LAB 1

Introduction to Workbench Apparatus

Osama Ahmed (me-191086)

Objective
1. To understand working of different apparatus available on a workstation. (DC power supply, function
generator, oscilloscope and breadboard).
2. To implement their usage in different task assigned.

Equipment:
1. DC power supply
2. Oscilloscope
3. Function Generator
4. Breadboard
5. Digital Multimeter
6. Connecting/Jumper wires

Background Theory:
1. DC Power Supply:
The power supply is a device that provides electrical power to the electrical load. DC power supply is one
which provides unidirectional voltage to the DC loads for e.g. cellphones, computers, electronic circuits. The
DC power supplies incorporates transformers, rectifiers, capacitors, regulator ICs and finally the output terminal
where the load is to be connected.
The DC power supply available in laboratory is GwInstek GPS-3303. The specifications of which are shown in
figure 1.

The DC supply available has two variable channels (CH1 and CH2) and a fixed channel (CH3). The DC supply
front panel description is provided in figure 2.
2. Breadboard:
A breadboard is a solderless device for temporary prototype with electronics and test circuit designs. Most
electronic components in electronic circuits can be interconnected by inserting their leads or terminals into the
holes and then making connections through wires where appropriate.

The leads can fit into the breadboard because the inside of a breadboard is made up of rows of tiny metal clips.
This is what the clips look like when they are removed from a breadboard. When you press a component's lead
into a breadboard hole, one of these clips grabs onto it.

The strips typically marked by red and blue (or red and black) lines, with plus (+) and minus (-) signs, respectively,
are called the buses, also referred to as rails, and are typically used to supply electrical power to your circuit when
you connect them to a battery pack or other external power supply. You may hear the buses referred to by different
names; for example, power bus, positive bus, and voltage bus all refer to the one next to the red line with the plus
( sign. Similarly, negative bus and ground bus both refer to one next to the blue (or black) line with the minus
(-) sign.
Remember that the inside of the breadboard is made up of sets of five metal clips. This means that each set of
five holes forming a half-row (columns A–E or columns F–J) is electrically connected. For example, that means
hole A1 is electrically connected to holes B1, C1, D1, and E1. It is not connected to hole A2, because that hole
is in a different row, with a separate set of metal clips. It is also not connected to holes F1, G1, H1, I1, or J1,
because they are on the other "half" of the breadboard—the clips are not connected across the gap in the middle
Unlike all the main breadboard rows, which are connected in sets of five holes, the buses typically run the entire
length of the breadboard (but there are some exceptions). This image shows which holes are electrically
connected in a typical half-sized breadboard, highlighted in yellow lines. Buses on opposite sides of the
breadboard are not connected to each other. Typically, to make power and ground available on both sides of the
breadboard, you would connect the buses with jumper wires, like this. Make sure to connect positive to positive
and negative to negative.
3. Function Generator:
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate different types
of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms produced by
the function generator are the sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and sawtooth shapes. These waveforms
can be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger source).
Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For example, they
may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error signal into a control loop. Function
generators are primarily used for working with analog circuits, related pulse generators are primarily used for
working with digital circuits.
The following figure shows the function generator available on workbench which is GwInstek AFG-2100.
4. Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the waveform of electronic
signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the instantaneous signal voltage as a function of time. The display
is broken up into so-called horizontal divisions (hor div) and vertical divisions (vert div). Time is displayed
from left to right on the horizontal scale. Instantaneous voltage appears on the vertical scale, with positive
values going upward and negative values going downward.
The following is the oscilloscope available in the laboratory. The description of the front panel is given in
successive figures.
5. Digital Multimeter:
A digital multimeter (DMM) is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values—principally voltage
(volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the
electrical/electronic industries.
Digital multimeters long ago replaced needle-based analog meters due to their ability to measure with greater
accuracy, reliability and increased impedance. Digital multimeters combine the testing capabilities of single-
task meters—the voltmeter (for measuring volts), ammeter (amps) and ohmmeter (ohms). Often, they include a
number of additional specialized features or advanced options. Technicians with specific needs, therefore, can
seek out a model targeted for particular tasks. The following DMM is available in the laboratory with the
function details mentioned in successive figures.
In-Lab Task:
1. Set the DC power supply to read +15 V on its panel, using channel 1. Measure the output with the digital
multimeter (DMM). What is the error (in percent) between the +15 V setting and the actual output?
Record the error at

+10 V, +20 V, and +25 V, using DC power supply.

Error = |actual – setting|/actual *100

For 15V: Actual Value: Err or:

For 10V: Actual Value: Error:

For 20V: Actual Value: Error:
For 25V: Actual Value: Error:
2. Measure the resistor values using the DMM. Build the circuit in Figure on your breadboard. And fill the table.
Series R1 R2 Power
Supply
Voltage 5.875V 4.125V 10V
Current 1.251m 1.251m 1.251M
A A a
 Parallel R1 R2 Power Supply
Voltage 10V 10V 10V
Current 2.12Ma 3.03mA 5.155mA

3. Set the function generator to output a 1 kHz, 1 Vp−p square wave according to the panel display. Measure
the wave on the oscilloscope by directly connecting the function generator to an oscilloscope probe. Record the
measured values for the wave and calculate the error in the function generator panel in both frequency and
voltage.
Also measure the frequency and voltage using cursors.
Vp-p: 2V Frequency: 1 kHz Vrms: 0.707V
Vpeak: 1V

Cursor Measurement:
Vp-p: 1.995V Frequency:1kHz Vpeak:
0.997V

Error in percent:
Vp-p: 0.25%

Frequency: 0%

Lab # 2
Measurement of resistors, capacitors and Inductors using color codes
Osama Ahmed (me-191086)

Objective:
1. To interpret and record the ohmic value of a resistor when given a color-coded resistor.
2. To measure the ohmic value of a resistor using a digital multimeter.
3. To find out the tolerance of each resistor and verify that the value is within specified tolerance.
4. To interpret the value of capacitor using the numbers coded on it.
5. To interpret and Record the value of inductor when a color coded inductor is given.

Equipment:
1. Assorted Resistors
2. Assorted Inductors
3. Assorted Capacitors
4. Digital Multimeter

Theoretical Background:
1. Introduction to resistor color codes:
Each resistor has various color bands, which indicate the resistance of that particular resistor. These color bands
are classified as digit bands, multiplier band and the tolerance band. The figure 2.1 along with the example
given below, show how to calculate a resistor’s resistance.

Figure 2.1: Resistor Color Coding Chart

The tolerance band indicates the resistor’s percentage deviation from the resistance value indicated by its
color bands. For example a 47 kΩ resistor having a tolerance of ± 10%, may have its actual resistance
anywhere between 42.3 kΩ and 51.7 kΩ.
Example:

The resistor shown above has a value of 10kΩ ± 10%. The calculation has been performed as follows:
1st Digit = Brown = 1
nd
2 Digit = Black = 0
Multiplier = Orange = 1000
Resistance = 10 x 1000 = 10k
Tolerance = Silver = 10%
Therefore the resistor’s resistance is 10k ± 10%.

2. Introduction to capacitor measurement:

There are two types of capacitors, i.e. electrolyte and non – electrolyte capacitors. The non-electrolytic
capacitors use Paper, Mica, Ceramic, Mylar, Glass, Porcelain, Polycarbonate, and Wax as Insulator. The
difference in the use of the two types of capacitors is that non-electrolytic capacitors can be charged in any
direction, whereas the Electrolytic ones can only be charged in one direction. Electrolytic Capacitors are Polar;
i.e., one of its two plates is Positive and other is Negative, whereas in non-electrolytic capacitors, both the plates
are same, having no polarity.
Numerical codes are used with non - electrolytic capacitors to specify their capacitance. Usually, these
codes are 3 digits long, specifying the capacitance in Pico Farads; the first two digits are Tens and Units,
whereas the third digit is power of 10.For example figure 2.2 shows code 102 means:

Figure 2.1: Capacitor Color Coding Scheme

3. Introduction to Inductor measurement:

Inductor color code is same as resistor. Last band that is usually silver or gold shows tolerance. Starting from
the opposite end of the tolerance band, first two bands represent first two digits and the third band is multiplier.
The code specify inductance in micro Henry.

Figure 2.3: Inductor Color Coding Chart

In-Lab:
1. Calculate the resistance of the resistors provided to you. Next, measure the resistance of the two resistors
using a multimeter and record your values in the table below. First reading has been provided for guidance.

Resistor Color Band Coded Tolerance Max. Min. R

R (%) Coded Coded ()

() R R
1st 2nd Multiplier Tolerance
() ()
digit digit
Meas.
Calc. Calc. Calc. Calc.
Red Violet Orange Silver

27K  ±10% 29.7K  24.3K  25.1K 

2 7 103 10%

Yello Orange
Violet Gold
w 47 
47K  ±5% 49.35K 44.65 
3
4 7 10 5%


Orang White Red Gold 3.9k  ±5% 4k  3.7k  3.9k 

e
3 9 100 5%

Yello Black Violet Gold 40M  ±5% 42M  38M  40M 

w
6
4 0 10 5%

2. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitors provided to you. First reading has been provided for guidance.
Numerical code Capacitance (F)
102K 1000p

103K 10000p
 104K 100000p

106K 10000000p

3. Calculate the inductance of the inductors provided to you. First reading has been provided for guidance.

Inductor Color Band Coded Tolerance Max. Coded Min. Coded

L (%) L L

(µH) (µH) (µH)

1st 2nd Multiplier Tolerance
digit digit
Calc. Calc. Calc.

Red red brown silver

220 µH ±10% 242 µH 198µH

2 2 10µH 10%

Viole Yellow
Violet Black
t 770000
±20% 770000.2 µH 616000 µH
7 7 10^4H 20% µH

Red Red Yellow Black 220000 ±20% 264000 µH 176000 µH

µH
2 2 10^4H 20%

Red Red Orange Silver 22000 µH ±10% 24200 µH 19800µH

2 2 10^3 10%

Post-Lab:
1. What does the tolerance band of the color code imprinted on a resistor indicate?
Ans: Each resistor has various color bands , which indicates the resistance of the particular resistor.

2. If a 100Ω resistor has a tolerance of 5%, what is the range in which its actual resistance will fall?
 Ans: The actual resistance will fall between 95 ohm – 105 ohm due to the tolerance of the resistor .
3. If a 4-band resistor has value equal to 2.5MΩ± 10%, what would be the possible color bands?
Ans: If a 4-band resistor has value equal to 2.5Mohm ±10% , what whould be the possible color bands?
Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

LAB#3

Introduction to Multisim – A Simulation

Software Osama Ahmed(me-191086)

Objective:

Learn to simulate different electrical circuits on Multisim software.

Perform measurement using different measuring instruments.

Lab Equipment:

1. Computer/PC/laptop
2. Multisim Software

Background Theory:

Electronics have an important place in daily life. So important, in fact, that the modern world cannot be
conceived of without electronics. To test the devices before the actual manufacturing needs extensive
simulation of the circuit to ensure proper performance once the chip is in the computer or phone. Failure to
carry on a proper simulation procedure can cost a company losses in the millions of dollars.

There are several circuit simulators on the market. Of the many simulators available, Multisim has emerged as
the best for circuit simulation. Multisim is a SPICE-based simulator, produced by National Instruments Inc. in
Austin, TX, with a schematic-capture interface that allows easy circuit topology input and specification of
simulation data.

Beginning with Multisim:

1. Click on desktop icon to start the Multisim software

2. The following window appear
 Figure 3.1:
Multisim user
interface window

3. Click on the component to be added to be added on the design window. The component list appears as
shown in figure 2.2. The component as per circuit requirement is selected. All the components must be
connected to ground for their simulation.
4. The required measuring instrument can be selected from the instrument bar. Mostly voltmeter and ammeter
and digital multimeter will be used in the following lab.
5. Once the required circuit components are on the design window, the value and setting of each can be
changed by double clicking the icon.

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Figure 3.2:
Component
selection window

6. After placing the components and checking their values the next step is to connect the components. For
wiring up the component, place the wire on the component end, press left click and drag it to the end of other
component and leave the mouse click.
7. Once the circuit is complete then click on the following symbol to simulate the circuit. Or press F5.

Figure 3.3: Run/stop

simulation switch

Pre-Lab:

Find the answers for the following questions:

1. What is peak voltage of sine wave and peak to peak voltage? Mark both on the wave at the end of
questions peak-to-peak voltage is the voltage from the trough of the waveform all the way to the crest, the peak
voltage is the voltage from the 0 reference line to the positive peak of the voltage waveform.

2. Define time period of any wave. Mark time period on the wave at the end of the question

The wave period is the time it takes to complete one cycle or wave.
3. How is time period and frequency linked?

Frequency , f, is how many cycles of an oscillation occur per second and is measured in cycles per second or
hertz (Hz). The period of a wave, T, is the amount of time it takes a wave to vibrate one full cycle. These two
terms are inversely proportional to each other: f = 1/T and T = 1/f.

For :
Time period: orange line
Peak voltage: black line
Peak to peak voltage: blue line

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

In-Lab:

Example: Construct the following circuits on multisim and measure all the voltages and currents. Follow
the instructor for changing the value and settings.

Circuit # 1: Measure the voltages across and currents through each resistor for the given circuit.

Figure 3.4

R1 R2 R3 R4
Voltage 6.803V 5.197V 2.494V 2.702V
Current 6.805mA 4.724mA 2.078mA 2.078Ma
Note: The voltmeter should be connected in parallel across the resistor and for ammeter break the
path of respective resistor.

Circuit # 2: For both the resistor find the following

Figure 3.5

Horizontal Axis Scale:

Channel A Scale:

Channel B Scale:

R1 R2

Voltage (Vp) 3.288V 6.576V

Voltage (Vp-p) 0.015V 0.029V

Frequency (1/time period) 50Hz 50Hz

Using the Oscilloscope find the sum of both the waveform. Is the sum equal to source
voltage? ANS. Yes, the sum is approximately equals to the source voltage which is 7.07 volts.

Sum of waveforms:

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Trace the waveforms as appear in the oscilloscope and mark Peak Voltage, Peak to Peak Voltage and
Time period.

Post-Lab:

Input AC Sine wave using Function generator of following value: Vp-p: 15V, Frequency: 5 KHz.

Resistors R1: 20 KΩ and R2: 15 KΩ

 Figure 3.6

Using both Oscilloscope and multimeter (AC) find the voltages across resistors.

R1 R2
Voltage(Vp) oscilloscope 6.313V
 Voltage 5.951V 4.463V

Vp/√2
Voltage (multimeter) 6.062V 4.546V

When peak voltage is divided by root 2, what voltage will it be?

ANS. RMS Voltage.

Multimeter shows:

1. Peak voltage
2. Peak to Peak Voltage
3. RMS voltage

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Lab # 4

Experimental Verification of Ohm’s Law

By
Osama Ahmed(me-191086)
Objective:

4. Verify Ohm’s law by simulating the circuit on Multisim.

5. Verify Ohm’s Law by calculating, and then by measuring voltage, current and resistance, and then
comparing the calculated and measured results.
6. Verify Ohm’s Law relationships by increasing one quantity while holding the second quantity constant, then
measuring and calculating the effect on the third quantity.

Equipment:

4. Multimeter
5. Breadboard
6. DC power supply
7. Connecting wires
8. Resistors

Theoretical Background:

Ohm’s law states that the current (I) flowing through a component is directly proportional to the voltage (V)
across it if resistance (R) of that component is constant. Mathematically this relation is represented as,
=

Electric devices which follow Ohm’s law are said to be Ohmic devices. Resistors fall under the category of
Ohmic devices. Each resistor has a certain color code, which tells us about the electrical resistance of that
resistor in ohms (Ω).

In circuit analysis, three equivalent expressions of Ohm's law are used interchangeably:

Each equation is quoted by some sources as the defining relationship of Ohm's law.

Ohm's law holds for circuits containing only resistive elements (no capacitances or inductances) for all forms of
driving voltage or current, regardless of whether the driving voltage or current is constant (DC) or time-varying
such as AC. At any instant of time Ohm's law is valid for such circuits.
Resistors which are in series or in parallel may be grouped together into a single "equivalent resistance" to
apply Ohm's law in analyzing the circuit.

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Figure 4.1: Ohm’s Law

Pre-Lab:

Simulate the following circuit in figure 4.2 on Multisim and fill the table 4.1. Take value of R = 1.5KΩ,
also connect the voltmeter across the resistor to measure its voltage.

Figure 4.2: Simulation Circuit

Measured Values Calculated Values

 DC Supply Voltage Current V= I*R I=V/R R=V/I
Voltage Across through (V) (mA) (k.ohm)
Resistor Resistor
1V 1 0.667 1 0.66 1.51

2V 2 1.334 2 1.33 1.50

3V 3 2 3 2 1.51
4V 4 2.667 4 2.66 1.50

5V 5 3.334 5 3.33 1.50

6V 6 4 6 4 1.50

7V 7 4.667 7 4.66 1.51

8V 8 5.334 8 5.33 1.50

9V 9 6.001 9 6 1.50

10V 10 6.668 10 6.66 1.51

Table 4.1: Voltages and Currents

Does the value of three forms of ohm’s law verified by measured and calculated values?

ANS. Yes , the above three forms of ohms law are completely verified as their
calculated amount is same as that measured through circuit.

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

In-lab:

1. Current = Voltage divided by Resistor

a. Measure the resistance of the selected resistor with the DMM.

R1 (measured): ____2.5 k.ohm_____________

b. Adjust the power supply voltage to 15.0 V.

c. Construct the circuit in figure 4.3 on breadboard, using the DMM measure the voltage across the resistor R1.
VR1:

Figure 4.3: Ohm’s Law Verification Circuit

d. Measure and record the current through R1. IR1 =6.004mA

e. Using the measured values of voltages and resistance, calculate the current through R1 using Ohm’s Law.
Show calculations in the space below.
(I = V/R) IR1 =15/2.5=6 mA

f. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?

A clear conclusion can be made which implies that voltage is directly proportional to current through the
linear element which proves
OHMS LAW.
 2. Resistance = Voltage / Current

a. Connect the same circuit as in Figure 4.3, except change the resistor to R2
b. Measure and record the voltage across R2 and the current flow through R2.
VR2 =15V IR2 =3.75mA

c. Calculate the resistance of R2 using the measured values of VR2 and IR2 with Ohm’s Law. Show calculation.

(R = V/I) R2 calculated =15/3.75=4k.ohms

d. Remove R2 from the circuit. Measure and record the resistance of R2 using the multimeter.
R2 measured =4 k.ohms

e. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?

That the calculated resistance is same of that of the measured one which proves the OHMS LAW.

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

3. Voltage = Current x Resistance

a. Connect the circuit in Figure 4.3, except change the resistor to R3.
b. Measure the resistance of this resistor making sure that the resistor is removed from the circuit.
R3 measured =3 k.ohms

c. Reinsert the resistor into the circuit and measure the current through the resistor.
IR3 =5mA

d. Calculate, using Ohm’s law, the resistor voltage using the measured values of resistance and current. Show
calculation below.
V= I*R VR3 calculated =5.3=15V

e. Measure the resistor’s voltage. Record

VR3 measured =15V.

f. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?

That the calculated voltage is same of that of the measured one which proves the OHMS LAW.

4. If the resistance is held constant, increasing the voltage will increase the current.

a. Connect the circuit in figure 4.3 with resistance = 3.6kΩ and keep the source voltage = 10V. Measure and
Record the current through resistor: I =2.778mA
b. Increase the voltage to 20 V and again record the current: I =5.556mA
c. Based on the results of this procedure, what conclusion can be made about the relationship between
voltage and current for a fixed value of resistance?
It proves the fact that voltage across the resistor is directly proportional to current flowing through a linear element (resistor)in
a circuit.
5. If the voltage is held constant, increasing the resistance will decrease the current

a. Connect the circuit in figure 4.3 with R = 1kΩ and source voltage = 20 V. Measure and record the current.
I=

b. Change the value of R = 10kΩ and again measure the current: I =0.02mA
c. Based on the results of this procedure, what conclusion can be made about the relationship between
resistance and current for a fixed value of voltage?
Resistance of an element is inversely proportional to the flow of current through it.

Post -Lab:

For the pre-lab reading plot the graph between voltage and current and find the resistance through it.
Take Voltage on X-axis and Current on Y-axis.

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 Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

resistance
8

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Lab # 5

Experimental Verification of Kirchhoff’s Current Law

BY
Osama Ahmed(me-191086)

Objective:

1. To implement and verify Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) by simulating circuit on Multisim.
2. To implement and verify practically Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) on breadboard.

Equipment:

3. Breadboard
4. Resistors
5. DMM
6. DC power supply
7. Connecting wires

Theoretical Background:

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws,
we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws
were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887).

Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic sum of
charges within a system cannot change.

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed
boundary) is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that:

Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering (or leaving) the node.

By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may be
taken as negative or vice versa.
 Figure 5.1

Consider the node in Fig. 5.1. Applying KCL gives:

Since currents i1, i3, and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it. By
rearranging the terms, we get

Thus, an alternative form of KCL:

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Pre-lab:

3. Define branch in electrical circuit terminology?

Branches are the connections between nodes. A branch is an element (resistor, capacitor, source, etc.). The
number of branches in a circuit is equal to the number of elements.

4. Define node in electrical circuit terminology?

In electrical engineering, a node is any point on a circuit where the terminals of two
or more circuit elements meet.

5. Identify the branches and nodes in the following circuits. Mark it on the circuit. Nodes are represented by
blue markings
Branches are represented by black arrows.

In-lab Task:

Circuit # 1:

1. Implement the circuit shown in figure 5.2 in multisim.

 Figure 5.2

6. Mark the nodes on the figure above. Nodes are represented by blue markings.

7. Measure the current through each resistor.

I5Ω =2A I4Ω =1A

I10Ω =1A I6Ω =1A

8. Write the KCL equation for the nodes, replace the measured values and verify if the law is satisfied.

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Circuit # 2:

1. Implement the circuit shown in figure 5.3 in multisim.

Figure 5.3

8. Mark the nodes on the above figure. Nodes are represented by blue markings.

9. Find all the mentioned current by using ammeter.

I total =0.037A IR1 =0.02A

IR2 =6.063mA IR3 =0.011A

10. Write KCL equation and verify it by using numerical values.

Q. Implement the circuit in figure 5.2 on breadboard, keep source voltage = 10V and measure
the following currents:

I220Ω=
0.018
I100Ω =0.1A A
I330Ω =0.018A

Verify the KCL equation for thes

e currents numerically.

Q. Implement the circuit in figure 5.3 on breadboard, keep source voltage = 10V and measure
the following currents using DMM:

I total =0.019A IR1 =0.01A

IR2 =3.031A IR3 =5.557A

Verify the KCL equation using above values
Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

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Lab # 6
Experimental Verification of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Osama Ahmed (me-191086)

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Objective:
1. To implement and verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL) by simulating circuit on Multisim.
2. To implement and verify practically Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL) on breadboard.

Equipment:
1. Breadboard
2. Resistors
3. DMM
4. DC power supply
5. Connecting wires

Theoretical Background:
Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conservation of energy:
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is
zero
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that:

Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and Vm is the mth
voltage. KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise or a counterclockwise trip around the
loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is zero.

Figure 6.1

To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 6.1. The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal
encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any branch and go around the loop either
clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as
shown; then voltages would be −v1, +v2, +v3, −v4, and +v5, in that order. For example, as we reach branch 3,
the positive terminal is met first; hence we have +v3. For branch 4, we reach the negative terminal first; hence,
−v4. Thus, KVL yields:

Rearranging terms gives:

Which may be interpreted as:

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises
This is an alternative form of KVL. Notice that if we had traveled counterclockwise, the result would have been
+v1, −v5, +v4, −v3, and −v2, which is the same as before except for the signs.

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Pre-lab:
1. Define loop in electrical circuit terminology?

A loop is any closed path in a circuit

2. How are branches, nodes and independent loops linked?
An electric circuit has numbers of nodes. If one starts from one node and after going through a set of nodes returns to
same starting node without crossing any of the intermediate node twice, he has travels through one loop of the circuit.

lab Task:
Circuit # 1:
1. Implement the circuit shown in figure 6.2 in multisim.

Figure 6.2

2. Mark the polarity of each element on the figure above

3. Find the voltages across each of the resistor:
V5Ω =

V4Ω =
V10Ω = V6Ω =

4. Write the KVL equation for both of the loops and replace the numerical values in it to verify the law. Take
the direction of current as clockwise.

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Circuit # 2:
1. Implement the circuit shown in figure 6.3 in multisim.

Figure 6.3

2. Mark the polarity of each element on the figure above.

3. Find the voltages across each of the resistor:

VR1 = VR2 =
VR3 =

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Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

VR4 =

4. Write the KVL equation for both of the loops and replace the numerical values in it to verify the law. Take
the direction of current as clockwise.

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 Electrical Engineering EE-2005L

Q. Implement circuit in figure 6.2 on breadboard using the following resistors and source voltage = 15V.
Record the following readings.
V1kΩ = V3.3kΩ =
V2.2kΩ = V5.1kΩ =

Consider clockwise direction of current and same polarity as marked before, numerically verify the
KVL equation.

Q. Implement the circuit in figure 6.3 on breadboard using the following resistors and source voltage = 10V.
Record the following readings.
V100Ω = V220Ω =
V470Ω = V330Ω =

Consider clockwise direction of current and same polarity as marked before, numerically verify the
KVL equation.

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