FOREIGN EXCHANGE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA) provides the
Central government the powers to execute the act, and provides the
Reserve Bank of India the powers to make regulations for executing the
provisions for the act in terms of sec. 46 and Sec. 47 respectively. Section
41 provides that the central government may direct or instruct the reserve
bank of India who shall comply with such directions or instructions. The
reserve bank of India has the sole authority as well as the responsibility to
administer the foreign exchange business in the country.

AUTHORIZED PERSONS:
Although the RBI has the sole authority to administer the foreign
exchange business in India, it does not deal with individuals or other private
entities and therefore cannot undertake the business itself. Foreign
exchange is required by a large number of individuals, exporters and
importers in the country spread over the vast geographical area of the
country. It is not possible for the bank to deal with them individually.
Section 10 of the acts permits the bank to delegate this activity. The bank
provides license to three categories of persons called authorized dealers,
Money changers and Offshore banking units (OBU) to transact with the
public at different levels. All such transactions are governed by the
exchange control Regulations provided by RBI.

Authorized persons are mandatorily required to comply with the

directions and orders of RBI in all the foreign exchange dealings
undertaken by them. Before undertaking any transaction in foreign
exchange, necessary declarations and information should be obtained by
the customer so as to ensure that provisions of the act are not violated.
AUTHORIZED DEALERS
The bulk of foreign exchange transactions undertaken in the country
involve end-users and banks. Banks and select entities licensed by the RBI
to undertake these transactions are called “Authorized Dealers” (AD). They
are permitted to undertake all type of transactions pertaining to both the
current and capital accounts of the balance of payments.

An authorized dealer is required to comply with the directions and

instructions of the RBI. Such instructions are collectively called as
‘Exchange Control Regulations’ and are contained in the ‘Exchange Control
Manual’. All amendments to the exchange control manual are intimated to
the authorized dealers by the RBI in the form of its AD (MA series)
circulars. Further directions pertaining to general procedures are given in
the form of its AD (GP series) circulars.

With regard to the operational aspects of foreign exchange

transactions such as charging of commission, methods of quotation of rates
etc., the authorized dealers is required to comply with the rules of The
Foreign exchange Dealers Association of India (FEDAI).

AUTHORIZED MONEY CHANGERS:

Money changers are licensed entities to provide facilities for
establishment of foreign currency denominated travel related instruments
such as foreign currency notes and travelers cheques. Licenses to operate
as money changers are normally provided to hotels, travel agencies etc.
Authorized money changers are further classified as full fledged money
changer and restricted money changer. A full fledged money changer is
permitted to take both purchase and sales transactions with public eg:
Travel agencies. A restricted money changer is permitted only to purchase
foreign currency notes and travelers cheques eg: 5 star hotels. All
collections need to be surrendered to the authorized dealer in foreign
exchange through a back to back arrangement.
OFFSHORE BANKING UNITS:
Branches of banks in India established in Special Economic Zones
(SEZ) are accorded the status of Offshore Banking Units (OBU). The OBU
are allowed to undertake banking operations only in designated foreign
currencies essentially with non-residents. Each such OBU has a minimum
startup capital of USD 100 million and its balance sheet is prepared in
designated foreign currencies.

8.2 MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE IN INDIA

Foreign exchange is a scarce commodity and was subject to strict
control in almost all countries till 1970s. In India, in keeping with the policy
of liberalization the focus has changed to exchange management and not
exchange control. The term ‘Exchange Control’ can be described as the
quantitative control by the government or a centralized agency of
transaction involving foreign currencies. Effectively any directive or
regulation which restricts the free play of demand – supply forces in the
foreign exchange market can be termed as exchange control.

HISTORY OF EXCHANGE CONTROL IN INDIA:

Exchange control was introduced in India on September 3, 1939 with
the start of world war II in accordance with the emergency powers derived
under the financial provision of the defence of India rules. The intention
was mainly to conserve the foreign currency resources and utilize them for
essential purpose.

The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act of 1947 was enacted after

independence to provide a statutory base for conserving foreign currency
resources and to put them to optimum use.

The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973 replaced the previous act.
The purpose was to consolidate and amend the law pertaining to
permissible transaction affecting foreign exchange resource resources,
ensure the conservation of foreign exchange resources of the country and
their appropriate utilization in the interest of the economic development of
the country.

The act was reviewed in 1993 and necessary amendments were

enacted with conformity of the ongoing process of economic liberalization
relating to foreign investments and foreign trade for closer integration with
the world economy.

The foreign exchange Management Act 1999 (FEMA) is focused

towards consolidating and amending the law related to the Foreign
exchange utilization with the objective of facilitating external trade and
payments. It also promotes orderly development and maintenance of
foreign exchange market in India. The important features in the new act as
compared to previous act are:

1. The classification of current and capital accounts transactions are clearly

defined in the act.
2. The new enactment is positive i.e all current account transactions not
specifically restricted can be carried out freely.
3. The FERA provided for criminal proceedings against violations whereas
the FEMA provides for only civil liabilities against violations.
4. The definition of residents and non-residents now takes into account the
duration of their stay in India as in the case of income tax act.
5. The FERA dealt with ‘Demand side’ management whereas the FEMA
dealt with the ‘Supply side’ management of foreign currency resources
of the economy.

8.3 THE FOREIGN EXCHANGE MARKET IN INDIA

The foreign exchange market in India may be broadly classified as
‘Retail Market’ and ‘Wholesale Market’

RETAIL MARKET:
1. In this segment end numbers of foreign currencies which include
individuals who receive and make remittance, exporters and importers
who buy and sell foreign currency requirements from commercial banks
and travelers and tourists who exchange one currency with other in the
 form of currency notes and foreign currency traveler’s cheques
approach Ads for their requirements.
2. ADs provide committed rates for such transactions. Therefore this is the
segments where exchange rates are used. These rates are called
‘Merchant Rates’.
3. Total turnover and individual transaction size is very small. Transactions
are customized in terms of maturity to meet the requirements of
individual customers.
4. All transactions taking place in this segment are governed by the
Exchange Control Regulation of RBI. ADs also need to maintain tariffs
and commission as per FEDAI guidelines.
5. Brokers and other intermediaries are not allowed in this segment.

WHOLESALE MARKET:
1. The wholesale market is also referred to as inter-bank market. It
includes transaction between ADs as also operation between ADs and
RBI.
2. Transactions in this segment are conducted in standard market lots and
the average transaction size is large.
3. Transactions are conducted at ‘Inter-Bank’ rates. This is the segment in
which exchange rates are determined. The external value of the
domestic currency as a function of market demand-supply gets
established in this segment.
4. A large proportion of inter-bank transaction are conducted through
approved / authorized exchange brokers.
5. All transactions are conducted in accordance with the code of conduct
established by RBI and FEDAI in this regard.
PARTICIPANTS IN THE INDIAN FOREIGN EXCHANGE
MARKET:
END USERS:
They are represented by individuals, business house, international
investors and multinational corporations operate in the market to meet their
genuine trade or investment requirements. They also buy or sell currencies
to speculate or trade in currencies to the extent permitted by the exchange
Control regulation. They operate by placing orders in the commercial
banks. The deal between the bank and their clients represents the retail
segment of foreign exchange market. Speculative and arbitrage
transactions constitute a major proportion of the market turnover.

COMMERCIAL BANKS:
They are the major players in the market. They buy and sell currencies
for their clients. They may also operate on their own account. This is called
‘Proprietary trading’. When a bank undertakes transaction to adjust sale or
purchase position in the foreign currency arising from its deal with its
customers, such deals are called cover operations. Such transactions
constitute only 15% of total transaction done by a trading bank. A major
portion of the volume is accounted by proprietary trading in currencies to
gain from exchange rate movements. All foreign exchange transactions are
conducted through banking system and thus banks are ideally situated to
establish the demand supply equilibrium. Thus banks actively participate in
establishing the exchange rates between currencies. Banks may directly
deal with themselves or use the service of exchange rate brokers. Foreign
exchange trading profits are very important source of revenue for major
international banks.
FOREIGN ECURRENCY BROKERS:
They function as intermediaries between authorized dealers transacting
in the wholesale interbank market. Banks place orders with the brokers
indicating the amount and rate at which they would be interested at buying
or selling of currencies. These orders enable the brokers to create very fine
combination quotes. When market makers or users approach them the
brokers are able to provide ready quotes and match their requirements.
The details of counterparties are conveyed to complete the transaction.

Brokers in India are not permitted to maintain ‘Open Position’ or trade

on proprietary account. They only act as a deal facilitators. The rates of
brokerage and general operations are governed by the guidelines by
FEDAI.

Foreign exchange Brokers in India require license From the RBI to

operate. This license is renewed based on the periodic review undertaken
by FEDAI which makes the necessary recommendations to RBI. All such
entities are required to maintain specified security deposit with FEDAI.

CENTRAL BANK (RESERVE BANK OF INDIA)

The central bank may intervene in the market to influence the exchange
rates or to reduce volatility. The basic intention in such action is to redefine
demand-supply equilibrium. The central bank may transact in the market on
its own for the above purpose or on behalf of the govt, when undertaking
transactions which may involve foreign currency payments and receipts.
Under the flexible exchange rate system currently in operation, Central
banks are under no obligation to defend any particular exchange rate but
still intervene to change market sentiment.

The role of RBI in the exchange market is as follows:

1. Monitoring and management of exchange without a predetermined

target rate or range with intermittent intervention as and when necessary
has been the basis of the Managed Float System followed in India.
2. A policy to build a higher level of foreign exchange reserves. Which
takes into account not only anticipated current account deficit but also
liquidity requirements arising from unanticipated capital outflows.
3. A judicious policy for management of capital account transactions, with
progressive liberalization of such transactions.
4. Balancing the external economy represented by the exchange rate and
the internal economy represented by interest rates, inflation, money
supply etc.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE RETAIL NAD WHOLESALE
FOREIGN EXCHNAGE MARKET:
N Retail Segment Wholesale Segment
o
1. This segment covers This segment covers transaction
transaction between authorized between authorized dealers as also
dealers/ money changers and between authorized dealers and
customers. central bank.
2. Rates quoted in this segment Rates quoted in this segment are
are called ‘Merchant Rates’. called ‘Interbank Rates’.
3. No brokers are permitted in this Authorized brokers operate between
component of market. Authorized dealers.
4. Transactions are governed by Dealing operations are conducted
the exchange control regulation. according to the code of conduct
issued by FEDAI and RBI.
5. This segment ‘uses’ exchange This segment ‘determines’ exchange
rates. rates.
Transactions are customized. Transactions are standardized.

DEFECIENCIES OF THE INDIAN FOREIGN EXCHANGE

MARKET:
1. It is dominated by merchant traders.
2. The forward rate is influenced by the demand and supply conditions,
and do not exactly reflect the interest rate differentials.
3. It is not integrated with money markets, thereby creating opportunities
for arbitrage.
4. There are few market makers due to which market lacks depth.
5. The cross currency market has not developed.
6. There are limitations to the use of hedging products like swaps, forward
rate agreements, and currency futures. Exchange traded currency
options are not available.
8.4 CONVERTBILITY OF INDIAN RUPEE (INR)
BACKGROUND:
When the Bretton woods system ended in august 1971, the INR was
pegged against the British Sterling pound (GBP) by the way of a hard peg
which means the GBP/INR rate remained constant whereas cross rates
were calculated on a daily basis using this fixed relationship as a vehicle
currency quotation.

Due to certain deficiencies in the above system it was discontinued in

September 1975 and the INR was pegged to the basket of 16 currencies.
This represented a soft peg which means that the value of INR was
calculated afresh daily but represented by way of GBP/INR ‘fixing’. Cross
rates were calculated using the fixing quotation. Effectively GBP continued
to function as vehicle currency and also as the intervention currency.

Effective from August 1 1991 USD was made the vehicle currency.
Therefore the USD/ INR rate functioned as the vehicle currency quotation
for calculating cross rates. The factors which usually contribute to the
choice of vehicle currency are:

1. Composition of the foreign currency reserve of the country.

2. Usage of the currency in invoicing of exports and imports.
3. Acceptability of the currency in the international markets.
4. Availability of cross currency rates for calculating cross rates.

In March 1992 India adopted a dual exchange rate system called

‘LERMS’ (Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System). In this system
exporters were required to sell 40% of all exports proceeds to the RBI at a
fixed price. The balance component of 60% was permitted to be sold at
market driven price through the domestic foreign exchange market. LERMS
represents partial float of INR. This system was introduced because the
country’s foreign exchange had depleted substantially. The component of
40% sold to RBI ensured a corpus of foreign currency at a fixed cost which
guaranteed availability of foreign currency resources for purchase of
essential imports like petro-products, defence equipments, agro-products
etc. As the foreign exchange reserves position gradually improved the
system was discontinued from March 1993. From this period onwards the
Indian rupees has always been valued on market related basis. This is
known as ‘The Unified Exchange rate System’. It represented floating of the
INR which means that the government and the RBI was no longer
participants in the currency valuation process. Market demand-supply
forces established the external value of INR. This was the first step towards
introduction of currency convertibility in India.

Floating of a currency is a pre-requisite to convertibility of a currency.

While floating deals with the method used to establish the value of
currency, convertibility deals with the operational ease with which domestic
currency is allowed to be converted into foreign currency. Convertibility
therefore represents procedural simplification of foreign exchange
transactions for personal dealings in the currency.

In August 1994, the INR was made convertible for current account
transactions. This means that all impediments such as licensing, etc were
removed in so far as foreign exchange transactions involved purchase/ sale
of foreign currency for permitted import and export of goods and services.
Limits were placed on conversion allowed foe several categories of
activities. Eg: Currently each resident individual is permitted to purchase
foreign currencies upto USD 10000 per calendar year for international
tourism described as basic travel quota.

CAPITAL ACCOUNT CONVERTIBILITY (CAC)

In 1997 a committee headed by Mr. S.S Tarapore, the deputy governor
of RBI, was constituted to recommend stepwise implementation of CAC.
The recommendations of this committee could not be implemented
because of international developments such as the South East Asian crisis,
Currency failures in Brazil and Russia and events such as 11 th September,
2001 in America.
 While there is no formal definition of CAC, the committee under the
chairmanship of Mr. Tarapore defined CAC as the freedom to convert local
financial assets into foreign financial assets and vice versa at a market
determined rates of exchange. It is associated with changes of ownership
in foreign/ local financial assets and liabilities in the form of receivables and
payables and involves the creation and liquidation of claims on or by non-
resident entities.

A second committee to suggest a road map for achieving fuller CAC

was constituted. The recommendation of this committee was received in
2006, will be implemented by RBI in phased manner so as to achieve the
desired level of CAC by 2011-2012.

In the interim period, the RBI has progressively allowed greater

freedom in capital transactions some of these relaxations are:

1. Individual residents are permitted to invest up-to USD 100,000 in

international securities.
2. Individual residents are permitted to establish non-interest bearing
accounts in specified currencies with banks in India.
3. In a gradual manner, the RBI has allowed Indian corporate entities to
raise resources and invest overseas in higher manner.
4. Branches of Indian banks located in SEZ are permitted to conduct
banking operations such accepting deposits and giving loans in non-
resident currencies.

The current status of INR is that it is fully convertible for foreign

account transactions and partially convertible for capital account
transactions. The limitations in capital account transaction apply only to
residents and not non-residents which means that for non-resident entities
the INR is for all practical purpose, fully convertible, subject to quantitative
sector –wise limits for investments.

Following are the prerequisites for CAC:

1. Maintenance of domestic stability.

2. Adequate foreign exchange reserves.
3. Restrictions on inessential imports.
4. Comfortable current account position.
5. An appropriate industrial policy and a friendly investment climate.

8.5 MANAGEMENT OF RESERVES

Foreign Currency Reserves Management can be described as the
process that ensures that adequate foreign assets are readily available to
the authorities for meeting identified liabilities and a defined range of
objectives for a country. These objectives include:

1. Exchange rates management represented by the capacity to intervene

in the support of domestic currency.
2. Maintaining adequate foreign currency liquidity to absorb shocks during
the crisis or when access to borrowing is curtailed thereby reducing
vulnerability of the economy too external forces.
3. Providing confidence to the international community that the country can
meet its external obligations/ liabilities.
4. Ensuring that the domestic currency is largely backed by external
assets.
5. Managing foreign currency line of credit for promoting high value
exports.

Adequate Foreign Currency Reserves makes the economy resilient to

demand pressures as also unanticipated fund requirements. The South
East Asian crisis in 1997 highlighted the fact that a financial crisis gets
amplified when the monetary authorities do not hold sufficient reserves to
meet unexpected demands.

Similarly appropriate Portfolio management policies concerning the

currency composition, choice of investment instruments and acceptable
duration of the reserve portfolio, commensurate with the country unique
needs, ensures that assets are protected and readily available to ensure
market confidence.

Sound reserve management policies and practices can support but

cannot substitute sound macroeconomics management. Inappropriate
economic policies create serious limitations to efficient reserves
management.

ROLE OF IIMF:
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has provided detail guidelines to
member countries on this subject. These guidelines assist government in
strengthening their policy framework for reserve management so as to
increase their resilience to shocks that may originate from global financial
markets or domestic financial system. The aim is to help the authorities to
introduce appropriate objectives and principles for reserve management
and built adequate institutional and operational support system for effective
reserve management practices. There is no unique set of reserve
management practices or institutional arrangements that would suit all
countries or situations, which means that there cannot be standardized set
of regulations. Each member therefore has to structure an independent
structure for managing reserves. Guidelines of the IMF are therefore not
mandatory.

The common elements of all such models are:

1. Adequate foreign exchange reserves should be available for meeting a

defined range of objectives.
2. Liquidity, market and credit risks should be adequately controlled, and
3. Liquidity and other risks constraints should be appropriately balanced to
ensure that reserves generate reasonable returns.

LEVEL OF RESERVES:
Reserve management forms a part of official economic policies, and
specific circumstances will impact decisions concerning both reserve
adequacy and reserve management objectives. In order to ensure timely
availability of reserves, the reserve manager needs to have assessments of
what constitutes adequate level of reserves. There are no universally
applicable measures foe assessing the adequacy of reserves and the
determination of reserve adequacy falls beyond the scope of IMF
guidelines. The factors influencing such decisions are:

1. The monetary and exchange rate policies of the country.

2. The size nature and variability of its balance of payments deficit or
surplus.
3. The external debt position, and
4. The volatility of its capital flows.

DETERMINANTS:
Reserves should be available when they are needed most which means
they should be liquid. Liquidity can be described as the ability to convert
quickly reserve assets into foreign exchange. Liquidity however carries a
cost which involves accepting investments, providing lower yield.

Reserve management involves control of risks to ensure that assets

value are protected. Market and credit risks can cause sudden losses and
impair liquidity.

Finally earnings on investments of reserves are an important element of

the management of reserve assets. For some countries, they offset the
cost associated with other central bank policies and other domestic
monetary operations, which actually fund the acquisition of reserves. In
cases where reserves are created by borrowing in foreign markets,
earnings play an important role in minimizing the carrying cost of reserve
assets. Thus achieving an acceptable level of earnings involves a balance
between clearly defined liquidity and risk factors.

EXCAHNGE RATE REGIMES:

Under a free float there is no commitment by the authorities to
participate in the foreign exchange market through intervention. This
provides the reserve management authority greater flexibility in structuring
the duration and liquidity of portfolio. However in reality the monetary
authority would prefer to maintain a capacity to ensure orderly market
during the time of very sharp adjustments of the exchange rate or market
pressures and be able to counter unforeseen internal or external shocks.

In countries with fixed exchange rate including those which operate

currency boards the authorities need to intermittently participate in the
foreign exchange market, and will therefore need reserves that can be
readily converted into foreign exchange. Especially in these cases reserves
are needed to provide confidence in the currency peg and deter
speculation. For these purposes reserves ten to be invested in the form
that facilitates their ready availability.

RISK IN RESERVE MANAGEMENT:

1. Liquidity risk: The probability risk of not having sufficient assets in
liquid form to meet immediate liability.
2. Credit risk: The probability of counterparty default. This is the
probability that the issuer of the assets may default.
3. Currency risk: The probability of loss due to fall in values of currencies
forming the reserves is described as currency risk. Some elements of
exchange rate risk is unavoidable with reserve assets portfolios.
4. Interest rate risk: The probability of loss due to changes in interest rate.
Yield value of debt instruments is inversely proportional to the interest
rates.
5. Control system failure risk: Losses arising due to frauds, money
laundering and theft of reserves assets due to inadequate control
procedures inadequate skills poor separation of duties and collusion
among reserves management staff members are describes as system
risk.
6. Financial error risk: Off balance sheet foreign currency dominated
asset and liabilities are often ignored when establishing the exposure in
different currencies. Losses due to such errors are financial errors.
7. Loss of potential income: Failure to re-invest funds accumulating in
‘Nostro’ accounts with foreign banks in a timely manner gives rise to loss
 of potential revenue. Such losses arise due to inadequate procedures
for monitoring and managing settlements and reconciling accounts.

8.6 FOREIGN EXCHANGE DEALERS ASSOCIATION OF

INDIA (FEDAI)
The FEDAU was set up in 1958 as an association of banks dealing in
foreign exchange in India (called Authorized Dealers-ADs). It is a self
regulatory body and incorporated under section 25 of The Companies Act
1956. The major activities includes framing of rules governing the conduct
of foreign exchange business between banks and the public and liaison
with RBI for reforms and development of the foreign exchange market.

Presently their main functions are as follows:

1. Frame guidelines and rules for foreign exchange business.

2. Training of bank personnel in the areas of foreign exchange business.
3. Accreditation of foreign exchange brokers and periodic review of their
operations. They also advise RBI regarding licensing of new brokers.
4. Advising/ Assisting member banks in setting issues/ matters in their
dealings. They provide a standardized dispute settlement process for all
market participants.
5. Represent member banks in discussion with government/ RBI/ other
bodies and provide a common platform for ADs to interact with
government and RBI.
6. Announcement of daily and periodical rates to member banks. At the
end of each calendar month they provide a schedule of forward rates to
be used by ADs for revaluing the foreign currency denominated assets
and liabilities.
7. Announcement of ‘spot date’ at the start of each trading day to ensure
uniformity in settlement between different market participants.
8. Circulate guidelines for quotation of rates, charging of commissions, etc.
by ADs to their customers and by brokers for interbank transactions.

Due to continuing integration of global financial markets and increased

speed of de-regulation, the role of self-regulatory organizations like FEDAI
has also changed. In such an environment, FEDAI plays a catalytic role for
smooth functioning of the market through closer co-ordination with RBI,
organizations like FIMMDA (Fixed Income Money Market and Derivatives
Association), the Forex association of India and various market
participants. FEDAI also helps to maximize the benefits derived from
synergies of member banks by way of innovation in the areas like new
customized products, bench marking against international standards on
accounting, market prices, risk management system etc.

8.7 RESERVES ACCOUNT IN BALANCE OF

PAYMENTS
It comprises of balance with IMF, allocated SDRs, monetary gold
reserves and foreign currency assets held by the monetary authority of the
country i.e. the RBI. The SDR’s monetary gold reserves and foreign
currency assets collectively represents the external performance of the
economy over a given period. This is because the net imbalance in the
inflows and outflows of foreign currency on account of all autonomous
transactions gets reflected as a change in one of these elements of the
reserve account on daily basis.

The issue department of the RBI is responsible for creation of physical

money in the country and maintain its equality against an asset basket
controlled by the RBI. This asset basket in addition to the above three
elements includes government securities. Effectively the quantum of
government securities as a proportion of the asset basket represents the
balancing element between the actual level of money supply and the
money supply backed by the external trade performance of the country.
Adjustments in the money supply created against government securities is
done through open market operations whereas adjustments required on
account of money created against foreign currency assets is done through
the use of market stabilization scheme.

The issue department of RBI is also responsible for maintaining the

desired proportionality between the different elements of assets basket.
This assets basket is subject to a ‘Minimum Reserve System’ which means
a minimum proportion of each individual asset has to be maintained. This is
to ensure that there is no concentration of holding in any particular
category. It therefore reduces the risk of incurring loss due to fall in the
value of the asset of any particular category.

The monetary policy of RBI which is mow declared twice in each

quarter is a process involving a review of the economic performance of the
country and provides for variation in various tools of monetary management
such as Cash Reserve Ratio, Statutory Liquidity Ratio, Bank Rate, Repo
and Reverse Rate, etc so as to achieve an optimum balance between
economic growth, interest rate, inflation rate, and the exchange rate of the
domestic currency.