irish Potato Famine, Calcutta Black Hole and Katyn
Massacre are just a few overshadowed events that happened in an ever-
changing world and were unlucky in not being recorded.
● In recent decades, there has been a backlash in some regions against what
critics call “politically correct” language. Explore the history of this phrase,
then discuss with your team: is it ever all right to use language that might
demean or offend groups of people? If so, what should the standard be for
acceptable versus unacceptable language?
○ I refuse to get involved in something so deeply mired in controversy and
activism. Investigate this sad necessity of humanity for yourself scholars.
● Consider the story of someone who may have helped prevent the end of the
world. What leads some important people (and moments in history) to be less
widely known than others?
○ September 26th, 1983; Moscow, Soviet Union. Early warning systems of the
Soviet missile defense mechanism trigger, a red screen with the words
“LAUNCH” informs lieutenant colonel Stanislav Petrov that the United States
has just launched a ballistic missile with a nuclear warhead. As the minutes
go by the warning systems trigger again, until a total of 5 minuteman ICBMs
have been confirmed as airborne and incoming. Stanislav is faced with a
decision that could end humanity, or save it. His training tells him that he must
get on the line to the Kremlin, informing Soviet leaders of the inbound nuclear
strike. Their next response is certain; a full on Soviet nuclear retaliation
against targets in western Europe and the United States itself. US President
Ronald Reagan had been known for his hardline policies against the USSR
during the Cold War, but Stanislav could never have foreseen it escalating to
an actual missile strike. Yet he and his staff defy orders and risk their lives in
doing so. They conclude that the warning system is malfunctioning and that
no such strike is on the way. They are later proven correct; the system
mistook the reflection of the sun off clouds as ICBMs (three cheers for Soviet
engineering). Even though Stanislav is believed to have prevented the deaths
of millions (or even billions) from the nuclear fallout that would’ve certainly
followed had he phoned his superiors, he was never rewarded for it by his
nation. After the decision, he was interrogated relentlessly and never given
any recognition for his world-saving efforts. But after the Soviet Union fell and
the Iron Curtain along with it, Stanislav was made an international hero. The
United Nations honored him, the Dresden Peace Prize was given to him and
Petrov Day was made to commemorate his small yet apocalypse-preventing
decision. Stanislav is actually the most well-known of three people who saved
the world from destruction in the late 1900s (surprisingly, they are all Russian
and of Soviet birth. Take that America!). Just over 20 years before Stanislav’s
time, navy officer Vasili Arkhipov prevented his submarine crew from firing a
nuclear torpedo at American warships who were depth-charging his vessel

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 just off the Cuban coast (Arkhipov’s submarine was part of a secret mission to
resupply the Cuban military with Soviet weapons). 12 years after Stanislav
decided not to pick up the phone, Russian president Boris Yeltsin was given a
briefcase with instructions for launching a first strike against the United
States, which had apparently launched its own missile strike against Russia.
Once again, Yeltsin declined to engage nuclear forces, with the false alarm
turning out to be a joint US-Norwegian research rocket studying the Aurora
Borealis (at least this time the Soviet early warning system picked up a rocket
projectile and not sunbeams, that’s an improvement!).
○ These three men are now being given their due credit, but the main reason
why they remained unknown to the world was because of the time in which
they performed their actions. No one outside the Soviet Union knew that
Vasili Arkhipov had prevented a T-5 Nuclear torpedo from claiming an
American fleet, no one outside the Soviet Union knew that Stanislav Petrov
had decided not to call his superiors and no one outside Russia knew that
Boris Yeltsin declined the option to launch a nuclear strike. The press never
picked up these stories because the Cold War prevented them from doing so
(that, and the fact that top-secret military actions aren’t exactly public
knowledge). It all depends who writes history at the time and whether they
decide to include the people and events that changed our world.

ON THE EDGE OF SOCIETY

Introductory Questions
Credits to my excellent teammate, Caitlin for completing some parts of this
resource!

● What does it mean to belong?

○ In terms of the actual dictionary definition, “belong” is a verb that refers to the
state of being someone or something’s property. A secondary definition is
when someone or something is “a member or part of (a particular group,
organisation or class). Nowadays the meaning of the word is about as elastic
as the WSC is when it comes to punctuality. Belonging is more commonly
used in society, where people are excluded or included because of traits that
make them “belong” within that social class.
● What does it mean for a group of people to be marginalized?
○ Once again we refer to the dictionary first (as every logical thinker should
probably do) in order to answer this question. Marginalized is a term that
refers to the treatment of people or groups in ways that make them feel
insignificant or peripheral. In this day and age, that term is used to refer to the
treatment of groups who are shunned from normal society and are often left
on their own.
● Is it always better to be included than to be excluded?

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 ○ Would you rather be included in a group of bullies than be excluded? It
depends on what group you’re being included in and what group you’re being
excluded from.
● Who decides who belongs in a certain group?
○ The people inside the group itself often do. A common school example is the
“popular people”, who garner attention from everyone and are often defined
by their physical appearance, intelligence or other notable characteristic
(including the apparent necessity to take alcohol and other dangerous
substances in the popular group of my school, which I am very much not in
thank goodness).
● Is it always wrong to exclude people from a group?
○ Once more: is it wrong to exclude a kind-hearted athletic person from a group
of athletic yet cold-hearted people? It depends on the group and whether
inclusion brings more harm than exclusion. In the case of societies nowadays,
we find that people consider it wrong to exclude minorities or other oppressed
groups from the general public.
● Are there any situations in which one might want to be marginalized?
○ None that spring to mind, though perhaps a situation where people prefer not
being noticed and being excluded from society would bring this about. Indeed
I doubt the uncontacted tribes living deep in the Amazonian rainforest or
remote Pacific islands would enjoy it if society suddenly included them in our
advancements.
● Should people ever be integrated with others against their will?
○ One word: colonisation. The process literally involves integrating entire
nations worth of people into another group against their will, just to expand
the power and territory of the group that colonised (great job Europe, your
empires are now to blame for marginalisation). In the modern era people
shouldn’t have their will forcefully taken away when it comes to integration,
there are those who prefer being recognised as separate from other groups
and we should respect their choice.
● What is the difference between exclusion and inequality?
○ Exclusion refers to the act of making someone or something excluded,
denying them access to a group, place, privilege or other status that those
included possess. Inequality refers to the state of being unequal, when
groups have vastly different privileges, statuses or other aspects that make
one more favorable than the other (we do not know of this term in glorious
Motherland fellow comrade!). When it comes to marginalisation, inequality
refers to how much say, public attention, privileges or other rights are
unequally balanced amongst groups.
● Can people ever be “separate but equal”?
○ Let us take a look at the exact origin of that term. In order to do that we must
look at that vile land that brands itself as the “land of the free” (America, for
those of you not politically or historically aware). “Separate but equal” referred
to a legal doctrine in the United States Constitution which stipulated that racial
segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment (equal protection
under the law to all people, regardless of race or class). In 1896 the court
case Plessy vs. Ferguson ruled that segregation was not discrimination so
long as the separate facilities were equal (which they were clearly not!). In the
later half of the 20th century, this came under fire from social activists calling
for the removal of segregation, it was then that the court realised how unequal
the facilities were, causing for the doctrine to be scrapped.
○ In the modern age, people can’t really be “separate but equal”, the two
somehow appear to be mutually exclusive. By separating groups and
minorities, we are already making them unequal in status to the larger public.
By making them separate, we are giving them less attention and often fewer

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 rights than the general public along with many more inequalities. Separate but
equal should probably be replaced with “United and Equitable” for the modern
era in my opinion.
● Are there any valid arguments against inclusiveness as a social goal?
○ Not to my knowledge (which is limited in this field, I’m not exactly a major
social activist). One possible argument might be the risk of assimilation
instead of inclusion. The more we integrate groups and minorities into society,
the more likely we are to strip them of what made them unique in the first
place and make them more like us (sort of an “us vs. them” standoff where
one group will siphon all the unique things off the other). Another argument
might be that some groups would prefer remaining separate from general
society (this is more applicable towards actual cultural groups than social
niches nowadays).
● Are there any steps toward increasing inclusiveness with which you would be
uncomfortable?
○ Forcefully including people in society is probably not something we should be
aiming for, neither is shunning other minorities in the interests of increasing
the inclusiveness of others.
● Are there times when stratification is necessary or beneficial for a society?
○ Firstly a quick definition: stratification refers to the process of forming layers,
classes or categories (more commonly used in geology to refer to
topographical layers). You might recall a sort of feudal system or
socioeconomic class structure where people in a society were organised
based on their wealth, income or job (something Communism attempts to
abolish, for the betterment of society!). For much of history, stratification has
been an inevitable aspect of society (even, regrettably in the USSR).
Capitalist consumer policies and government structures meant that those who
couldn’t afford a lot were at the bottom, working their backs off to feed the
coffers of those at the top. In the modern age we try and avoid social
stratification, whereby groups are regarded in lower lights and given lesser
rights due to their characteristics. One of the biggest problems is with females
in society, some countries in the Middle East finds the concept of gender
equality outrageous whilst many western countries find the concept appealing
for their future.
● Is the world becoming more inclusive? Is your school? Is your country?
○ The world is slowly becoming more inclusive, my school as well and my
country too (shortest answer I’ll ever give in this subject area!).
● Is there a difference between being in the minority and being marginalized?
○ There is indeed a difference (though nowadays the two are used
interchangeably), being in the minority refers to being part of something that
makes up a lesser part of a whole than the other parts (for example, minority
cultures often have fewer people than the other cultures in the whole society).
While most minorities are marginalised in their treatment, the two are very
different and should not be confused.
● Are different marginalized groups in the same society natural allies, or are they
just as likely to turn on each other?
○ Both. While these marginalised groups are often capable of coming tomorrow
and uniting to ensure society hears them, there is always the chance that they
can turn on each other and cause the further marginalisation of one group if
they have conflicting thoughts/interests/beliefs.

People of a Feather: The Sources and Consequences of Groups

● Basic Features of Social Groups
○ power structures | roles | communication structures

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 ■ Power structures: A power structure is essentially some sort of
societal construct that defines the relationship between some
individuals and other individuals within that power structure. This
mainly deals with how power and authority are distributed within a
group, with a plutocratic power structure having a small amount of
wealthy people wield the power whilst absolutist structures mean the
government can wield all the authority and subjugate its subjects as
brutally as it wishes.
■ Roles: Roles in society encompass a wide variety of topics and areas.
In order to better understand the idea of roles, we need to delve into
some of them more specifically. Economic roles often refer to
commonplace workers, CEOs and other employable positions within a
business. Political roles can refer to bureaucrats, lawyers, politicians
and nation leaders. In society at the normal, citizen level, roles often
refer to who holds the power based on several factors. Marginalised
people don’t have large roles in society, since they aren’t recognised
fully or hold much power in the community. I wholeheartedly suggest
that you further research these specific roles and what obligations
them come with on your own, as that takes far too much time for me to
detail for every single role.
■ Communication Structures: If you thought about some sort of
antenna that sends and receives radio waves for our communication,
you’re just ever so slightly off the mark (no not really, you’re very wide
off the mark). Simply put, a communication structure is the “pattern of
interaction that exists within a society”. Within societies and their
divisions, there tend to be certain interactions that are more common
than others. For example, within the basic family structure, a mother is
more likely to interact with the child since the father is usually off to
work for most of the day (this may change as the child grows or the
father retires, but this general trend exists practically everywhere).
Another example is how marginalised groups tend to get less
communication to other members of society because they are
shunned from public interaction much more than other groups.
○ similarity | interdependence | injunctive and proscriptive norms
■ Similarity: Simply put (apologies for the pun), similarity refers to how
alike two (or more) things are to one another. The more traits,
characteristics, general interest and other aspects two things share,
the more likely they are to be closer to one another. Within society,
this can be applied to groups (or “niches”) of people. You’ve probably
already seen this sort of phenomenon within your school. New
students tend to gravitate and befriend a group of people with whom
they have a high level of similarity. On the flipside, a lack of similarity
can lead to public dissonance and societal clashes, as is mostly the
case with marginalised groups or minorities.
■ Interdependence: “The dependence of two or more people (or things)
on each other”. Interdependence is sort of like the buddy cooperation
of society. You rely on someone for something and in exchange they
rely on you for something else. A very common everyday example is
the workplace, where employees rely on their manager for income
whilst their manager relies on their employees to generate that income
for the company. In school, this example is also applicable within
group work (assuming your group members actually do their work and
don’t leave everything to the smartest person, which is not what my
amazing WSC team does!). Interdepence is often ignored when it
comes to marginalised groups on the edge of society, since the main

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 bulk of society doesn’t depend on them for anything (except perhaps,
a scapegoat to blame for some inexplicably linked sociopolitical
issue).
■ Injunctive and proscriptive: A legal term used in lawmaking and
court cases (2 things I do not enjoy discussing but shall do so for your
enlightenment), injunctive refers to a judicial process known as
injunction which tells a certain party to refrain from doing an act. When
a court orders this remedy, it directs the conduct of that party, telling
them what they can and cannot do as well as setting out punishment
or penalties if they infringe on the injunction. By contrast, a
proscriptive law refers to any sort of rule that forbids or restricts
something. Outside of lawmaking, proscriptive norms can refer to
activities or opinions in society that a certain group should not do or
have. Injunctive norms can refer to people telling others what to do
instead of giving them the free will to do so.
● Entitativity: when does a group think of itself as a group?
○ cultural identity groups | crowds vs. mobs
■ Cultural identity groups: This should seem fairly simple, a cultural
identity group refers to a party of individuals who are together because
their cultural background is similar to one another. This includes racial
groups (i.e black, white though those are less utilised nowadays),
national groups (i.e Asian-American, African-European) and
geographical groups (i.e Pacific Islanders and state-specific groups).
These groups are very evident in society and a nation (or even cities)
can host a variety of cultural identity groups within it.
■ Crowds vs. Mobs: Consider this analogy: A human who has yet to
commit a crime is clean and innocent in the eye of the law, yet a
person who has committed crimes is now considered criminal by the
law. This sort of transformation applies to crowds and mobs. Crowds
are simply a large group of people within any space that are
unorganised or chaotic. Often times, crowds are gathered for specific
reasons (i.e an audience at an outdoor concert, a group of people in a
shopping mall or even a political rally). A crowd is perfectly acceptable
in society and it occurs everyday without any protest. However, when
a crowd turns violent or unruly and begins to cause harm to others,
then it becomes a mob. This might include violent political protests, a
group of school bullies or even a bunch of marginalised rioters. Mobs
are where law enforcement officers are often sent in and
marginalisation has caused these occurrences to appear more often,
with some even dying or being critically injured thanks to their actions.
○ Tuckman model | seceder model | Homans’ theory
■ Tuckman model: Dr. Bruce Tuckman developed this sociological
model in 1965 and later revised it in the 1970s. Basically the Tuckman
model outlines 5 stages that a group will go through the longer that
group stays together. The model states that as the maturity and ability
of the team grows, relationships are established and the leader
changes their style to adapt to the new team dynamics. Here are the 5
stages in slightly better detail:
■ Forming: At this stage, the group has just been made and the
members come together in order to decide their goals and
tackle tasks in order to achieve it. There is very little cohesion
between members and the leader still needs to give lots of
directions and answer many questions about the opportunities,
goals and challenges ahead. Instead of acting as group
members, they prefer to work alone and make progress as

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 individuals. Discussion within the group focuses on the
specifics of the task as well as how to align group members to
both it and one another. To move onto the next stage, all group
members must be willing to let go of comfortable topics and
tasks as well as admit that conflicts will arise.
■ Storming: By far the most comprehensive and most
troublesome of the 5 stages, storming implies a double
meaning. Storming can refer to the massive amount of
orientation and task completion being done in this stage, as
group members come to trust and confide in one another,
resulting in more cohesive and efficient group work. Storming
can also however, refer to the “quest for power” that the group
might embark on, with some individuals attempting to secure
closer positions to the leader as possible. This can cause
conflict to arise, especially when people call each other out on
their avoidance of responsibility or attempt to dominate group
discussions. The group needs to resolve these conflicts
(perhaps by compromising) before it can move onto the next
stage. Leaders finding themselves in this stage need to
redirect the team’s focus to completing the goal instead of
trying to fight one another, as well as coach specific individuals
on their responsibilities and relationships with other group
members.
■ Norming: Groups that reach the norming stage aren’t out of the
storm just yet. Though the group members have now
developed relationships with one another, allowing for the
asking of assistance or receival of feedback, there can still be
tensions as a result of new tasks that provide conflict. Its
during this stage that leaders need to be perceptive towards
areas of conflict and resolve them quickly, lest the team lapse
back into the storming stage. It's here that the team gets to
realise why the leader was put in charge and respect for
authority is introduced.
■ Performing: A team at this stage is essentially fully mature and
ready to face all its tasks with no friction and hard work ethics.
By this stage, the team is close to completing the entire
objective and fulfilling the goal, thanks to the processes and
structure set up by the leader. Speaking of the leader, during
this time the leader should no longer need to direct or assist
group members with their tasks, instead they can safely
delegate (assign) jobs to the group knowing that their input
beyond that should no longer be needed.
■ Adjourning: Added in 1975 by Tuckman, the adjourning step
isn’t exactly an extension of the model, but rather an additional
part to the fourth part once it has concluded. After the group’s
task has been fulfilled, they no longer need to remain together
and the group terminates their cooperation here. The leader is
free to find another project to start a group on and the group
members can congratulate themselves as well as one another
for reaching their goals and objectives. However, at this time
there can be friction, as insecure group members or those with
strong relationships refuse to part ways, perhaps forcing the
group to remain together for the next project.
■ Seceder model: Alright then, here’s a model which has clearly been
ignored in popular media, since the most recent page I can find for it is

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 the original publication from Cornell University in 2003. Simply put, the
model shows how the desire to be different from the “average” in a
population can lead to the creation of more groups with in that society.
As the “average” continues to shift depending on the definition of the
word by the sub-groups, even more groups are created with the desire
to be different from the rest.
■ Homans’ theory: Homans’ Theory, otherwise known as a theory of
group formation was created by behavioral sociologist George C.
Homans about the dynamics of how groups are created in the first
place (before Tuckman’s model can come into play). Homans’ theory
of group formation simply states that there are three key elements
when it comes to forming a team: activities, interactions and
sentiments. It is these three elements that have knockback effects on
one another, as Homan stipulates in his work. The assigned activities
are the tasks a person has to work on, which can impact their
interaction with other group members who might have sentiments for
their tasks and abilities.
○ social exchange theory | swarm behavior | herd mentality
■ Social exchange theory: Imagine if an economist suddenly decided
to perform risk-benefit analysis on every single human relationship
they could find; that is essentially the concept of the Social Exchange
Theory. According to the theory, our interactions are fueled by our
personal need to find gratification from others and as such are
determined by the rewards or punishments that we receive. Oh and by
the way, our old friend George Homans is credited with the discovery
of this theory. The central thought process behind the Social
Exchange Theory is that an interaction which produces more rewards
will likely continue to occur, whilst an interaction that produces more
punishments will likely cease to continue. In fact, George Homans
(along with later psychologists such as Peter Blau or Richard
Emerson), defined a formula of sorts to calculate the likelihood of a
repeated interaction in any situation. Here it is: behavior (profits) =
rewards of interaction - costs of interaction. If the end result is positive,
then the interaction has been gratified and will be repeated (vice versa
if its negative). Before we move onto the more complex intricacies of
this concept, let’s have an example (and what better one than a
romantic one!): Let’s say the social interaction in question is asking
someone out on a date. The cost is obviously that this interaction may
cause some communal outcry (especially if the person in question is
leagues above you) but the reward is obviously the fact that you’re
going on a date (something I’ve never received the reward of). If the
person whom you asked out replies positively (a round of applause is
in order), then that gratification will likely cause you to repeat the
interaction (either by asking them out again or asking others out,
though probably the former since the latter just makes you seem
disloyal). If however, (like me) the person responds negatively, then
the cost will prevent you from attempting this interaction anytime soon.
■ Now then, let’s get into some of the more complex notions.
The first is expectations: as you weigh the benefits and costs
of a future interaction, you will establish a comparison level
based on previous relationships or social norms. For example,
if you’ve previously had poor relationships with friends, you’ll
likely expect that same level of support with interactions
regarding your friends. Another key aspect after the
introduction of alternatives, where you assess the possible

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 paths other than the interaction and based on those analyses
re-evaluate the cost-benefit of the interaction.
■ The final key concept within the Social Exchange Theory is the
“Honeymoon phase” (no not that period after a marriage you
immature scholar). This refers to the length of a relationship
and how that influences your interactions as exchanges.
During the first few weeks and even months of a friendship,
you’re more likely to ignore the social exchange evaluation and
balance. Acts that seem costly won’t be looked at, whilst
potential benefits are often exaggerated in value. Once this
phase finishes, then a proper evaluation is usually performed,
with the relationship terminating if the negativity of it has been
exposed (the costs are too high).
■ Swarm behaviour: A collective behavior exhibited by animals and
entities, this type of phenomenon can easily be explained by the cliche
(and sometimes false) quote “safety in numbers”. Swarm behavior is
shown whenever large flocks of animals migrate or (sorry) swarm en
masse to a certain location for some biological reason (i.e source of
water, mating ground, food source abundance). Humans often show
this type of mentality by forming groups subconsciously in crowded
areas and moving in large formations to avoid being attacked or
picked off. In a WSC round, this might be your school delegation’s
tendency to stick together throughout the transition stages of the
competition.
■ Herd mentality: In 2008, professor Jens Krause and Dr. John Dyer of
Leeds University performed a sociological and psychological
experiment. Groups of people were told to walk around randomly in a
great big room, with no communication between them. A select few
were told the exact directions and positions of where to walk. After
some time, the researchers observed that those walking “randomly”
had begun to follow those who had been given directions (making it no
so random walking). This is herd mentality in practice. You are
convinced by your peers to take a course of action or adopt a behavior
that may not be entirely rational or fitting for you. Instead this is simply
because your brain would rather follow others who are sure in their
course of action than risk the consequences of stumbling into
unknown dangers. Common examples of this can be seen everyday.
Investors in stock markets often flock to buy shares from certain
companies because a large amount of their colleagues are doing so.
Students may begin to follow certain trend in their fashion choice or
word choice because their peers are also doing so. Shoppers are
more likely to stick around in a store if they notice large crowds of
other shoppers buying a certain object. In fact, herd mentality has
even been used to the benefit of individuals and businesses (it’s one
reason why this website has so many viewers, since many pass it on
by word of mouth to others, who then use it in mimicry of their
teammates). Walt Disney actually used this to great effect when the
first Disneyland was opened. Visitors were simply leaving whenever
their rides had been completed, s to drive profits up Disney organised
fireworks show (still ongoing on special occasions at all of its parks!)
and the herd simply followed the leader.
● To Follow the Group, To Go Astray
○ informational vs normative vs referential conformity: As the last word
suggests, all these terms refer to ways in which we “conform” to groups or
other parties in order to better “fit in” to avoid friction or increase relationships.

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 Conformity essentially involves caving in to peer pressure, whether that
pressure was applied forcefully or implied subtly. Informational conformity is
the most school-applicable one. This is where a person looks to a group or
other individual because they lack knowledge and seek the “correct” direction
or information from others. In schools, this might be exemplified by a student
mimicking the behaviour of people they perceive to be more intelligent, in
order to get the right information from them (please do not mimic me scholar,
it will only bring you social embarrassment). Normative conformity is the more
social type and often deals with you changing your behaviour in order to fit in
with the “norm” that society has set (this can often mean changing your
physical appearance or way in which you talk). Referential conformity is
slightly more obscure and refers to conforming to stereotypes or references of
what you should be based on your background.This is often concerned with
race, nationality, religion and other cultural aspects.
○ social identity theory | self-categorization
■ Social identity theory: Polish social psychologist Henri Tajfel is most
well known for his foundational work on this theory and it lays the
cornerstone for many other branching theories based on it. The Social
Identity Theory stipulates that the groups which people belonged to in
society (or at least, felt they belonged to) generated a large amount of
pride and self-esteem (it could even shape their character). Our
groups give us a sense of belonging in this world and it is with them by
our side that we can carry on in life. However, this social stigma does
also come with hidden dangers. In order to fuel the self-image, we
tend to create “them” and “us” divisions between groups, creating
what is known as in-groups (us) and out-groups (them). If the tension
between the two groups reaches a boiling point, it can result in
extreme racism and prejudices against the out-group (as was the case
in Germany between the Nazis and the Jews).
■ Self-categorization: John Charles Turner can claim credit for this
specific theory. Simply put, this theory puts forth the processes by
which people create their social identities by comparing their own
traits against those of other people both within and out of the social
groups they’ve placed themselves in. If you seek a more thorough
understanding, I recommend visiting this website (be warned though,
the language can be a bit intimidating) for more specific terms that
might appear during the bowl or challenge.
○ dominant culture | counterculture | high-brow vs. low-brow
■ Dominant culture: As the name implies, a dominant culture is any
sort of cultural practice that is the dominant one in a society. It is this
dominant culture that often controls the law, political stage,
educational institutes, business practices and even creative
expression. A common example within a nation might be that of the
United States. It is within the dominant culture to speak English,
believe in a Protestant Christian religion and be of European ancestry.
These cultures set the norm for an entire society and are often
indirectly responsible for marginalising cultures which do not fit with
them.
■ Counterculture: Again, as the name implies a counterculture is a way
of life that goes against the norms set by society. At times this can be
put on marginalised people or minority groups whose cultural
practices are not in line with what the prevailing public opinion (or
dominant culture) believes it should be. A common example of such a
counterculture was the hippie subculture of 1960s and 70s America
and Britain. Countercultures can even exist on something as small as

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 a school, with some individuals going against the norms of their peers
(i.e me whenever it comes to work ethics).
■ Highbrow vs. lowbrow: These meaning are slightly harder to
interpret, though a symbolic analysis can easily divulge their intended
message. Highbrow is a derogatory term used to refer to “high
culture”, essentially the valuing of works or practices with great
intellectual significance. Highbrows were people who followed such
cultures and these often encompassed great thinkers, snobby
businessman and political leaders. In contrast, the common man
might have more in common with lowbrows, who were the people who
didn’t mind “dirtier” cultures with less panache and class than the
highbrows. Modern society doesn’t really find a place for these words,
since culture nowadays can be an amalgamation of high and low
culture (i.e music tastes can be low culture whilst fashion taste might
be high culture).
○ Asch Paradigm | Crutchfield Situation
■ Asch Paradigm: A recurring trend on this section is to include
contributions from Polish professionals and frankly their work is top-
class when it comes to dissecting the human mind (metaphorically,
not literally). Solomon Eliot Asch was one such Polish person, yet he
was also of American origin. The Asch Paradigm for which he is most
well-remembered is one of the greatest lab experiments in social
conformity. In 1951, Asch lined up 50 college students from
Swarthmore College in the United States to participate in his research.
He lined up 8 of them along a wall, much thee same way a police mug
shot might occur (Brooklyn nine nine viewers, this scene may be
familiar to you). 7 of these people were actually “stooges” who had
pre-discussed what response they were all going to give (most of the
time this response was incorrect). The remaining “naive person” was
to give their own response and the aim was to see whether or not they
conformed to the majority of group responses. What Asch found was
astonishing: out of the 18 trials held, 75% of participants conformed at
least once, with an average conformation rate of 32% on the wrong
trials (called the “critical trials” for their value in the research). When
interviewed post-experiment why they had conformed, many
participants gave the reply that they weren’t entirely sure of their
answer, but had gone along with the group in order to avoid being
called “peculiar” or ridiculed for their unique response. Some even
believed that the group answer was the correct one and that they had
gone along on the basis of poor information (informational influence
right here). The main takeaway from the Asch Paradigm is that
conformity is somehow natural in human beings because we fear
being singled out and picked at because of our uniqueness.
■ Crutchfield Situation: What a most interesting study. Just 4 years
after the Asch Paradigm was conducted, American psychologist
Richard S. Crutchfield felt the need to redo the experiment, with some
changes based on mass-criticisms the previous study had received.
One of the largest points of judgement was the unnatural condition
that the confederates had to be large in number, which Crutchfield
neutralised by making sure there were no confederates in the actual
experiment. Another major point was how each participant had to
announce their answer out loud, further adding to the embarrassment
on the naive person if they didn’t conform. So the participants in
Crutchfield’s situation were isolated from one another and instead of
answering verbally, pressed electronic switches. Now everyone else

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 had their own lights that told them which switch the others had
pressed, but in reality this was controlled by the main experimenter
from the circuit room (adding an element of deception within the
experiment). In fact, Crutchfield performed this procedure with all the
participants at the same time, thus the conformity behavior could be
explored in its simultaneous nature. As expected, while people still
conformed, they didn’t do so in the astounding numbers that Asch’s
Paradigm did.
● Them-ocracy: Understanding Exclusion and Rivalry
○ ingroup vs. outgroup | outgroup homogeneity | trait ascription
■ Ingroup vs. outgroup: I refer to my answer on dominant culture
■ Outgroup homogeneity: Ever consider people who aren’t in your
social group to be essential copies of one another? (I know I have).
This is essentially your mind applying outgroup homogeneity and its
best explained using the phrase “they are alike, we are diverse”. It’s
where your brain believes that people of the out-group are more
similar to each other than the people of your in-group.
■ Trait ascription: If you’ve ever considered yourself a mysterious
person whose behavior cannot be explained by some rational thought
(i.e me at times whenever I get those Sherlock Holmes influences),
then this is likely your brain applying trait ascription to yourself. More
formally known as trait ascription bias, this is when you view yourself
as variable in your behavior, mood or personality and see others as
predictable when faced with certain situations. You might think you
react differently for every event, but at the same time you’ll assign
standard reactions for other people based on their characters.
○ intergroup interactions | social comparison | social invisibility
■ Intergroup interactions: Literally what it says on the tin. Intergroup
interactions refer to when people from different social groups interact
with one another, or when those groups collectively come together
and interact with each other. This can often create interesting,
surprising and at times frictional thoughts between the two. Perhaps if
the popular kids in my school were to spend an hour trapped with the
nerds, some interesting things could happen. I’d much rather see the
antisocial people (myself included) locked up with the social creatures
of my year for an hour though, what torture that would be.
■ Social comparison: Whenever you try and redeem your self-esteem
or motivate yourself to continue being in a group, you’ll often turn to
evaluating your own position in life compared to that of others. This is
when your brain conducts social comparison(s), whereby it analyzes
your worth based on a set of criteria (usually supplied by either you or
society) compared to others and uses the results to determine your
self-worth and social importance.
■ Social invisibility: Here’s where we get into the marginalisation of
people proper. Social invisibility refers to individuals who have been
put on the edge of society (WSC theme pun apology imminent) and as
a result are systematically overlooked by people within society (they’re
sort of considered as a true “outcast out-group”). It’s because of this
that they are considered invisible from society, their opinions and
voices mattering little in actual affairs.
○ amity-enmity complex | internalized oppression
■ Amity-Enmity Complex: Unlike other contributors to theories on this
list, Sir Arthur Keith was Scottish anthropologist and anatomist (hardly
anything to do with the sociological factors of his work!) who argued
that humans evolved as differing tribes, races and cultures. Those

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 who were of these same cultures were part of the in-group and were
tolerated, whilst those who didn’t belong were outcast in the out-group
and could be subject to tensions or even hostility. In his 1948 work A
New Theory of Human Evolution, Keith was an avid proponent of this
idea, building onto the previous works on human tribalism (the
development of our species in tribes and groups) from authors such
as Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace and Herbert Spencer.
■ Internalized Oppression: This one is rather scary and it is somewhat
sad to see the sorry state the world is in because of this term’s
existence. Internalized Oppression is rather straightforward and is
essentially when members of an oppressed group begin to use the
methods of the oppressors on themselves. The motivation is that
these people who are mimicking the behavior of those in the highly
valued group (the oppressors) can move into their group and no
longer be marginalised. There are 3 main subcategories of this:
internalized racism, internalized homophobia and internalized sexism.
All three can occur commonly in today’s society and it should be our
priority to cease this type of behavior, for it can even divide
marginalised groups who are already receiving enough pressure from
external sources.
○ black sheep effect | Robber’s Cave | Stanford Prison Experiment
■ Black sheep effect (Caitlin): In the context of psychology the term
black sheep effect refers to the habit of group members have to judge
likable/charismatic ingroup members in a more positive light.
Whereas, judging deviant ingroup members in a negative light. This
essentially means that you perceive likeable members of the in-group
in a positive way, whilst those in the group who don’t share a many
desirable qualities or aren’t exactly fully aligned with the group are
judged more negatively than those outside the group who have the
same qualities.
■ Robber’s Cave (Caitlin): The 1954 Robbers Cave Experiment (RCE)
is a very well known example of Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT).
■ Stanford Prison Experiment (Caitlin): The Stanford Prison
Experiment was a social psychology experiment conducted by Prof.
Philip Zimbardo which took place in August of 1971, the aim of the
experiment was to investigate the psychological effects of power
specifically focusing on the power dynamic of prisoners and guards.
Volunteers were recruited and told they would be participating in a
two-week simulation of prison, there were 24 volunteers selected to
participate in this experiment. The volunteers selected had no criminal
backgrounds, psychological impairments or medical problems. The
volunteers also received $15 a day (the equivalent of $94 in 2018).
The volunteers in this study were randomly assigned to the roles of
“guards” or “prisoners” in a mock jail, Zimbardo served as the
superintendent of the jail. The experiment took place in a 10.5-meter
section of the basement of Jordan Hall. The “prison” had cell walls and
an entrance, there were only cots in each 1.8 x 2.7m cell for the
“prisoners”. On the other hand, the guards had a separate living
environment from the prisoners with more luxuries and rest/relaxation
areas. The conclusions drawn from this experiment by Prof. Zimbardo
are the following, “the simulated-prison situation, rather than individual
personality traits, caused the participants’ behavior. Using this
situational attribution, the results are compatible with those of the
Milgram experiment (an experiment in which random participants
complied with orders to administer seemingly dangerous and lethal

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 electric shocks to a shill) .” A positive “result” of this study was the
alteration of US prisons this being that when juveniles accused of
federal crimes are no longer housed with adult prisoners before their
trials, due to the risk of violence against the juveniles. There has been
controversy over the ethics and scientific rigor of the Stanford Prison
Experiment. The treatment of “prisoners”, reliance on anecdotal
evidence, coaching of the “guards”, using a small unrepresentative
sample and more were some of the issues with the experiment. A
more detailed informative video on the Stanford Prison Experiment
can be found here

Here There be ____: Understanding the Margins of Society

● Mechanics of Marginalization
○ Discrimination| colonialism | slavery | hegemony
■ Discrimination (Caitlin): The prejudiced or unjust treatment of
different groups of people or objects. This can be seen on the grounds
of sexual orientation, gender identity, race, age and more.
■ Colonialism (Caitlin): Taking full or partial political control over
another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it
economically. Examples of this include the Hong-Kong by the British,
Macau by the Portuguese, Indonesia by the Dutch etc.
■ Slavery (Caitlin): A system in which property laws are applied to
human beings, this allows individuals to purchase, sell and own other
human beings as a de jure/ legal form of property.
■ Hegemony: A term originating from Ancient greek city-states,
Hegemony refers to the leadership or dominance a social group or
political party has over the rest of society. This is usually used in
diplomatic circles to denote the power struggles between the people
and the politicians in countries nowadays. The dominant group is
known as the hegemon, while those within their sphere of influence
are referred to as the hegemonic.
○ nepotism | endogamy | xenophobia | rankism
■ Nepotism: If you’ve ever noticed those “Father and Son” or “Family
Business” signs up around your neighborhood, then you’ve seen an
example of nepotism in action. Nepotism is the granting of favors to
relatives in various fields, though more commonly politics and
businesses than normal society. The term is actually based on the
Latin term nepos, meaning “nephew”. History has it that Catholic
popes and bishops in the medieval and late renaissance ages would
give their positions to nephews, having taken a vow of chastity which
eliminated the possibility of a direct lineage takeover. Nepotism is
where an employer might favour an application because that person is
part of their family or because they know someone from the family.
■ Endogamy: Similar to polygamy and monogamy, endogamy deals
with matters of love and marriage. Specifically, in endogamic
communities, marriage is only allowed by members within the clan or
group (as opposed to exogamy, where marriage with external clans is
enforced). The aim of endogamy is usually to preserve the bloodline of
that clan and maintain the “purity” of the group by not contaminating it
with foreign or external influences. Scottish Highlanders, historical
aristocrats and the house of Hapsburg will easily speak of their pride
in exogamic relationships.

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 ■ Xenophobia: Slightly different than racism (though the two have been
easily confused in common conversations), xenophobia is where one
shows a prejudice or extreme dislike of people from a certain nation,
as opposed to people of a certain race. So despite the fact you may
not be racist against blacks, you might be xenophobic against
Rwandans (whose majority-black population can cause you being
labelled racist when in reality you’re xenophobia). Xenophobia also
refers to an extreme distrust of that which is strange or foreign, as part
of the ingroup perception towards the outgroup.
■ Rankism: You can probably guess the meaning of this one simply by
the way the word is constructed. Rankism is essentially racism but
towards those of a different rank (or hierarchy) in society. Rankism is
essentially what gave rise to all the other “isms” when it comes to
discrimination in society. It’s the “somebodies” putting down the
“nobodies” and it can occur in all forms. The next section will explore
more sub-categories of rankism.
○ sexism | racism | ageism | ableism | elitism
■ Sexism: This is one of if not the most pressing issue for many human
rights activists around the world. Sexism is the prejudice or
discrimination of people based on their gender, which often gives rise
to stereotypes and gender roles. The roots of sexism are actually
pretty old, for much of human history society has been geared towards
believing that males are “intrinsically superior” to females. As a result,
the roles of women in society were seen as subservient to men and
their rights were practically nonexistent until the 1800s. A common
example of sexism in schools might be a teacher or classmate
assuming that girls are naturally emotionally unstable (not at all true in
my opinion).
■ Racism: Here’s the big one. Racism is the prejudice and
discrimination directed against people of a different race on the belief
that your race is somehow superior. Race can refer to many things,
from skin colour to cultural background to even religion (though
nowadays we tend to stick to the former). Again, like sexism racism
has its roots in history, where whites were seen as the “dominating
race” of humanity and as such “blacks, yellows, reds” and other races
were considered almost non-human or degenerate compared to them.
In reality this is one of the greatest flaws of our race. Why does a
person's’ skin colour somehow dictate what privileges and rights they
recieve in society? In historical ideologies, it was believed that blacks
were “intellectually inferior” (for some inexplicable reason they thought
that skin color equaled IQ).
■ Ageism: Coined slightly later than all the other words (in 1969 to be
precise) by Robert Neil Butler, ageism is literally what you think it is:
prejudice or discrimination based on their age. We often do this type
of stereotyping casually, without even realising that we’re being ageist.
In the employment sector, older people are overlooked because
they’re perceived to be “unfit for work” (despite the fact their years of
experience would make them more valuable for the younger recruits).
There are often news stories about elderly people who challenge
these stereotypes, being more adventurous as they get older.
■ Ableism: This is another major problem in the world today. Ableism is
prejudice or discrimination towards those who aren’t capable of
performing the same tasks as “normal” people are due to some sort of
medical condition or birth defect (I’ll avoid using the word “disabled”
since it can also be perceived as a form of ableism). In society, these

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 people are often shunned from certain positions, being given certain
rights or even from being treated like any other able-bodied person is.
Governments, NGOs and smaller communities alike are slowly
beginning to solve ableism, since some aspect of economic aid can be
applied here. Nations with developed economies can often afford the
development of non-able friendly infrastructure (such as ramps for
wheelchair users or elevators for those on crutches).
■ Elitism: This is something slightly more political but still inherently
social. Elitism is the belief or attitude that individuals who form an elite
(a group with certain characteristics, income or background) are more
likely to contribute to society and as such should be given more power
or recognition by everyone else. In modern society, there are
governments which employ this type of thought concept, such as the
totalitarian DPRK which believes that the Kim dynasty is the elite
ruling class.
○ bullying | victimization | social dominance orientation
■ Bullying: A common school presence, bullying is the act of trying to
coerce, harm or intimidate someone on some sort of illogical and
irrational grounds (usually more emotionally based than logical).
Bullying often comes with the implied message of a serious power
imbalance. The bully dominates any interaction with the person being
bullied, who has little or no power to stop this interaction turning
negative in nature (which it almost always does). About 1/3 of
schoolchildren have encountered bullying in their educational life and
it can pose a serious problem (there have been a slew of news reports
about bullied child who took their own life). Bullying is one of those
activities where those who simply watch or ignore the events are
sympathizing with the bully, as opposed to standing up for the victim
and halting the bully.
■ Victimization: The result of bullying, racism and all other types of
prejudice, victimisation is the process of singling out a person or group
of individuals for unjust or cruel treatment. It also applied to
victimology, the study of the psychological and sociological processes
that occur when one becomes the victim.
■ Social dominance Orientation: Acronymized as SDO, Social
Dominance Orientation is a personality trait which forms a part of
another theory, known as social dominance theory. The theory simply
states that humans have evolved to create group-based social
hierarchies on a set of criteria, which then served to influence
evolutionary history (it actually draws some inspiration from Marxist
theories!). Social Dominance Orientation is essentially the
psychological component of that theory, developed by Jim Sidanius
and Felicia Pratto in 1999. Social Dominance Theory is the measure
of social and political attitudes which will indicate how likely an
individual is to acclimatize to the theory of dominant hierarchical
groups.
● Poverty and Social Stratification
○ Gini index | Great Gatsby curve | Poverty Gap Index
■ Gini Index (Caitlin): The Gini Index/ Gini Coefficient/ Gini Ratio is a
statistical measure of dispersion which represents the “spread” of
wealth distribution in a nation. A Gini index value of 0 expresses
perfect equality, where wealth distribution in a nation is completely
equal. A Gini Index value of 1 expresses maximum inequality for
wealth distribution in a nation.

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 ■ Great Gatsby Curve: Alan Krueger, former chairman on the Council
of Economic Advisers introduced this measure to the world at a
conference in 2012. On the horizontal axis of the graph (an example
of which is shown in the slideshow below), the Gini coefficient
measure of a nation’s wealth distribution. On the vertical axis is a
separate yet related measure, known as the “intergenerational
elasticity of income”. Basically this refers to how much a percentage
increase in your family’s income will translate to your expected income
when you grow up. The higher this number is, the less social mobility
you’ll have in the future; meaning that you’ll likely stay where your
family is right now in society. Rather frightening is the fact that some
of the most developed nations in the world, the United States and
United Kingdom for example; have very low scores when it comes to
social mobility thanks to their high inequality. Unsurprisingly, we find
that Scandinavian countries such as Denmark or Norway are at the
bottom of the curve, with their low inequality meaning that social
mobility is a perfectly possible occurrence.
■ Poverty Gap Index: Introduced by the World Bank research group
(that department of the world bank meant to give statistics on
practically every possible economic measure for every possible nation
in the world), the poverty gap index is a measure of the average
shortfall of the population from the poverty line (basically how far on
average the poor people in a country are from no longer being in
poverty. A higher poverty gap index means that poverty is severe in
the country and that a large amount of money will be required to
minimise the poverty gap index. If you multiply the poverty gap index
by the poverty line and total number of citizens, then that amount is
roughly how much money each person would need to earn annually to
lift themselves out of the poverty line. Here’s an example:
■ A country has 25 million citizens and a poverty line of $750 a
year, along with a poverty gap index of 10%. The average
increase of $75 per year per individual would eliminate poverty
from this nation, with the total amount of money required for
the entire populace to no longer be in poverty standing at
$1,875,000,000 (good luck getting your country out of poverty,
government officials).
○ social class | social mobility | dissimilarity | division of labor
■ Social class: Social class is a large part of social stratification (and
I’m practically repeating myself at this point in time, thanks WSC). It
basically subjectively organises people in a society based on their
social and economic status. Historically, this may have taken the form
of feudalism in Medieval Europe (where kings and priests were at the
top, followed by knights and other soldiers and so forth). In Industrial
Revolution Europe, this shifted towards a more economic lens, where
the upper classes paid the lower classes to do their work for them.
The emergence of a middle class during this time also expanded the
social classes. In the modern society, our positions and income still
dictate which part of the social strata we fit into, though our rights and
privileges aren’t exactly hampered as much as they might’ve been in
the past due to our position.
■ Social mobility: Please take the time to watch this great Crash
Course video about the concept, as it explains it using visuals and
diagrams much more comprehensive than I can.
■ Dissimilarity: Differences between social classes essentially.

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 ■ Division of labor: Now here’s a term where I can call upon my
communist comrades to support the revolution and divide all labour
equally amongst the people. Gone are the notions of capitalist
aristocrats or beggars, all will do their duty for the motherland in
glorious Soviet Union!
■ (throat clearing noise), sorry about that, I should probably get
some medication for my communist rants. Anyways the actual
concept of division of labour was indeed a huge cornerstone
for Marxist, Capitalist and practically every other economic
system. Division of labour refers to the factory-level division of
work into a number of tasks that are then completed by a
separate group of individuals before moving onto the next task.
The concept has given rise to cheap labour costs and lower
retail prices as a result. The assembly line is a form of division
of labour, eliminating the need for skilled craftsmen who knew
how to assemble every component of a product, instead
replacing them with low-skill workers who can repeat the same
mind-numbing task day in day out. Henry Ford is a common
name used here, for it was he who first proposed the assembly
line and division of labour on his car production lines. Instead
of giving 1 car to a skilled craftsmen to make (which could take
days or even weeks!), the conveyor belt was used to speed up
work and divide the tasks between “sub-groups” of workers (i.e
engine technicians could work on installing the engine, before
chassis engineers worked on tweaking the body of the car).
○ just-world fallacy | redlining | Davis-Moore hypothesis
■ Just-world fallacy: If a criminal is convicted for a robbery that they
committed poorly, most people would say that they have deserved this
punishment for their actions. That is the just-world fallacy. For all you
know, that robbery could’ve been against a corrupt business or a lying
person and that this was the only way that person could feed his
family. The just-world fallacy is the belief that people who are winning
at the game of life have done something to deserve those rewards,
whilst does who are losing have done something to deserve those
punishments. This bias is a lens through which we see the world and
we often have the same reactions to people who’ve found themselves
at the bottom of the chain or those at the top. There is no sort of
invisible “moral balance” or “karma” that berates or rewards those who
have been morally good or bad, there is merely the human mind and
the deception it has wrought upon itself.
■ Redlining: Used in the United States and Canada, redlining refers to
the systematic prohibition and denial of various services to residents
of specific and often racially associated neighborhoods. This can be
done through the drastic raising of prices for those residents, or simply
a law preventing those inhabitants from partaking in the service.
■ Davis-Moore hypothesis: In 1945, psychologists Davis and Wilbert
E. Moore published a paper that would serve as yet another addition
to the works on social stratification. In the work, Davis and Moore
forwarded an attempted explanation of social stratification, giving the
idea that this was a functional necessity for the evolution of mankind.
They also argued that the most difficult jobs in society were the most
necessary and that the motivation required to people to fulfill them
meant the highest compensation/rewards. Once these roles are
fulfilled, the division of labour can continue unabated and society
could function properly.

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 ○ homelessness | slums | favelas | shanty towns | skid row
■ Homelessness: As it implies, homelessness is the state of someone
not having a permanent dwelling, home or shelter to live in. The most
likely reason is that these people were unable to find a steady source
of income to maintain or rent a home and as a result were forced to
live in temporary dwellings.
■ Slums: Every city in the world has one of them (probably, I’m not sure
what the Scandinavians consider slums). A slum is a community of
tightly packed and heavily populated buildings, all of which are in a
state of ruin or not properly maintained. This often means buildings
made from scrap materials (i.e leftover wood for the walls, grated
metal for the roof and no solid foundations to speak of). Slums are
normally where the impoverished people end up living in the hundreds
or even thousands and they can be destroyed easily by fire,
earthquake or even war.
■ Favelas: A specific name for slums, favelas are Brazilian/Portuguese
in origin and consist of a large slum community that occupies the
outskirts of towns such as Rio De Janeiro or São Paulo. These favelas
are once again the dwellings of impoverished people, packed tightly
together and constructed using makeshift (and at times stolen!)
materials. The first favela appeared in what is now Rio De Janeiro in
the late 19th century by soldiers who had nowhere to go after the
Canudos War (a conflict between the state of Brazil and a group of
some 30,000 settlers who’d made a community called Canudos).
■ Shanty towns: Similar to favelas, shanty towns are areas of tightly
packed improvised settlements on the outskirts of cities. They are
often constructed using cardboard, plywood, corrugated steel, sheet
plastic and other salvaged materials.
■ Skid row: Now we have a more specific example. Skid row is an area
of Downtown Los Angeles and it contains one of the largest
populations of homeless people in the United States (anywhere
between 5,000 to 10,000 depending on reports). The area was
defined in a court case called Jones v. City of Los Angeles as the area
east of Main Street, South of Third Street, west of Alameda street and
north of Seventh street. Skid Row’s history dates back to the remnants
of the Industrial Revolution, where impoverished loggers and gold
miners who’d squandered their fortune came to California in order to
find a place to settle down, before realising that they could never
afford permanent housing.
● Race and Ethnicity
○ segregation | self-segregation | ethnocentrism
■ Segregation: One of the darkest periods of human history,
segregation refers to the separation of different racial groups in a
community. When this word is spoken, you might have images of Cold
War America, where the anti-segregation movement had its roots. In
America and South Africa, this policy was notorious for its unequal
treatment of citizens and the lack of privileges or rights given to those
being segregated. At the bottom of this page are a few images of
segregation in 1960s America, notice the superior facilities that the
whites had in comparison to the colored.
■ Self-segregation: As the name implies, self-segregation is the
separation of a group from society with its own actions and for its own
reasons. Instead of society shunning them, they’re shunning society
(sort of like an Uno reverse card or “no you” by the group in question).
Because of this, the group can then focus on offering their own

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 services and preserving their traditions/customs. For example, there
remain many uncontacted tribes around the world who’ve undergone
self-segregation for fear that assimilation into society will erase their
culture. In fact a more recent example of such a segregation was
Apartheid in South Africa, where the whites and blacks practiced
endogamy with their own races to preserve the tradition.
■ Ethnocentrism: Consider the following analogy: ethnocentrism is to
society what heliocentrism is to astrology. Much the same way we
perceive the sun to be the centre of the solar system and base any
following concepts off that fact, ethnocentrism is when we consider
our own culture inherently more important (sort of the center of all
cultures) and therefore judge other cultures based on preconceptions
and standards in our own tradition. Coined by Polish sociologist (gee
the Poles sure do love attempting to explain us humans don’t they?)
Ludwig Gumplowicz, the term was later expanded upon by American
social scientist William G. Sumner (and second on the list of “most
national contributions to wsc” is America). Ethnocentric people believe
that they’ve been superior to all races ever since their race came
about and have been using the lens ever since. For example, when
China was under the rule of the Qing Dynasty, who were actually
invaders from Manchu (a mountainous northeastern province),
ethnocentrism caused the public to actually look down upon their
“inferior” monarchy because of the belief that the true Chinese race
was far superior.
○ tribalism | supremacism | reverse racism | eugenics
■ Tribalism: The state or fact of being organised into tribes. Humans
are naturally adept at creating these tribes, as for much of our
evolutionary history we’ve lived in small groups, nowhere near as
large as the societies that dominate our landscape today.
■ Supremacism: As the name suggests, supremacism is an ideology
which advocates that a particular class of people are superior to all
others and therefore should be given all the power to dominate,
control or even subjugate those who aren’t part of the supremacist
race. This can range from anything between religion, age, sex, cultural
background, nationality or even appearance. Perhaps two of the most
notable examples of supremacism were “The White Man’s Burden”,
the belief in the 19th century that it was white people’s responsibility to
teach the “inferior races” how to be civil and more humane. The
second example is in Nazi Germany, where Adolf Hitler advocated the
belief of the Aryan Herrenvolk (Aryan Master Race) in his dictatorial
ruling over the German people.
■ Reverse Racism: As the name again implies (god these definitions
really aren’t that subtle are they?), reverse racism is the employment
of color-conscious terminology and programs in affirmative action to
bring about the equality in society. In America and Europe, this
movement has gone under flak, with some saying that “Black Lives
Matter” (being an example of reverse-racism) is an attack on white
people (clearly these people have never been introduced to jim crow,
slavery or really any of their history with the coloured people).
■ Eugenics: Derived from the Greek word eugenes (meaning “well
born”), eugenics is similar to supremacism in that it is a set of beliefs
or values that aim to improve the genetic quality of a population by
excluding the genetics of those groups perceived to be “inferior” or
“undesirable”. The term was first popularised by Sir Francis Galton, a
British scholar and cousin of Charles Darwin who in 1883 advocated

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 that humanity enter selective breeding to ensure desirable traits
continued to exist. In the United States and later on in Europe, the
idea continued to gain support and by the 20th century, programs
were in place to sterilise the “undesirables” to ensure their traits would
never be passed on (sterilisation is the act of depriving someone the
ability to reproduce). By the start of WW2, at least 65,000 people had
already been sterilised under the eugenics beliefs. Yet by the time war
was upon them, the interest in sterilisation was lost. Nazi Germany
(and later Hitler) would endorse the use of eugenic principles to justify
their atrocities, causing the concept to lose all credibility and any
governments to terminate funding for projects related to it.
○ institutionalized racism | “race traitor” | “passing” |
■ Institutionalized Racism: A form of racism practised in political or
social institutions, from government buildings to schools to even
hospitals.
■ “Race traitor”: It doesn’t take a rocket scientist (or social
psychologist) to solve this one. A race traitor is a reference to
someone who is advocating beliefs, positions or attitudes thought to
be against the wellbeing or standards of their own race. For example,
Germans who sheltered Jews and prevented their arrests could’ve
been labelled race traitors for their betrayal to the Aryan master race
(and they were brutally punished for it).
■ “Passing”: Just the same way you might be able to “pass” a test by
making the teacher believe you can achieve a grade different to what
your intellect on the subject might actually be, “passing” in society
means that you can be categorised as part of an identity group
(meaning race, culture, class etc.) different to their own. In many
cases, this can often mean a change in social class or caste based on
new income statistics.
○ Reparations
■ Reparations: Paying back something for some sort of unspeakable
debt. Slavery, war crimes, murders etc all fall into reparation-worthy
territory.
● Gender and Sexism
○ institutional sexism | objectification | masculinity vs femininity
■ Institutional sexism: Institutional racism but for sexism.
■ Objectification: One of the most annoying problems our society on
the margins faces, objectification is the process of degrading someone
to the status of a mere object in their existence. More common
amongst girls than boys, we often objectify people without realising
the implications and (admittedly I too) have been warned off by the
person being objectified. Objectification removes all sort of human
characteristics from the person, such as their emotional status,
personality or capabilities. For more details on the 7 sub-categories of
objectification, please refer to this Wikipedia link for a start.
■ Masculinity vs. Femininity: If you haven’t heard of these 2 words
already, I would begin to question where you have been for the past
10 years of your life. Masculinity and femininity are taboo words in
today’s society (or at least, social activist groups would like us to
eliminate the use of these words). Masculinity refers to qualities or
attributes associated with men (i.e the inability to display emotions
such as sadness, being physically strong and courageous in the face
of danger), whilst femininity refers to those traits attached to women
(emotionally unstable, physically weak and uncertain of themselves).
As is rather obvious, the feminine definition is clearly more imbalanced

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 than the masculine one. These two words can be used to shape
someone’s character and behavior, restricting their ability to display
their true self in public, for fear of being called out for their lack of
masculinity or femininity.
○ mansplaining | pay gap | gendercide | heteronormativity | glass ceiling
■ Mansplaining: Mansplaining is essentially behaviour whereby a man
explain a concept, idea or other thing to a girl in a manner regarded as
condescending or patronising. Apparently society thought there was a
need for this specific term, since it's a reflection of our cultural and
gender norms on males knowing more than females (not at all true by
the way).
■ Pay Gap: One of the greatest debates of our society is the pay gap.
Essentially this is how much women are being paid less than men (or
in some cases, how other social groups receive less income than
others doing the same job). I suggest you go search the web for some
specific statistics on this.
■ Gendercide: The systematic killing of members of a specific gender.
For example, in India gendercide takes the form of rape or assault
against women (a very serious problem for the country).
■ Heteronormativity: Somehow we humans believe that the only "true
and fitting" type of sexuality is heterosexuality (relationships between
people of different genders), hence why heteronormativity is the
societal term for people who believe in this concept. It often stems as
the root of homophobia and other prejudices against those of non
heterosexual orientation.
■ Glass Ceiling: An unofficially acknowledge barrier of sorts to prevent
advancement in a profession ,especially affecting those being
discriminated based on allegations of race or gender. Glass ceilings
may take the form of certain requirements out of reach by members of
minorities, drastic facility quality reduction for women or even outright
company bans of members moving up in the ranks due to their race.
○ gender identities | LGBTQ+ | toxic masculinity | intersexuality
■ Gender identities: I will be honest here scholar, I do not enjoy having
to explain this concept and as such will leave you with this link as a
starting point for further investigation.
■ LGBTQ+: An initialism that is continually expanding to include ever
more people in its classification, LGTBQ+ stands for Lesbian, Gay,
Transgender, Bisexual and Queer. There are obviously many other
letters, with the full initialism being LGBTTTQQIAA. Please investigate
that initialism with this link.
■ Toxic Masculinity: Somehow we appear to believe that males are
restricted in their range of emotional expressions (the word “sad” or
“crying” is unknown to their vocabulary apparently, very false indeed).
They are apparently supposed to be the “dominant alpha” in any
relationship they are in (again, very false and emotionally annoying at
times) as well as the fact that anger is their main mode of
communication (a fist tends to do less harm than the words I find).
Toxic Masculinity should probably be avoided, since the males are
somewhat at fault and also being victimized for their inability to stick to
the stereotype applied to them.
● Additional Terms to Explore
○ second-class citizen | dehumanization | vagrant | alien | untouchable
■ Second-class citizen: Consider this a formal attempt at
discrimination. A second-class citizen is someone who is
systematically discriminated or prejudiced against within a state or

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 other political territory, on the grounds of their culture (race,
background, religion, color etc.). Second class citizens are limited in
their legal rights, privileges, welfare access and socioeconomic
opportunities despite being actual citizens of a nation. In the United
States, this was inherently a problem with segregation, whilst the EU
currently has problems with their migrant/refugee second-class
citizens.
■ Dehumanization: What do slavery, objectification and
dehumanisation have in common? Answer: they deprive humans of
their human qualities. Dehumanisation refers to the process of
degrading and treating individuals as though they are no longer
human, stripping them of their individuality and ability to make their
own decisions. The basic definition relies on treating them as though
their mental capacity does not allow them to be human (which applied
to slaves, who weren’t allowed to learn the skills and information to
gain “human” brains).
■ Vagrant: A person without a settled home who wanders around from
place to place, begging for money to the general public who pass by
him/her. Vagrants was (and still is) a derogatory term used by society
to denote people of “unclean” origin in addition to beggars who appear
to not understand human etiquette.
■ Alien: An extraterrestrial being of unknown origin. Just kidding, in this
context an “alien” refers to an entity or individual which is foreign to a
country and as such is referred to by the term when in customs or
immigration.
■ Untouchable: In the Indian caste system, untouchables were the
lowest band of people. They were unable to own property, drink from
public wells, partake in public events and at times were killed simply
for stepping on someone’s shadow (apparently it was believed that
this desanctified the person).
○ homo sacer | lumpenproletariat | baekjeong | burakumin
■ Homo sacer: A latin term meaning “accursed man” or “the sacred
man”, Homo Sacer was a Roman term used in law to refer to
individuals who had been banned from public life and were liable to be
killed by anyone (free of trial). They were not however, allowed to be
used for religious sacrifices. The only way to become a homo sacer
was to break an oath, which at the time meant invoking the wrath and
punishment of several deities if the oath was broken (thus making the
oathbreaker the property of the gods whose oath they had broken).
■ Lumpenproletariat: Ah finally, a true Marxist term whose meaning I
will happily go on about. Simply put, the lumpenproletariat is the
untouchable caste for the Marxist theory. This term was used to refer
to individuals in the “unthinking” lower strata society by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels in 1840. This sort of class was often utilised by
revolutionary and counter-revolutionary forces, despite the fact that
their only worth when establishing or toppling a government was to
gain more support and bodies to throw at enemy forces. Their
revolutionary potential was dismissed and common people in this
group included vagabonds as well as prostitutes.
■ Baekjeong: the untouchables of South Korea. Kindly investigate their
specifics on your own (I’m really tiring at this point in time).
■ Burakumin: Literally translating to “village people” in Japanese,
Burakumin were at the bottom of the social strata in Japan and as
such were heavily discriminated and ostracised throughout history. In
the Japanese feudal era, these were people who were part of outcast

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 communities, composed of those who had been tainted by death
(executioners, butchers, tanners, slaughterhouse workers to name a
few professions). They lived in their own villages, hamlets or ghettos
and were often separated from the rest of society who feared mingling
with them.
○ cagot | ragyabpa | bui doi | tanka | osu | akhdam | bitlaha
■ Cagot: Now we’re getting into the actual minority groups and their
histories (something I would love to explain in more detail had I not
been writing this late at night). We start our minority journey in western
France and northern Spain with the Cagots. A group that existed
about as far back as the 11th century, cagots are neither ethnic nor
religious in nature; rather they were identified as such thanks to their
ancestry. The actual reasons for the persecution and suffering of this
group are unclear, some believe that they were lepers, cretins,
heretics and even cannibals. The list of their treatment is rather
astonishing and is extremely detailed. They had to live in communions
separate from other people (called cagoteries), they had to announce
their presence by ringing bells, they could only enter churches from
certain entrances, they received communion (the Lord’s Supper) on
the end of long wooden spoons, they couldn’t partake in any social or
political activities, hold cabarets, my god they couldn’t even touch the
food in markets or sell their own.
■ Ragya Bpa: A social class in Tibet (or the Tibetan Plateau, as the
Chinese government prefers to call it). These were the untouchables
of their society (dear me we humans loved giving this title out in any
form didn’t we?). They weren’t exactly so bad, they were similar to
Burakumin in that they performed “unclean” work. Interestingly
however, these people were also given subdivisions for their class. A
goldsmith was at the highest sub-division for the ragya bpa, whilst
fishermen could find themselves in the middle with executioners at the
bottom. Escape from this class was impossible and it was considered
unclean to even interact with them.
■ Bui doi (Caitlin): Bụi đời is a Vietnamese term which means “the dust
of life”. This term originally referred to the starving people from the
countryside who sought refuge in towns during the 1930s. The term
bụi đời currently refers to people, mostly men who live on the streets
or who are wanderers. A similar term trẻ bụi đời or “young vagrants”
currently refers to street children or adolescent gang members, the
term is intended to strike an image of a purposeless child who moves
about like dust. Bụi đời has a more racial connotation in the west, this
is because of the connection to the musical Miss Saigon (which I
highly recommend watching- Caitlin). In Miss Saigon, there is a song
of the same name as this term. In the song, this term is used to
describe the “offspring” of American G.I’s and Vietnamese Mothers
who were abandoned at the end of the Vietnam War.
■ Tanka: Alright then, let's clear up some confusion. Tanka in this
context does not refer to the Japanese poem with a specific amount of
syllables per line (though I'd like to read a tanka about the tanka!). The
Tanka are instead a minority group of people who live in Southern
Chinese provinces such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hainan,
Zhejiang as well as the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau. Traditionally,
these people lived on junks in the coastal areas of those provinces,
though nowadays many have moved to inland dwellings yet still retain
some of their cultural practices, which cannot be found in any other
Chinese ethnicity. Historically, the Tanka was a marginalised minority

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 known as "sea gypsies" by the Chinese and British, who were able to
trace their lineage to the ancient Baiyue people (indigenous non-
Chinese sea nomads who lived on the coast). Interestingly however,
the Tanka were never really prosecuted or discriminated against much
the same way African-Americans might have been in the US. Indeed
for some Chinese dynasties (mainly the Ming and Qing), they were
exploited for their fishing businesses and weren't exactly included in
Han culture. Yet when the Portuguese and British first landed in
China, it was the Tanka whom they found the most likeable due to the
fact that the Tanka people were willing to interact with them. In fact the
British even set up special schools for the Tanka in order to ensure
their educational well-being (at least in Hong Kong they did). It should
be noted that a small number of these "boat dwellers" can also be
found in Vietnam, where they are called the Dan people under the
Ngai ethnicity.
■ Osu: If you first thought about the musical game when this term
popped up, I do not condone you for that consideration (indeed for
some time I had no idea what this term meant in relation to society).
Now however, a quick Google refining search and we get to the Osu
Caste System. Native to Igboland, a region in Southeastern Nigeria
where the Igbo ethnic group live, the Osu Caste System is an ancient
practise of that region wherein people are discouraged from
interaction and marriage with the Osu. Osu in the Igbo language
translates roughly to "outcast" and these people are fully dedicated to
the deities (or Alusi) of Igboland. As such, the osu are considered
inferior beings and are separated from the Nwadiala or diala (Igbo for
"real born"). These people are made to live in shrines or marketplaces
and have no interactions with the real born, so it's little wonder that
many people in this social strata have fled to other countries seeking
refuge from their discrimination and harsh treatment.
■ Akhdam: Finally a proper term (I’ve seriously got no idea about the
relationship of the previous two). Translating to “the servants” in
Arabic, Al-Akhdam is a term used in Yemen to refer to a minority
social group that is at the bottom of the caste ladder and as such are
socially segregated from the rest of society. We don’t actually know for
sure where the Al-Akhdam came from, but the main theory is that they
were companions of Abyssinian conquerors who occupied Yemen in
the pre-Islamic period who were actually descendants of Nilotic
Sudanese. In the modern age, these people number between
500,000-3,500,000 strong and take up menial jobs in society (shoe-
cleaning, sweeping, cleaning latrines as well as shoe-making to name
a few). They reside in slum districts which are isolated from the rest of
Yemeni society and we don’t really know why these people have been
discriminated so heavily, after all they are still Arabic-speaking
Muslims who live in Yemen.
■ Bitlaha: The final term for Social Studies (thank goodness its finally
over and the additional cases are fairly less sensitive), bitlaha is a
South Asian term used to refer to social punishment for anyone
caught breaking the rules of exogamy and endogamy. The concept
has been used by the Santals of India and the Satars of Nepal, who
call themselves hod (translating to “human beings”). They consider
Bitlaha as an outcast, disorder, polluted or unclean person. Once a
person has attained this status, they are no longer considered part of
their community and as such are shunned (and in some cases exiled)
from their home village. They can however, remove this status by

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 having the pancha (a male politician in Hod society) impose upon
them a severe penalty.

Additional Cases & Guiding Questions

Merging with the Masses
● Consider the so-called Asch Conformity Experiments and the conclusions
drawn from them about how and why people might conform to the opinions of
those around them. Are there ways in which you might critique the original
experiment or the resulting paradigm? Discuss with your team: when, if ever,
is it good to conform?
○ I’m going to skip the lengthy explanation of the Asch Experiments themselves
and instead redirect you to the specific prompt about them somewhere on this
page. There are several critiques I would make about the original experiment
and the resulting paradigm (though many of them have already been written
about by previous critics of Solomon Asch). The first is the heavy reliance on
stooges, people who were in on the “correct answer” that would pressure the
naive participant to conform. In reality, we don’t have a large number of
people who know what they’re going to conform to as one collective unit,
rather the Asch Experiment should have experimented on only 2 or 3 stooges
at most (not 7!). Another critique is the necessity of the participants to declare
their answers out loud, something very rare in society (how often do you find
a person who shouts out what store and product they’re going to?). In short
there are many criticisms of the Asch Experiment and it is no way a definite
paradigm that we should apply to today’s society (remember, back then the
concepts of the internet, mobile phone and applications didn’t exist!).
○ Conformation is one of those activities which we humans undertake naturally
(you might’ve conformed to your peers by following their example of reading
this website, for which I thank you!). There aren’t many cases of when
conforming might be the “right thing” to do that I can think of. Since
conforming relies on the assumption that the people you’re conforming to are
correct or that this will prevent any negative consequences; there is no 1 type
of situation in which conforming is guaranteed to prevent harm.
● Look into the work of Project Implicit. Should its findings be applied in
everyday life, and, if so, how? How might someone critique their work? If you
have time, try taking one of the tests on this page, and, if you feel comfortable
sharing the results, discuss the experience with your team afterward.
○ So far, we’ve explored how conscious processes can lead to social strata
placement and marginalisation. Project Implicit however, deals with what lies
beneath the surface of our thoughts. As the name implies, the initiative by
several researchers from different US universities aims to collect data about
the hidden cognitive biases and processes which impact our attitudes toward
certain groups. The findings of this project are indeed capable of being
applied in everyday life. If societies were to understand why they seem to
“naturally” bias against or towards a certain group, then their levels of
empathy, sympathy and even tolerance to that group might prevent further
oppression. In order to critique their work, one might bring up the fact that the
range of questions is very limited in terms of racial scope (the basic races and
groups are included, but not enough are there to fully scope out a person’s
biases).
○ I have yet to take the tests on this page (perhaps some time I will), so have
yet to feel the experience of exploring my social unconsciousness (if that’s
even a phrase).

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 ● Fashion (voluntary and involuntary) is strongly linked to group formation and
membership. Does the rise of the often unisex “normcore” movement in recent
years point toward a more inclusive fashion industry, or is it just another way
for the “ingroup” to spend money to differentiate itself? Discuss with your
team: does fashion perpetuate perceived differences between genders, races,
and cultures?
○ Please take my advice scholar and investigate this concept for yourself, for
my knowledge on fashion alone is deplorable (I struggle to name the types of
clothes we wear beyond “shirt, pants, shoes, hat, socks).
● Have you ever known someone who didn’t want to dance—whom someone
else tried to force onto the dance floor? Consider this article by the scientist
Henry Reich, then discuss with your team: when is it right to encourage
someone to do something they don’t want to do? Would you ever pressure
someone to go to a party? Should we always let people opt out of social
activities, or are there times when it is appropriate to intervene “for their own
good”? You may also want to look at expectations around cosmetics,
marriage, and vacation days.
○ Practically every WSC Ball, I’ve seen someone who refused to strut their stuff
on the dance floor, before being promptly dragged onto said dance floor by
their peers and pressured into showing off their moves (all of which range
from doing the Daniel to world-class performance level). The article written by
Henry Reich is a rather provocative and eye-opening one and I wholly
suggest that you read it thoroughly before continuing on this page. There are
some times when we need to encourage people to do something they don't
want to do. If their current actions will cause harm to some, then perhaps they
need to be made aware of that so they realise the consequences of their
choices. I would never pressure someone to go to party, seeing as I myself
would probably not attend that party in the first place. That person’s schedule
and choice when it comes to their recreation are not mine to control (fun fact:
I see more benefit and fun in studying for WSC than going to a party). People
should be allowed to opt out of social activities, we should not impose a
restriction on how long they need to stay before they can leave, there are
times when your brain simply says that you’ve had enough socialisation and
some alone time would be highly valued. There probably aren’t times when
intervening at social functions is “for the greater good”.

Beyond the Norm

● Consider schools dedicated to the education of highly gifted children—such as
the Mirman School in California, which admits only children with IQs of at least
145, and its many highly selective counterparts around the world, from
Kazakhstan to Israel. Then, discuss with your team: should high-achieving
learners be separated, in whole or part, from other students? Is there a
difference between exclusion and exclusivity, and is one more acceptable than
the other? Are people too quick to judge programs of this kind - and, if so,
what might be motivating their judgments?
○ What an interesting notion: separate the more capable among us to learn
more so that they can lead the rest of us when they grow up. A ridiculous
notion whose creator I would very much like to sit down and talk with (though
perhaps the Mirman school director will suffice). High-achieving learners
shouldn’t be separated from their peers, instead they should be given more
extensions in addition to the encouragement to teach their own peers (we get
to the finish line together, or we don’t get there at all). Sure they can have
their own unique classes within their schedule that allow them to exploit their
increased intellect, but they should never be detached fully from their school

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 community just to enhance their own experience. Exclusion refers to the act
of excluding people from a certain community, whilst exclusivity refers to the
state of something being reserved for a certain group of people (basically the
two are opposites, one shuns groups whilst another only accepts them).
Exclusivity is generally more acceptable than exclusion since the latter
generally involves more aggressive actions to achieve itself.
● Consider the phenomenon of self-segregation on school campuses. Do you
see it at your own school? Is it something administrators should take
measures against, and, if so, what kinds of measures? Does it matter what the
reason for the self-segregation is—for instance, among gender, ethnicity,
religion, age, or other values?
○ Self-segregation is one of those events which our society needs to prevent
from happening. We need to avoid people of already marginalised groups
from segregating themselves in environments that are meant to be inclusive
and accepting of all. As my school is an international school, this doesn’t
happen at all and we encourage people of minorities or unique races,
religions and ethnicities to express themselves instead of shunning their
unique heritage. School administrators should be taking action on this,
probably by preventing it when it occurs and promoting groups (such as
service ones) which bring to light the experiences of these people.
● For every superstar in the NBA, a player is warming the bench. Do such
players deserve more credit than they receive—and is it ever right for them to
ask for more recognition or for more playing time? Are there similar
hierarchies in other sports, or in the professional world, and are they ever
unfair? Discuss with your team: should special talents lead to special
treatment?
○ Such players are probably getting the credit they deserve, it does take a
certain amount of skill and practice (as the website suggests) to be a bench
player in a professional game of any sport. It might be right for them to ask for
more recognition or play time, especially if the coaches have ignored them for
several games in a row (or if they made an amazing comeback while no
longer being on the bench). Such hierarchies exist in many other sports as
well, you probably don’t remember the caddies or drivers who give those
golfers the clubs and locations they need, nor does society celebrate the
referees or other supervising officials who make sure the game is fair and
honest. They aren’t unfair so to speak, indeed society has far more unfair
hierarchies.
○ Special talents might lead to special treatment, but not exclusive attention.
Just because someone is extremely skilled at handling a football does not
mean they need to enter a specific class of highly-skilled athletes. Likewise,
people with an inability to handle a ball shouldn’t need to be placed in a lower
class to learn the basic throwing and catching skills (it’s their choice whether
or not this treatment is right for them).
● Explore social programs in countries with very low rates of homelessness and
destitution, such as Finland, Denmark, and Japan. What is particularly effective
about their approaches? How would you advise countries—or cities, such as
San Francisco—that are experiencing very high rates of homelessness?
○ Social Programs in Finland, Denmark and Japan mainly centre around
preventing homelessness by ensuring those who are at risk of losing their
homes earn enough money to keep them. The government does not have to
rely on setting up “homeless shelters” so much as the US has had to, instead
they can afford to pay adequate pensions or provide housing programs for the
elderly, jobless or invalids to ensure they can live under a safe roof. I’d
probably advise countries such as San Francisco to apply the same
philosophical approach: stop the problem at its root. It doesn’t matter that the

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 city mayor has proposed opening hundreds more shelter beds, the number of
homeless people will just keep rising as long as they aren’t given decent
retirement pensions, social welfare privileges or immediate job placement
priority.

Toward an Integrated World

● Some researchers have concluded that companies (and even countries) are
more likely to select women for positions of leadership when they are already
in decline—making it more likely that these women will fall off what they term
the “glass cliff” of failure. Discuss with your team: to avoid such a
phenomenon, should companies and countries be required to alternate
regularly between male and female leaders?
○ Let’s get into this somewhat precariously dangerous explanation. The “glass
cliff” is an economic term and social phenomenon that occurs when
companies which are already in decline (either facing mass job layoffs, store
closures or stock plummets) assign woman to positions of leadership in their
workplace. As a result of their downward trend, the woman have more
pressure to somehow salvage the company and turn it around, causing many
to crack and the company to fail even more. Thus while the “glass ceiling”
prevents woman from moving any higher in the hierarchy of job positions, the
“glass cliff” puts woman in the greatest positions of power, yet the precarious
situation means they’re more likely to fall back down to where they started.
The term was first coined by Michelle Ryan and Alexander Haslam in 2003,
researches at the University of Exeter who were investigating whether women
leaders had a negative impact on company performance. What’s even more
amazing is that the women who do fall victim to the “glass ciff” are more likely
to take huge risks in the world of business to make sure they (or their
company) doesn’t fall from its current situation.
○ To prevent such a phenomenon from occurring, companies should pool
together the collective know-how of woman and men on the team of
executives, as opposed to simply resorting to the failsafe of giving women the
top decision making spots.
● Is Canada really inclusive, or does it just have excellent branding? Discuss
with your team: what is the best way to measure the inclusiveness of a country
or society? What countries would you consider to be the most inclusive, and
what do you think has made them that way?
○ Ah Canada, that land which is stereotyped for not having any stereotypes in
its everyday lingo and yet is still regarded as one of it not the most inclusive
place in the world. Canada’s inclusiveness has always been a trademark of
the country and this is technically still true, thought there are some who
continue to live on the margins in the society, they aren’t as nearly oppressed
or ignored as those in say the United States or continental Europe. Yet the
country still faces challenges, wealth inequality amongst the people still
creates a “rich and the rest” environment. Youth unemployment figures still
stand at a somewhat concerning amount. I’d say that Canada isn’t entirely
inclusive, but simply does a better job of normalising the gaps in society to the
rest of the world while at the same time making efforts to eradicate those
gaps. There isn’t exactly one way to measure the inclusiveness of a country
or society, merely looking at a conglomerate of statistics will give you a rough
idea of how well a country is doing in terms of allowing all groups in its society
to participate in economic, political and social activities.
● In a world in which many countries (including the United States) are highly
religious, atheists—non believers—arguably encounter challenges fitting in

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 with mainstream culture. Consider this article about the rise of an atheist rights
movement, then follow up on its claims. Is such a movement justified?
○ It seems somewhat shocking that members of our society have been
marginalised, harmed and even killed over the simple fact that they choose to
follow no religion and believe in no god. The fact that something as seemingly
normal and acceptable as atheism is now becoming a rallying banner for
another civil rights movement, similar to LGBTQ communities or feminist
activists. Such a movement might be justified with the current state of the
world, with so many countries being majority Christian, Hindu, Muslim or Jew
populations (surprisingly, the most populated country in the world has the
highest percentage of people who are atheists).
● Ancient Greeks mocked people with physical differences; today, we have
disability rights movements and disability studies. How have people with
disabilities such as deafness, blindness, and lack of mobility advocated for
inclusion in mainstream society? Discuss with your team: do you support
those who may wish to resist that inclusion?
○ Simply by continuing to exist and by refusing to be put down, these people
who were born (or were medically affected) with special conditions have
managed to advocate for their inclusion in mainstream society. Once
scientists and doctors found the “cures” to their conditions, they could now
become normal members of society with the same social mobility and
opportunities that others had around them. Of course there are those who
think that their condition makes their life more unique and in some cases
more enjoyable and have resisted being assimilated into normal society
through the use of implants and other medical technologies. Their wishes are
to be respected, for it is their own lives whom we might be corrupting or
ruining unintentionally in some way.
● Are women held to different standards than men in the pursuit of elected
office? Discuss with your team: can elections ever be counted on to produce
fair results, if people have underlying prejudices toward one or more groups?
○ Women are indeed held to different standard than men in the pursuit of
elected office and other political positions. Not just their clothes (as the Vox
article linked suggests), but also by their own abilities in congressional
debate, ability to keep their emotions in check or even their ability to fall in line
with what their populist nation has to say. Elections have always been touted
as the way for a government to produce fair results, so that the people can be
lead by a government that was nominated for their own benefit. Now
however, with the inclusion of more groups into society, the political sphere is
still resisting the assimilation of more groups (minorities, genders, races and
even ages). Elections for now will have to do, but candidates with prejudices
against them will likely find their journey to the ruling party laden with more
obstacles.
● In India, a woman just scaled a mountain that until now had been reserved for
men only. Discuss with your team: is it ever right to restrict access to a place
to members of one gender? How about to one age group, or to one religion or
culture? If your answers are different for different categories, what makes one
restriction okay and another not?
○ Is is somewhat unsettling to find that our people have found some sort of
theological reason to ban others from certain natural or man-made sites.
Indeed certain library sections in the US were off-limits to blacks during
segregation, whilst temples in Ancient civilisations were off-limits to women. It
never seems right to restrict access to a place to members of any group,
gender, religion or culture. We humans need to share this planet (as hard as
that seems and as harder as its getting!) and by being born here we have the

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 right to any accessible location. Our maps and travels should not need to be
drawn by our race, religion, culture or gender.
● Sometimes, people are excluded from society for (ostensibly) the common
good; for example, criminals are placed in prisons. In some of Norway’s
prisons, however, the criminal justice system aims to keep prisoners as part of
society. Discuss with your team: to what degree should we prioritize
reintegrating prisoners with the rest of the world?
○ I seriously suggest looking at the article. The photos attached are stark in
contrast and extremely eye-opening when it comes to how different societies
treat their criminals. Norway, Sweden and Denmark have been praised for
their rehabilitation concepts and the resulting humane design of prison (if I
was ever convicted for a crime, I’d enjoy my time in a Norwegian prison). We
should highly prioritize reintegrating prisoners with the rest of the world.
These people were probably misguided in their actions or simply the victim of
an unfortunate series of events. They are still humans, still members of
society and still capable of making up for their crimes. Prisons should not
treat them as if though they are an abomination from the forces of evil itself,
instead they should attempt to rehabilitate and serve as a place where these
people can continue to live and learn the error of their ways. Perhaps with
enough time and the correct facilities (such as those in Norway), these
convicted persons can see the light of day and the norms of society once
again.

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
Guiding Questions

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● Make two lists.
○ First, list ten technologies you use every day before school starts.
These technologies can be gadgets—such as toasters and foldable
Samsung phones—or larger works of infrastructure, such as the pipes
that bring hot water to your shower.
■ Huawei Phone
■ Internet
■ Water pipes
■ Night Lamp
■ Earphones
■ Microwave
■ Fridge
■ Macbook
■ Computer mouse
■ Charger
○ Second, list ten technologies that make you better at things, from
calculators to running shoes.
■ Calculator
■ Badminton racket
■ Macbook
■ Phone
■ Glasses
■ Clock
■ Playstation
■ Headphones
■ Running shoes
■ Mouse
● Now, consider the lists you have made and ask yourself the following
questions about the technologies you listed.
○ Which ones depend on other technologies? A fitness tracker might be
less useful without access to GPS, but a watch could keep time on its
own—at least, until its battery runs out.
■ Practically all the electronics listed above rely on a source of electric
power, which in turn relies on some sort of generator of said power. A
computer mouse relies on a computer to connect and function, whilst
earphones rely on an input source (such as a phone or Macbook) in
order to transmit the audio they’re meant to amplify. The water pipes
rely on pumps and water heaters stored somewhere around the
building.
○ How do they work? Arthur C. Clarke once wrote that “Any sufficiently
advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic”—but, in some
ways, so is any insufficiently understood technology. Take some time to
consider technologies you may have taken for granted. Is a quartz
crystal vibrating on your wrist 32,768 times per second? Is a heated
ceramic plate breaking the hydrogen bonds in your hair—on purpose?
Most technologies require energy; if yours do, where does that energy
come from?
■ I will not bother to explain the inner machinations of a phone and
computer for the masses, since that explanation would require a
separate page (and because there are many more websites more
fluent in communicating this information to you!). I will however, simply
state that glasses work by focusing light on the retina in the right way
in order to focus the eye on the objects nearby or in the distance. The
water pipes work with a series of pumps and valves that contain or

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 release hot water to the shower head when the corresponding tap is
turned.
■ I’m not going to continue explaining my own technologies, since I
suspect you would benefit more from trying to explain the “magic”
behind your own technologies that see use before school and help
you improve your skills.
○ How different would your life be without each of the technologies on
your list? Your answer and your teammates’ may vary. Someone with
diabetes may struggle without a blood sugar monitor, whereas even
without access to a rowing machine the captain of the rowing team
might still be able to row on a nearby lake.
■ Life would be pretty different without the phones and laptops that our
society relies on. I probably would resort to reading books or
showering with kettle heated water (as my grandparents do) instead of
checking social media or simply turning a tap. I could probably live
without a computer mouse or badminton racket (I shall simply rely on
the trackpad of my macbook and the stock rackets my school
provides). Without glasses however, I probably wouldn’t be able the
world very well and would likely sustain several injuries due to poor
vision. Calculators are something I can live without, I see little need to
use them in the future given the prevalence of online calculating tools
and spreadsheet manipulation. In short, there are many inventions
that we take for granted which would change the way our entire
society functioned if they were to suddenly disappear.
○ Where did they come from, and how long ago? Your parents may have
used calculators in school, but their parents probably kept slide rules in
their desks.
■ Ah now we get into the history of the technologies which most of
our world rely on. So let’s begin in chronological order.
■ Glasses: Originally referred to as “reading stones” (basically a
magnifying glass that people placed on texts to help them read
better), the basic building blocks of glasses existed since 1000
AD, yet the actual invention of the glasses came sometime in
the 13th century. We don’t actually know exactly when and
where the glasses were invented, though works by the Italian
painter Tommaso da Modena in 1352 show that eyeglasses
were likely the work of Italian (specifically Venetian) glass-
blowers, who formed the lenses and perched them with a
frame on the nose. These were likely used by Italian monks
and the first prescriptions for eyeglasses appeared during this
time.
■ Clock: ever since humanity realised that they needed some
way to keep track of the day, they relied on different
timekeeping devices. The first sundials were likely utilised by
the Ancient Sumerian, Egyptian and Babylonian societies
some 3500 years ago. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the
innovations that had led to the creation of these timekeeping
pieces were neglected, as the world slipped into the dark ages.
It was only in the 12th and 13th century that Italian traders and
travellers plying the routes of the Renaissance trade. On the
wings of commerce, news of complex water clocks by Chinese
inventors and Islamic sundial innovations reached the
European continent. It was the Swiss and Italians who then
took up the pursuit of making mechanical clocks. Prior to the
1500s, most clocks had weights as power sources, ungainly

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 and extremely bulky when purchased. It was the invention of
the mainspring and the integration of them into clocks by the
German locksmith Peter Henlein that they finally began to
catch on in the world. After that, the clocks began to undergo
different “ages” as their popularity and reliance began to
spread (which also meant the need for adaptations to where
humans needed them). Feel free to investigate these time
periods at this website.
■ Water pipes: While the concept of metallic and concrete pipes
have been around for a while (there have been examples of
such devices being utilised in Ancient Roman baths), the idea
of indoor plumbing on a massive urban scale didn’t emerge
until the 1800s, when American urban planner began to realise
the need to move huge amounts of water in a town to every
possible tap, shower and bathtub that might need it.
■ I’ll skip the remainder of the gadgets since these explanations
are taking a while, but my parents did work with many of their
predecessors before my generation came along and got an
upgrade with them. My dad remembers coding commands
onto a bulky desktop in university, whilst my mother
remembers her basic calculator that couldn’t handle something
as complex as graphing a linear function (it couldn’t even
display such a thing).
○ How widespread is access to them? Some enabling technologies are far
from life-or-death yet make a daily difference in your routines and
experiences. Are there people who would want to use hair dryers to dry
their hair quickly, but are forced to wait for time and sunlight to take
their course? Are there those who would benefit from prosthetics but
must make do without anything to replace their missing limbs? Are
there schools where children might be able to study more effectively if
they had access to air conditioning—or electricity?
■ Widespread access to things like mobile phones and laptops is pretty
evident in our world. According to recent data from GSMA, five billion
people possess a small device that they can use to connect
themselves to others and the world, whilst 3 billion people are now
connected to the internet using laptops. Plumbing is certainly one of
those lesser privileges, as of now billions of people still do not have
access to clean running water, with the goal becoming a priority of the
UN and countless other NGOs worldwide.
● As you explore this subject area, ask yourself: is there a difference between an
enabling technology and a technology of convenience? And, where do we
cross the line from empowerment to dependency?
○ There is indeed a difference between an enabling technology and a
technology of convenience. A mobile phone enables us to connect with the
world and keep in contact with those who are no longer living in our
neighborhood, yet Snapchat is an app of convenience in that it allows us to
fulfill that same function in a different (and somewhat trivial) way. As for the
line between empowerment and dependency, consider the following example.
A person who was born deaf receives a hearing aid. That aid allows them to
hear people clearly and eases conversation for them, yet if this hearing aid
were to suddenly cease functioning, they could still use sign language, writing
and even body signals to interact with others. Often times dependency comes
when we cannot “live” without an object. The western world has trouble
imagining life without a mobile phone in their pockets, yet millions of African,

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 South American and Asian people who can’t afford such a device have lived
like this for decades.

Empowering Technologies
● Some technologies require no power source, but many, if not most, do. In
general, the more portable a technology, the more likely it is to use a battery—
although there are exceptions, such as some vacuum cleaners, which must be
plugged in wherever you want to use them.
○ With your team, conduct some basic research into the science of
batteries. How do they work? What makes a rechargeable battery
different than a standard battery? Be sure to consider key terms such
as: anode | cathode | electrolyte | capacity | discharge
■ Ah batteries, those round (sometimes square and sometimes circular)
objects of near-magical power that provide electricity to our devices.
Without the invention of the battery by Italian scientist Alessandro
Volta in 1800, it’s hard to imagine our society of digital information the
way it is today. So let’s take a look at these often overlooked objects
that we take for granted.
■ The standard battery is made up of three parts: electrodes, an
electrolyte and a separator. The electrodes are made out of
conductive material and two are present in every module, each one
serving a different purpose. One such electrode is known as the
cathode and it connects to the positive end of the battery, where the
electrical current leaves and electrons enter when the battery is being
used. The other side electrode is known as the anode and it connects
to the minus side of the battery, which is where (yep, you guessed it!)
the electrical current enters and electrons leave during discharge.
Common materials for the anode and cathode are zinc as well as
manganese dioxide respectively. Separating these two parts, as well
as being inside them, is the electrolyte, a gel-like substance that
contains electrically charged particles (called ions). These ions then
combine with the materials making up the electrodes, creating the
electrical current that a battery sends to objects when a circuit is
closed. The final bit is the separator, which is usually just a porous
cardboard material that keeps the anode and cathode separated,
preventing a short circuit caused by the two electrodes coming into
contact. By plugging batteries into a source (say a flashlight or radio),
the circuit has been completed and the electrochemical reactions
which produce electrons. These electrons, seeking the positive charge
of the cathode (yet with no way to get there thanks to the presence of
the separator), travel into the electric device before returning to the
cathode.
■ The main difference between rechargeable batteries and non-
rechargeable batteries are their materials. Rechargeable materials
function by reversing the flow of electrons, thus causing the anode
and cathode to return to their original state. These batteries are often
made out of different materials, such as Lithium Ion (wherein the
anode is made of carbon and the cathode is made of lithium cobalt
oxide) as well as nickel-metal hydride batteries, which are used in
electric vehicles as fuel cells.
● How does wireless charging work? Discuss with your team: is there anything
to fear from wireless power?
○ You’ve probably seen commercials of phones that can charge without wires.
The latest Iphones and androids possess that feature (starting with the

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 Iphone 8 and the Samsung Galaxy S8) and it works off a similar concept to
conventional wired charging. Wireless chargers often come in small sized
bumpers or platforms and are somewhat more clean when it comes to
charging (albeit tests have shown it to be slightly slower than conventional
cable charging, but I’m sure time will change that). In terms of competing
standard, Qi (pronounced “chee”) is the most popular wireless charging
system, amongst others such as Powermat and Airfuel Alliance. As for how it
works, wireless charging utilises electromagnetic induction. This process
means that when the back of the phone touches the charger, an induction coil
creates an alternating electromagnetic field, which the receiver coil in the
phone converts into electricity to feed into the battery.
○ The main thing to fear from wireless power is the fact that we may soon live in
world without cables, reliant on all sorts of wireless devices that may one day
fail us. In terms of the technical side, the main hurdle facing tech innovators
and huge companies like Apple and Samsung is where to go after wireless
charging.
● Speaking of fear: not long ago, the batteries in certain phones gained notoriety
for spontaneously exploding. A few years earlier, MacBooks were blowing up.
Why do batteries explode? Is it ever safe to depend on a technology that can
sometimes be dangerous?
○ If you’ve never heard of batteries exploding, I suggest you keep a lookout for
your devices (especially if you possess an older macbook or a Samsung
Galaxy Note 7). Exploding batteries are kind of like Dylan’s tendency to
unexpectedly behead alpacas: we know it might happen at one point in time
or another, but when it does happens we are often shocked at the reason why
it did. In fact, Apple Macbooks were “expected to explode” when they were
released in 2008 and it caused huge consumer outcry. Apparently Apple had
purposefully designed those Macbooks with exploding batteries so that you
had to buy a new one almost every year (it’s called planned obsolescence
and it’s a dirty business practice that continues to pollute industries). The
main cause of exploding batteries lies in a breached separator. Lithium-Ion
batteries are by nature extremely unstable (they kind of have to be in order to
store huge amounts of power in such a small form factor), the main line of
defense against a violent and extremely hot short circuit is a thin slip of
polypropylene. So a battery with a short circuit and one whose electrolyte is
flammable will provide a nice fireworks show (or a surprising explosion) when
the two electrodes come into contact with one another.
○ We have always depended on dangerous technologies and we see no
problem in doing so. The first lightbulbs were capable of killing humans, whilst
the alternating current we use nowadays was once used to electrocute
criminals (something called the electric chair), even our watches were once
coated with radium 226, a radioactive element that if not contained properly
could easily wreak havoc on our bodies. We can never expect a product to be
released with no safety hazards whatsoever, granted there are processes to
ensure that products launch with as little safety hazards as possible; but even
those cannot guarantee a product is free of danger. Innovation and danger
walk hand in hand together, we simply need to find a way to separate the two.
● Explore the future of batteries, then discuss with your team: how would better
power sources affect our everyday lives? Would they mostly just make our
phones last longer between charges, or would they have impacts on access to
technology for, say, underprivileged populations?
○ Firstly let’s get this out of the way: batteries are here to stay. It’s just not
possible within the near foreseeable future for humans to bypass the
chemical processes of powering their electrical devices or the commercial
testing required to mass-produce non-battery reliant devices. There are

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 however, researchers working on making the battery as small and as safe as
possible. One such solution lies in Silicon as a substitute material for the
anode. According to Sila Nanotechnologies, “an atom of silicon can store 20
times more lithium can atoms of carbon”. Another solution for safety lies in the
electrolyte, which some are beginning to test for the best materials. One
company called Ionic Materials (how fitting) is experimenting with an ionically-
conductive plastic that is also fire-retardant (finally a solution to those nasty
explosions of phone batteries on planes). Of course there are a multitude of
other battery-related projects and experiment going on, each trying to improve
one of the 3 parts in their own way.
● Many technological prognosticators have forecast an “Internet of Things”—in
which everything around us is connected to the Internet, from the clothing we
wear to the chairs on which we sit. Yet these devices would probably require
batteries. Consider this potential battery technology, which uses freeze-dried
bacteria. Discuss with your team: is it acceptable to use living creatures to
generate electricity, or is this a form of exploitation? Would it be different if the
bacteria were horses, or tardigrades? Does the calculation change if the
creatures are dead?
○ Despite my ability to explain electrical mechanisms contained within a
conventional battery, I struggle slightly when it comes to the experimental
biological mechanisms in paper batteries. As such, please direct your
attention to the website linked in the prompt in order to better grasp the
concept. As for the ethical side of things, I really question why the WSC asks
these questions now when we’ve been exploiting animals for their power for
centuries. We literally measure the power of our cars through horsepower
(literally the value defined by a single horse pulling some weight), we kill
thousands of endangered species every year to fashion designer bags and
clothes, we’ve even been able to extract drinks from the venom of snakes
(not something for the faint of heart). Humans have this sort of natural belief
that their increased intelligence gives them the right to exploit and use every
other species on this planet. This battery using bacteria is no different, albeit
the bacteria don’t resist our use of them since they’re not ingrained with that
sense. Other animals don’t change the situation at all.
○ The calculations would probably be different if these were deceased animals.
There is the excellent argument that we’re using their remains to benefit the
rest of intelligent life (cue “Circle of Life” Lion King soundtrack).
● Not all devices use batteries. Some are autonomously powered, through
sunlight and other means, and others we still plug in to the electric grid (a.k.a.
mains electricity) through outlets in our walls. But not all plugs are the same.
Explore with your team: why does a “British” plug look different than a
“European” plug—where did these differences originate, and does it mean the
electricity behind them is different, too? Be sure to learn the difference
between alternating and direct current, and between adapters and converters.
○ Perhaps there will be future where our entire society and the products which
we rely on, from our clothes to our microwaves to our cars, will run on
autonomously powered batteries (ones that work off changes in the
temperature or even ambient radio signals).
● Sometimes large groups of people behave in predictable ways; we all laugh
when an alpaca falls off a surfboard. But we may be moving into a
Bandersnatch era in which technologies enable a more fragmented social
experience—and the consequences may even include changes in how we
consume electricity. Discuss with your team: should we find ways to use
technology to spread out different kinds of social burdens, from when people
commute to work to when they eat their meals?

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 ○ This is rather interesting, the Telegraph explores the dramatic drop in
electricity surges after a conventional TV programme (say a climactic
cliffhanger episode or a particularly nail-biting soccer game). Instead the rise
of online streaming services such as Netflix and BBC iPlayer have meant that
the nation won’t simultaneously get out of their sofas to put a kettle on the
stove (ah the British). This is just one such example of how technology can
fragment social experiences and it may soon cause some concern. In my own
opinion I don’t think it’s required to find ways in order to spread out these
social burdens. The way we commute or the time in which we eat is already
ingrained in our biological clocks, sure applications can help make sure we
stick to those clocks more (i.e a meal scheduling app or a reminder to start
commuting), but they won’t change it instantly or on such a wide scale.

Home is Where the Smart Is

● Companies such as Amazon and Google are competing to develop (and sell
products for) the “smart home”—but the truth is that homes have been getting
“smarter” for generations, and more comfortable for even longer than that.
Discuss with your team: is there a limit to how smart and comfortable we
should want our homes to be?
○ Home is where the heart is. That much is true. Home is probably where we
feel like the world outside can no longer hurt, exhaust or drain us of our will to
live. To that end, the smart technologies making home life more effortless and
seamless are a boon for our generation. As for a limit on how smart and
comfortable our homes should be, it shouldn’t be to the point where we are
entirely dependent on the smart technology to run our home.
● Consider the temperature control technologies that enable many of us to live
even in climates that may be outside our comfort zones. How do homes stay
warm when it is cold out? How do they get cold when it is hot out? Explore
how indoor heating and air conditioning work. Is it worse for the environment
when we warm a cold place or when we cool a warm one? Discuss with your
team: to save resources, should governments regulate how much people can
control the climate in their private spaces?
○ Ah yes the remote Siberian town of Oymyakon, the coldest inhabited place on
earth (at least by humans). Temperatures here can drop to as low as -55°C (-
67°F). Toilet trips are an adventure in of themselves, vegetables are
practically unheard of and school is almost always in session. Homes stay
warm by indoor heating, either through pipes or by keeping the cold out
through smart design. As for how they stay cold when the outdoors is hot, a
marvelous invention called air-conditioning comes in handy (of course, there
is the more conventional and environmentally friendly fan). It probably is
worse for the environment when we cool down a place, considering that air
conditioners release harmful chemicals that contribute millions of tonnes of
carbon dioxide in our atmosphere every year. Governments probably won’t be
able to control the climate in people’s private spaces, since that infringes on a
lot of basic human rights when it comes to home comforts. Perhaps a sort of
incentive to offer those who contribute less to global warming by leaving their
air conditioners or some sort of tracking system to monitor air conditioner
pollution.
● Some homes are found in areas with significant pollution. Here, people who
can afford it may rely on air purifiers to try to breathe cleaner air indoors,
whether at home, at school, or even in hotels and other public spaces. What
are the different ways in which these filters work? If you found yourself in
Beijing on a smoggy day in June, would you rather have an ionizing filter or
one based on activated carbon? Discuss with your team: will increasing

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 access to indoor air purification cause people of means to disregard
increasing pollution outdoors? Should rich people be forced to breathe the
same air as poor people?
○ Air purifiers work pretty simply by dragging in air and moving it through a
series of filters which remove any harmful particles of allergens, dust or even
microorganisms that can harm the human nasal system. Basic and HEPA
filters (the most common type of air purifier) work off this system and they
require filter-changing every couple of months or so. Ionizing filters work by
producing a steady stream of negatively charged ions that electrify the
particles in air, causing them to stick to the positively charged collection
plates inside the machine. An Activated Carbon Filter is much more effective
at removing odors, gases and even volatile organic compounds from the air in
your household.
○ If I found myself in Beijing on a smoggy June day (which I very well might be
when WSC globals swing around!), I would probably seek the activated
carbon filter, given that an ionizing filter doesn’t necessarily get rid of the
particulates so much as prevent them from escaping into the air I breathe
(also people around me who are allergic to ozone would suffer from the
emissions of that purifier type).
○ There is obviously the risk that we won’t care so much about the outdoor air
quality so long as our indoor air quality is perfectly normal. Yet governments,
corporations and individuals also have the responsibility to avoid that being
the case; since a high level of air pollution likely indicates the global mean
temperature (a frightening indicator of how close we are to global climate
catastrophe) is rising slowly. All people, regardless of income or disposition,
should be able to breathe the same air quality outdoors as well as indoors.
● Consider this argument that air conditioning created the modern city. Pay
special attention to the idea that air-conditioned cities separate those who can
afford to inhabit air-conditioned spaces from those left on the inhospitable
street. Discuss with your team: is inequality of comfort an issue for
governments to resolve? To what degree does access to enabling technology
lead to a loop in which those who lack access are less able to gain it?
○ Inequality is obviously an issue for governments to resolve. An air conditioner
is nowadays no longer a comfort, but a sign of societal growth and economic
development (the very fact that a city has many social spaces with air
conditioners is a sign of how developed that area is). Those who still need to
face nature’s harsh temperatures need some time to enjoy the comforts of
artificially cooled air.
○ There is a pretty high degree to which access to enabling technology results
in a sort of feedback loop to whose who can’t access it. When the mobile
phone revolutionised the way we conduct business and connected with one
another, those who couldn’t afford one began to watch as our society
excluded them more and more (without the social media or stream of
information readily available at their fingertips).
● Of course, there is more to a home than being able to wear sweatpants and a t-
shirt in your living room. There is also the need (or, for some, preference) to
keep it clean and orderly. From washing machines to the FoldiMate, inventors
have sought ways to lighten the load of housework. Look into the following
devices and consider them in the context of the emerging field of home
automation, or domotics. Be sure to consider not just how they function but
their impact:
○ vacuum cleaners | dishwashers | washing machines | home robots
■ Vacuum cleaners: Nowadays vacuum cleaners range in size and
application. From small handheld devices that work off batteries to
reach tight places, to huge truck-size cleaners that suck in

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 contaminated soil or clean up after a serious spill on the roads. Yet the
basic concept of a vacuum cleaner has remained practically
unchanged for a century: suck in dust and other unwanted particles by
creating a temporary vacuum of air. The origins of this device are as
messy as the homes it’s called upon to clean. Many credit the concept
of such a contraption to Daniel Hess, who in 1860 patented a sort of
carpet sweeper with a bellows attached to create a draft of air. In
1867, Ives Mcgaffey of Chicago improved on the design by making the
device upright in structure and implementing fans to move the air. Yet
the $450 dollar price point (adjusted to today’s standards) and the
complex functioning mechanism (it required a hand crack to operate)
meant that the “Whirlwind” never saw mass-production or major
popularity. The invention of gasoline as a fuel source in 1892 added
another step in the creation of the vacuum cleaner. John S. Thurman
of St. Louis created his gasoline-powered “pneumatic carpet
renovator” in 1898, making house calls for $110 dollars (fitting,
considering this vacuum cleaner was the size of a horse-drawn
carriage. After the turn of the 20th century, the British had their crack
(and a rather good one it was!) at innovating on American designs.
British Navy engineer Hubert Cecil Booth created “Puffing Billy”, an
improvement on Thurman’s renovator that often called at high points
of society (in 1902 Booth was apparently commissioned to clean out
Westminster Abbey for the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen
Alexandria, who were later so impressed with the machine that they
purchased two for Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle). But in
1907, a humble asthmatic janitor in an Ohio department store would
create the concept which formed the foundation of every subsequent
vacuum cleaner. James Murray Spangler found his tedious job of
sweeping the entire department store extremely tiring (considering he
had asthma, the effect was probably magnified to be very bad). Yet as
a 1900s Dr. Frankenstein, he tinkered with a broom, pillowcase and
electric motor to create the basic design of the modern vacuum
cleaner. It used ceiling fan motors and paddle blades to create a
sucking air flow, blowing it back out into the attached pillowcase. It
wasn’t until the next year that near-bankruptcy had forced Spangler to
sell the patent rights to one William Hoover, who poured millions of
dollars into research and marketing, making his company a literal
household name.
■ The main impact that the vacuum cleaner had on our lives was
how it revolutionised home cleaning. For those who could
afford this enabling technology, the days of sweeping and
dusting were all but gone. No longer did it take hours to
completely clean a house, meaning people could do better
things with their time and contribute to social welfare or the
economy.
■ Dishwashers: Alright then, let’s turn back the clock 10 years before
Daniel Hess invented his carpet sweeper (that’s 1850 for those
keeping track out there). Joel Houghton tries his hand at inventing a
machine that will automate the washing of dishes, a tedious job that
often left many with broken crockery and glass cuts. His design was
patented but was also a flop, it basically consisted of a hand-cranked
splashing device attached to a wooden wheel. It was not until
Josephine Cochrane, granddaughter of John Fitch (the inventor of the
steamboat) applied her engineering talents to the job in the 1880s and
90s that the dishwasher was truly born. Josephine's invention

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 consisted of a wooden wheel lying flat in a copper boiler, where wire-
framed compartment could secure dishes and avoid broken plates.
Unveiling her design at the 1893 Chicago World Fair, hotel and
restaurant owners were stunned at this marvelous contraption. In the
1920s Miele introduced their first electric top-loading dishwasher for
mass-production. Yet the stock market crash and subsequent Great
Depression meant that few would be able to afford such an appliance,
which at that time retailed for as much as a housekeeper’s annual
salary. It was not until the beginning of WW2 that William Howard
Livens created the modern front-loading dishwasher, with a drying
element added in 1940. Dishwashers would go on to become a
common household appliance and save hours of painstaking
dishwashing jobs for housewives and maids alike.
■ Washing machines: Unlike most of the other devices on this list, the
concept of a washing machine has existed for quite a while and we’ve
been washing our clothes using the same principles for centuries.
Way before the 1800s, humans often used metal or wooden
washboards that they scraped clothes on near a riverbank or other
source of water to wash the dirt off. The Romans are credited with
inventing a crude soap known as lye for their communal washing
houses (basically huge tubs of water in public where women could go
wash clothes). The main concept of a washing machine, a sort of
wooden drum with a metal agitator was developed (or at least
patented) to two Americans in 1851 and 1858 (James King and
Hamilton Smith respectively). In 1908, the Thor was the first electric
model of washing machine, created by the Hurley Machine company
of Chicago (boy that part of the US sure does love its household
appliances doesn’t it?). After that other companies in the US and
Europe would continue to improve on the design, making the motor
more efficient and the drum size larger to accommodate more clothes.
The first “smart” washing machines came about in 1998 with the
introduction of the Fisher and Paykel SmartDrive, which determined
load size and prescripted a corresponding wash cycle.
■ Washing machines are pretty normal in our lives nowadays.
Yet there are still a large amount of people who prefer the
traditional clothes line method (or they simply cannot afford
such an enabling technology). Sometimes we can take them
for granted and forget how to wash clothes manually (my
grandparents are adept at both the new and old ways of
getting dirt and other grime out of their outfits).
■ Home robots: Ever since the early 2000s, with the advent of
microprocessors and intelligent machines, companies have constantly
been trying to find ways to integrate artificial intelligence into the
household. The advertisements of the 1980s and 90s showed a
futuristic 2000s which included automatic robot companions which
looked over the household (somewhat disappointing then that such
concepts never materialised). But these devices are becoming more
popular in today’s society. From Amazon’s Alexa to Google’s Home
system, our households are slowly being invaded by a new sort of life,
one which thinks in 1s and 0s. Though they have yet to become
widespread (which is already a challenge companies are tackling),
there will be a day in which a human’s entire household tasks can be
handled simply by saying a command to activate a home robot.
● Sometimes, you want to eat something delicious: maybe a seafood dinner,
maybe eggs for breakfast. You could order (it is hard to ever say no to

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Foodpanda) but, if you choose to cook, you’ll discover that enabling
technologies are all over the modern kitchen. Explore how the following
devices work, and discuss with your team: do they have drawbacks? Does the
rise of such devices make it harder for people without them to cope—and does
it impact typical household roles and employment opportunities?
○ microwave | toaster | convection oven | rice cooker | coffee maker |
juicer
■ Microwave: Perhaps rather interestingly, the microwave was the
result of a happy incident involving a radiation tube and some
chocolate. Percy LeBaron Spencer was an American engineer (self-
taught) who at the time of WW2 was working at Raytheon Corps, a
producer of magnetrons (basically vacuum tubes that produced
microwave radiation and were used in radar system). According to
witnesses, Spencer had been testing some magnetrons when he
realised that the chocolate bar in his pocket had melted. A few more
tests with popcorn kernels and eggs revealed that microwave radiation
had the ability to cook foods faster than conventional ovens did. In
1945 his patent was filed and the end of the war saw the introduction
of the first microwave, named the Radarange 1161 (not the most
creative of names I’ll be honest, but hey the guy was a physicist at
heart, not a show person). Initially microwaves were only accessible to
businesses such as hotels and restaurants, considering the $5000
dollar price tag and 1.7 meter tall design. It was only in 1967 that
Raytheon acquired Amana Refrigerators and created the first tabletop
microwave (retailing for about $500 dollars), known as the Amana
Radarange (guess they stuck with Spencer’s somewhat lackluster
name). Today more than 90% of United States households possess a
microwave, with the device becoming the “number 1 most useful
household appliance” in that country (via some surveys taken in the
early 2000s). As for how it works, well that concept still remains
practically unchanged since Spencer first debuted his brainchild. A
microwave is normally made out of metal, since the material does not
allow the radio waves being used to escape the device (preventing
yourself from radiation-related harm). Magnetrons within the
microwave (essentially 2 magnets on either side of a vacuum tube
which produce magnetic and electric fields due to the flow of
electrons). These microwaves (radio waves at a frequency of 2,450
megahertz) then interact with the water molecules in the food to
produce thermal energy from the vibrations.
■ There probably are some sort of problems with microwaves,
they draw a huge amount of energy per use and they can
prove a health hazard if poorly constructed. If anything though
the role of some jobs have been made more convenient by the
introduction of microwaves. Maids and nannies no longer need
to spend a large amount of their time cooking food for the
younglings, they can simply microwave pre-prepared food.
■ Toaster: The concept of toasting has been around for quite a while.
Roman soldiers apparently took pieces of bread with them on their
military campaigns, taking the time at night (or in the morning if there
was no danger nearby) to brown the bread over an open flame. The
actual word for toast comes from the Latin word “tostum”, meaning “to
scorch/to burn”. The British took a liking to this understated meal and
took it back with them as well as to the Americas when the 13 colonies
were set up. In 1893, the advent of electricity allowed a Scotsman by
the name of Alan MacMasters to invent the first ever electrical toaster.

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 Called the “eclipse toaster”, it was marketed by the Crompton
Company and wasn’t that great of a device. The iron wiring used in
the filament meant that a fire risk could often develop (so the cartoon
cliche of burnt toast could also translate to a burnt house in that day).
In 1905, Albert Mash began to apply his metallurgical know-how to the
situation. He developed a solution made up of chromium and nickel
which was later named “Nichrome”, this new heat-resistant material
was implemented in toasters by George Schneider to make Dew
toasters. In 1909 Frank Shailor, operating under General Electric (yes
that company which Thomas Alva Edison had a part in creating),
created the “D-12” toaster. While this toaster was better at toasting
bread, it could only toast 1 side at a time and required the operator to
open it and turn it the other way when it was done (lest said operator
return to find their kitchen in flames). After several more editions of the
toaster, Charles Strife created the final components that make up the
modern toaster: timers and springs. By attaching a timer and spring to
the mechanism, people no longer needed to worry about their toast
being overdone or having to turn the toaster upside down to get the
bread out (always a pain thanks to those crumbs). Over the years
toasters would continue to develop, increasing in size while
decreasing in cost and continually innovating (by the 1950s, toasters
knew when the bread was fully toasted and ejected it themselves).
■ The main drawback of a toaster is that even modern ones can
be annoying to operate. The slew of electronic buttons and
cramped spaces complicate the inner workings of such a
device. I see no reason why the toaster makes the lives of
those without it harder. Sure they might not be able to eat their
bread fully toasted by the wonders of electricity and
technological wizardry, but the handy “open-fire” method might
as well serve the purpose the exact same way.
■ Convection oven: Much like the toaster, the convection oven
technically had its roots well before the advent of electricity or
automation. Ancient civilisations dating as far back as the Egyptian,
Greek and Roman (basically the “big three” of ancient civilisations)
have been cooking their food through in ovens powered by wood-fed
flames (those still exist today, just visit any traditional pizzeria or old
restaurant). While the convection oven was only implemented in 1945
(gee a lot of these inventions started breaking new ground just after
war didn’t they? Then again “war is the mother of invention”). The
Maxson Whirlwind Oven was the first model introduced with a
convection system; allowing for the equal distribution of heat within the
foods (so think of a Communist oven). Essentially a convection oven
contains a fan and exhaust system at the back of the module, blowing
hot air over the food and then ventilating back out (as opposed to a
conventional oven where the heat just sort of lingers around at heats
up food as it wishes). Convection ovens actually let us cook food
faster and saves energy in terms of electricity consumption. While
those that don’t possess a convection oven might not be able to
cook/bake their foods quite as quickly as though who do, it isn’t
necessarily an enabling technology that makes it more difficult for
them to cope.
■ Rice cooker: Ah the rice cooker, the humble and often overlooked
kitchen appliance that has made billions of lives much easier around
the world. Prior to the invention of the electric rice cooker, people
mainly relied on stoves to cook rice in pots (in many places of the

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 world, this is still a viable technique). It was actually an Asian country
to begin innovating on the rice cooker (your guess as to which Asian
country). If you guessed Japan, you’re correct (really a no-brainer but
China would’ve been another logical guess). In 1945, just after the
end of WW2 and 2 nuclear bombs (gee we sure do love to make
household things after a war don’t we?), the first rice cooker prototype
emerged in the country. It was essentially a wooden tub connected to
a few electrodes, into which one poured a few cups of rice and water.
The boiling of water through heat transmitted by the electrodes allows
the rice to begin cooking. Initially these rice cookers were a major
health risk, since chefs could be electrocuted if they touched the
wrong parts. Mitsubishi, adept at creating cars, then applied it’s know
how this field. Replacing the wooden pot with an aluminium one not
only increased the conductivity of the material (allowing for faster
cooking times), after that it was merely a matter of improving on the
design through minor additions. Modern rice cookers used infrared
thermal radiation to boil water and cook rice. LCD Screens and Touch
buttons are modern additions, allowing for different settings of rice
cooking to happen (“fluffy” rice is something apparently).
■ The main drawback of a rice cooker is that it can often take a
while for the rice to cook, anywhere from 45 minutes to 90
depending on the model. Furthermore actually scooping rice
out of one is still pretty dangerous, the aluminium (or other
metal) pot is extremely hot after cooking and I myself have
suffered some burns while getting rice.
■ Coffee maker: Yet another device which our parents and most adults
can’t seem to live without, the coffee maker is as rich in history as the
flavour of the drinks it brews. Coffee itself has an interesting history
(which I won’t go so in-depth with), but essentially the Turks have
been shown to drink coffee since the 6th century, with the drink
spreading to Europe, Asia and later the Americas (given it’s African
birthplace, this expansion is pretty good!). For centuries, people have
been making coffee with practically the same process. Roasted and
ground coffee beans were placed into a pot with some water and
boiled until the coffee has been fully brewed. It wasn’t until the
Archbishop of Paris came along in 1780 that the concept of drip-
brewing was invented (trust the French to add some style to the way
we brewed our drinks). I’ll be honest the history of the coffee maker is
rather complex since there were so many variations of the ways in
which coffee was made (how the Turks made coffee differed distinctly
from how an Italian did, which differed even more from how the
Americans did it). The basic concept remains the same however:
press coffee beans through water in order to create that caffeinated
drink that is 3rd most consumed beverage in the world (after water
and tea). It probably isn’t so disadvantageous for the people who can’t
afford their own coffee maker seeing as plenty of cafes and
restaurants will easily provide that service for a (generally) cheaper
cost.
■ Juicer: After a tiring workout or a long day, a nice cold glass of juice
(be it orange, apple, guava or other fruit/vegetable) is sometimes all
we need to cool down. Humans have fallen in love with extracting
juices from natural produce and archaeologists have found evidence
of juice-making processed dating as far back as 150 BC, when
humans pounded pomegranates and figs until the juices came out. It
was not until 1936 (rather late compared to the other devices) that one

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 Norman W. Walker (a British businessman and pioneer of nutritional
books about juices) invented the first ever juicer: the Norwalk juicer.
Interestingly, one can still buy a Norwalk juicer model even to this day.
Since then, many different companies have tried to improve on the
Norwalk, with different methods such as fast-spinning blades to the
traditional mortar and pestle pounding action. To this day, the juicer is
really still primitive in it’s design, we don’t see many model with
different settings and LCD screens (some in fact, are still manually
operated!).
○ pressure cooker | magnetic stove
■ Pressure cooker: One of the less conventional (and certainly less
common) inventions around the kitchen, a pressure cooker is
nonetheless rather useful when it comes to cooking foods quickly and
without as much fuel consumption. A pressure cooker works in a
similar fashion to a rice cooker (in fact the latter is merely a more
specific extension of the former). It traps steam produced by the
boiling of a cooking liquid (usually water) inside the pot, causing
internal pressure to rise in addition to temperatures. However, despite
being less popular than other kitchen appliances, the pressure cooker
actually began its developmental stage much earlier than the others.
In 1697, Frenchman Denis Papin invented the “steam digester” in
order to lower the cooking times of foods, so he created a simple
airtight cooker that combined pressure and steam to lower cooking
times. About a hundred years after this, Nicolas Appert (a
confectioner) developed a canning process by sealing foods in jars
and cooking them in boiled water, contributing to the concept of
pressure cooking as we know it today. Over the next century, another
bunch of individuals would have a crack at this invention (some would
succeed, others would crack under the pressure). It wasn’t until 1939
that German Alfred Vischer would present his “Flex Seal Speed
Cooker” at the 1939 New York World Fair. The US and UK would then
lead the “pressure cooker revolution” as companies from both
companies invested millions of dollars (or pounds sterling) into making
the device larger yet more efficient. Modern pressure cookers often
have electronic settings on what type of food is being made, with the
most basic models having a rubber seal and whistle to tell the user
when the cooking is done.
■ The pressure cooker does have some drawbacks. Firstly it can
be extremely dangerous to use, you cannot simply leave it to
go do something else (explosions have occurred due to
pressure cooker related recklessness). Furthermore, you can
easily burn yourself if you don’t wait a while before scooping
out the cooked food (even though much of the steam has been
released gradually, the metal pot can still be extremely hot).
■ Now pressure cookers aren’t exactly so enabling in their nature
and people who can’t afford them can simply rely on heat from
a stove (or wooden fire) as opposed to using one. A pressure
cooker really serves to just minimise the cooking time, not to
revolutionise the way in which we cook.
■ Magnetic stove: Alright then, one of the newest items on this list
ironically has an explanation so complex and confusing that I’ll leave it
to this website to explain the whole thing. Basically a magnetic stove
(or an induction stove/hob as its called scientifically) heats up pots and
pans directly instead of relying on indirect thermal radiation like
conventional stoves do. An easy way to tell magnetic stoves apart

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 from others is the lack of any gas outlets or metallic pot-rests above
the module. Now magnetic stoves are certainly advantageous in that
they can boil water and cook foods slightly faster than the
conventional stove can, though they do require specialised pots and
pans (those labelled “induction-compatible”) and can be a notch more
expensive to install (anywhere between $1000 to $10,000 depending
on the size and model).
■ It doesn’t really matter if you have a magnetic stove or not (I
don’t, my family still relies on old-fashioned metallic stoves).
While it may be faster, a normal stove will suffice for the
enabling of those wishing to cook.
● Consider the technologies of personal grooming: hair dryers and
straighteners, shavers, waxing, cosmetics, even toothbrushes. When were they
invented, and how have they changed over time? Discuss with your team: is a
device still an enabling technology if it helps us accomplish that which helps
us achieve an aesthetic goal but does not technically make us more “able”?
○ Apologies scholar, I am exhausted from having to write so many explanations
about the inner workings and history of the devices which we rely on to create
food. I refuse to go in depth with the science and history of personal grooming
inventions, so I strongly suggest that you do so yourself (especially on those
inventions which you’re interested in or use a lot).
○ A device is not an enabling technology if it helps us accomplish an aesthetic
goal. Without hair-dryers, straighteners, shavers and cosmetics we are still
capable of looking rather human and can always find more natural ways to
spice up our looks (natural pigments were and are still used in many cosmetic
items, with some toothbrush hairs still being made from animal tails).

Dirty Jobs | Technologies of Marginal Occupations

● We often glorify high-profile technologies and those who develop them—but
we spend less time considering the less glamorous technologies and those
who need to work with them. For every computer programmer, there is an
electrician who makes it possible to plug that computer into a wall. Discuss
with your team: what are some of the technologies we think the least about but
rely upon the most?
○ The technologies that we think the least about yet rely on the most are the
technologies we never see in our everyday lives. From the electricity stations
which distribute power to our houses (not to mention make it safe for humans)
and the invisible water pipes which heat up and transfer our water to where
it’s needed, the hidden enabling technologies are the ones who’ll never get
noticed until they break down.
● For instance, consider waste disposal and treatment. Every time you walk out
of a bathroom, you leave something behind. Where does it go, and where does
the water you use come from? Explore with your team: how does plumbing
work, and what are some of the latest innovations in the industry? Be sure to
spend some time looking into the world of high-tech toilets, trenchless sewers,
and even paper towel dispensers, including new models in China that use
facial recognition to limit how much you take. But also consider how the
legacy of older technologies can still affect us today—in this case, leaving
millions of Moscow residents without running hot water every summer.
○ Plumbing basically works on the principles of pressure. Two different systems
are hidden within the walls, floors and ceilings of your home. One to carry
freshwater from the building’s water supply into the home, while another
carries wastewater into the sewage system. That’s basically how the two act
and if you want more specifics kindly click on the link (as I will be asking

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 questions about those specifics on the practice challenge!). As for the latest
innovations in this industry, they’re already pretty evident around us. Any
visitor to a 5-star hotel, expensive shopping mall or other high-end building
will likely encounter toilets that have their own buttons (usually for flushing,
spraying or even keeping the seat warm!). Paper towel dispensers still have
traditional aspects, though the Chinese version of limiting how much we take
is rather ingenious. As for the legacy of older technologies, that is a rather
interesting case. Every year in Moscow, the Russian capital’s 12 million or so
inhabitants experience a dreaded ritual in which most of the city’s hot water
supply is shut off. The ritual dates back to Soviet times, when the supply of
hot water was a government centralised business (meaning that instead of
each house having their individual heating units, the municipal government
controlled the water heating unit in one large area). During the winter months,
this supply was often used (considering Russian winter, this is a necessity)
and in the summer the city often stopped providing this service. This allowed
the municipal administration to conduct repairs on the hot water system (as
with most Soviet built things, they were easy to repair whenever they
constantly broke down).
● Sometimes bugs and vermin invade our homes and workplaces, from
Argentine ants to weasels and rats. Is there a way to build a wall to keep them
out? Consider the pest control industry and the technologies that enable it.
Discuss with your team: do we unfairly criticize traditional chemical pesticides
for their impact on human health, or do they create an artificial world order
centered on unhealthy and unsustainable food production?
○ The pest control industry is one of those reluctant areas which we need to
keep innovating in. For our one true enemy when it comes to trying to feed
our mouths is mother nature itself (somewhat ironic that the force which gave
us land and water to cultivate crops can also breed animals which destroy
and kill those crops). Ever since humanity has been able to find ways to grow
crops, we’ve also had to find ways to eliminate the critters who threaten our
food supply. From simply beating away insects, to the ever stereotypical
scarecrow, to even the use of chemical engineering. The article in questions
explores a new technology: the Photonic Fence. A structure based around a
targeting system that identifies hostile pests to a certain crop species and
fires a concentrated laser to neutralise the threat (kind of like a Star Wars
fence!). We don’t unfairly criticize traditional chemical pesticides for their
health hazards and the temporary world order they’ve created, but it is the
sad byproduct of relying on nature to kill nature (fight fire with fire).
● You are probably reading this outline on a device built on an assembly line.
Consider the technologies that make mass production possible, from stainless
steel to the conveyor belt. In the context of industry, what is a “prime mover”?
Discuss with your team: do newer technologies make manufacturing jobs less
“dirty” but also less valued? Or does modern society’s interest in
manufactured products mean we respect those who manufacture them more
than ever?
○ In the context of industry, the “prime mover” is an initial mechanical or natural
source of motive power (literally what causes movement in any mechanisms).
From the steam in locomotives, to the oil in our cars, to the electricity in our
electronics. Newer technologies can make manufacturing jobs less “dirty” and
also less valued, one of the greatest fears many people have is the rise of
artificial intelligence and the amount of “dirty” jobs they’ll takeover as well as
devalue when they do come online en masse (robot apocalypse anyone?). As
for the assembly line, we must thank one Henry Ford for revolutionising the
way our products are made. Initially, many products were made by hand, an
individual assigned to a certain product who would oversee its production

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 from start to finish. As a result, production costs were high (it did take quite a
bit of education and craftsmanship to create anything commercial back then)
and the efficiency of factories was limited. Keep in mind though, that while
Henry Ford did popularise the assembly line, it was Ransom Eli Olds who
actually implemented it first in his car factories (though Ford did later add the
conveyor belt, making him take the credit for a moving assembly line). We put
barely any respect on the people who create our products: we would rather
respect a businessman (or woman!) who designed the product than the
thousands of employees who work day in day out to assemble those products
in packed, noisy and fairly tedious conditions.

Ennobling Technologies
● We have come a long way from Captain Hook. Take some time to consider
each of the following “assistive” technologies and how it functions, whether by
bending light or by limiting range of motion. Which has been around the
longest, and which are evolving the most quickly?
○ prosthetics | hearing aids | walkers | wheelchairs (including racing
wheelchairs)
■ Prosthetics: You’d probably think that prosthetics were invented
rather recently and that the ability to replace our appendages with a
mechanical substitute is something that only came about in the past
200 years. Well you’d be wrong (and the images down below can
easily prove what is about to be said). Archaeologists and historians
have found evidence of the Ancient Egyptians (yes that’s right, 3000
years before today), creating prosthetics, namely in the discovery of a
wooden toe next to the mummy of a woman. During that time, basic
prosthetics made from wood, bronze or even straps of leather have
been found. The most famous example of European historical
prosthetics being the Roman Capua Leg, a bronze case for a fake leg,
likely owned by a Roman soldier around 300 BC. In the Middle Ages,
prosthetic development hadn’t gone so far (understandable given that
those times were also called The Dark Ages), yet a key introduction
was the use of hinges on arms and legs. Over the next 200 years,
different countries, companies, governments and individuals would get
involved in the development of prosthetics. Unlike most other devices,
the prosthetic structure wasn’t standardized or popularised. You’ve got
to remember that this wasn’t some sort of mass-produced good you
could easily walk into a pharmacy and obtain, you often had to get one
specially made for your case. It was during the American Civil War
that the concept of prosthetics began to skyrocket (given the injuries
sustained, this seems appropriate). World War 1 would also see entire
government set up prosthetic limb factories for soldiers missing an
arm (or leg). While early prosthetics simply consisted of cranks, straps
and gears, they were later modified to be controlled by the person’s
other limb. Nowadays we have expensive prosthetics that can
respond to our thoughts and soon these may become commonplace
and affordable for the masses.
■ Hearing aids: Keep in mind that hearing aids are not some sort of
“miracle healer” tool that can suddenly relieve a deaf person of their
inability to hear noises. Hearing aids differ from those devices (known
as Cochlear Implants) quite significantly. Before we delve into the
function of one however, let’s take a look at the history of these
devices. In the 17th century, hearing aids came in the form of “ear
trumpets”, literally a hand-held tube of sheet metal or other resonant

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 materials that amplified any incoming soundwaves and funneled them
directly to the user’s ears. Yet during this time, there were no mass-
production concepts for such a device (there didn’t need to be, not
everyone was hard of hearing). These devices didn’t work too well and
were very tiring to use (imagine having to life one to your ear and
keeping it there during an entire conversation!), but that didn’t prevent
them from being the only available option until the invention of the
telephone. Once electricity became mainstay in the cities of the west,
people began to realise that telephone receivers were actually better
at amplifying sounds for partially deaf people than those hearing aids
were (score for Alexander Graham Bell!). It was another famous (or
rather, infamous) electricity mogul named Thomas Edison who took
the technology to it’s newest interpretation: carbon transmitters.
Designed to be used with a telephone, the carbon transmitter
amplified the sound within an electrical signal by 15 decibels (about
half of the amount necessary for those hard of hearing to fully
understand what’s being said). These were in use from the turn of the
20th century to the 1920s, when vacuum tube hearing aids were
produced. The use of vacuum tubes allowed the sounds to be
amplified by about 70 dB (more than enough for the user), yet these
tubes were also extremely bulky and not practical for everyday
wearing. A small wooden box often had to be hung around the user’s
neck, with a connected receiver that they also had to hold up to their
ear whenever sounds they wanted to hear were being amplified. It
was only after the Second World War that the hearing aid became
more compact, with pocket-sized units being produced (albeit the
mess of wires that connected the amplifier to the earpiece was slightly
less cosmetically appealing). It was in 1948 that the invention of the
transistor (a switch controlling the movement of electricity by changing
the flow of electrons) finally allowed Raytheon Corps (remember
them?) to create hearing aids that could slip behind the ear and fit
within it. Since then, digital technology has allowed them to pick up
more sounds and become even smaller (with the invention of silicon
transistors shrinking the form immensely).
■ Hearing aids function in three parts: the microphone picks up
any sounds and sends them to the amplifier, which makes the
sound louder, then a receiver sends those amplified sounds
into the ear for easier hearing.
■ Walkers: Otherwise known as a walking frame, walkers are a tool for
elderly or crippled people when it comes to providing additional
support/balance for any movement (most commonly walking). You
might also know this sort of enabling technology as a Zimmer frame,
after the namesake UK company that mass-manufactured them. The
basic design of a walker is pretty straightforward and it hasn’t evolved
very much since then: a waist-high lightweight frame that’s slightly
wider than the user (hence the need for pediatric and bariatric walkers
for children and obese users respectively), usually with wheels or
tennis balls on the front two legs depending on the strength of the
person. Modern walkers are usually height-adjustable, since they’re
made for whoever might wish to use them (the key is to maintain a
slight bend in the arms, so blood circulation can continue unabated).
In the early 1950s, a man by the name of William Cribbes Robb
received a US patent for his “walking aid”, whilst later persons such as
Elmer F. Ries and Alfred A. Smith would receive patents for non-
wheeled walkers and modern frame walkers respectively.

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 ■ Wheelchairs: One of the oldest technologies on this list, the
wheelchair predates many other enabling technologies for those
hampered with biological conditions. Friezes from Ancient Greece and
stone slates from Ancient China depict wheeled seats being used to
transport humans. Yet the Europeans would not catch onto such a
technology until 1595, when an unknown inventor created an “invalid’s
chair” for King Philip II of Spain, whilst in 1655 a paraplegic (someone
who has difficulty controlling their lower extremities) watchmaker by
the name of Stephen Farffler created a self-propelling chair made of 3
wheels (not the most popular design at the time apparently). In 1783,
John Dawson would create the Bath Wheelchair (so named for the
town in Britain where it was created). While not the most comfortable
of chairs, it did somehow manage to win over more customers with it’s
three wheel design (2 at the front, 1 at the back). In 1869 a patent for
the wheelchair emerged with rear push wheels and front caster
wheels (caster wheels are the ones you find on supermarket trolleys,
able to spin and face whatever direction they’re travelling in). Over the
next 45 years inventors would add more innovations to the wheelchair,
from hollow rubber wheels to push rims (those small bars on the
outside of the wheel for self-propulsion) and even spoked wheels for
lightweight construction. It was in 1932 that engineer Harry Jennings
created a folding steel wheelchair (similar to most we see nowadays)
for his paraplegic friend Herbert Everest (who’d crippled his back in a
mining accident). When the two founded Everest & Jennings, they
would come to monopolise the wheelchair market of the US for many
years. While the two were mass-producing their tubular frames,
Canadian inventor George Klein (the same person who invented the
surgical staple gun) was leading a team of engineers at the National
Research Center Council of Canada in a program meant to assist
wounded veterans after WW2. It was here that the first electric
wheelchair, with its own motor for easier propulsion, was created. In
1965 Everest & Jennings would mass-produce these electric
wheelchairs. Even now wheelchairs are still being revolutionised, with
research ongoing to see if they can somehow be programmed to act
with their user’s minds.
■ Racing Wheelchairs: If any of you have ever watched the
paralympics before, you’ve probably been astounded at the lightning
fast speeds and incredible stamina of the wheelchair racers:
paraplegic athletes who compete in races using specially designed
racing wheelchairs. The concept of the paralympics (as well as the
main cause behind the invention of the racing wheelchair) goes to one
Sir Ludwig Guttmann, an englishman who worked at the Spinal
Injuries Centre within Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Aylesbury. He
introduced competitive sports as a rehabilitative activity that crippled
veterans of WW2 could take part in. Over the next couple of years
they would spread to Europe and later America, with the first
paralympic games occuring at the 1960 Rome olympics. Racing
wheelchairs differ from normal ones in that they’re built for speed and
as such only posses 3 wheels (2 large tires at the back and 1 at the
front). The athletes manually propel themselves by pushing huge push
rims on either tire, leaning into the wind as they jockey for a lead
position. Truly one of the greatest ways in which our society has been
able to connect those who might not be able to perform the same daily
activities we do: sports.
○ speech recognition | eyeglasses | sign language to speech conversion

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 ■ Speech recognition: Picture this: a “couch potato” reclined on (what
else?) a couch watching some television show (or more fittingly, a
Netflix series), the brilliant idea of ordering some food (be it a pizza or
healthy salad) enters their mind. They simply say “Hey Siri!” and the
Iphone in their vicinity wakes up and asks what they’d like to know.
This is the magic of voice recognition, making technology more
accessible for those who might not possess the ability to type on a
keyboard or use a mouse. Yet this technology, though it seems fairly
new, actually has it’s (albeit very limited) origins in the 1950s. Before
full speech recognition could occur, an era known as “baby talk”
(where only numbers and digits could be understood). In 1952,
“Audrey” was invented by the Bell Laboratories (yes they had the
somewhat sentimental tradition of naming their computers back then).
Later improvements in computers and the technology meant that more
words and numbers could be understood. It was only in the 2000s
after the popularisation of personal devices that Google (and later
Apple) would include speech recognition software in their devices,
allowing one to connect to the cloud of data and pull up results for
their queries. As for how these softwares work, I’ll let this website
explain that for you.
■ Eyeglasses: Ah finally, a technology I use constantly on a daily basis
on this list (and admittedly, something I depend on in order to see
properly). Eyeglasses consist of lenses (which bend light and focus
them on the retina in specific ways depending on the power of the
design). (THIS INFORMATION IS SIMILAR TO WHAT YOU READ AT
THE BEGINNING). Originally referred to as “reading stones” (basically
a magnifying glass that people placed on texts to help them read
better), the basic building blocks of glasses existed since 1000 AD, yet
the actual invention of the glasses came sometime in the 13th century.
We don’t actually know exactly when and where the glasses were
invented, though works by the Italian painter Tommaso da Modena in
1352 show that eyeglasses were likely the work of Italian (specifically
Venetian) glass-blowers, who formed the lenses and perched them
with a frame on the nose. These were likely used by Italian monks and
the first prescriptions for eyeglasses appeared during this time. Over
the next centuries, more individuals would come to add more
variations to eyeglasses. Benjamin Franklin was noted for his
invention of the bifocal glasses (where 1 lens had different powers to
the other).
■ Sign language to speech conversion: This is one of the more
experimental devices in our list. The basic concept is pretty self-
explanatory, some sort of motion sensor (or camera) will record sign
language and then instantaneously (through some sort of artificial
intelligence) reference the gestures to a cloud database and then
relay the sentences or words in speech. Perhaps in the near future
this’ll be a hand-held appliance (or even something integrated into an
earpiece!) which would bridge the gap between those who cannot
hear and those who can.
○ adaptive eating devices
■ Adaptive eating devices: From the basic utensils in our kitchen to
high-tech robotic assistants for those with difficulty controlling their
hands or feeding themselves. Adaptive eating devices are everywhere
you look (even straws somehow fit into this category), the most basic
adaptive eating devices consist of spoons, forks, plates, mugs and
bowls that have easier to hold grips or specialised designs for ease of

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 use. The higher tech devices often rely on robots or even automated
systems in order to provide assistance to those unable to feed
themselves. Perhaps in the future these features can be integrated
into a robotic servant in order to provide a more seamless home
comfort experience.
● Look at the origins of the “optophone” in the early 1900s—an optical character
recognition technology that could “sound out” letters and numbers for the
blind. If a similar device were developed for music, would it be more useful for
entertainment or for education? What new applications might devices of this
kind make possible?
○ One of the earliest attempts to help blind people understand written texts
better, the optophone was invented in 1913 by Dr. Edmund Fournier d’Albe of
Birmingham University and relied on selenium photosensors in order to detect
black print and convert it into an audible output. The audible output was often
a series of time-varying chords of tone that the blind could then interpret. Only
a few units were built however and the limitations of the time meant that it
was extremely impractical and very inefficient (at a display during the 1918
Exhibition showed a snail pace of one word per minute). Later models could
achieve 60 words per minute, but even this were complex to operate and
required education in order to decode the tonal chords.
■ If such a device existed for music, it would probably find uses in both
entertainment and education; with teachers using it to teach chords to
blind people as well as their friends to include them in musical
activities. With the technology we have today, there would probably be
other applications for the blind to use.
● Consider technologies that allow us to track and improve our own health—
from fitness bands and glucose monitors to stationary bicycles. Discuss with
your team: is it possible for these health-enabling technologies to be too
helpful—and, if so, in what ways?
○ Walk into any gym and you’ll find yourself surrounded by a myriad of these
technologies, ones that track our heart rate, monitor our progress and allow
us to gauge how “fit” we are. While it may be possible for these health-
enabling technologies to be too helpful, the consequences aren’t that severe.
Granted we may cease working out more than we should because “according
to the fitness band” we’ve already burned enough calories for the day.
Actually this may soon become one way for the robots to takeover the world,
make humans feel as if though they’re “fit” when in reality they’re extremely
unfit and then exploit that weakness to conquer us (just a theory).
● Enabling technologies do more than help people overcome physical
impediments; they can also address social and resource limitations. Could 3D
printing improve the living conditions of people without adequate access to
housing in their communities, or does it face obstacles that this article
overlooks? Could we one day unpack portable classrooms from our car
trunks? Discuss with your team: what other applications can you imagine for
3D printing that might help those in need? Be sure to look at its use to create
prosthetic limbs and even more comfortable helmets.
○ Ah 3D printing, the true “magic” of our world. Whether it’s printing entire
houses for a fraction of the price in a fraction of the time, or enabling those
with amputated limbs to participate in daily activities again, or even giving the
Vatican Swiss guard some stylish new helmets to show off on parade. 3D
printing could indeed improve the living conditions of people without adequate
access to housing, but it’ll have to tackle a few more obstacles along the way.
Namely how to set up such machines and where to build these houses (I
doubt a municipal government will be OK with removing hundreds of slums
just to make a few dozen 3D printed houses). Maybe one day we can take

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 school with us (literally!) by 3D printing foldable tables, chairs and
blackboards. Perhaps the schools of the future will take learning to the great
outdoors even more so than the ones today, with students changing their
school location every day. Other than the applications listed in the prompt, I
can imagine 3D printing giving those in poverty printed foods, affordable
furniture, works of art to culturally enrich themselves and maybe even phones
with which they can finally become one with the age of information.
● Sometimes we choose ways in which to limit our own lifestyles, out of concern
for health, religion, or the environment; sometimes those choices are made for
us. Either way, a person might want something that would ordinarily be
uncomfortable or out of bounds. A vegan might crave a burger; a left-handed
person might benefit from a mouse in tune with their intuition. Explore the
science and design of vegan meat substitutes and of “left-handed” products,
then discuss with your team: should technology allow people to bypass limits
that they choose for themselves? Why would it be controversial whether
genetic engineering could produce kosher pork? Should the government
mandate that left-handed products cost the same as their right-handed
counterparts?
○ The science and design of vegan meat substitutes is still fairly natural: vegans
still rely on tofu, tempeh and other vegan-friendly meats to get their proteins
(some of those substitutes are extremely delicious I might add). However,
perhaps genetic engineering will allow for the vegans to finally join us and eat
meat without fretting over the impact it had on some animal elsewhere
(understandable argument by the way). Scientists are still trying to find a way
to make these “lab meat” burgers (taken from the cells of living animals and
then allowed to grow under laboratory conditions) cost-friendly and more like
real meat (since the uncanny value comes into play here as well). Until then,
we’ll have to simply wait it out and deal with the dietary restrictions of some
cultures/religions. Technology can allow people to bypass limits that they set
for themselves, especially if those people look at the fine print when it comes
to those limits (granted there will still be those fanatical faithful who refuse to
eat genetically engineered meat, or those vegans who won’t eat anything
made remotely from animals).

Enabling Transactionologies
● If there ain’t no such thing as a free lunch, it might as well be easy to pay for.
Recent years have seen the rise of new technologies for buying things—and
for merchants to keep track of what they are selling. Consider technologies
that “smooth out” financial transactions. How contactless credit cards work—
or Apple Pay? In some parts of the world, people even pay for things with QR
codes. Where is this practice most common, and why?
○ Contrary to popular belief (or simply a result of poor naming), contactless
credit cards aren’t exactly “contactless”; they still require the user to wave or
tap it on a reader. Basically these cards have a chip inside them that
transmits radio waves whenever a payment terminal picks up the signal
(there’s also an antenna embedded in the plastic to ensure a connection is
made). Also known as an RFID (radio frequency identification) system, the
incoming radio waves are intercepted by the payment terminal and the
transaction is (usually) successfully carried out. Contactless credit cards are
more common in developed regions of the world, mainly Europe, America and
some countries in Asia (Singapore, China, South Korea, Japan).
○ Apple Pay works of the principles of near field communication (NPC,
something we’ll delve into later on). Basically the system (first launched with
the Iphone 6 series in 2015 and currently only available in the UK, US and

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 some countries in Europe). The app basically works off the same principle as
contactless credit cards: when your phone detects a payment terminal Apple
Pay awakens and asks for a fingerprint in order to verify the transaction.
○ QR Codes are something that the rest of the world (as in the eastern part of
Earth) is also catching up on. Basically QR codes work off any apps on
smartphones that link to a mobile wallet (or a bank account for some cases).
Instead of tapping your phone to a reader, you’ll display a unique QR code to
the cashier, who will then scan it and take the necessary amount of money in
the transaction. Google, Apple and many other companies (both technological
or banking related) are innovating their own payment systems to be
compatible with QR codes.
● Be sure to explore how each of the following works:
○ near field communication | payment terminals | captchas
■ Near field communication: Otherwise known as NFC (and often
indicated by a special blue and white symbol), near field
communication is a rising payment method in smartphones
(popularised by android phones like Samsung or Sony). The basic
principle of this technology is similar to Wi-Fi or Bluetooth: transmit
information over radio waves to be received by another device. As
mentioned previously, RFID technology powered by electromagnetic
induction (the same technology used in wireless charging and
magnetic stoves) is used in near field communication. Basically the
radio waves contain commands or verify transactions for payment
terminals (something to be discussed next) to read and then act upon.
I’ll leave this website here for any further investigation.
■ Payment terminals: If you’ve ever submitted to the cruel
machinations of our capitalist society and handed over your credit
card (or seen your parents hand over theirs), then you’ve probably
seen the cashier insert it into a payment terminal. The terminal is often
made up of a PINpad (where your parents or yourself discreetly enter
the PIN to verify the transaction), a screen (to display any relevant
prompts or information), a strip on the bottom or side (where the credit
card can be swiped or inserted) and a network connection (for
authorization of payments and communication with the bank).
Whenever a credit card is inserted into the machine, it contacts the
merchants services provider or bank for data transmission as well as
authorization regarding the payment. Prior to all this, ZipZap machines
were the main form of payment terminals, where one had to manually
enter all information relevant to their transaction.
■ Captchas: You’ve certainly encountered this before. Take a survey,
fill out an account sign up sheet or visit any restricted access website
and your screen will display a CAPTCHA test. Usually this means
typing in a series of letters and numbers which have been distorted in
an image. It seems relatively simple, but that’s exactly the point.
Humans can solve CAPTCHAs with no sweat, but robots and
machines will find it almost impossible (at least for now) to answer
such a question correctly. CAPTCHA stands for Completely
Automated Public Turing Test to Tell Computers and Humans Apart
(and I thought the Radarange 1161 was a horrible name). Some
people refer to them as Human Interaction Proof (HIP), but their
concept is the same: verify to a software that a real human is trying to
use it instead of a possibly exploitive malware. Ironically, CAPTCHA
generating algorithms can create hundreds of thousands of tests that
they themselves will not be able to solve had they not known the
answer before. For more information on different types of CAPTCHAS

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 and their common usage: please visit this website (don’t worry, it won’t
ask you to prove you have a pulse).
○ EFTPOS | QR codes | chip and pin | magstripe | contactless payments
■ EFTPOS: Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale is another
electronic payment system that relies on terminals to receive and
verify electronic funds in the form of credit cards. Originating in the
United States in 1981, it should be noted that these systems are
usually country specific and connect interconnect (hence why some
credit cards don’t work in foreign shops).
■ QR codes: A new form of contactless payments that are increasing in
popularity, QR (or quick-response) codes are made up of a series of
pixelated black and white squares of varying size and configuration.
Each square relates to information stored on the code, meaning that
these can be used to access websites, easily add people on social
media (Snapchat in particular) as well as verify transactions to a
mobile wallet. QR Codes can be used in 3 ways when it comes to
payment: QR scanners (whereby a QR code is displayed and scanned
to deduct money from an online wallet), manual QR code payment
(where the retailer displays a QR code for you to manually conduct the
transaction) and individual QR code scanning (whereby you pay
another person who has the same app by scanning their QR code,
usually used in smaller businesses like Uber or Zapper).
■ Chip and pin: A fairly new technology, Chip and Pin relies on
government-backed funding as well as corporate banking initiatives to
get off the ground. First unveiled in the UK back in 2003, the Chip and
Pin system, otherwise known as an EMV (Europay, Mastercard and
Visa) card has an embedded microchip within the payment card. It’s
often considered more secure than a magstripe (or magnetic strip,
which is the next topic of explanation) because of the secure
technology in the card and the need for an externally entered PIN.
You can probably tell the two cards apart by the presence of a square
shaped microchip (often 1 centimeter in every dimension) embedded
within the card. Everytime this chip makes contact with a payment
terminal (usually through insertion), a non reusable transaction code
unique for that purchase is used, requiring the user to type in their PIN
to verify that the transaction has their consent.
■ Magstripe: Invented by former US politician Ronald Klein and first
implemented in 1960s credit cards, magnetic stripes (abbreviated as
Magstripes) were the first mechanisms used in credit cards when they
were given out to the public. Magnetic stripes are often visible on the
back of credit cards, where they are swiped into payment terminals in
order to perform a payment. They function off the principal of data
retention on “tracks”, basically three strips of iron particles suspended
in plastic film which contain information about the credit card (account
number, name, expiration date, service code and card verification
code). When scanned, the tracks provide data to the payment terminal
(or other reader, since these stripes are often used more in security
situations such as hotel rooms, building access or identification cards).
However, this technology is vulnerable to fraud, as information thieves
can use devices to skim and copy the data that the stripes contain,
creating duplicate copies of the card for illegal and unauthorized
transactions by the rightful owner. They are slowly being replaced by
EMV and Pin-and-chip cards, though much of the developing world
(as well as institutions other than banks in the developed world) rely
on this technology.

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 ■ Contactless payments: Please see the explanation for this mechanism
at the beginning of this section. WSC likes to repeat itself (or do I
simply go over resources prematurely?).
● Some argue that lack of access to the technologies of the modern financial
system are one obstacle to people finding their way out of poor communities.
Discuss with your team: should the government provide every vendor with a
credit card reader? Should all cash be made “smart” so that it knows who
owns it—reducing the value of theft in hopes of reducing street crime in
struggling communities?
○ There are indeed some drawbacks to digitizing the way we make payment,
not just with contactless credit cards but also with the rise of cryptocurrencies
(which, unlike their volatile exchange rates, are maintaining an upwards trend
in popularity). Perhaps one day the poor will be unable to find their way out of
their income problems simply because they don’t possess the credentials to
earn credit cards which the world depends so heavily upon. Perhaps
governments will one day find a need to pass laws regarding the mass-
distribution and standardization of “smart” cash and payment terminals to
ensure their economy can catch up with the rest of the world. It would
certainly prevent street crime rates from remaining at their current level or
indeed increasing if cash was made to recognise its owner and devalue itself
immediately (or transfer to a secondary backup account!) when a theft has
been detected.

Concluding Questions and Additional Areas of Inquiry

● The television show Revolution posited a world in which electricity stopped
working. Discuss with your team: how much would this dramatic development
change your life?
○ I think I speak for not just all scholars, but also many people when I say that
this development would have a massive impact on our lives. Our society is so
dependent on the electricity that flows around our houses and into our outlets
that we would essentially have to halt all technological development, long-
distance communication and information publishing if electricity were to
suddenly stop. I’m sure we’d find other ways of generating power (it’d be
pretty cool to see a sort of steampunk society in which everything was
powered by an alternative form of energy). In terms of the actual impact on
my personal life, well this website wouldn’t be able to exist for one thing and
the WSC itself would never have achieved the international community it has
now (and expanding!) if no one could view the website or hear about it on
social media.
● Is easy access to Google making us worse at remembering things? Is Google
Maps making us less able to get around on our own? Discuss with your team:
when does the application of technology become dependence on technology—
and is dependence necessarily bad?
○ Easy access to the internet can result in humanity being slightly worse at
remembering certain things. Indeed “cognitive offloading” as its referred to in
research terms (basically the idea that we give the responsibility of our
memory to the technological powers of the internet) can impact our ability to
recall many things (from the year of a historical event, to the routes we take to
work, to even the names of our colleagues). The application of technology
becomes dependence when technology itself becomes the dominant factor in
our ability to do something. Without Google Maps, we could always rely on
street signs and verbal communication to ask for direction, yet without the
laptop, we wouldn’t be able to communicate to other thousands of kilometers
away.

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 ■ Dependence isn’t necessarily a bad thing. We humans have been
depending on our ability to draw power from mother nature for a while,
and only now is it becoming more apparent how bad it is. The same
can be said for our enabling technologies, a person with disabilities
might have some difficulty without access to a cochlear implant or
wheelchair, but they can still manage to get around and live life their
own way.
● Consider enabling technologies first introduced in works of fiction, such as
medical tricorders, Babel fish, robot servants, and the hoverboard. Is any
explanation given for they work? Are we developing anything like them in the
real world—and, if so, what is the science behind them? Should fans of their
imagined versions brace themselves for disappointment?
○ Ah the world of movies and books. You as a scholar probably remember
reading or watching a piece of fiction, seeing some sort of magical technology
that seems so casually implanted in that universe (for me it was the laser
bolts, lightsabers and light-speed engines in Star Wars). Even in works of
commercialisation (or at least those of the past decades), we can find
evidence of some sort of technological wizardry of the future (too bad those
automated homes and flying cars never came true, at least not yet!). Often
times, if the device is central to the plot or lore of a story, it’ll be explained in
some detail (I still possess a book explaining how a lightsaber works). Other
times, we’re simply left with no explanation as to how the device works. Yet
some of the examples mentioned in the prompt actually might become a
reality very soon:
■ Medical tricorder: In the 1960s Star Trek TV series (ugh how I detest
having to write about the rivals of my fandom), Dr. Leonard McCoy
uses a medical tricorder to practically instantaneously diagnose any
patient with their condition and treatments for them. While the concept
of a “catch-all” electronic device that will diagnose patients
immediately is still catching on, there already exist some alternative
experimentals. Scientists and app developers are joining forces to
work on hospital or even government sponsored applications that can
take health measurements (such as heart rate, blood pressure and
temperature) in a non-invasive way. Other features of these
applications include electronic assistants where one can input their
symptoms, which the intelligence will then reference to a database of
all medical literature to find the most likely diagnosis. If implemented
en masse, this technology could save thousands of lives and allow the
human race to live ever longer, seeing as many doctors often make
mistakes with their diagnosis and therefore their treatment.
■ Babel Fish: A species in the Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy series,
the Babel fish is a lifeform that, when held to one’s ear, translates any
and all incoming speech regardless of whatever language it was
originally spoken in. The book actually credits some sort of complex
biological system that decodes the brain wave matrices and nerve
signals from the speech centres. Basically this is the equivalent of a
universal translator in our world. While some services like Google
Translate or Wordreference do exist, these are only capable of
decoding speech after it has been written or spoken, not during
conversation. Now there are several high-end devices and prototypes
currently in the works that function similar to earpieces. Using a
microphone in the device, any spoken words are then translated
immediately using a database of the language (again, AI at work)
before another microphone relays the translated message within
milliseconds of the original text being spoken.

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 ■ Robot servants: Practically any sci-fi film or book included mention of
a robot servant in it’s story. Now granted this may be the technology
we have the most progress in, assuming you’re willing to stretch the
definition of “robots” in some way. By extension, Amazon’s Alexa and
Google’s Home services are stationary devices that control aspects of
the house (through speech commands and bluetooth connections).
However, these devices don’t possess their own consciousness and
require our input everytime we need them to do something. Perhaps
the rise of AI will allow us to integrate these technologies together in
order to create a robot servant.
■ Hoverboards: For some odd reason, humans have disfigured this
term quite badly. If you search up any science fiction shows, it’s likely
that there will be a hoverboard included in the character’s
possessions. However, the actual development of a real hoverboard
has stalled, mostly because we’re concerned about something else:
fake hoverboards. Somehow self-stabilising scooters (those two
wheeled platforms that everyone seems to think is cool) have now
taken over as the predominant type of “hoverboard” (ironic considering
they don’t actually hover off the ground). Researchers are attempting
to find a way to make a hoverboard, probably through the use of air
currents or water jets, but mass-producing these complex devices
(along with the risks of accidents, need for government approval and
hoverboard-related infrastructure) won’t make it anytime soon.
● Today, someone writing a screenplay can use screenwriting software to ensure
they follow the right template and approach. Such technologies have
seemingly transformed the creative process; it was not long ago that a writer
working on the second draft of a novel would need to retype it from scratch,
instead of opening a DOCX file and moving words around. It was not long
before that that there were no typewriters with which to type that novel in the
first place. Discuss with your team: have technologies allowed us to be more
creative? How do you foresee their impact in the future—will every artist use a
drawing pad, or will computers take over the creation of art altogether?
○ Technologies haven’t necessarily allowed us to be more creative, they’ve
simply allowed us to express that creativity in more ways than we were
originally used to. We’ve still had science fiction novels, fantasy films and
basic videogames for some time, but the rise in screenwriting software has
allowed us to create these stories in a much shorter amount of time. In the
future, technologies will allow us to simply say our story ideas while some AI
compiles and formats it into a book for our review and publishing. There is the
obvious fear that computers will take over the creation of art, but then again,
humans seem to have some sort of devaluing factor whenever they hear that
a piece of art was painted by a robot. Humans will still possess their creative
potential (it may be the only thing we’re good at in the future).
● Consider internationalization (referred to as i18n) and localization in software
development. What kinds of factors do they need to take into account? What
are some other ways developers can take to ensure their tools are accessible
by a wider range of people? Discuss with your team: should all websites and
online services be required to exist in multiple languages and with
modifications to account for different cultural norms in different societies?
○ As you may have guessed, internationalization and localization in software
development refer to how open-minded the design of a program has been in
regards to it’s user base. An internationalised software means that it has been
adapted to various languages, cultural nuances and regional factors without
changing the goal of the program (i.e phones can often be set depending on
which region they’re going to be used in). A localised software means the

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 opposite: it has been developed for a specific group of people, language,
region or culture by adding locale-specific components (i.e Youtube videos
which have pre-uploaded subtitles in another language). The main factors
that developers need to take into account is the purpose of the software and
the likelihood that a diverse range of people will use it. There’s no point in
adding foreign language support to an app that only people of a certain ethnic
group are suppose to use, likewise there’s no point in limiting the languages
offered by an app to a single one if more than 1 ethnic group is going to use
it. The government can’t really mandate that all websites and services exist in
multiple languages, since it’s the consumer responsibility to help influence the
developers in deciding whether or not that would be appropriate. I doubt
Weibo would find much footing in the US, or KaKaoTalk in Egypt and even
Google in North Korea.
● Spend some time learning about the technologies that enable learning—from
the archaic abacus and slide rule to newer devices that some schools are
phasing out while others struggle to obtain them at all, such as overhead
projectors and whiteboards. How do automated response systems (“clickers”)
work, and how can they be used in non-competitive classroom settings? Of
course, the earliest “automated answers” were in paper form, through
scannable sheets popularized by companies such as Scantron beginning in
the 1970s. Discuss with your team: in what ways are tests that are easier to
score good for students and teachers? Do such systems have any downsides
for teachers or students—and in what ways are they vulnerable to
exploitation?
○ Ever since we’ve been able to set up educational institutions and offer
disciplines other than theology or sports, educators constantly find ways to
integrate technology into the classroom. The abacus (still in use today and is
rather mesmerizing to watch) and slide rule are just two examples of the
myriad of seemingly archaic tools students of the past once used. Now we
have classrooms filled with technology, from the personal research devices
students bring to school, to overhead projectors and sound systems allowing
teachers to display their teaching material in full view of everyone (rather than
relying on the fairly old-school white/black board). Now let’s talk about that
dreaded test which we scholars face at every round we go to: the Scantron
Test:
■ The scholar’s challenge is actually taken in the form of a Scantron
test: a multiple-choice bubble sheet that corresponds to question
numbers in a separate booklet. When you sit for a Scantron test,
there’s a high chance it’ll be a machine that mercilessly and
calculatingly reads your answers and decides your mark (much to the
fear and loophole-seeking personas of some people). Made popular in
the 1970s yet having existed since the 1930s, Optical Mark
Recognition (OMR) technology work of a basic principle. Their
scanners detect the amount of light passing through the sheet, with
the neatly darkened answer ovals blocking said light and therefore
indicate an answer to the reader (in the form of a signal transmission).
■ The Scantron test has revolutionized the way in which we
conduct tests. No longer does a teacher need to worry about
their class of 20 students taking an exam later or earlier than
every other class, now an entire group of 200 students can
take the exam at the same time. The lack of any human error
in grading also contributes to the accuracy (and at times
brutality) of the test scores generated, meaning any scuffles
over partial-credit answers or poorly constructed diagrams are
avoided. Of course there are some negatives: a fully scored

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 Scantron test will raise questions amongst teaching faculty and
any human errors in feeding the sheets to the Scantron
machine may result in serious panic over a misgiven test
score.
■ The Scantron tests are vulnerable to exploitation in many
ways. Since it’s a machine taking into account the test scores,
smudging a #2 pencil over the entire bubble area will often
result in a full test score. Drawing lines between the answers
and even putting chapstick on the wrong ones are all possible
techniques (please view this website for more, as talking about
cheating is extremely dishonorable on this site).
● Can the same technology that enables one group disable another?
○ Of course it can, just look at the internet. The ability to access the internet
enables our society to gain insight on a treasure trove of information, connect
with those on other landmasses and even voice our opinions where it might
not otherwise be heard. Yet on the flip side, those millions of people who do
not have access to this enabling technology are barred from public
discussions, unable to know more about the world around them and can often
cause their physical marginalisation. In short, the power that enables one
group often comes at the price of disabling the powers of another. It is our
duty as humans to ensure that no matter what pitfalls technology brings to
those who cannot gain access to it, we as physical beings support these
beings in their efforts to connect with the rest of the world

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LOUDER THAN WORDS
See bottom for slideshow of artworks
Guiding Questions
● What, if anything, can art and music express that other subject areas—such as
history and literature—cannot? What can they express more effectively?
○ Where history and literature deal with the more contextual and logical side of
humanity, art and music cover the emotions; pain, happiness, anger or even
regret. We tend to view art and music as having “hidden meanings” which
require a greater level of analysis in order to understand. It is this hidden
meaning, the ability to disguise many interpretations of them in one song or
painting, that allows them to convey far more emotional messages than a
single history textbook or literature piece can ever hope to.
● Do evolving social values mean that we appreciate certain past works more
than we once did? Are there others that we appreciate less?
○ Since a social value of this day and age is somehow a nostalgia for the
previous day and age, we appreciate lots of past works more than we once
did. A Vincent Van Gogh or Pablo Picasso receives much more attention now
in schools than it did before. There aren’t exactly specific examples of others
that we appreciate less, rather they are overshadowed by far “noticeable”
works.
● Is it all right for works to make people uncomfortable? Are certain kinds of
discomfort acceptable and others not?
○ Since art tends to convey a certain emotion and send a message with that
emotion, it isn’t uncommon for artists to wish to make people feel
uncomfortable with their work. How they feel that discomfort is also varied,
from paintings of distraught refugees making us feel guilty, while paintings of
executions make us feel like monsters. There aren’t certain kinds of
discomfort that are acceptable and aren’t, simply those that evoke more of a
response than others. The general rule is that the more discomfort an image
causes, the more likely we are to do something in order to stop feeling that
discomfort.
● Do we assume too much about the intentions and beliefs of artists? Do they
assume too much about their subjects?
○ Art and music tends to be towards the individual, we perceive what our brain
thinks was meant to be perceived and sometimes share our thoughts with
others. There are times when we assume (due to historical knowledge or
scientific examination) that the intentions and beliefs of artists cause a certain
emotion in their work, but most of the time we are content to look or listen.
Artists on the other hand, do need to tread a fine line between assuming too
much about their subjects or not depicting them in the right light. Artists who
take on paintings or photography often need to make sure they don’t
generalize or assume too much about the actual emotions of their subject.
● Do works of art and music express the ideology and values of the individuals
most responsible for creating them, or of the larger group that may have
supported them?
○ While one of the options may have been the case historically, works of art
and music can express both now comfortably. Again art and music are for our

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 own interpretation, the artist or musician won’t tell us if our judgement of it is
wrong or not (that defeats the purpose of them making the piece in the first
place). Works from both art/music can express the wishes of the singer or
painter as well as the thoughts or desires of the group depicted in the work.
● Has it been historically more challenging for members of certain groups to find
success as artists and musicians?
○ If you wish to learn more about the marginalisation of society and how that
impacted their career opportunities, please see our Social Studies section.
But yes, the general trend in history is that groups who have been
marginalised or even rejected by normal society find it hard to express
themselves through the arts or music. While they may be able to start off in a
community of their own people, reaching a wider audience and making a
greater impact is often harder for these people.

In a Gallery of their Own: Isolation and Separation

● Art
○ Office in a Small City | Edward Hopper
■ If you were here last year for the World Scholar’s Cup, you might
remember Edward Hopper as the person who created “Nighthawks”.
The style from that painting (informal and lacking in color) transfers to
this one very evidently. “Office in a Small City” depicts a lonely
American office worker staring out into a city skyline (likely those of
New York or Chicago, though Hopper purposefully made the
background seem general so any city could sympathize with it).
Emotionally and physically, this lone office worker (whose job is as
ambiguous as his office is impersonal) is isolated from society and
even his own office coworkers. Edward Hopper was likely sending a
message about how post-war America forced people into professional
positions that detached them from society and prevented them from
going out and making connections.
○ Hiding in the City – Vegetables | Liu Bolin
■ How very interesting, Liu Bolin is more commonly known by his artist
name “The Invisible Man”. He stands still for hours while a team paints
his body to blend into the background of whatever statement he
wishes to make. He disappears into the scenery, constantly reminding
us of the role that individuals have. Initially, he began the project in
2005 after an artist street in Beijing was demolished to make room for
the Olympics construction. Over the years, he would blend into the
many backdrops of China (as well as London, New York and even
Venice) to send reflective messages of development, individuality,
humanity, environmental change, consumerism, political propaganda
and other concepts. I strongly suggest reading the BBC article linked
to get his own personal quotes on why he did what he did.
○ Papilla Estelar | Remedios Varo
■ Known as “Star-maker” in English, “Papilla Estelar” is a more personal
artwork as it reflects the artist’s own plight and trials. Remedios Varo
was exiled from Spain to France while her country was plunged into 3
years of civil war (1936-1939), during World War II she later relocated
to Mexico when the Nazis came knocking at France’s door (or rather,
went around it). She painted this piece in 1958 to illustrate her own
time in Mexico and how she still remained hopeful of a return to Spain.
In the painting, a woman can be seen sitting in isolation within a mill
that harvests star stuff. This star stuff is later fed by the woman to a

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 caged moon. The small room and caged moon likely depict how Varo
felt isolated and outcast in Mexico, considering how unaccepting they
were of European artists back then. Yet the star stuff being fed also
represents the fostering of hope (in her case, the hope she can return
to Spain without the fear of oppression). It sends the message that
hope comes out of our trials and that we must harness it.
○ Here We Are | Kushana Bush
■ The link that the WSC chose is actually a rather good one as it explain
the artwork in some detail as well (good job Daniel, Chauncey, Joga,
Dylan and co.). “Here we Are” is actually a rather ironic title, as artist
Kushana Bush depicts a mingling of humanity in such a way so that
where we are is anything but clearly stated. Bush took inspiration from
Mughal miniatures, medieval paintings and even Italian Renaissance
pieces to cobble together a scene of mingling humans through
gouache (a type of watercolour paint with higher ratios of natural
pigment). She blurs the temporal, geographical and cultural
boundaries that we often associate with our world to create a
message that we as humans need not divide ourselves with what
history dictates we should.
○ Untitled (Cobweb/Crossings) | Reena Saini Kallat
■ An installation at the Bhau Daji Lad Museum in Mumbai, this artworks
sends a message and serves a purpose I am most interested in
(which means a slightly lengthier explanation than usual, yay). Reena
Saini Kallat took inspiration from street names for this project. You see
when India was under British rule (which was quite a bit of its history),
many of the cities that the British had a heavy presence in had their
streets named with colonial prefixes (i.e Baird road, Cornwallis road,
King George’s Avenue). In the early 1990s however, with India long
freed from British rule, the government of the city of Mumbai began
the process of urban decolonisation. This meant changing many street
names to harbour indigenous names (i.e Baird road becoming Bangla
Sahib Marg, Cornwallis road becoming Subramania Bharti Marg and
King George’s Avenue becoming Rajaji Marg). The Bhau Daji Lad
Museum was actually given its modern name during that period,
having previously been called The Victoria and Albert Museum. In an
effort to preserve the names of old streets and make people realise
that even street names can reflect the manner of a city and its people.
The artwork is an oversized cobweb (a symbol for something being
able to hold traces of the past) formed with hundreds of rubber stamps
(again symbols of bureaucratic endorsement or rejections in history).
Each stamp bears the name of a colonial street in the city that now
hosts a modern name, reflecting the transformation Mumbai took in
decolonisation.
○ Open Border | Atelier ARI
■ Thanks for this Donald Trump (maybe you can create things of
beauty, sadly the same cannot be said for your presidency). “Open
Border” is another installation of art that occupies the skating trail on
the Assiniboine River in Winnipeg, Canada. It consists of a four meter
high red barrier made out of insulating strips that allow for a warmer
atmosphere inside it. Inside, skaters and pedestrians are encouraged
to mingle. It was inspired due to rising political tensions, namely when
Donald Trump confirmed his plans to build a border wall along the
Mexican border (yeah good luck with that now Donald, you caused the
longest US government shutdown in history for that idea). It reflects

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 the human spirit to unite and become one, despite geographical
differences and falsely justified prejudices.
○ Self-Portrait with Jewish Identity Card | Felix Nussbaum
■ What a horrible piece that evokes feelings of discomfort. Felix
Nussbaum is the oldest painter on this section, having died in 1944 (a
year after the work was painted) in Auschwitz concentration camp.
Born a German-Jew, Felix Nussbaum would paint this work (along
with many others) while in hiding between 1940 and 1944, in the attics
and basements of friends and family members. In this work, he
depicts himself in a trench coat and fedora with the Star of David on it
(a tell-tale sign of his Jewish religion) holding an identity card that
registered him as a Jew in Europe. He is cornered against a wall (a
symbol for menace and entrapment) whilst his gaze remains attentive
and glare penetrating. Is he perhaps telling the viewer that his Jewish
identity must remain a secret for his own survival? Is he trying to
convince us to reconsider the meaning of “Jew” in that point in time?
Is it demanding us to tell him why society has humiliated and
persecuted him for simply being himself? Yet while all this occurs, a
house stands behind the wall, symbolising the lost safety to Jews in
hiding, as well as the bystanders who do nothing in the face of evil. It
is truly a work that evokes emotions of guilt and questions why we
simply stood by and watched an entire race of humans be
extinguished from this Earth.
● Music
○ Songs of a Wayfarer no. 2 | Gustav Mahler
■ Otherwise known as Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (Songs of a
wayfarer), this orchestral cycle by Gustav Mahler was based on his
own texts and personal experience. The actual origin of the song itself
is difficult to trace, apparently Mahler wrote this shortly after an
unhappy love affair with soprano Johanna Richter (the two had met
while he was the conductor of the Kassel opera house in Germany).
The songs appear to have been created first in 1884, finished in 1885
yet subjected to a great deal of revision by Mahler until their first
premier by the Berlin Philharmonic with Mahler himself conducting.
The lyrics themselves are written entirely by Mahler, though he drew a
great deal of inspiration from Des Knaben Wunderhorn, a collection of
German folk poetry that was also one of his favourite books.
■ The second movement of this cycle is titled, "Ging heut' Morgen über's
Feld" (I Went This Morning Over The Field). The happiest piece in the
4-part cycle, the lyrics marvel at how beautiful nature can be in the
simplest of things (i.e dewdrops or birdsongs). Constantly repeated
throughout the lyrics are the words “Is it not a lovely world?”. However
despite all this joy and wonder, the singer knows his own happiness
will not come forth anymore, for his love is gone (referring to the
soprano Mahler lost to another guy). The song uses high strings and
flutes as well as triangles and was actually reused by Mahler in some
of his later symphonies.
○ Viva la Vida | Coldplay
■ One of my personal favourite songs and one I wholeheartedly
recommend listening to in your own time, “Viva la Vida” was
composed by British band Coldplay for their 2008 album “Viva la Vida
or Death and all his Friends”. It was the second single in that album
and the lyrics within it capture a sad and isolationist character. The
actual song title translates to “Live the life” or simply “Live life” in
Spanish and takes note from Frida Kahlo (a painter who is

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 mysteriously missing from our art list) and a 20th century piece by her
of the same name.
■ Throughout the song, Coldplay sings of a deposed King who has been
overthrown or succeeded. The ruler reminisces about his time on the
throne and the many actions he undertook while he possessed the
power to do so. There are several historical and biblical references
within the song, so I suggest you look at this Geniuslyrics link in order
to understand them all.
○ Therru’s Song | Tales from Earthsea
■ No WSC music list is complete without some song from an anime (god
I wish Kenshin was back here to help me with this one). Therru’s Song
is from the Japanese anime film Tales from Earthsea, a 2006
production based on the series of books by Ursula K. Le Guin. It tells
the story of a fantastical world in which dragons roam and the
“Balance” between these creatures and the men who also roam the
earth. The entire film focuses around 4 main characters: Arren, Therru
(whom this song is about), Sparrowhawk and Tenar. The song itself is
sung by Therru (with Arren being present at the time) and talks of a
falcon in the sky, never able to rest or find a place to call home. The
song likely depicts Therru’s own life experience, being someone with
“eternal life” and also able to become a dragon (Japan, you never
cease to amaze me!). No one knows what it is like to be as lonely as
she is, with no one else to tell of her tales.
○ Signs | Five Man Electrical Band
■ Relatively unknown by many people (I don’t blame you, this band isn’t
that successful). “Signs” is a song by the Canadian rock group Five
Man Electrical Band (I’ve never heard of a more literal band name in
my life). Written by lead singer Les Emmerson, the single was
released in their second album Good-byes and Butterflies (released in
1970). The song is actually related rather strongly to our Social
Studies subject, as the singer speaks of 4 signs that anger or concern
him. The first is a sign that “long-haired freaky people need not apply”
for a job opening, the singer then applies having tucked up his long
hair behind a cap, before revealing it once he has gotten the job. The
second sign tells of “trespassers being shot” and the singer then
berates the house owner for keeping people out and boxing Mother
Nature in. The third sign gets him ejected out of a restaurant because
he does not meet the dress code nor possess a membership card.
The 4th sign welcomes those to church for prayers, with the singer
later making a sign for God about how he’s doing well and has no
money to contribute.
■ The entire song itself is a sort of message about how our society has
isolated and separated people by creating signs that form boundaries
and barriers between those of race, class, appearance, income and
other aspects. The singer hates these signs and notes that they
should be removed, something we might try just to unite our
communities.
○ Motorcycle Drive-By | Third Eye Blind
■ A song I can probably sympathise with (scratch that, I can
wholeheartedly relate to the singer). “Motorcycle Drive-By” was written
by Third Eye Blind for their debut album of the same name in 1997.
Lead singer Stephan Jenkins actually took inspiration from his own
emotions and experiences to write the song. The lyrics tell the tale of a
man who went great lengths to be with the girl he loved, yet knew from
the beginning that this girl would never accept him as a lover (been

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 there, done that many times). Originally from San Francisco, the
singer moved all the way to New York just to spend time with his
crush. Whenever he is hanging out with the girl he feels this “burning”
in his heart and he says he’s never felt “so alive” yet also “so alone”.
The first emotion relates to how he feels whenever he’s around her,
the feeling of joy and happiness telling him that he’s living at last. Yet
he also feels so alone because he knows that it will never be anything
more than a friendship, despite his strong wishes it could be romantic
(felt this before too!). Towards the end of the song, he puts it all on the
line and tell her his feelings, with her turning him down (expected).
The final verse talks about he returns to California and becomes a
new man, getting over this love interest while adrift in a boat on the
ocean.
○ Other People’s Stories & An Ordinary Guy | Amour
■ Come on WSC, you could’ve at least saved the musical songs for a
later section. Now I’ve got to listen to both anime songs and musicals
(hence why I hate doing art and music). Anyways, these two songs
come from a French musical first produced in 1997 and performed on
Broadway in 2002 (sadly, the musical received mostly negative
reviews due to its weak story and character development). The
musical itself was based on a short story called Le-Passe Muraille by
Marcel Ayme, set in Paris shortly after the end of the Second World
War. The main character is one Dusoleil, an “invisible” civil servant
who works for a tyrannical boss and is constantly obsessing over
Isabelle, who is unhappily married to a Prosecutor (he literally has no
name just that title). After gaining the ability to walk through walls,
Dusoleil uses his power to monitor his neighbors and find out more
about their own lives (as well as some Robin Hood “steal from rich,
give to poor” type actions). He also gains the self-confidence to
attempt to woo over Isabelle, who is constantly locked at home due to
her husband. Throughout this time, he becomes known to the public
as “Passepartout”, a mysterious criminal who can walk through walls
(likely a reference to Monsieur Fogg’s multi-talented valet in “Around
the World in 80 Days”). As their relationships takes a more romantic
turn, Dusoleil admits to being the criminal and is put on trial. He is
saved when the prosecutor (yes the prosecutor) is revealed to have
been a Nazi collaborator by Isabelle (way to rat out your husband
sweetie). The story ends when Dusoleil takes some pills from his
doctor, mistaking them for aspirin (when instead, somehow, his doctor
knows the exact formula to cure this magical power). He becomes
stuck mid-leap through a wall and his memory is carried on through
song and tale.
○ Get Some Sleep | Bic Runga
■ A song by New Zealand artist Bic Runga, “Get Some Sleep” was
recorded in 2002 as the lead single for the album Beautiful Collision. I
honestly suggest you analyse this song for yourself as my musical
analysis skills are failing me at this point in time.

A Light in Obscure Places: The Unseen, the Misunderstood

● Art
○ Between the Margins | Toyin Ojih Odutola
■ Toyin Ojih Odutola uses a ballpoint pen in order to question the
geopolitical and social significance of skin colour in our everyday lives.

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 In the work, there is a coloured person hidden in plain sight with some
flowers in a meadow, though the person is wearing what appears to
be American school clothes, they are looking at us with a questioning
gaze, as if though they wonder why they were allowed in to an
American school in the first place.
○ Woman Ironing | Vik Muniz
■ This work of art has a deep story behind it. Look closely at the
background and you’d be forgiven for mistaking it for dabs of paint.
The background is actually a photograph of a collection of worn pots,
shoes, bottles and cans collected from the Jardim Gramacho (the
largest landfill in South America). Muniz actually collaborated with
people whose job it is to scavenge through this landfill to find
recyclable materials. It was one of these people whom she used as a
model for the woman ironing. This work is actually a modern
interpretation and even challenge to a similar work by Pablo Picasso,
a work by the same name. This time however, Vik Muniz challenges
the perception of domestic labourers in a time of global warming and
poverty.
○ Seodang | Kim Hong-Do
■ Perhaps one of the older works on this entire list, Seodang refers to
the private village schools that were present in the Korean Joseon
dynasty (1300s to 1800s). This specific scene shows a typical class of
youngsters (as Seodang only gave elementary level education) sitting
in front of their teacher (wearing a square headgear known as a
banggeon). At the centre of attention is a snivelling young student,
with his back turned on the teacher and his classmates likely taking
great amusement in this. Perhaps this student was misbehaving in
class or was simply misunderstood by his peers. A historical painting,
this situations is also reflected nowadays in schools. Many public
institutions often have students who are “special” and unique in their
abilities/personalities, misunderstood by the rest of the their peers and
often treated as though they are unable to be a part of society.
○ Free Period in the Amsterdam Orphanage | Max Liebermann
■ This 1882 piece by German-Jewish painter Max Liebermann was a
notable example of early impressionism in Europe, with many calling
him the “apostle of ugliness” due to the lack of detail in his work
compared to the more traditional painters. In it, Liebermann depicts a
free period during the day in the Amsterdam Orphanage (otherwise
known as Burgerweeshuis). In the painting, no male subjects are
present. These females are probably the caretakers of the orphanage
instead of the orphans themselves, enjoying a free period whilst the
young ones nap or they themselves are the “young ones” playing.
Many of the women are chatting to one another and a group in the
front right can be seen stitching or repairing their white aprons. This
scene likely plays on how women in society were unseen and
misunderstood back then. For much of human history they were
confined to housekeeping and domestic roles, perhaps these
dutchwoman are also training for their future duties.
○ The Fourth Estate | Giuseppe Pellizza de Volpedo
■ It honestly might be better if you just read the article here and skip the
explanation.
○ Stag at Sharkey’s | George Bellows
■ In this beautiful oil-on-canvas painting, George Bellows depicts a turn-
of-the-century American boxing match (most likely a private one) at
Sharkey's, a saloon located near his New York City studio. During this

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 time in American history, public boxing matches were outlawed and as
such private events had to be made in order to compete in the sport.
Usually, participation was limited to members of the club/saloon/bar in
which they occurred, but whenever an outsider was granted a slot,
they were known as a “stag” and given temporary membership. While
boxing was still generally considered a “cutthroat” sport with “uncouth”
participants, many of its proponents (among them US President
Theodore Roosevelt) considered it a healthy practice for manliness.
Yet around the time of this painting, boxing became a sport not just for
working-class people (as it had been for many decades), but also for
gentlemen of the upper classes (granted their boxing form was slightly
more civil). Many began to see boxing as an analogical sport that
proved how the strongest and fittest would survive in society.
○ The Potato Eaters | Vincent Van Gogh
■ Hardly any WSC arts list is complete without a really famous painter’s
work takin up a spot. In this case, we visit Vincent Van Gogh in one of
his more criticised pieces, The Potato Eaters. The painting consists of
5 people sitting around a table pouring drinks and sharing food, likely
a family sitting down for dinner after a hard day’s work. The dress and
colours that Van Gogh decided to use when depicting these people
suggests that they are a peasant class family. Their bony hands and
coarse faces have little sign of nobility and Van Gogh did this to
suggest that their potato dinner is an “honest dinner” since they have
tilled the land that grew them the potatoes. When it was released to
the public, many of the critics focused on the poor body anatomy and
lack of bright colours (something they were used to with Van Gogh).
Yet in painting this unorthodox piece, Van Gogh depicted the unseen
peasant classes who often toiled for long hours with little pay in order
to feed and fill the coffers of the upper classes.
○ Hotel, Room 47 | Sophie Calle
■ Sophie Calle is one of those more daring artists here. In this 2-piece
work, she records her notes and photographs from three weeks worth
of experience as a chambermaid in a Venetian Hotel in February of
1981. With each room, she has no shame in investigating the
belongings of their occupants, reading through their personal texts
and even using some of their belongings (read: vanity bag and
discarded shoes). From these belongings, she compiles a series of
deductions and opinions about the occupants and their lifestyle (not
unlike Sherlock Holmes would do!). Yet when we come to room 47,
Calle finds that it is occupied by a family of 4 (2 children, 2 adults).
She does not search through their belongings as thoroughly, noting
that she has gotten bored of her job already. Instead she simply notes
from their passports that they are from Geneva and from one of their
letters that the family is struggling to stay together. After her work
experience is over, Calle works on this piece of art. Chambermaids
and other hotel staff that we don’t see a lot of are just one of many
jobs that are unseen and misunderstood. Chambermaids are given
the responsibility of cleaning rooms, but they can usually do so much
more than that .
○ Pacific | Yukinori Yanagi
■ When you look at this piece of art, do not mistake it for a painting,
instead Pacific is an installation of forty-nine plastic boxes arranged in
a rectangular grid and connected using resin tubes. Each box contains
a national flag made out of synthetic coloured sand. If you look closely
you’ll notice that each box has some lines in it, those lines were

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 actually created by allowing ants to run around those boxes (and the
pipes that connected them). In fact there are some dead ants lying in
the flags. The aim of the project was to make an artistic analogy of
migration, as creator Yukinori Yanagi is a Japanese emigre to
America and often travels because of his work. All the flags within are
countries that either border the Pacific Ocean, once had colonies in
the Pacific, or represent indigenous groups that have no sovereign
claims there (i.e Aboriginals or Maori). Furthermore, the artwork also
sends a message about how ‘Nations, ethnicity and religions are all
ghettos. They are surrounded by imaginary boundaries born out of
social or institutional constructs’ and that when the ants erode the
clear boundaries between the flags in these works, this serves as ‘a
simple, equal and hopeful way of expressing the gradual unification of
all the world’s nations’.
○ Fountain | Marcel Duchamp
■ Absolutely no idea, go read the article attached as it’ll give you a lot
more detail.
○ Between the Cracks | Cynthia Decker
■ When one “reads between the lines” in a book, they can also “see
between the cracks” in society. In this artwork, Cynthia Decker depicts
a sort of “hidden community” of people who society does not wish to
see or rather people whom society shun from public. In every nation
these people exist and they often “fall through the cracks”, left to their
own with no acceptance from others.
● Music
○ Me and the Sky | Come From Away
■ Of course, I rest for a bit and immediately get welcomed back by
another musical (god I wish Kenshin was here to help me get through
these musicals). Hang on, actually this musical isn’t that bad as most
other plays I have had the absolute displeasure of watching. “Come
From Away” tells the true story of the week following the September
11 World Trade centre attack, when 38 planes were unexpectedly
ordered to land in the small town of Gander, Newfoundland and
Labrador, Canada. Known as Operation Yellow Ribbon, it was an
attempt by Canadian officials to immediately clear American airspace
of any dangers. This specific song actually focuses on one character
of that play, pilot Beverly Bass of an American Airlines Boeing 777.
She was actually the first female pilot of a major US commercial airline
and this song commemorates that achievements. It tells of her long
and winding road (with more than a few naysayers) to earning her
wings and being able to pilot huge aircraft over long distances. Fun
fact, her first job was actually earning 5 dollars an hour flying corpses
out of Fort Worth, Texas.
○ Three Romances for Violin and Piano | Clara Schumann
■ Yet another story of a woman defying social conventions and
stereotypes in order to achieve great things, Clara Schumann was a
German musician and composer who composed these 3 pieces in
1853 and later performed them in 1855. During the Romantic period of
music, it was believed that women were not all suitable for the job of
composing music (Nannerl Mozart anyone?). Indeed Schumann
herself said that “Women are not born to compose”. Dedicated to
legendary Hungarian violinist Joseph Joachim, the three songs were
later played by Schumann and her husband (Joachim himself) on tour.
They even performed in front of King George V of Hanover, who
appeared “extremely ecstatic” at hearing the lovely romances. It

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 almost seems shameful that Schumann’s career would always remain
overshadowed by her husband’s
○ The Way You Make Me Feel (Cover) | Renata Flores Rivera
■ This one is slightly different. You’ve probably already heard of “The
Way You Make Me Feel”, a hit song by the King of Pop himself,
Michael Jackson. In this cover, Renata Flores Rivera made her
reputation by translating the entire song into Quechua, a language
spoken among many indigenous tribes and people in South America.
With regards to this specific performance and singer, Rivera managed
this with help from her 72 year grandmother who is a Quechua
speaker.
○ Follow the Drinkin’ Gourd | Folk song
■ Never have I ever been so interested in a WSC song in the course of
this work. “Follow the Drinkin’ Gourd” was first published in 1928 and it
is believed to have originated from the early 1800s, during the period
of the Underground Railroad (a covert network that whisked slaves in
the South away to freedom in the North. Apparently, common myth
has it that a conductor on this railroad, one Peg Leg Joe, began
singing the song to remind slaves how to find their way out if they
were alone. While the “Drinkin’ Gourd” was a euphemism for the Big
Dipper constellation, the true message was to face this constellation
and then follow the North Star (Polaris) to freedom. While it has been
disputed multiple times throughout history, if this song was really used
then it would’ve guided slaves from Mobile, Alabama to Paducah,
Kentucky (where they could cross the Ohio River to freedom in the
north). Its origin and context remain a mystery, since not all slaves on
the Underground Railroad could’ve used it.
○ Didge Fusion| William Barton
■ In this very interesting fusion piece, William Barton not only
demonstrates his ability to play 2 instruments at once, but also a “new-
meets-old” fusion between guitar and didgeridoo, a stereotypical yet
extremely common Aboriginal instrument that can be found in many
parts of Australia. He wishes to highlight how the two can merge
together, not having to try and remove the other from the song.
Perhaps as an analogy to society, we should and must include all
members of a community, not try and marginalise or shun them.
○ Mbube | Solomon Linda
■ You may have heard of this song before, it has been parodied and
replayed many times. It’s often known as “the lion sleeps tonight” and
was originally written by Linda in the Zulu language, way back in 1939.
It later became a number one hit in the United States with its English
translation taking the top spot, whilst the original Zulu recording faded
into the annals of musical history. Truly a sad example of language
barriers causing songs to become more well-known as well as
forgotten.
○ It’s the Hard-Knock Life | Annie
■ Yet another musical whose song I have to analyse. Well let’s get this
over with then. “It’s the Hard-Knock Life” is a song from the “Annie”
musical, first produced and performed on Broadway in 1977. In this
film version produced in 1982 (and most notably a recent
contemporary adaptation in 2014), the namesake character of the play
and her friends sing of how dreary life can be in an orphanage. During
the time period (great depression America), orphans were often
ignored in society and their treatment was left to private institutions,

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 some of which were notorious for their dreadful conditions and harsh
caretakers (not unlike the one Annie has to face daily).
○ Little People | Les Misérables
■ A recurring musical on the World Scholar’s Cup, Les Miserables is
also one of the most famous musicals in history. Based on a French
historical novel by Victor Hugo, published in 1862 and adapted for a
play in 1980. Its London production has been running since 1985 and
as such is the longest-running musical in the West End as well as the
second longest-running musical in the world after the Off-Broadway
run of The Fantasticks (lasting for a total of 42 years from 1960 to
2002). The musical focuses on the story of Jean Valjean, a French
peasant attempting to seek redemption after serving 19 years in
prison for stealing a loaf of bread. Along the way, he and his friends
are swept into a revolutionary movement centering on a street
barricade where young idealists demand reform for the government.
Sung by young Gavroche, this song appears in the Third Act, when a
police inspector (who appears throughout the play) by the name of
Javert is exposed as a spy within the midst of the demonstrators.
Gavroche sings about how people shouldn’t underestimate those
“Little People” for they will fight to the bitter end to get what they want.
During this period in time, children were often shunned (and for many
decades afterward they would be), adults didn’t take them seriously as
they still “had much to learn” until they could play a serious part in
society.
○ Black Man | Stevie Wonder
■ Well it appears Billy Joel just got some competition here. In this song,
famous singer Stevie Wonder sings about his dream of interracial
harmony and equal rights for people of all backgrounds. First recorded
in 1976 album Songs in the Key of Life, the song’s verses consist of
many “firsts” and achievements that go to people of different colours.
Admittedly the song nowadays is less culturally acceptable due to its
use of a colour-based terminology (i.e “black”, “yellow”, “white”).
■ The first verse names Crispus Attucks, a black slave recently freed
and the first martyr of the American Revolution, when we was among
the 5 “massacred” in the Boston Massacre of 1770. It also names “the
red man’s” as the Native Americans who inhabited North America long
before white people did. Pedro Alonso Nino is also named, as the
guide of one of Christopher Columbus’ ships. The railroads that
connected America and revolutionised travel were laid by “yellow
men”, Chinese immigrants coming to seek a better life.
■ In hindsight this is getting slightly tiring, so I’ll leave this Wikipedia link
to help explain who all the people he mentions are.

Unclear Creations: When the Who, How, When, and What Confound
● Art
○ The Awakening Slave | Michelangelo
■ In this work by Michelangelo, one can note the figure of a man trying
to escape the marble block from which he resides. This is a common
example of Michelangelo’s non-finito style, where he purposefully left
work unfinished to send some sort of message about the work being
left in that state. For this case, Michelangelo depicted 4 slaves and
servants of Italy, attempting to break free of the marble (an analogy to
them breaking free of the shackles that their masters had put on

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 them). He left them unfinished in order to illustrate how the struggle
with slavery and freedom is often an eternal one.
○ Isleworth Mona Lisa | Unknown
■ When you visit the Louvre in Paris, you’re likely there for some very
famous paintings. One above all trumps the French Museum’s
collection, a fairly ordinary painting of a woman seated in a normal
position with a mysterious expression on her face: The Mona Lisa. Yet
another Mona Lisa also exists, named the “Isleworth Mona Lisa” for
the British estate which it hung in for several decades when
purchased by British art collector Hugh Blaker. Currently touring Asia
and under the care of the Mona Lisa Foundation (on behalf of the
anonymous consortium that actually owns it), this younger Mona Lisa
appears to have been the same person that Leonardo Da Vinci
painted in his most famous artwork, just 10 years younger. Many have
theorised that this Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo at the behest
of her father/husband, allowing him to practise his legendary painting
skills. Others believe that another Renaissance artist simply painted
the original Mona Lisa in a younger light as a “sexed-up” copy.
Whatever the case, this Mona Lisa hides even more secrets beneath
that mysterious smile than her older portrayal in the Louvre.
○ Woman-Ochre | Willem de Kooning
■ Willem de Kooning takes quite a bold move with this painting.
"Woman-Ochre" was painted in 1955 using the abstract-expressionist
style. It was controversial during that period in time, with even notable
artists like Jackson Pollock criticising Willem for failing to stay true to
the original goal of abstract painting, instead relying upon obvious
figurative painting. The oil painting itself depicts a woman figure,
highly stylised and blurred over (if you look hard enough you'll make it
out though). Perhaps more interesting however, is the fact that this
artwork was actually stolen and remained hidden from the public until
very recently. Here's the full (sort of) story:
■ On November 27th, 1985, an older woman and younger man
walked into the University of Arizona Museum of Art (UAMA)
and asked a security guard about some of the artwork on
display. After the male companion had returned from an upper
floor, the two left the museum (the guard later noted how
unusual their actions were, he expected them to actually look
at the art for much longer). After some investigating, the guard
realised that "Woman-Ochre" had been removed from it's
frame, with suspicions that the man had hidden it under his
coat (it was cold outside after all) on their exit. No fingerprints
were found, no security cameras were installed at the time
(can you guess what their first investment after that was?) and
witnesses provided rough descriptions of the pair. Even the
FBI were unable to find any leads, so the "Woman-Ochre"
disappeared into the Arizona desert.
■ It was actually not until 2017 that a nephew of Rita Alter and
Jerry discovered the painting lying around his deceased
parent's house in New York. As of now, the painting has yet to
be restored or hung up in it's original place. FBI are still
investigating whether or not the Alters actually carried out the
crime or simply purchased the painting from another source.
Seems like Kooning's work has attracted attention from an
unwanted source.
○ Mike the Headless Chicken | David Herrera

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 ■ By far one of the more interesting pieces on this list in terms of its
inspiration; the artwork in question is a metallic sculpture of a
headless chicken in Fruita, Colorado. The actual inspiration for this
piece comes from a true story. In September of 1945, farmer Lloyd
Olsen of Fruita, Colorado beheaded a Wyandotte Chicken named
“Mike” for supper. Though the axe cleaved most of the head off, it
missed a ear and the brain stem. Yet Mike still continued to peck,
walking clumsily and even attempting to crow (it sounded more like a
gurgling sound from his throat). Olsen decided to care for the bird,
seeing the public image it would gain if researchers found out about
this “miracle survival”. Mike was put on display over the next 2 years,
gaining a lot of money for simply being there (it is estimated that he
was worth $10,000). In March 1947 however, during a stopover in
Phoenix, Mike choked on a kernel of corn and died then and there.
Scientists later determined that the axe swing had missed the jugular
vein, causing a clot to prevent him from bleeding out. The brain stem
being left behind also meant that Mike was still capable of basic body
functions such as pecking, walking and (attempted) crowing.
○ La Sagrada Familia | Gaudi
■ Visit Madrid and you will likely have the Sagrada Familia as a stop on
your visit. This majestic, unfinished church is the result of almost 137
years of constant work and renovation. Laid down in 1882, the original
architect died a year afterwards. Famed Catalan Architect Antoni
Gaudi took over the project and scrapped the original design in favour
of a much grander vision. Despite having died in 1926, the church
continues to be worked upon by a succession of new architects.
Unfortunately, each architect has had to add their own spin on the
design, as many of Gaudi’s original models were destroyed in
vandalism during the Spanish Civil War. As a result, the church is
almost an amalgamation of different styles and designs, but then
again, as Gaudi said “my client is in no hurry”. God can wait until
judgement day for this church to finally be complete, though perhaps
2026 may not be so far away right about now.
● Music
○ Symphony No. 10 | Ludwig van Beethoven & Barry Cooper
■ Yet another legendary composer, Ludwig Van Beethoven was actually
dead when this work was first performed in 1988 (161 years dead
actually). This symphony is actually what one calls a “hypothetical
work”, where the entire piece was assembled from fragmentary
sketches of the sheet music that Beethoven had lying around his
study after his death. Barry Cooper took up the job of compiling,
composing and ultimately publishing this 10th Symphony, first
performed by the Royal Philharmonic Society in London (to whom
Beethoven had originally offered the new symphony to). Apparently,
after his completion of the Ninth Symphony in 1824, the legendary
composer focused on his string quartets. Apparently in an 1827 letter
he references a new symphony and is rumoured to have played a
movement of it for his friend Karl Holz, whose descriptions of the
symphony match the notes identified by Barry Cooper. Truly an
amazing story of resurrecting an artist’s work beyond his time.
○ Trying to Get the Feeling Again | The Carpenters
■ Yet another lost piece to the times, “Trying to get the Feeling Again”
was initially written by David Pomeranz and sung by Barry Manilow in
1976 (when it became a top 10 hit). The Carpenters actually recorded
the song a year earlier 1975 for their sixth album, Horizon. During the

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 recording session however, it was found that there wasn’t enough
space on the vinyl disc for the song to fit with the rest of the album
(typical during those days of limited music storage and no
mp3/Spotify/Itunes/digital recording). In 1994 however, backing singer
and band co-founder Richard Carpenter was searching through the
old tapes to find the master backing track for “Only Yesterday”.
Instead he also stumbled upon the original recording for this gem of a
composition, he found it good enough to record and produce that
same year. Almost 20 years after its original recording, Trying to Get
the Feeling Again would finally be released for The Carpenters.
○ Unfinished Symphony | Franz Schubert
■ Ah I can finally breathe a sigh of relief, an entire section of music
without a single work from a musical! (insert throat clearing noise),
anyways let’s move on to yet another mysterious piece from a
legendary composer. Schubert’s Symphony No.8 in B Minor (though it
has been renumbered as Symphony No.7 at times), is a musical
composition that he started in 1822 but left unfinished despite having
lived for 6 more years. When the work was discovered, only 2
movements had been developed as well as a scherzo with only 2
pages (a scherzo is usually a smaller composition that forms part of a
movement). Brian Newbould, the composer who later finished the
composition, has suggested that this work would’ve originally been a
transition piece for Rosamunde (a play which Schubert composed the
music for). This theory is circumstantial thought and it remains
unsolved why he left it unfinished (perhaps we can also slip this into
the Special Area section!). I will however, allow myself (and in some
part you fellow scholar) the joy of writing out the history of this piece.
■ The first appearance of Schubert’s unfinished symphony
occurred in 1823. Having just been given an honorary diploma
by the Graz Music Society, he felt obliged to dedicate a
symphony specifically for them. As a result, he sent an
orchestral score composed the previous year to his friend (and
leading member of the Graz Music Society) Anselm
Huttenbrenner. It contained the first two movements that were
made by him as well as the first two pages of a scherzo. That
is where the trail goes cold. We don’t actually know if Schubert
had actually finished and symphony and some inexplicable
reason caused him to only send part of it, or whether it was
purposefully left unfinished. Eventually the rest of the scherzo
(save for the second strain of the trio) was discovered in a
separate manuscript after the famed composer’s death.
Interestingly, the scherzo that Huttenbrenner had received was
missing some pages (had Schubert torn this out and recycled
them for future use?). Even more curious is that Huttebrunner
made no effort to contact Schubert about the missing pieces,
nor did he even reveal the work’s existence to anyone until
1865 (almost 40 years after Schubert had died!). It was then
that the existence was revealed to conductor Johann Von
Herbeck, who premiered the first two movements in Vienna
that same year.
■ Requiem in D Minor | Wolfgang Mozart & Franz Süssmayr
■ You’ll have to forgive me for not listening to the entirety of this
requiem mass by Mozart, the entire piece is 55 minutes long.
Otherwise known as piece K. 626, there is an interesting story
behind this work. Rumour has it that it was commissioned by

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 one Count Franz Von Walsegg-Stuppach, who liked to pass off
the work of others as his own (poor Mozart). As part of this act,
he made Mozart sign a contract (and even have a witness
present at the signing) that made sure he would not make
copies of the work nor tell anyone else of his involvement in it
(furthermore, the first performance was for the count himself at
the anniversary of his wife’s death on Valentine’s day). A tall
order for the old composer, whose glory days were behind him.
Constantly weakened by a series of fevers and time, Mozart
dedicated most of his final months in 1791 to the writing of two
operas (never resting I see). These were The Magic Flute and
La clemenza di Tito (The Clemency of Titus). From time to
time he would dedicate time to the requiem, but in the end he
only finished the orchestration, and the “Introit.” The “Kyrie,”
“Sequence,” and “Offertorium”. The remaining parts that his
student, Franz Xaver Sussmayr finished were the
“Benedictus”, “Agnus Dei” and the “Communio”.
○ Free as a Bird | The Beatles
■ Its that time of the section where the Wikipedia explanation is much
better than I am at explaining this. Enlighten yourselves scholars.

The Arts as a Verb: To Help, Mayhaps to Hurt

● Art
○ Key to the City | Paul Ramirez Jonas
■ When we think of the “Key to the City”, newsreels and articles often
give us the impression of a huge key that doesn’t really open anything,
but instead is a symbol of trust and respect for the hero/dignitary to
whom it is awarded to. Yet in this spin on that concept, Paul Ramirez
Jonas crafted a master key that could open over 20 sites in the 5
boroughs of New York City (this included museums, police stations,
cemeteries and community gardens). Instead of giving the key over to
dignitaries or heroes, Jonas gave them out to the normal citizens of
the city. As such, the keys portrayed New York’s social landscape as
a place for tourists and locals alike, where one could not just tour the
popular sites but also find hidden gems. The handing of the keys, still
using a bestowal ceremony, also represents a growth of trust and
friendship, as this key can do many things.
○ Harold Whittles Hears for the First Time | Jack Bradley
■ In February 1974, young 5-year old Harold Whittles was captured in a
Readers’ Digest magazine when a doctor turned on his hearing aid.
Having been born deaf, young Whittles’ face lit up with an iconic
expression of surprise and wonder at being able to distinguish sounds
for the first time in his life. Yet when photographer Jack Bradley took
the photo, he never knew what controversy it could cause nowadays.
In capturing a deaf person hearing using medical technology, he sent
the message that the inability to hear is a “defect” that society must
right. The author of that article (who is deaf himself) argues that this is
yet another example of deafness being oppressed and sign-language
being frowned down upon in society.
○ A Show of Hands | Htein Lin
■ In practically every society, a simple raising of a hand can signify
many things. From supporting a political stance, to objecting at a
wedding to even questioning the teachings of a superior. In this light,

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 artist Htein Lin invited three past political prisoners in the New York
City area to have their hands cast by him in the Asia Society Visitor
Center. These 3 people dared to raise their hands in objection to the
policies of their country’s leaders (likely a Southeast Asian country)
and for their protests paid the price by spending time in prison. This
work of art can both help and hurt, as raising hands in objection can
show a hope for the betterment of society, but also hurt the individual
who dared to perform such a gesture.
● Music
○ God Help the Outcasts | Hunchback of Notre Dame
■ Alright this one is edging slightly closer to musicals (worryingly).
Luckily the WSC has slightly better taste when it comes to animated
movies (musical fans please don’t kill me). The Hunchback of Notre
Dame is a great Disney movie released in 1996 and is based on the
1831 novel of the same name by Victor Hugo (we’ve heard his name
before haven’t we?). Instead of focusing on young idealists however,
this movie focuses on the story of a hunchback who is confined to a
life in the belltower of the famous Notre Dame Cathedral. Many regard
this movie as one of the darkest Disney productions, since it explores
heavy topics (read: infanticide, genocide, sin, damnation, lust). In this
particular song, the beautiful gypsy Esmeralda (the later love interest
of the namesake hunchback Quasimodo) seeks refuge in the
cathedral after Judge Frollo (the cruel antagonist whose somehow
been granted a position of power in the city) tries to hunt her down.
She prays to god (at the suggestion of the ever dutiful archdeacon)
that all the outcasts who’ve been rejected from society can be
included.
○ Is This The World We Created…? | Queen
■ Ah Queen, yet another band whose quest to fame is one of tragedy
and triumph (I’m not going to go into detail with this, so I will
wholeheartedly refer to the Oscars and say you watch Bohemian
Rhapsody). In line with “We Are the World”, this song was composed
by Freddie Mercury and Brian May after both had watched the news of
the Ethiopian famine that devastated millions in Africa. The song
serves as a call to action by asking people to look at the sorry state of
society, with so many “hungry mouths we have to feed” and all the
“suffering we breed”. It was performed at the Live Aid concert in 1985
as a finale piece, the Live Aid concert being a monumental event
which gathered some of the biggest names in music at the time to
raise millions for humanitarian aid.
○ YMCA | The Village People
■ One of the most famous songs in existence (there’s a high chance
you’ve heard it before), this song deserves a Wikipedia explanation as
I am beginning to tire heavily with analysis and backstory. Enjoy
yourself again.
○ Wavin’ Flag | Young Artists for Haiti
■ In 2010, the Haiti people bore witness to one of the worst natural
disasters in recent history. A 7.1 magnitude earthquake devastated
local infrastructure and killed approximately 230,000 people.
Neighboring Latin American, South American and even North
American countries sent as much aid as possible (from materials to
specialist search teams to Red Cross personnel). Canada tried to
keep this aid as ongoing as possible by forming the Young Artists for
Haiti, a group of young musicians under the guidance of famed
producer Bob Ezrin. The title song was actually first sung by Somali-

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 Canadian singer K’naan from his album Troubadour, it expressed the
aspirations of the Somalian people and their desire for freedom. When
released, the song hit the #1 single spot in Canada and reached even
higher fame when Coca Cola chose it for their promotional anthem at
the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
○ We Care A Lot | Faith No More
■ If you haven’t chuckled or even remotely considered the irony
between the band name and the song name, I will give you some time
to process it.
■ Now then, let’s get to the analysis. “We Care A Lot” is a song by Faith
No More, who released the original version in 1985, about the same
year the Live Aid concert occurred. Keep in mind though, that this
song was neither played at or would’ve been welcomed at that
concert. “We Care A Lot” was actual a parody song meant to mock the
“popstar trends” that were being played at the Live Aid concert.
Throughout the entire song, the band states that they “care a lot”
about some things that weren’t actually a huge concern at that time.
This included the Los Angeles Police Department, America’s constant
war-waging and even Madonna (for the original song). The song was
later updated and covered 2 more times, first in the band’s 1987
album Introduce Yourself and again (without the lead singer) in 1991
at their live album Live at the Brixton Academy.
○ Streets of London | Ralph McTell
■ Our final musical piece of the 2019 course (breaths long sigh of relief).
I seriously recommend that you watch the actual video, as the pictures
that accompany the song are truly moving and fitting. “Streets of
London” was composed by English songwriter Ralph McTell for his
1969 album Spiral Staircase and wasn’t actually released in the UK
until 1974 (understandable given the inspiration, topics and lyrics).
The song has since been covered by over 200 artists and re-released
in December of 2017 with Annie Lennox and Ralph McTell performing
it for the CRISIS Homelessness Charity. The songs lyrics talks about
the common problems between people in society and the homeless,
lonely, elderly as well as other groups society often shuns. McTell
gained inspiration from the song after his years backpacking, hiking
and busking (playing music in the streets) throughout Europe. Initially
the song was going to be called “Streets of Paris” after he spent a
while observing the homeless there. After realising that he was talking
about London however (and the small hitch that there was another
song called “People of Paris”), he changed the name to what it is now.
Interestingly, the “market” he refers to in the song is the Surrey Street
Market in Croydon.

Behind the Scenes

● Consider each of the following roles in producing a work of art or music. What
are some other occupations not mentioned here but still necessary for us to
appreciate the arts?
○ curator | handler | restorer | concept artist
■ Curator: Originating from the Latin word “cura” (literally “to take care),
a curator is often the person in any museum or other institute who will
look after the entire collection and ensure that visitors are aware of it’s
value. The curator is often someone who possess a wide array of
knowledge about the materials they look after. Curators often take the

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 time to lead tour groups or guests around their museums, making sure
to curate details about the artwork being displayed. Curators are also
responsible for the introduction of new works into their museums,
often bargaining with private collectors or governments to lend
“exhibitions” of temporary displays for a few weeks or months.
■ Handler: The handler is rather self-explanatory, they handle (pun
intended) specific artworks or groups of artworks within galleries. Their
duties include ensuring that artworks are packaged and unpackaged
properly, installing and removing artwork as well as overseeing any
transportation of the collection. Within music the handler does not
exist as a job, so this role is limited to art.
■ Restorer: This is pretty obvious, the restorer is tasked with the
delicate and often nerve-wracking job to to restore and conserve
(hence the more formal name conservator-restorer) priceless works of
art (or musical instruments) for display in galleries. Often the restorer
is an expert on the certain art form and is well-versed in restoration
tactics. They can be paid thousands and sometimes millions of dollars
depending on the value of the art they’re restoring, but their reputation
can easily be tarnished (just like a botched restoration job) if they
mess up poorly. Take the example of this St. George sculpture as a
case.
■ Concept Artist: A concept artist is one of the coolest jobs on this list
in my opinion and I’ve left some examples of their work on the
slideshow below. A concept artist (or team of them) are the people
who are responsible for converting ideas into sketches. They convey
these ideas through their art, putting the vision of the producer/director
on canvas (yes, they can use tools other than pencil and paper)
before sharing it to the production team. Concept art is usually
revisited several times before it gets the greenlight “go-ahead” from
the creative team. After that, concept art can also be used in press
releases or promotional videos to begin generating awareness about
the upcoming media. Concept art is often used in video games, films,
animations and event comic books (each has an example below).
○ museum registrar | conservator | collection manager
■ Museum registrar: The registrar is another museum role that often
doesn’t get as much attention as other jobs. Yet without the registrar,
none of those jobs would have been able to perform their work in the
first place. Registrars are the people in museums who oversee the
policies and procedures regarding the acquisition, loaning, exhibition,
storage, packing and shipping (to name a few) of the artworks or other
pieces in a museum/archive. Registrars work in close partnership with
conservators and curators to ensure the museum has met its
professional standards and reflects what it wishes to show off.
Registrars often work in documentation and record-keeping, ensuring
that no piece from the museum leaves or enters without having gone
through them. Their key role lies in documenting the restoration,
condition and movement of any permanent pieces the museum owns,
while also ensuring that new (or even loaned) pieces are given a
registration number and looked after properly. Should a museum have
too many items, registrars often deal with the deaccession (essentially
the selling or disposing) of unnecessary items. Perhaps the most
crucial job of a registrar however, is to oversee the transport and
unpackaging of any art piece being loaned or coming into the
museum. Often times, they will take it upon themselves to train a
courier who will remain with the piece until it arrives at its final

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 destination. In certain cases, especially if the artwork is extremely
valuable and of great significance, the registrar themselves will
accompany the priceless piece as a courier.
■ Conservator: A conservator is not to be mixed up with its sister job, a
restorer (see above for that one). A conservator deals with looking
after contemporary art pieces (i.e recent works from the past decade)
and ensuring that they maintain their quality. A restorer on the other
hand, works in ensuring that older pieces of art that may have some
damage of time on them are restored to what they would have been
like just after they were made. A conservator can also do this role, but
often museums will prefer two separate departments. Conservators
are required to be knowledgeable about ways to make art look as if
though it was just made yesterday as well as have some background
information about the piece they’re working on.
■ Collection manager: Just like how conservators and curators report
to registrars, registrars need to report to someone as well. That
someone is the collection manager. Collections managers oversee the
cataloging, inventory managing, loaning and procurement of entire
collections (either for certain historical periods, concepts, art
movements, music genres or even temporary exhibitions). They often
inform conservators, curators and registrars as to upcoming changes
or unseen shifts in the museum’s inventory that isn’t shown to the
public (i.e within the archives).
○ sound engineer | producer | licenser | backup singer
■ Sound engineer: When you hear a recording of music, you hear it in
such crystal clear quality (or earrape quality if you’re one of those
teenagers) because the sound engineers who worked on the
recording while the band performed a song were able to adjust the
different aspects of the music to be better for digitization. I’m not going
to go into detail with the specifics on how they manipulate what they
manipulate, but the general idea is that sound engineers. I’ll let you
explore that in detail here.
■ Producer: Record producers or music producers are essentially the
head honchos of musical industry. They are the people who oversee
the production of a band or performer’s music as well as the sound
recording of the piece (as such, they work in close conjunction with
sound engineers). Their roles are far more varied and can easily
include:
■ Gathering ideas for the music project
■ Collaborate with artists to select cover tunes or original songs
■ Work with singers to help improve their melodies or lyrics
■ Coach singers and musicians in the studio
■ Licenser: When a piece of music is released and copyrighted by the
musicians/band, the licenser is responsible for overseeing the
licensing of the music to separate groups or even individuals. If a film
company wanted to use a singer’s song in their production, they’d
have to contact the licenser to find out the specific terms and
conditions needed to include the song in the first place. Licensers also
then oversee the integration or use of the song to ensure that the
license/contract is upheld. Without licensers, anyone could easily use
the song with no consequences whatsoever.
■ Backup singer: When a main singer needs a vocal harmony or lead-
in part in their work, then backup singers are called upon to provide
some additions to the song. In different genres of music this takes
different forms. In rock music, it isn’t uncommon to find backup singers

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 doubling as the drummers or guitarists, whilst in Latin American music
backup singers may play percussion instruments while singing, even
pop culture has backup singers dancing complex choreographies
whilst singing through headset microphones. Perhaps the more
“modern” incarnation of a backup singer is the role that K-pop bands (I
never wish to type that term again) commonly rely on in their live
performances: backup dancers.
○ orchestrator | record label | roadies | conductor
■ Orchestrator: If you’ve ever gone to watch an orchestra (a most
calming and culturally informative experience I must say), you will
likely notice some key difference from the original sheet music and the
orchestral notes. This is because an orchestrator has assigned
instruments from the orchestra to the different parts of a piece written
by a composer. They look at the parts of the composition and assign
roles/parts/solos/group patterns to the orchestra depending on which
instruments or emotions need to be played/transmitted. Orchestrators
also have a role in adjusting sheet music written for another medium
to the orchestra. It isn’t uncommon to see a Mozart piano symphony
or Beethoven violin concerto being adjusted so it can be played in
such a large group.
■ Record label: When a famous musician records a new album or
single, they often give the rights to market, distribute, promote,
manufacture and copyright enforcement to a record label (otherwise
known as a record company). These corporations often deal with the
promotion and marketing side of the music industry, promoting the
song to radios, televisions and even social media in order to expand
the consumer base and get more money rolling in for the artist. Some
of the biggest record companies include: Sony Music Entertainment:
Universal Music Group and Warner Music Group (lots of film-based
record labels if you haven’t noticed, seeing as the best way to promote
a song is to put it in a blockbuster which millions can see).
■ Roadies: This term doesn’t actually refer to any 1 job, but instead it is
an umbrella term used to describe the support personnel who
accompany musicians when they hit the road (hence the name
roadies) and go on tour. They will often take up separate sleeper
buses or trailers and perform every possible duty except perform the
piece onstage with the musicians. This team can include: tour
managers, production managers, stage managers, front of house and
monitor engineers, lighting directors, lighting designers, lighting techs,
guitar techs, bass techs, drum techs, keyboard techs, pyrotechnicians,
security/bodyguards, truck drivers, merchandise crew, and caterers
(as well as others). Without these people, who are often given credit
after a performance in a location during the tour, the concept of bands
“hitting the road” to promote their songs would never have taken flight
in the first place.
■ Conductor: Perhaps one of the oldest (if not the oldest) entry on this
list, the conductor is literally the person responsible for ensuring an
ensemble performs properly. A conductor will often stand on a slightly
raised platform at the front of the ensemble (be it an orchestra,
chorus, opera company, ballet or other group) with the sheet notation
of the compositions in front of them. They will often carry a small
baton in the right hand (though historically this may have been a piece
of rolled parchment or even huge walking stick) or nothing at all.
Throughout the entire performance, conductors make rhythmic pulses
or strokes with their arms. Each stroke has a meaning unique to each

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 member of the ensemble (i.e the percussions receive different
messages whilst the strings have their own hand gestures). Over the
centuries, conducting has been refined into something of an art form
in of itself, with conductors having their own interpretations of work
and how they were meant to act in the ensemble. Gustav Mahler was
a notable 19th century composer from Austria who could dance up
and down and make the most vivid arm strokes in his pieces, whilst
his counterpart Richard Strauss barely moved his hands at all. The
most famous conductor of all though may be Lenard Bernstein, a 20th
century American composer who led orchestras in a beautiful and
almost fantastical way. I’ll let an actual conductor explain this crucial
role to you though.

Additional Cases & Guiding Questions

● Consider this example of what some might term the music of the marginalised:
a genre centered on a traditional Indian drum called the parai. Along with
watching the performance, you may want to read articles such as this one, on
its significance. Can music be a way to empower or ennoble disenfranchised
communities?
○ What a most interesting musical form indeed. Paraiattam is a form of music
based on the parai drum that is practised by some Indians in more rural
areas. Since the entire musical form is dominated by drums, dancing and
singing, the musicians are often shunned from performing it in their home
villages due to the nuisance it can cause to the ears. Yet whenever they
perform to a larger crowd in a natural area, clear of buildings or homes, they
can often make a profit and attract a lot of praise/attention. This is but one of
many ways music has and continues to empower and elevate the status of
disenfranchised communities. Once, black musicians were shunned for
playing jazz or the blues in the south of America, yet whenever they did
perform in large groups it brought great attention to their racial plight and
allowed society to slowly accept them more.
● Consider instances in which photographers and the media are able to
popularise images of marginalized groups, such as a starving refugee or a
victim of violence. Discuss with your team: when is it appropriate to
photograph people in times of pain and crisis? Is it ever acceptable for such
photos to be staged? Should people win awards for taking them?
○ It is becoming more popular nowadays that photographers, journalist,
musicians and other forms of expression capture the misery and
marginalisation of society. It is more common in art galleries to notice pictures
of refugee faces, scars from a burst of violence, or a village in ruins after
marginalised groups were attacked. It seems appropriate to photograph these
people if they feel like it is necessary to share their emotions with the rest of
the world. These photos should never be staged, because only those who
truly experience the pain can tell their stories through their emotions. People
should win awards for the contributions these photos made in terms of
political and social change, not just for capturing our sorrows and pain.
● Consider the history of jazz music as a case study of the music of a
marginalised group gradually becoming mainstream. Has the same process
occurred for other musical styles? Discuss with your team: do we ever
undervalue or overvalue music because of the group of people with which it is
associated?
○ The history of jazz music is truly one filled with stories of triumph and tragedy.
The first ever jazz recording was the Original Dixieland Jass Band with their

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 Livery Stable Blues, recorded on February 26th 1917. While the genre itself
was later mocked, criticised and even shunned from American society; the
origins of jazz remain as elusive as its actual definition. We can only imagine
that sometime in the 1860s, black citizens in New Orleans’ famed Storyville
red light district began playing “jas” (an African-American slang term for
“energy”) in brothels as prostitutes did their thing (yeah, not the greatest of
origin stories). Jelly Roll Morton, one the earliest jazz pioneers, was even
known as a euphemism for sex. Jas later evolved into “jass”, not much of an
evolution considering that the word was likely a reference to a woman’s
backside. Either broadway or jazz bands later replaced the s with a z in order
to avoid pranksters scratching the “j” off their posters.
○ Even as jazz evolved into a mainstream radio station hit and album bestseller,
the genre itself was attacked by white critics, who deemed it a creation of
subhuman abilities by people who probably couldn’t even write or read sheet
music. Even within jazz fans, there was a harsh divide on whether the refined
“white jazz” was better than the true-to-life “black jazz”.
○ Jazz is just one example of how we undervalued music based on who wrote
it, especially considering the marginalisation of the group that created it.
Some might consider that we overvalue “pure orchestral” music from the
great European artists such as Mozart or Beethoven, yet we do not even
recognize the name Joseph Boulogne (the “Black Mozart” who was actually a
frenchmen renowned for his orchestral skills). Music should never be
shunned or given too much spotlight because of the skin colour of the person
who wrote it.
● You may be familiar with the four most famous Beatles: John, Paul, George,
and Ringo. A number of other contributors have claimed (or been given) the
title of the “Fifth Beatle”. Discuss with your team: what would it mean to
"deserve" this title? Do the most famous four get too much credit for the
band’s achievements?
○ There have been many people accredited with the title of “Fith Beatle”
because of their contribution to the band’s success in the first place. Many,
including Paul Mccartney, believe that this title should officially go to George
Martin, producer with the band ever since they first played in the 1960s up
until his death in 2016. Others credit it to Brian Epstein, the young manager
who “discovered” the band in 1961 during a gig at the Cavern Club in
Liverpool (it was he who would later set up that fateful meeting with George
Martin). Some even claim it to be Neil Aspinall, a former schoolmate of Paul
and George who would later be their roadie (driving them to shows and even
lugging their instruments onstage). Others give it to former members of the
band who quit it for personal reasons; these included former bassist Stuart
Sutcliffe (age 21 at death in 1967), former drummer Pete Best (still alive at
77) and former pianist Billy Preston (died 2006 due to kidney disease). Even
Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, the shopkeeper in the Simpsons, claimed to have
been the “Fifth Beatle” after a cameo episode alongside Paul and Linda
Mccartney (understandably that claim isn’t as widely supported as the others).
○ The attainment of this achievement would likely go to someone who has
helped the band achieve their popularity or fame through the use of their own
connections or positions. The main four members of the band get enough
credit in my opinion, not too much or too little. If they had gotten too much
credit, then the existence of a “Fifth Beatle” would be disputed or even
ignored.
● She’s the most famous Mozart you’ve never heard of. Read through the story
of Nannerl Mozart and discuss with your team: what implications, if any, does
this rediscovery of her work and talent have on our understanding of music
history?

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 ○ The story of Nannerl Mozart, otherwise known as Maria Anna Mozart, is one
of social prejudice blocking stardom. Maria would tour Europe with her
younger brother Amadeus and was an excellent harpsichord player by the
age of 11. In London she garnered critical acclaim and wonder when British
crowds saw a woman playing in an orchestra so wonderfully. Sadly by 1769
she was not allowed to show off her musical talent, having reached the age
by which she could be married off. During this time, Amadeus would continue
to tour Europe (most notably Italy and France) whilst his once prodigal sister
was forced to stay at home in Salzburg, Austria.
○ The rediscovery of her work is indeed impactful on our understanding of
music history. Mozart actually looked up to her when he was a toddler and
wished to one day be as good as she was when playing the harpsichord.
Perhaps she even helped to write some of Mozart’s sonatas and orchestras,
as the two were constantly in correspondence with one another.
● “We are the World” was one of the most famous and successful songs in the
history of charitable fundraising, but its remake in 2010 to help victims of the
Haitian earthquake was much less well-received. Consider the argument in this
article, then discuss with your team: was the remake doomed to fail? What is
the best way to raise awareness and funds in the social media era?
○ “We are the World” was a 1985 hit charity single that brought together some
of the biggest names in pop culture back then (Michael Jackson, Quincy
Jones and Lionel Richie) to raise money for humanitarian aid sent to Africa (a
recent famine had devastated multiple countries and millions of people there).
In 2010, the Haiti earthquake came about and devastated the small
Caribbean island. So it seemed logical that, on the 25th anniversary of the
original song, We Are the World 25 came on to gather 80 of the biggest
names in modern music (Justin Bieber, Will.I.Am and Tony Bennett). After a
short stint on the spotlight (including a number 2 on the charts and quarter of
a million downloads), the song completely disappeared. Critics had slammed
it and the public had shunned it as a result. We can’t exactly blame the song
for being poor in quality, we can instead blame the society in which it found
itself being recorded in. Back in the 1985, artists collaborating (especially on a
scale as large as the original WATW) was unheard of, information was
inaccessible (no internet, quite literally!) and the media controlled what you
heard (unlike now, where everyone can be a Youtube Star).
○ The best way to raise awareness right now on social media is a simple post.
A caption detailing who needs aid and why, and what the reader can do to
help.
● Consider this program meant to increase access to (and interest in) the arts
among those in Brazil who lack the financial resources to explore them on their
own. Discuss with your team: is this a plan you could support, or would you
rather see these funds invested in other ways?
○ The program referred to by the article is a social welfare one in Brazil that
sees the government giving “cultural coupons” to workers who make $300
dollars a month (more than 5 times Brazil’s minimum wage). The
rechargeable coupons are worth $20 a month and will allow hundreds of
thousands, if not millions, to view cultural exhibitions (everything from art
museums to cinema tickets to even live performances). The government
hopes that it will start something of a cultural revolution in a country where
many struggle to find time to express themselves. This plan is certainly
something I could support, given the correct conditions and end goal.
Perhaps some of the earnings from the coupons could also go towards
improving quality of life in other areas (i.e access to water, infrastructure or
other facilities).

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 ● In Canada, the Canadian Content requirements stipulate that 40% of music
played on radio stations must be created by Canadians. Discuss with your
team: should governments regulate artistic expression to prioritize and ensure
representation and inclusiveness, whether of their own national artists or of
marginalized communities?
○ This is an interesting approach to regulating artistic expression. The
Canadian government is likely attempting to promote national artists in the
hope that some of these national artists are from marginalized communities. It
might work for them, but governments attempting to mandate who can
broadcast on the radio might backfire in other countries. I’d like the see the
US mandate that at least 5% of the songs played on the radio station are
composed by Latinos or other South Americans, as opposed to the usual
American white and black creators. Governments should try to encourage
both representation and inclusiveness, by ensuring that all social groups in
their country get equal say in the popular media (i.e TV shows, News hosts
and radio station DJs).

VOICES FROM THE MARGINS

Guiding Questions
Credits to my excellent teammate, Caitlin for completing some parts of this
resource!

● How might literature help us understand the experience of marginalised

groups?
○ It is in the pages of a book that the joys of a new world can be explored, or
the flaws of an old world exposed. It is in literature that we often find
sympathy and even empathy for characters who might be experiencing the
worst of events. Marginalised groups often experience such types of events in
their lives, so putting it on literature allows it to become known amongst the
populace.
● Should marginalised writers strive to be accepted by mainstream critics? Or
should they focus on their own audiences?
○ A mix of both. Marginalised writers obviously have their own goals when it
comes to whom they wish to reach out to and be accepted by. Mainstream
critics are sort of a complement to the authors, if a notable person or
organisation (such as a newspaper or journal) notices the work, then that
helps it achieve further popularity. Most marginalised writers should strive to
reach their own audiences and create the change they’re supposed to.

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● Explore the idea of a literary canon. Who created the list of literary works that
everyone is expected to study? What voices, if any, do you think are
underrepresented in this list?
○ The idea of a literary canon dates back to 1890s America and later 1900s
England. Both countries believed it was necessary to force students to study
a series of books (a “canon”) in order to understand the influence and
importance those books had during their time period. Modern literary canons
are often introduced at higher areas of learning, usually in secondary rather
than elementary school. The list of literary works that people are expected to
study are often changing, with the IB school system changing theirs every 8
years with the usual course reform. American education focuses mostly on
the works of the nation (as is the driving force behind many other literary
canons), so the government and federal authorities have a say in what goes
into the canon. As always, some voices are shunned more than others.
Hardly any American school children will read a book written about the torture
of slaves in Colonial History, nor will they see the Russian and Vietnamese
(or Korean) side of the Cold War. In fact the latter area is so shunned in
literary works that the Korean War is often called “The Forgotten War”
because of how few Americans actually know of it.
● Should the canon be updated, or should the very idea of a canon be scrapped?
○ Since literature or other english studies in many schools rely on the existence
of such a canon, simply scrapping them is not going to work. Instead, it is
necessary to update the canon to represent the history (or indeed the
movement) it wishes to voice. Instead of simply focusing on the national point
of view regarding an event (i.e British books about the empire they once
controlled), schools and governments should update their canon to include
other points of view too; even if those points of view can be slightly negative
(i.e the oppression that Indians faced under the British rule).
● Discuss with your team: as more marginalised voices take their place in the list
of works we study in school, how should we decide which traditionally studied
works to remove to make space for them?
○ Well aren’t we combining history and literature together quite a lot here? As
more marginalised voices rise to the popularity and prestige that earns them a
right to be in canon, we often have difficulty accepting them in such canon. It
is probably better to remove traditional works whose messages are outdated
or have been poured over too much by students.
● Are modern critics overcompensating by finding too much value in works by
members of marginalised communities?
○ Certainly not. Though there are a large number of modern critics who are
lavishing praise upon praise for works by marginalised authors, that praise is
well-justified. Consider that these authors not only had to write a book about
their lives, they also had to have the courage to speak up about the prejudice
and injustice they faced. Any book by a marginalised author is well-worth the
praise for just existing.
● Are today’s films and television series doing more to perpetuate or to change
the perception of marginalised groups? Do their creators have a responsibility
to do one or the other?
○ The films and television series of today serve both purposes. Whilst some do
perpetuate the perception of marginalised groups, others (usually the more
positively reviewed ones) tend to change the perception for the better. As for
which one is the duty of the creators, it really depends on the vision that they
have. Of course a historical film about the treatment of black people in
America needs to perpetuate the perception that they were horribly treated for
centuries, whilst a fictional film about a black person trying to become a

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 doctor in 1960s America can change our perception by presenting a
marginalized person in an unlikely scenario.

Poetry
● alternate names for black boys | Danez Smith
○ This poem has a rather interesting spin. The names that Danez Smith
presents aren’t so much actual names like “Henry” or “Jessica”, rather they
symbolise what black boys have been. For example, “first son of soil”
represents that these coloured people were initially what all humans were.
The names send a general message that black people have been
downtrodden and shunned for their roles in society, something we should
instead be celebrating and respecting.
● Crusoe in England | Elizabeth Bishop
○ Cleverly disguised within a seemingly normal (albeit lengthy) poem about
Robinson Crusoe upon his return to civilisation; is a double narrative about
the marginalised role of being a creative poet. Elizabeth Bishop using “hissing
volcanoes”, “craters” and “left-over clouds” to describe the difficult and often
depressing parts of being a writer. Yet when creativity does hit, it can flow like
“colourful lava” until it all runs out.
● Goodbye, Sancho Panza | Justin Hamm
○ Ah Don Quixote, that gallivanting Spanish knight with delusions of grandeur.
Accompanying him on his route is on his faithful (and somewhat chubby)
squire Sancho Panza, who adds comments known as Sanchismos. These
comments are a combination of broad humour, ironic Spanish proverbs and
earthy wit. Justin Hamm allows this style to come into its own in a modern
interpretation of Sancho Panza.
● Min Nong | Li Shen (Caitlin H Dixon)
○ Min Nong is a Tang dynasty poem written by author Li Shen (李绅). It follows the
Wu Yan Jue Shi (五言绝诗) poetry style. The original version of the poem has a total
of four lines, each line of the poem has 5 words. The author uses simple and plain
vocabulary to describe how tough it is for farmers to work under the scorching sun
and thus we should all treasure the food we have.
○ 悯农（唐家盈）：《悯农》这首诗是唐代李绅写的。这首诗是一首五言绝诗，
总共有四行，每行有五个字。第一，二 和四行的最后一字是押韵的，它押得
是韵母“u” 声，分别是“午”、“土” 和 “苦”。作者用了浅白易懂的文字
来描述一个在烈日当空辛劳工作的农民的情况，他用力地用锄头来松土，而大
滴的汗珠不停的滴在泥土上。最后两行强调我们要珍惜食物因为得来不易，原
因就是农民辛勤耕种我们才有米饭吃。这首诗是家喻户晓的诗。而且，长辈常
常在饭桌上告诉子女要把米饭吃光，不要浪费一粒米饭。
● Ode on a Grecian Urn | John Keats
○ Look up John Keats in a poet catalogue and you’ll probably find the word
“romantic” under his name. John Keats was an English poet who was inspired
by his own lust for immortality to pen this ode. Of the 5 that he wrote, the
Romantics continue to believe this was the best of them. Sadly, Keats would
never see his odes widely loved, the young poet dying due to tuberculosis at
the age of 25. “Ode on a Grecian Urn” was written in 1819, the year he
contracted the disease and as such was inspired to address immortality. In it,
the speaker is talking and looking at a greek urn (a sort of fancy, slim vase
that was highly prized in Ancient times). On the urn are intricate designs
depicting scenes from life, where the figures are frozen in antiquity and forced
to live the same moment in perpetuity. He remarks on the naked men and
women running around (likely a sex scene) and the young man attempting to
woo a young woman with his musical abilities (she’ll never get old, so take
solace in the fact you can play for her forever).

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● My Shoes | Charles Simic
○ Charles Simic compares his shoes as being a reflection of his own life. He
finds in them the spirits of his deceased brother and sister, who likely owned
the shoes before passing them down to him. He finds the marks of his history
and a reflection of who he is.
● The New Colossus | Emma Lazarus
○ The “Colossus” that Emma Lazarus refers to in this poem is none other than
the Statue of Liberty. This is characterised by her describing it as “a mighty
woman, with a torch” and that Lady Liberty is the beacon for those “huddled
masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,” This poem likely represents
the hope and welcome that the shores of America must’ve been to the
huddled masses who once sought the fortune and life it promised.
● The Octopus | Ogden Nash
○ By far the shortest poem on this list (only taking up 4 lines), The Octopus by
Ogden Nash simply remarks on the mystery of the Octopus’ tentacles. The
narrator asks if they are “legs or arms” and that if he were an octopus, he’d
call himself us. This might mean that the narrator considers the Octopus a
living community within itself, with its tentacles each having their own
conscious and treatment (much like our own society).
● The Raven | Edgar Allan Poe (Caitlin H Dixon)
○ The Raven, a gothic poem by Edgar Allan Poe is about an unnamed narrator
who tries to read on a cold December night intending to rid his sorrow over
the death of his beloved “Lenore”. Suddenly a “nevermore” croaking raven
enters his house and sits upon the bust of Pallas. There are many themes
explored in this poem such as grief, negativity, depression, death, loneliness
and the supernatural. The themes of the supernatural can be explored
through the interaction between the narrator and the raven, grief, negativity,
depression, death, and loneliness can be seen from the narrator’s pain and
longing over his deceased beloved “Lenore”.
● The Tyger | William Blake
○ Chances are you’ve heard the opening lines of this one: “Tyger Tyger,
burning bright/In the forests of the night;”. The Tyger was published by
English poet William Blake in 1794 as part of his Songs of Experience
collection. Many call it the most famous of his poems and it is likely one of if
not the most anthologised works in British poetry. The Tyger speaks about a
questioner who wonders what force would have dared to make a creature
with such perfect duality: aesthetic beauty but also primal ferocity. “The
Lamb” mentioned in the poem refers to the sister poem of this one by the
same name, in which William Blake argues that in order to fully see the
person whose hand made the Tyger, they must also see the hand that
created the Lamb.
● the Un-National Monument Along the Canadian Border | William Stafford
○ In this somewhat cynical poem by William Stafford, the trivial nature of
national monument are explored. In it, Stafford poses a place where “the
grass joined hands” despite it being a place where “no monument stands”. He
comments on how this is where “the battle did not happen” or “where the
unknown soldier did not die”. Yet despite all the peace that characterises this
place, we humans “celebrate it by forgetting its name”. It is somewhat sad
that we do not place monuments where humans have yet to unleash their
destructive nature, instead we put up great structures where blood was split
and humans lives sacrificed.
● Those Who Do Not Dance | Gabriela Mistral
○ A heartwarming poem that also focuses somewhat on a few marginalised
groups. “Those Who Do Not Dance” is a piece of literature about finding

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 different ways to express yourselves when biology or fate does not allow you
to do it in the conventional way. A crippled child unable to dance is told to let
their heart dance, the invalid who cannot sing is told to let their heart sing, the
poor dead thistle unable to dance is told to let their heart fly to the wind. The
final stanza is perhaps the most inspiring, where the entire valley dances in
joy under the sun; while those who do not join in have their hearts turned to
dust. It might serve as a call for action, we humans need to include those who
might not be capable of the same things as us, for the entire world will be
much happier then.
● What Kind of Asian Are You? | Alex Dang
○ What a most interesting spoken poetry clip. In this clip, Alex Dang slams out a
few stanzas about the marginalisation of Asians in American society and how
disgusted he is at it. He speaks of Asian stereotypes all mashed into one
“culture” and that somehow that’s meant to assimilate all Asian immigrants
into American culture. He speaks of the stereotypes Americans don’t want to
hear, like how the derogatory terms for Asians first emerged in their slavery to
Americans and their corpses mauled by American troops. It is no surprise that
in America, Asians have been marginalised heavily, never once featured as
the main role in any event and always sidelined or even antagonised.
● White Boy Time Machine: Override | Hieu Minh Nguyen
○ In this short yet curt poem, Hieu Minh Nguyen once agains speaks about the
marginalisation of Asians and specifically the Vietnamese by Americans. He
tells of how every place visited is a white man describing the landscape so
they can conquer it. The beautiful poem about his childhood village in
Vietnam is also described in such a way, with the recent news of a child dying
after stepping on a landmine, or how the trees were described as fire (likely
from the napalm the Americans dropped in the tonnes). In recounts of the
Vietnam war, we don’t often hear about the countless innocent Vietnamese
villages trapped between the two sides and devastated by both. The
Americans and “whites” have also managed to nullify their voice and
marginalise their culture.

Multimedia
● Film | Hidden Figures
○ An excellent film that I wholeheartedly recommend you watch in your spare
time, Hidden Figures tells the true story of three African-American NASA
employees as they struggle to achieve their dreams and aspirations in
apartheid America. While the majority of the film focuses on the struggle of
human computer Katherine Goble, who works as part of Al Harrison Space
Task Group; it also focuses on her two colleagues and close friends: unofficial
acting-supervisor Dorothy Vaughan and aspiring engineer Mary Jackson.
Throughout her work on the Mercury 7 and subsequently Friendship 7 space
programs, Katherine is shunned by other members of her group. Since all of
her colleagues are white males, it’s not surprising that she receives some
racial treatment (i.e receiving a less advanced, separate coffee maker and
having to walk 800 meters to the nearest coloured bathroom). Dorothy
Vaughan is kicked out of a library while attempting to learn Fortran, the
language used by new IBM computers on the NASA base. Mary Jackson
fights to win the privilege of achieving an engineering degree at an all-white
school. Hidden Figures is perfect for those wishing to learn about how
individual black women during apartheid America were able to rise above the
racial barriers and achieve great things.
● B (If I Should Have a Daughter) | Sarah Kay

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 ○ Honestly, this TED Talk given by spoken word poet Sarah Kay is amazing
and you’d better give it a watch yourself. In this poem presented at TED2011,
Sarah Kay speaks of how she’ll raise a daughter and serve the mother-
teacher relationship perfectly. She does use a few funny (but certainly not
cheesy) tips for how to raise a child, but in just over 3 minutes she addresses
all the major aspects her girl will need to overcome in life (read: heartbreak,
love and strength).
● Dandelions | Clayton Valli
○ Rather interesting as a video, since Dr. Clayton Valli doesn’t actually use any
words throughout this poem. “Dandelions” is an American Sign Language
poem that uses the extended analogy of dandelions to deaf people. Like how
we try and rip Dandelions out from the ground, we’ve been trying to eliminate
deaf people by banning sign language and other efforts. Yet despite all this,
the dandelion lives on and remains natural and beautiful. Likewise, sign
language and people who use it carry on, persisting with their lives despite
the cruelty they face.
● Life of a Perfectionist | Libby Scott
○ Libby Scott takes the prize for youngest writer on this list. At 10 years of age,
the daughter of Kym Scott has been diagnosed with autism and is also a
perfectionist. In this beautiful text that Libby typed out, she describes life
through the eyes of a perfectionist. She is reluctant to get out of bed to
rearrange her candles, she writes a letter to Taylor Swift (and gets a reply)
that her song doesn’t have precisely 100 words, she even attempts to tell the
lifeguard at her local swimming pool that he isn’t eating skittles in the right
order (not to great reception). We don’t often consider perfectionists as
marginalized, but they can be shunned from society because of how they
can’t adapt to its imperfections. Instead we as society should try and see the
world from their point of view and listen to their thoughts whenever they dare
to speak out.
● On Middle School Misery | John Green
○ An eye-opening experience, in 3 minutes on a train in New York, John Green
tells the story of his Middle School years and how his bullying made him open
his eyes to the ridiculous notion that those years don’t need to be the best of
your life. He talks of how other nerds, kind strangers and his parents would
support him through those miserable years and allow him to survive that
ordeal. To quote the quote he used: “The only way out, is through” (Robert
Frost, American poet).
● The Giving Tree | Shel Silverstein
○ A heartwarming story of how nature (and as an extension, others) can provide
all we need and never once ask for anything in exchange. The Giving Tree
tells the story of a mighty apple tree and a young boy, as the boy grows old,
the tree often finds that her once highly valued whole is needed in its parts.
Whereas once the boy loves to climb the trunk, swing from the branches and
eat the apples; he later finds a need to sell the apples, cut off the branches
and use the trunk as a boat. In the end, the boy (now a very old man) comes
back to find the tree reduced to a mere stump, but finds that it will do perfectly
for a nice rest.
○ (Inspiration from Caitlin H. Dixon): As a slightly more cynical note, literary
critics have also considered this book to be a hidden message about human
selfishness and how we humans only appeal to the natural world (the tree in
this case) for our gain. It should also be noted that this book was banned for a
brief period in 1988 because it was considered “sexist” and was also
“criminalising the foresting agency”. Seems like the Colorado schooling took
more than a bit of offence at the bold negative message of the book.

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Prose
● Fitting In | Max Gladstone
○ Part of the Wild Cards universe, “Fitting In” tells the story of Robin Ruttiger, a
super-powered person who has tried to fit in, but constantly finds life is
throwing him fastballs. As a failed contestant of the superhero reality TV show
American Hero, Robin has the ability to make his body elastic; stretching or
compressing like elastigirl from Incredibles. Life now finds him as a humble
high school guidance counselor, without many students to guide albeit. Yet
when his favourite bakery in Jokertown becomes the target of vandalism (an
elaborate real estate scheme in reality), he finds a use for coming out and
utilising his superpowers to protect his friends. The situation faced by Robin is
not uncommon to those faced by people in society; a person with great
powers (be it increased intellect or physical strength), shunned because they
see no need to “stand out” from the others or have attention drawn to them.
We shouldn’t be marginalising those with greater powers, we should be trying
to open our arms to them and make room for their enhanced abilities.
● Invisible Man (Prologue & Chapter 1) | Ralph Ellison
○ The Invisible Man by Ralph Ellisoxn is a rather eye-opening novel published
in 1952, just prior to the period of Apartheid in America. It addresses many of
the social and intellectual issues facing African-Americans in the 20th century,
along with how their “black nationalism” can often have many different layers.
The book tells the story of one unnamed black man (possibly an attempt by
Ellison to appeal to all black men) and his adventures through life. His living
conditions are squalid, his education sabotaged by white teachers and his job
taken away thanks to racism. After being hospitalized from a boiler explosion
(which was caused thanks to his boss), the narrator is brought in by a kind old
lady named Mary Rambo. During his time under her rent, the narrator
accidentally riles up a black crowd at an eviction to attack the enforcement
officers. In subsequent chapters, the narrator joins the “Brotherhood”, but
later finds that they don’t really care so much about the rights of black people.
The book ends with the narrator stating that he is ready to come out of hiding
and return to the world, having told his story to provide a voice for people with
similar plights.
● Lorry Raja | Madhuri Vijay
○ This short story by Madhuri Vijay talks about how an empowering job can
create even more marginalisation. Yet the person with the job is also
marginalised. In the story the older brother named Siju receives a job as a
lorry driver. This makes his behaviour change significantly, treating his
brothers and sisters (even his father) with disdain and selfishness. He
believes he is a king (or Indian “Raja”) among his siblings because of his
newly acquired job, even though he’s “only paid half a regular driver’s salary”.
For a child labourer at the age of 14, this is an event that should never need
to happen. Siju’s siblings and friends should all be at school with him, not
working some dangerous and unsuitable job at a mine.
● St. Lucy’s Home for Girls Raised by Wolves | Karen Russell
○ An interesting text that reflects the plights of girls in school (and even in
everyday life), Karen Russell writes about a wolf-girl named Claudette who
along with her other wolf-girl friends, attends a reformatory school run by
nuns in order to assimilate them into human culture. The book first explores
the “us vs. them” relationship, with the wolf-girls having been separated from
the “purebreds” during birth. Throughout the schooling, there is also the
theme of self-esteem and the delicate balance that the girls wish to maintain.
They don’t want to be seen as too perfect or too terrible (much like many girls

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 at school). The portrayal of gender is also evident here, with the girls being
depicted as emotionally unstable whilst the boys are depicted as calm and
collected (a stereotype commonly applied to schoolgirls). Overall, Karen
Russell wrote this story to send a message about how we shouldn’t
marginalise or stereotype girls during their education so that we completely
transform their lifestyle. Instead we should learn to accept them for who they
are and let them choose what girl they wish to be.
● The Bicentennial Man | Isaac Asimov
○ Ah Isaac Asimov; the man, the writer, the legend himself. Though the World
Scholar’s Cup has a trophy named after him, The Bicentennial Man is quite
unlike any work of his previously included in the syllabus. “The Bicentennial
Man” is a novelette in the “Robot” series by Asimov and was awarded the
Hugo and Nebula awards for “best science-fiction novelette” in 1976. It tells
the heartbreaking and inspiring story of a robot named Andrew Martin. The
story begins with Andrew requesting an operation from a robotic surgeon, but
he is initially denied the operation because it violates the First Law of
Robotics (robots may not harm humans). Andrew however, begins to tell his
story of how he is not a human. 200 years earlier, he comes into the service
of a human master; one Gerald Martin (referred to as “sir). While carving a
wooden pendant for Martin’s daughter, Little Miss, Andrew reveals his skill
and creativity (two traits robots were not meant to possess). Over the next 2
centuries, Andrew begins to become more human; wearing clothes and even
inserting a self-invented digestion system in order to eat. During this time, the
family he once served comes and goes, with Little Miss bearing a son called
George (otherwise known as Little Sir) and George later having a son called
Paul. With each human companion, Andrew fights for the rights of his robot
brethren. He then makes the ultimate decision, having the World Legislature
call him a man. In order to do so, he develops multiple prosthetics and even
arranges for the fatal operation he came to do in the first chapter. His
positronic brain will be altered to that, like a human’s, it decays with time. He
lies on his deathbed having accomplished the greatest goal: the president of
the World Legislature signs a document officially calling him “The Bicentennial
Man” as he dies.
■ The story is an insight into the world of robots; whose role is getting
increasingly important in our society. We don’t quite marginalise
robots, but perhaps there will be a time when we consider these
machines as subservient to humans (cue android apocalypse).
● The Ugly Duckling | Hans Christian Andersen
○ (Caitlin H Dixon): The ugly duckling is a short story by the author Hans
Christian Andersen is a tale many of us grew up hearing. The story is about a
swan egg that ends up in the nest of duck eggs when the swan hatches he is
constantly ridiculed by his “siblings” on his looks and goes searching for his
“true” family. Towards the end of the story, the ugly duckling transforms into a
beautiful swan. The moral of the story is: Don’t judge a book by its cover/ You
cannot judge a person by outward appearance. The other ducks and animals
ridicule the ugly duckling for his appearance, but after he grew up he became
a beautiful swan.
● The Yellow Wallpaper | Charlotte Perkins Gilman
○ One of the older pieces of work on this list, “The Yellow Wallpaper” is a short
story written in 1892 by Charlotte Perkins Gilman for The New England
Magazine. Regarded as one of the earliest and most important works in
American feminist literature, “The Yellow Wallpaper” illustrates the mental and
physical health of women in the late 19th century as well as the negative
attitudes toward them. The story is composed of several journal entries, made
by an unnamed women whose husband John is a physician. It details this

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 woman’s descent into madness while spending summer at a “rest cure”
mansion. The room that they reside in was likely once a nursery room,
deduced from the torn wallpaper and scratched floor. Throughout the entries,
the woman continues to describe the wallpaper in an increasingly cynical
manner. She cites it as having a “yellow” smell and “breakneck” pattern, as
well as having missing patches and yellowing the skin of anyone who touches
it. She comes to later believe that a woman is creeping on all fours behind the
pattern, and that it is her duty to free this woman from her prison. The final
day in the house provides the climax of the story, where John returns to a
locked bedroom door; only to find his wife creeping on all fours trying to strip
the rest of the wallpaper down. He then proceeds to faint, with the wife
exclaiming: I've got out at last,...in spite of you and Jane?”. Having morphed
into the personification of the women trapped underneath the wallpaper.
○ Many believe that Gilman wrote this piece as a way to voice the roles of
women in the 19th century. Medical, professional and even societal opinions
on them portray women as fragile and unstable creatures who require lots of
attention. This inhibits the role of women in society, forcing many to stay at
home for the vast majority of their lives and become subservient to a male-
dominated society. Indeed in some areas of the world, woman still have some
remnant of this lifestyle, with a society of males oppressing them unjustly.
● Walden (Part 1, Chapter 1) | Henry David Thoreau
○ Henry David Thoreau, arguably one of the most famous names in American
literature; pens an interesting book about his retreat to nature. The first
chapter, Economy, details his project of retreat and self-discovery. He will
spend two years, two months and two days at a "tightly shingled and
plastered" 10 x 15 English-style cottage in the woods near Walden Pond (a
lake in Massachusetts). He does this to explore the benefits of a simplified
lifestyle (contrary to the popular belief at the time that more in life means a
better life). He is given the four basic necessities (shelter, food, water and
fuel) with the help of family and friends (most notably his mother and the
Emmerson couple, who provided the land upon which his cottage lies).
Throughout the project, Thoreau records meticulously his economic spending,
concluding with a total expenditure of $28.125 for a home and freedom. At the
end of the chapter, Thoreau inserts a poem from English poet Thomas Carew
called “The Pretensions of Poverty”. It criticises those who believe that their
poverty gives them an unearned moral and intellectual superiority. Much of
the chapter focuses on Thoreau protecting his ideas from the local townsfolk,
who believe that society (not nature) is the only proper place to live.
○ This book shines a light on those marginalised people who wish to detach
themselves from society and return to the roots from which we humans came
from. It is not in bustling megacities or high-rise homes that we find
materialistic happiness, but instead in the peace of nature and the company
of friends that we find spiritual enlightenment.

Behind the Scenes of the Page, Stage, and Screen

● For each of the occupations listed below, consider its role in producing a work.
Should they receive credit similar to that awarded to authors, actors, or
directors?
○ copyeditor | proofreader | publicist | literary agent | critic | producer
■ Copyeditor: Commonly used interchangeably with the proofreader,
copyeditors go about reading pieces of media (be it a book, movie
script or TV plot) and make sure that the content is correct. This
includes the grammar, spelling, style, punctuation and transitions
before publishing.

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 ■ Proofreader: Proofreading is slightly less of a role than copyediting
and is more applicable to books. Just before a book goes into printing
and mass-publication, the proofreader looks over for typographical
errors instead of grammatical ones. This includes minor text errors,
formatting and page numbering to ensure that the material is ready for
publication.
■ Publicist: Exactly what it says: publicist are those hired and paid to
spread the public popularity of a book, film or other piece of media.
These people can range from local, national and international levels
as well as what methods they use (i.e press publicists use the
newspapers to generate hype, whilst unit publicists work on making
the public aware of a certain phase of filming). It is thanks to the
publicist that press releases can be, well.. released to the general
public in order to inform them about upcoming movies, books and
other media.
■ Literary Agent: Author and publisher often butt heads with one
another, or don’t even acknowledge the existence of the other. This is
where a literary agent comes into play, this person is responsible for
the representation of a writer (or even a group in certain cases) and
their written works to publishers. Unlike publicists, they aren’t paid a
fixed fee, rather they take a percentage of the earnings from sales of
their client’s work. Literary agents normally work for novelists,
screenwriters and non-fiction writers to ensure good relations with
publishers, contracts written in good form and royalty payments
adhered to.
■ Critic: The work of a critic is rather self-explanatory, they read or
watch a piece of media and give an opinion about it. Often critics can
range from individuals broadcasting their voices on YouTube, to critics
who work for newspaper and other companies. The BBC and The
Guardian have their own team of critics, dedicated to writing up
reviews on particularly hyped-about films or other pieces of work. It is
thanks to the critic that pieces of media can either soar (i.e box office
ticket sales with movies and readership with books) or absolutely flop.
In an age where these activities are often more affordable to the
general populace, critics are less important for deciding whether we
should spend the money and time to watch something. Even though a
critic might say a movie is horrible, its fans might say it’s amazing (and
vice versa).
○ stage manager | set designers | stagehand | casting director |
dramaturge
■ Stage manager: Where the director adds vision to a play, the stage
manager adds structure. Unfortunately when it comes to theatrical
roles, I am somewhat forced to hand this over to websites which
provide greater detail. I have only watched a single play in my entire
life and I will be frank in that it was the most painful experience I have
had the displeasure to sit through. Stage managers work in tandem
with the director, often serving as a liaison between them and all the
other departments of a production, from the actors to the lighting
crews to the costume designers. Here are a list of some of their
duties:
■ schedule and running rehearsals
■ communicate the director's wishes to designers and
craftspeople
■ coordinate the work of the stage crew
■ call cues and possibly actors' entrances during performance

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 ■ oversee the entire show each time it is performed
■ Set designers: Whenever a movie or a play cannot use a real life
location (understandable seeing as few city mayors will let you blow
up their natural land in the interest of cinematography), then the set
designers are called in. These people are responsible for creating
backdrops, settings and even stage prop placements that will see
extensive use. Often times actors will interact with sets or simply have
some dialogue in them. Set designers often get their praise through
critics, with many notable sets being praised for their creativity and
their contribution to the movie.
■ Stagehand: Stagehands are probably more numerous yet more
credited during plays and movies. Stagehands are responsible for
managing the looks of a set, the lighting during scenes and even the
special effects that trigger during climatic fight scenes. They often
appear in transition scenes between acts of a play, or are never seen
at all in movies.
■ Casting director: Slightly harder to deduce, the casting director
works in tandem with director and writer to ensure that the correct
actors and people are chosen for the job. More oftenly used in plays
rather than films, casting directors are responsible for casting the
people who will play characters in the production. They don’t get a lot
of credit and usually disappear after all the slots have been filled, but
they ought to deserve their own mentions.
■ Dramaturge: As the name implies, the dramaturge is a role reserved
for plays and other works of theatre. The dramaturge is also called a
literary advisor and they often take existing play-scripts, plots and
other elements to advise theatre companies on how to adapt the play
to best suit their capabilities. They often liaison directly with the actors
and all other production crews before deciding whether the play
should even be undertaken.
○ hair & makeup artist | costume designer | sound designer | stunt double
■ Hair and makeup artist: Do I really need to explain this role? The
hair and makeup artist is responsible for making sure actors look their
best during filming or plays. They deal with all aspects of the biological
appearance, from their makeup their hair to their makeup (oops). They
most closely communicate with costume designers, who need to make
sure that their clothes correspond and complement their faces.
■ Costume designer: Costume designers are responsible for designing
how an actor looks throughout filming. Often costume designers need
to have several copies of different clothing at hand incase something
occurs during filming. Costume designers specialise in making actors
look as though they’re from a certain time period, place or even
planet.
■ Sound designer: Without the sound designer, your movies would
sound pretty bland. Sound designers are responsible for coordinating
and managing the different auditory effects that occur during a movie,
this ranges from slowing an actors voice during a slow-mo sequences
or making sure those practical effects sound as realistic as they
possibly can. Generally, sound designers and their work truly shine
when depicting sounds that we don’t hear in everyday lives. In fact,
one notable sound design choice was the total vacuum of sound
during the suicide hyperspace jump in Star Wars: Episode VII.
■ Stunt double: When an actor decides that a stunt is simply too
complex or hard for them to learn (and I don’t blame them, some
gymnastics in movies are hard to perform), then they call upon a stunt

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 double to do it for them. These professionally trained doubles are
often much more flexible and capable of performing stunts with a risk
of injury. Interestingly, stunt doubles also act as body doubles, closely
resembling the actor in order to limit the amount of CGI editing that
needs to happen.
○ cinematographer | grips | gaffers | extra | storyboard artist | showrunner
■ Cinematographer: More commonly included in films than in works of
theatre, cinematographers are the people who oversee the camera
and lighting crews during filming to create iconic moments during
movies. They communicate with directors and gaffers in particular to
ensure the lighting can correspond to the correct camera angles. A
close-up, birds eye view or sweeping shot is achieved thanks to the
cinematographers. Their trade is often celebrated at awards, with the
Oscars even having a category for best visual effects and production
design (First Man all the way).
■ Grips: Whenever a camera needs to be attached to a crane or
dangled from the back of a car for a particularly edge-of-your-seat
scene, then the grips are called in to make sure it all works. Grips are
technical experts on call to work with the camera department
whenever a certain scene needs to be filmed. They setup and
maintain the recording equipment to make sure that the correct angle
is achieved (oh and that the camera doesn’t break in the process). In
some areas of the world, they also work with the lighting department
to help run and maintain the lights in order to achieve the best focus
during filming.
■ Gaffers: The mark of good cinematography is iconic lighting. From
getting the perfect angle on on actor’s face, to setting the time and
setting of a scene. This is the work of gaffers, otherwise known as the
chief lighting technician. They’re responsible for managing all the
lights during production and making any necessary changes to make
the lighting better. Often times, the gaffers are mentioned in the
credits as being the head of the electrical department. Sometimes, the
most notable movies with the most iconic lighting will get awards for
them, during which the gaffer can (pun incoming) take the spotlight.
■ Extra: Whenever a movie needs to portray a crowded street or
include some innocent civilians (about to be on the receiving end of
some death and destruction), the directors and recruiters look for
extras. Extras are sometimes everyday people picked off the streets
or contacted through actors for their looks and abilities. It isn’t true that
extras can be anybody though, usually these extras have some prior
acting experience or knowledge. These extras are often paid the daily
rate, nothing nearly as extravagant compared to the main actors.
Extras don’t often speak, because if they do then the directing
company is obligated to name them in the credits. It is my opinion that
the extras should be recognised, especially if there are some that
were notable in their silent performance.
■ Storyboard Artist: When the directors have gotten some sort of script
of detailed vision of a movie, the storyboard artists get to work. Either
using paper or digital programs, these magicians of the production
process transform words into pictures. Practically every other
department during filming relies on the storyboard for reference (from
the costume designers to the lighting technicians). It is thanks to the
storyboard artist that many films are laid out the way they are.
Storyboard artists will often check in from time to time with the entire
team to ensure that what they’re planning is actually feasible or if it

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 hurts the film. Storyboard artists don’t get much other than mentions in
the credits. Instead, if the film gets an award then they are usually
included in the crowd that gets up and receives it.
■ Showrunner: The 21st century term for any executive lead producer
on a television series, a showrunner is more commonly used in the
United States than other countries (in Britain and Canada they are
simply referred to as producers). Showrunners top the production
hierarchy and every other position on the team needs to check any
decisions with them before getting the greenlight on a change.
Showrunners are often those with the creative vision to create the TV
show in the first place and it is they who form the production team as
well as look after the budget. These people get their fair credit (quite
literally) by being one of the first people to be mentioned in the start or
end credits. If the TV show gets an award or praise from many
sources, then they often mention the "creative genius" or
"cinematographic vision" of the showrunner.

Case Studies & Guiding Questions

● Consider these examples of ghostwritten books, speeches, and songs. Why
might a famous figure resort to someone else to write for them? Conversely,
why might a writer choose to go unrecognised? Are there times when a
different name on a work might affect how people receive it?
○ Simply put, the concept of ghostwriting is when you ask someone to write
something under your name. Not to worry, ghostwriters do get paid a lucrative
sum, after all they don’t get any credit whatsoever unless the person who
hired them actually announces that they were the true writer. Ghostwriters are
usually hired whenever someone has a vision but no true way of putting it
down on paper, or when they need something written fast. Writers might
choose to go unrecognised if they write about controversial topics or wish to
avoid the publicity achieved with the fame. There are indeed times when a
different name on a work affects its reception. Imagine finding out that
Shakespeare never penned any of his plays (possibly, very possible!) and
realising that some other genius did that.
● Consider sidekicks and other characters in the margins of a story—from the
Wayward Sisters to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Discuss with your team:
when, if ever, are their stories worth telling? Is it acceptable for an author
different from the original to tell those stories?
○ Ever since we’ve had stories of superheroes and other powerful protagonists,
we’ve also had to deal with the blunders and adventures of their sidekicks.
From Batman and Robin to Holmes and Watson, no series of books is ever
complete without a partner to accompany the main hero. Their stories are
often worth telling whenever they accomplish something we never expected
them to. Robin received a lot of attention after DC Comics set his character
apart from Batman (renamed Nightwing) in the 1980s. It is completely
acceptable for another author to tell these stories, consider the case of
Holmes and Watson. Many if not all of the original Arthur Conan Doyle stories
were told from Watson’s viewpoint (Holmes being the lesser writer of the two).
Since then, many authors following in Doyle’s footsteps have penned stories
about Watson’s own adventures without Holmes by his side.
● Consider the case of the Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy trilogy, which was
finished by a second author. What should happen if an author passes away
before finishing a work? Who, if anyone, should be tasked with finishing the
unfinished?

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 ○ If an author does pass away before finishing their work, then often it is found
within the will or the relatives who remain alive the decision to continue the
work or not. If this is not the case, then sometimes it is best to leave work
unfinished. In other cases, one author who may have interacted with the
deceased while they were writing the book might step up to the task of
finishing where they left off.
● Research fandom and fan subcultures, particularly as centred on creative
works, whether a TV series (e.g., Star Trek) or even a musical (e.g., Hamilton).
You may want to consult this academic text as a starting point. Discuss with
your team: do people who participate in fandoms choose to marginalise
themselves, and do fandoms themselves have internal divisions between the
mainstream and the marginal? Should creators encourage or even participate
in fan culture?
○ Fandoms and fan subcultures run deep in this modern age. Simply put, they
are communities which share a common interest or passion on an individual
or group or topic (i.e a celebrity, band or movie universe). Fandoms can have
their own divisions, those who wish to follow the popular story and those who
wish to divert away from it. Creators have already encouraged and even
participated in fan culture, since it brings people together without nearly as
much marginalisation as other areas of society.
● Some critics argue that a new focus on inclusiveness in storytelling has led to
the creation of overly idealised characters from marginalised groups—referred
to as “Mary Sues”. Even Star Wars’ Rey has been criticised by certain fans for
being too perfect. Discuss with your team: should we worry about
representations of marginalised communities being over idealised, or is this
concern just a conservative backlash to cultural progress?
○ It is somewhat a note of worry that we find marginalised groups being overly
idealised in popular media and storytelling. We need to see representations of
marginalised communities as they are meant to be represented, not sugar
coated so that the general public sympathises more with them.
● Consider the recent announcement of a "reboot" of Buffy the Vampire Slayer
with a more diverse cast. The news met with an intense backlash, not unlike
that against recent female-led reboots of Ocean’s Eleven and Ghostbusters.
Discuss with your team: do creative professionals have a responsibility to be
more inclusive in their reboots of past works? Are there ways in which you
would want to update other classics, such as Harry Potter or the plays of
Shakespeare?
○ Creative professionals don’t necessarily have that responsibility, just because
society wants to be more inclusive doesn’t mean they need to follow in their
footsteps. Indeed a movie that originally was very exclusive could do with
some added cast variety, but not as radical as to completely replace the old
cast with a more inclusive one. Harry Potter doesn’t need that much updating,
I’d say the cast is fine as they are (if Harry Potter were suddenly portrayed by
African-American, I doubt it would be taken too well considering they’ve been
casting a white for every movie). The plays of Shakespeare are less rigid in
that we can easily imagine a black Macbeth (that already exists) or an
LGBTQ+ spin on the Romeo and Juliet love story.
● Read about Marvel's upcoming Asian superhero film, which is meant to follow
in the footsteps of Black Panther, then discuss with your team: is it appropriate
for Marvel to be narrowing their director search to someone Asian or Asian-
American, or is this an example of what some critics would call "reverse
discrimination"?
○ It is interesting that Marvel wants to try and repeat the same formula that
worked so well for Black Panther with this superhero movie about Shang-Chi.
It seems somewhat appropriate that Marvel narrows their director search,

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 though they’d better be doing so carefully. It isn’t uncommon to find movies
with a majority cast of one race being directed by someone of another race,
that just provides even more support to the “racial inclusion” of popular media.
● English Romantic poet John Keats wrote in a letter to his brothers that the
greatest writers possess a quality he called negative capability—the ability to
be "in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact
and reason”. Discuss with your team: how clear (or unclear) should literature
be? Is it possible for a piece of writing (or a movie) to be both confusing and
successful?
○ The beauty of literature is that it can peacefully be both. Literature can be
shrouded in mystery and confusion to its readers, yet also serve as clarity to
them. I’ll dismiss the WSC jab at Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them
as being confusing and successful (the movie didn’t garner too much praise
from critics because it was simply too hard to follow). Movies can have
confusing plots but still be pretty successful, as long as the confusion doesn’t
conflict with other plot lines in the story. A director can set up multiple plots
and storylines to occur at once, entangling them at times to make the final
conclusion slightly more confusing.

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