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Sufism (an overview)

By: Morad Nazari ( [email protected], www.moradmazari.com)
1. Sufism as an Islamic discipline
Sufism or Taṣawwuf is defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam. Practitioners
of Sufism, referred to as Sufis, often belong to different "orders"—congregations formed
around a grand master referred to as a mawla who traces a direct chain of teachers, back to
the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. These orders meet for spiritual sessions (majalis) in
meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs, or tekke. Sufis strive for ihsan (perfection of
worship) as detailed in a hadith (sayings of Prophet Muhammad): "Ihsan is to worship Allah
as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees you." Sufis regard Muhammad as al-
Insān al-Kāmil, the primary perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. They regard
him as their leader and prime spiritual guide. 
2. Origins and influence
Historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word taṣawwuf to identify the practice of
Sufis. Mainstream scholars of Islam define Sufism as the name for the inner or esoteric
dimension of Islam which is supported and complemented by outward or exoteric practices of
Islam, such as Sharia. In this view, "it is absolutely necessary to be a Muslim to be a true
Sufi, because Sufism's methods are inoperative without "affiliation". 
All Sufi orders trace many of their original precepts from Muhammad through his
cousin and son-in-la Ali with the notable exception of the Naqshbandi Order, who claim to
trace their origins from Muhammad through the first of Rashidun Caliphs, Abu Bakr. Sufi
orders largely follow one of the four mazhabs (jurisprudent schools of thought) of Sunni
Islam and maintain a Sunni creed. Over the years, However, Sufi orders have influenced and
have been adopted by various Shi'i movements, especially Isma’ilism, which led to the
Safavid order’s conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread of Twelverism
throughout Iran. 
Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively
referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is
directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism
proceeded, in its origin and its development. Classical Sufis were characterized by their
asceticism, especially by their attachment to zikr, the practice of repeating the names of God,
often performed after prayers.
The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi philosophy
in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam,
and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa and Asia. Sufi poets and
philosophers such as Rumi, Attar of Nishapur greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture
in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia. Sufism also played a role in creating and
propagating the culture of the Ottoman world, and in resisting European imperialism in North
Africa and South Asia.
Between the 13th and 16th centuries, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual
culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose physical artifacts survive. In
many places a person or group would endow a waqf to maintain a lodge (known variously as
a zawiya, khanqah, or tekke) to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging
for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for a
complex of buildings including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens where these
seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other
structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in
this period.
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Sufis have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, originally
expressing their beliefs in Arabic before spreading into Persian, Turkish, and Urdu among
dozens of other languages. Turkey and Persia together have been a center for many Sufi
lineages and orders. The Bektashi were closely affiliated with the Ottoman Janissaries and is
the heart of Turkey's large and mostly liberal Alevi population. It has spread westwards to
Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Kosovo, and more recently, to the United States via Albania. Sufism is popular in such
African countries as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal, where it is seen as a mystical
expression of Islam. One reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can
accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical.
3. Sufism and traditional Islamic thought
The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outside
observation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct reference or
description, with the consequence that the authors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to
allegorical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry refers to intoxication, which Islam
expressly forbids. This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by
people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of
Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above
the Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain
salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. For these and other
reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex and a
range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars, such as Al-
Ghazali, helped its propagation while other scholars opposed it.
Sufism is not a sect, rather it is considered as the part of Islamic teaching that deals
with the purification of the inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion,
Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional
faculties" that one must be trained to use. Sufism is regarded as a science of Islam that has
always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam. Most of the international Islamic
organizations such as Organization of the Islamic Conference summit at Mecca in December
2005 recognized the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam—however the definition of Sufism
can vary drastically between different traditions.
4. Traditional Sufis and Neo-Sufi groups 
The traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, emphasize the role of Sufism as a
spiritual discipline within Islam. Therefore, the Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the
Sunnah (Sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad) are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant.
One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the past were
experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great faith and excellent practice. Many
were also Sharia law judges in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam
and to fully comprehend and practice Sufism one must be an observant Muslim.
"Neo-Sufism," "pseudo-Sufism," and "universal Sufism" are terms used to denote
forms of Sufism that do not require adherence to Sharia, or the Muslim faith. The terms are
not always accepted by those it is applied to. For example, the Sufi Order in the West
founded by Inayat Khan, teaching the essential unity of all faiths, and accepting members of
all creeds.  Another example is the Golden Sufi Center exists in England, Switzerland, and
the United States. It was founded by Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee to continue the work of his
teacher Irina Tweedie herself a practitioner of both Hinduism and Neo-Sufism. Western Neo-
Sufi practices may differ from traditional forms, for instance having mixed-gender meetings
and less emphasis on the Qur'an.
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5. Critique of Sufism's anti-materialistic aspects

Certain aspects of Sufi philosophy are controversial and often debated. Chief among
them is the anti-materialistic strain within its ethos. Some scholars have highlighted the
monastic and anti-materialist trends within Sufism, calling attention to their "abandoning
materialism and living only for praying, something similar to monasticism". They refer to the
Quran in which calls out monasticism as a human invention not prescribed by God in the
verse 57:27: "monasticism, which they innovated; We did not prescribe it for them..."
Furthermore, there is much emphasis on physical laws of the universe within the Quran,
urging believers to study and understand the "signs" of God in the physical world (e.g. verse
2:164), which precludes the possibility of avoiding or shunning the material world. They also
mention that there are also the active aspects of the Quran's teachings which urge believers to
seek to improve the human condition and work to establish the laws of God within human
society (verse 22:41), a mission that does not fit well with the hermetic and monastic
tendencies within Sufism.
6. Perception outside Islam
Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and
especially its Orientalist scholars. Figures like Rumi have become well known in the United
States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form of Islam. Orientalists have
proposed a variety of diverse theories pertaining to the nature of Sufism, such as it being
influenced by Neo-Platonism or as an Aryan historical reaction against "Semitic" cultural
influence. The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the integration
of Europe and Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for inter-religious dialogue and
intercultural harmonization in democratic and pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a
symbol of tolerance and humanism—non-dogmatic, flexible and non-violent. They consider
Sufism and Sufis as potentially, the greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within
Muslim nations.
7. Sufi philosophy
Sufi philosophy includes the schools of thought unique to Sufism, a mystical branch
within Islam, also termed as Tasawwuf or Faqr according to its adherents. Sufism and its
philosophical traditions may be associated with both Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. It has been
suggested that Sufi thought emerged from the Middle East in the eighth century, but
adherents are now found around the world. According to Sufism, it is a part of the Islamic
teaching that deals with the purification of inner self and is the way which removes all the
veils between divine and man. It was around 1000 CE that early Sufi literature, in the form of
manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.
Sufi philosophy, like all other major philosophical traditions, has several sub-branches
including metaphysics and cosmology as well as several unique concepts.
Sufis believe the sharia (exoteric "canon"), tariqa (esoteric "order"), and haqiqa
("truth") are mutually interdependent. Sufism leads the adept, called salik or "wayfarer", in
his sulûk or "road" through different stations (maqaam) until he reaches his goal, the perfect
tawhid, the existential confession that God is One.
The emergence of Sufi thought is commonly linked to the historical developments of
Middle East in the seventh and eighth centuries following the life of Prophet Mohammad,
and its development took place throughout the centuries after that. Between the tenth and
twelfth centuries, Sufism became a widely spread discipline. One influential early writer on
Sufi philosophy was Al-Ghazali (1058–1111). He discussed the concept of the self and the
causes of its misery and happiness. By the end of the thirteenth century, Sufism had become a
well-defined science of spiritual awakening throughout the Islamic World, an "Islamic
Golden Age". No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by
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Sufism in this period. Several Sufi orders were found. Also a class of notable Sufi
philosophers, theologians and jurists such as Ibn Arabi led this age which trained and
generated historical specimens of philosophers and geniuses now read worldwide such as Al-
Ghazali, Avicenna, etc. Sufis were influential in spreading Islam particularly to the furthest
outposts of the Muslim world in Africa, India and the Far East.
7.1. Sufi metaphysics
Major ideas in Sufi metaphysics have surrounded the concept of waḥdah meaning
"unity". Two main Sufi philosophies prevail on this topic. waḥdat al-wujūd literally means
the "Unity of Existence" or "Unity of Being". On the other hand, waḥdat ash-shuhūd,
meaning "Apparentism" or "Unity of Witness", holds that God and his creation are entirely
separate.
The concept of Sufi Metaphysics was first deeply discussed in written form by Ibn
Arabi in one of his most prolific works entitled Fusus al hikam where he applies deep
analysis on the issue of Oneness through the metaphor of mirror. In this metaphor, Ibn Arabi
compares an object being reflected in countless mirrors to the relationship between God and
his creatures. God’s essence is seen in the existent human being, as God is the object and
humans being the mirrors. Meaning two things, that since humans are mere reflections of
God there can be no distinction or separation between the two and without God the creatures
would be non- existent. When an individual understands that there is no separation between
human and God they begin on the path of ultimate oneness. This metaphysics of Sufi
philosophy is also narrated in the hadith: "Whoever recognized his self, undoubtedly
recognized his Allah".
Sufi metaphysics has been a subject to criticism by most non-Sufis. It was considered
blasphemy and its practitioners blacklisted. Sufi metaphysics has been criticized from within
Sufism as well. They feel that the concept will lead to pantheism, which is contrary to the
tenets of Sunni Islam. Some, however, believe that differences between the opponents and
proponents are 'verbal controversies' which have come about because of ambiguous language
though. If we leave, all the metaphors and similes used for the expression of ideas aside, the
apparently opposite views will agree.
7.2. Sufi cosmology
According to Sufi cosmology, God's reason for the creation of this cosmos and
humankind is the "manifestation" and "recognition" of Himself as it is stated in a Hadith: "I
was a hidden Treasure; I desired to be recognized so I created the creature".
Sufi cosmology is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with the
mysticism or Sufism. These may differ from place to place, order to order and time to time,
but overall show the influence of several different cosmographies such as the Quran's
testament concerning God and immaterial beings, the soul and the afterlife, the beginning and
end of things, the seven heavens etc. The Neo-Platonic views cherished by Islamic
philosophers like Ibn Sina / Avicenna and Ibn Arabi or; the Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical
geocentric world. The cosmological plan, explains creation by successive emanation of
worlds, as taught by Plotinus. In Islamic Sufi terminology, these are also known as
"Tanzalat- e-Satta" (7 steps).
8. Teachings
To Sufis, the outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage,
judicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred to, broadly, as "qanun". The inner
law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible
qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues and good character.
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To the Sufi, it is the transmission of divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart
of the student, rather than worldly knowledge that allows the adept to progress. They further
believe that the teacher should attempt in-errantly to follow the Divine Law.
One of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of al-Insan al-Kamil
"the Perfect Man". This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth a "Qutb"
(Pole or Axis of the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to man
and in a state of wilayah (sanctity, being under the protection of Allah). The concept of the
Sufi Qutb is similar to that of the Shia Imam. However, this belief puts Sufism in "direct
conflict" with Shia Islam, since both the Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of the
order) and the Imam fulfill the role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and of Allah's grace
to mankind". The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb which is taken by Sufis is
considered incompatible with devotion to the Imam".
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups
of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor.
Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is
primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such has sometimes been
compared to other, non-Islamic forms of mysticism.
9. Sufi beliefs about Prophet Muhammad
Devotion to Muhammad is an exceptionally strong practice within Sufism. Sufis have
historically revered Muhammad as the prime personality of spiritual greatness. They have
historically stressed the importance of Muhammad's perfection and his ability to intercede.
The persona of Muhammad has historically been and remains an integral and critical aspect
of Sufi belief and practice.
Sufis maintain that the Prophet Muhammad is Al-Insān al-Kāmil (the Perfect Man).
They believe that aid and support may be received from Prophet Muhammad, even today and
he listens to them when they call upon him. Sufis strive towards having a relationship with
Prophet Muhammad and seeking to see him in a dream is a common Sufi practice.
10. Devotional practices
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an acknowledged and
authorized master of the Sufi path is in effect a physician of the heart, able to diagnose the
seeker's impediments to knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the
seeker a course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. The consensus among Sufi
scholars is that the seeker cannot self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to
undertake any of these practices alone and without formal authorization.
Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in
its five prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker
ought to be firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad.
This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God.
It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed, and to embrace with
certainty its tenets. The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this
world, the love of company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of
the lower self. (The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in
certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be
trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to his or her credit
by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the
hope for a long life allowing us to mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and
now).
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a means for gaining knowledge. The
traditional scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a
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psychological state generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is not the
cause, but instead the occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper
prerequisites and proper guidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on
practices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a
broken person, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of Al-Ghazali)
solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.
Magic may have also been a part of some Sufi practices, notably in India. The
practice of magic intensified during the declining years of Sufism in India when the Sufi
orders grew steadily in wealth and in political influence while their spirituality gradually
declined and they concentrated on saint veneration, miracle working, magic and superstition.
10.1. Dhikr
Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims through
a specific devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms
from hadith (sayings of Prophet Muhammad) and the Qur'an. To engage in dhikr is to
practice consciousness of the Divine Presence and love, or “to seek a state of God-wariness.”
Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or sema. Sema includes
various forms of worship such as: recitation, singing (the most well-known being the
Qawwali music of the Indian subcontinent), instrumental music, dance (most famously the
Sufi whirling of the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance.
10.2. Muraqaba
The practice of muraqaba can be likened to the practices of meditation attested in
many faith communities. Through muraqaba, a person watches over or takes care of the
spiritual heart, acquires knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence,
which is ever vigilant.
10.3. Sufi whirling
Sufi whirling (or Sufi spinning) is a form of sama or physically active meditation
which originated among Sufis, and which is still practiced by the Sufi Dervishes of the
Mevlevi order. It is a customary dance performed within the sema, through which dervishes
aim to reach the source of all perfection, or kemal. This is sought through abandoning one's
nafs (egos or personal desires) by listening to the music, focusing on God, and spinning one's
body in repetitive circles, which has been seen as a symbolic imitation of planets in the Solar
System orbiting the sun.
10.4. Visitation
In popular Sufism (i.e., devotional practices that have achieved currency in world
cultures through Sufi influence), one common practice is to visit or make pilgrimages to the
tombs of saints, great scholars, and righteous people. This is a particularly common practice
in South Asia. The purpose of such visitations is usually two-fold, first and foremost the aim
is to receive spiritual guidance and blessings from the Saint who rests in the shrine, which
helps the Seeker in his or her own path towards enlightenment. Secondly, the Saint is also
approached for intercession in prayers, be it in worldly matters or religious.
11. Prominent Sufis and Sufi Orders
The term Tariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical
teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate
truth). A tariqa has a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The
members or followers of a tariqa are known as murīdīn (singular murīd), meaning "desirous",
viz. "desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God".
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Bayazid Bastami: He is a very well recognized and influential Sufi personality.

Bastami was born in 804 in Bastam. He is regarded for his devout commitment to the Sunnah
and his dedication to fundamental Islamic principles and practices.
Ibn Arabi: Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi (July 28, 1165 – November 10, 1240) is considered
to be one of the most important Sufi masters, although he never founded any order (tariqa).
His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied
within all the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine Unity), though because
of their recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his
teaching became known as the school of wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). Ibn Arabi
is known simply as Shaykh Al-Akbar (the greatest master) was an Arab Andalusian Scholar of
Islam, Sufi mystic, poet, and philosopher. Muslim scholars have often held strong, polarized
views regarding the viewpoints and character of Ibn Arabi. Many have declared Ibn Arabi to
be the foremost spiritual leader and Sufi master in Muslim history. Others regarded him as a
heretic or even an apostate. Very few have had neutral or lukewarm reactions.
Junayd of Baghdad: Junayd of Baghdad (830–910) was one of the great early Sufis.
His order was Junaidia, which links to the golden chain of many Sufi orders. He laid the
groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to that of God-intoxicated Sufis like al-Hallaj,
Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial of al-Hallaj, his former disciple,
the Caliph of the time demanded his fatwa. In response, he issued this fatwa: "From the
outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to the outward appearance and God
knows better". He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.
Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya: Died 801, she was a flautist, mystic, and pilgrim who
represents the distinctly countercultural elements of Sufism, especially with regards to the
status and power of women. She is known for her teachings and emphasis on the centrality of
the love of God to a holy life. Running down the streets of Basra, Iraq, she proclaimed: "O
God! If I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell, and if I worship You in hope of
Paradise, exclude me from Paradise. But if I worship You for Your Own sake, grudge me not
Your everlasting Beauty."
Mansur Al-Hallaj: Died 922, he is renowned for his claim, Ana-l-Haqq ("I am The
Truth"). His refusal to recant this utterance, which was regarded as apostasy, led to a long
trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad prison, before being tortured and publicly
dismembered on March 26, 922. He is still revered by Sufis for his willingness to embrace
torture and death rather than recant.
The Bektashi Order is a dervish order named after the 13th century Alevi Wali
(saint) Haji Bektash Veli from Khorasan, but founded by Balım Sultan. The order is mainly
found throughout Anatolia and the Balkans, and was particularly strong in Albania, Bulgaria,
and among Ottoman era Greek Muslims from the regions of Epirus, Crete and Macedonia.
However, the Bektashi order does not seem to have attracted quite as many adherents from
among Bosnian Muslims, who tended to favor more mainstream Sunni orders such as the
Naqshbandiyya and Qadiriyya.
The Chishti Order, a Sunni Sufi order, is primarily followed in Afghanistan and
Indian subcontinent. It was the first of the four main Sufi orders (Chishti, Qadiriyya,
Suhrawardiyya and Naqshbandi) to be established in this region. Moinuddin Chishti
introduced the Chishti Order in Lahore (Punjab) and Ajmer (Rajasthan), sometime in the
middle of the 12th century CE. He was eighth in the line of succession from the founder of
the Chishti Order, Abu Ishq Shami. Chishti practiced the Sufi Sulh-e-Kul (peace to all)
concept to promote understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims. Also known as
Gharīb Nawāz "Benefactor of the Poor", Chishti introduced and established the order in the
subcontinent. There are now several branches of the order, which has been the most
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prominent South Asian Sufi brotherhood since the 12th century. The Order is known for its
emphasis on love, tolerance, and openness.
The Kubrawiya Order was founded in the 13th century by Sheikh Nadjm ed-Din
Kubra in Bukhara in modern Uzbekistan. The Mongols had captured Bukhara in 1221, they
committed genocide and killed nearly the whole population. Sheikh Nadjm ed-Din Kubra
was among those killed by the Mongols. The Order is also known as Firdausia Silsila and is
popular in Eastern India, Bangladesh and Mauritius.
The Mawlaw'īyya / Mevlevi Order is a Sufi order in Konya (capital of the Anatolian
Seljuk Sultanate) founded by the followers of Rumi (his Persian name: Mawlawi/Mevlevi), a
13th-century Persian poet and founder of the Mewlewiyya order of dervishes. He was a poet,
Islamic jurist, and theologian. The Mawlaw'īyya are also known as the Whirling Dervishes
due to their famous practice of whirling as a form of dhikr (remembrance of God). Dervish is
a common term for an initiate of the Sufi path; the whirling is part of the formal Sama
ceremony and the participants are properly known as Semazen-s. In 2008, UNESCO
confirmed the "The Mevlevi Sema Ceremony" of Turkey as amongst the Masterpieces of the
Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
The Muridiyya Order is a large Islamic Sufi order most prominent in Senegal and
The Gambia, with headquarters in the city of Touba, Senegal, which is a holy city for the
order. Adherents are called Mourides, from the Arabic word murīd (literally "one who
desires"), a term used generally in Sufism to designate a disciple of a spiritual guide. The
beliefs and practices of the Mourides constitute Mouridism. Mouride disciples call
themselves taalibé in Wolof and must undergo a ritual of allegiance called njebbel, as it is
considered highly important to have a sheikh "spiritual guide" in order to become a Mouride.
This Sufi order was founded in 1883 in Senegal by Amadou Bamba. The Mouride make up
around 40 percent of the total population in Senegal. Their influence over everyday life can
be seen throughout Senegal.
The Naqshbandiyya Order was founded by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari and
traces its spiritual lineage to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Abu Bakr, the first
Caliph and Muhammad's companion. Some Naqshbandi masters trace their lineage through
Ali, his son-in-law and the fourth Caliph, in keeping with most other Sufis. Formed in 1380,
the order is considered by some to be a "sober" order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance
of God) rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders.
The Khālidīyyā Order is a branch of the Naqshbandiyya . It begins from the time of
Khalid al-Baghdadi.
The Sülaymānīyyā Order is a Muslim Sunni-Hanafi jamia based in Turkey and an
offshoot of Naqshbandiyya founded by Sülaymān Hilmi Silistrevī. In the early 1990s it was
estimated that there were over two million members in Turkey. There are also independent
branches in Germany and United States.
The Haqqānīyyā Order is an offshoot of Naqshbandiyya founded by Mawlana
Shaykh Nazim Al-Haqqani. he Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi Order of America (NQSOA) is an
educational organization devoted to spreading the teachings of the Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi
tariqah in America.
The Naqshbandia Mujaddidia Najmiya Riyaziya Order founded by Syed Riyaz
Ahmad Naqshbandi in 1933 in Fatehpur, India.
The Ni'matullāhī Order is the most widespread Sufi order of Persia today. It was
founded by Shah Ni'matullah Wali (died 1367), established and transformed from his
inheritance of the Ma'rufiyyah circle. The number of Ni'matullāhī in Iran in 1980 was
estimated to be between 50,000 and 350,000. Following the emigration of Dr. Javad
Nurbakhsh and other dervishes after the 1979 Iranian Revolution, the tariqa has attracted
numerous followers outside Iran, mostly in Europe, West Africa and North America,
 9

although the first khaniqa outside of Iran was formed in San Francisco, California, United
States in 1975, a few years before the revolution in Iran.
The Noorbakshia Order also called Sufia Imamia Nurbakhshiya, hamdania and
Sufia Nurbakhshiya, became famous as Nurbakshi after Shah Syed Muhammad Nurbakhsh
Qahistani who was attached with Kubrawiya order Sufi order. Its direct spiritual lineage and
chain (silsila) is traced back to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Ali, Muhammad's
cousin, son-in-law and the First Imam, by Imam Ali Al-Ridha. In contrast, most other Sufi
paths trace their lineage only through Ali.
The Owaisi Order claim to be founded 1,400 years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from
Yemen. The Uwaysi Order is a Shi'i branch of the Kubrawiya. Uways received the teachings
of Islam inwardly through his heart and lived by the principles taught by him, although he
had never physically met Muhammad. At times Muhammad would say of him, "I feel the
breath of the Merciful, coming to me from Yemen." Shortly before Muhammad died, he
directed Umar (second Caliph) and Ali (the fourth Caliph) to take his cloak to Uwais. In
Pakistan several branches of owaisi silsila exist, notably the Silsila of Shams Ali Qalandar
owaisi, qadri, noshahi with followers present all over the world.
The Qadiriyya Order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It derives its name from
Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077–1166), a native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. He was a Persian
Hanbali jurist and Sufi based in Baghdad. The order, with its many offshoots, is widespread,
particularly in the Arabic-speaking world, and can also be found in Central Asia,Turkey,
Indonesia, Afghanistan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Balkans, Russia, Palestine, Israel,
China, East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any distinctive doctrines or
teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam,
but interpreted through mystical experience.
The Sarwari Qadri Order was founded by Sultan Bahu which branched out of the
Qadiriyyah Order.
The Maizbhandari Order is a liberated Sufism order established in the Bangladesh
in the 19th century by Ahmadullah Maizbhandari.
The Senussi Order is a religious-political Sufi order, founded in Mecca in 1837 by
the Grand Senussi, Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. He founded this movement due to his
criticism of the Egyptian ulema. Originally from Mecca, as-Senussi left due to pressure from
Wahhabis to leave and settled in Cyrenaica where he was well received. From 1902 to 1913
the Senussi fought French colonial expansion in the Sahara and the Kingdom of Italy's
colonisation of Libya beginning in 1911. In World War I, they fought the Senussi Campaign
against the British in Egypt and Sudan. During World War II, the Senussi tribe provided vital
support to the British Eighth Army in North Africa against Nazi German and Fascist Italian
forces. The Grand Senussi's grandson became king Idris of Libya in 1951. In 1969, Idris I
was overthrown by a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi but, a third of Libyan still claim
to be Senussi. The Senussi tribes of Libya and the Sudan are one of the strongest adherents of
Sufism.
The Shadhili Order is a Sufi order founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili. He
introduced dhikr jahri (the remembrance of God outloud, as opposed to the silent dhikr). He
taught that his followers need not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be
grateful for what God has bestowed upon them, in contrast to the majority of Sufis, who
preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego-self (nafs) and its worldly desires. It has
historically been of importance and influence in North Africa and Egypt with many
contributions to Islamic literature. Of the various branches of the Shadhili tariqa are the
Fassiyatush, found largely in India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. The Darqawi branch is found
mostly in Morocco and the Darqawi Alawiyya (no connection to the "Kızılbaş-Turkish-
 10

Alevis" or "Syrian-Arab-Alawis") which originated in Algeria is now found the world over,
particularly in Syria, Jordan, France, and among many English-speaking communities.
The Suhrawardiyya Order founded by Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097 – 1168
CE). It is a strictly Sunni order, guided by the Shafi`i school of Islamic law (madhhab), and,
like many such orders, traces its spiritual genealogy (silsila) to Hazrat Ali ibn Abi Talib
through Junayd Baghdadi and al-Ghazali. It played an important role in the formation of a
conservative ‘new piety’ and in the regulation of urban vocational and other groups, such as
trades-guilds and youth clubs, particularly in Baghdad.
The Tijaniyya Order founded by Ahmad al-Tijani (1737–1815), who was born in
Aïn Madhi, present-day Algeria and died in Fes, Morocco. Tijāniyyah is a Sufi tariqa (order,
path) within Sunni Islam, originating in North Africa but now more widespread in West
Africa, particularly in Senegal, The Gambia, Mauritania, Mali, Guinea, Niger, Chad, Ghana
and Northern Nigeria and some part of Sudan. It is also present in the state of Kerala in India.
Tijānī attach a large importance to culture and education, and emphasize the individual
adhesion of the disciple (murīd).
12. Persecution of Sufis
Persecution of Sufis and Sufism has included destruction of Sufi shrines and mosques,
suppression of orders, and discrimination against adherents in a number of Muslim countries.
In recent years, shrines, and sometimes mosques, have been damaged or destroyed in many
parts of the Muslim world. Some Sufi adherents have been killed as well. In most Muslim
countries, attacks on Sufis and especially their shrines have come from adherents of
puritanical schools of thought who believe that practices such as celebration of the birthdays
of Sufi saints, and dhikr ("remembrance" of God) ceremonies are bid‘ah or impure
innovation, and polytheistic (Shirk). To mention one event here, in 1843, the Senussi Sufis
due to pressure from Wahhabis were forced to flee Mecca and Medina and head to Sudan and
Libya.
Turkey: The Turkish Republican state banned all Sufi orders and abolished their
institutions in 1925 after Sufis opposed the new secular order. In1925, as part of his desire to
create a modern, western-orientated, secular state, Atatürk banned all the different Sufi orders
and closed their tekkes. Pious foundations were suspended and their endowments
expropriated; Sufi hospices were closed and their contents seized; all religious titles were
abolished and dervish clothes outlawed. In 1937, Atatürk went even further, prohibiting by
law any form of traditional music, especially the playing of the ney, the Sufis' reed flute.
Pakistan and Kashmir valley: Since March 2005, 209 people have been killed and
560 injured in 29 different terrorist attacks targeting shrines devoted to Sufi saints in
Pakistan. Faith healing is associated with Sufi Islam in Pakistan and suppressing it has been a
cause of "extremist" Muslims there. Pakistani faith healers are known as pirs, a term that
applies to the descendants of Sufi Muslim saints. Under Sufism, those descendants are
thought to serve as conduits to God. Also Salafi movement believes that "Kashmiri tradition
of venerating the tombs and relics of saints is outside the pale of Islam" and that has been the
source of all violence about Sufis in this part of world.
Somalia: Under the Al-Shabab rule in Somali, Sufi ceremonies were banned and
shrines destroyed. As the power of Al-Shabab has waned, however, Sufi ceremonies are said
to have "re-emerged".
Mali: In the ancient city of Timbuktu, sometimes called "the city of 333 saints",
UNESCO reports that as many as half of the city's shrines have been destroyed in a display of
fanaticism, as of July 2012. A spokesman for Ansar Dine has stated that "the destruction is a
divine order," and that the group had plans to destroy every single Sufi shrine in the city,
"without exception". In Gao and Kidal, as well as Timbuktu, Salafi Islamists have destroyed
musical instruments and driven musicians (music is not Haraam under Sufi Islam) into
 11

"economic exile" away from Mali. International Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor has
described the Islamists' actions as a "war crime".
Egypt: A May 2010 ban by the ministry of awqaf (religious endowments) of
centuries old Sufi dhikr gatherings (devoted to the remembrance of God, and including
dancing and religious songs) has been described as a "another victory for extreme Salafi
thinking at the expense of Egypt's moderate Sufism". Clashes followed at Cairo's Al-Hussein
Mosque and al-Sayyida Zeinab mosques between members of Sufi orders and security forces
who forced them to evacuate the two shrines. In 2009, the moulid of al-Sayyida Zeinab,
Muhammad's granddaughter, was banned ostensibly over concern over the spread of swine
flu but also at the urging of Salafis.
It is reported that approximately 14 shrines have been violated in Egypt since the
January 2011 revolution. Also Salafis have prevented Sufi prayers in Al-Haram. In early
April 2011, a Sufi march from Al-Azhar Mosque to Al-Hussein Mosque was followed by a
massive protest before Al-Hussein Mosque, "expressing outrage at the destruction" of Sufi
shrines. The Islamic Research Centre of Egypt, led by Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Ahmed El-
Tayeb, has also renounced the attacks on the Sufi shrines.
Libya: In the aftermath of the 2011 Libyan Civil War, several Sufi religious sites in
Libya were deliberately destroyed or damaged. In the weeks leading up to September 2012,
armed groups motivated by their religious views" attacked Sufi religious sites across the
country, destroying several mosques and tombs of Sufi religious leaders and scholars.
Perpetrators were described as "groups that have a strict Islamic ideology where they believe
that graves and shrines must be desecrated." Salafist Islamists trying to destroy a Sufi shrine
in Rajma as well. In August 2012 the United Nations cultural agency UNESCO urged Libyan
authorities to protect Sufi mosques and shrines from attacks by Islamic hardliners who
consider the traditional mystical school of Islam heretical.
Tunisia: In an article on the rise of Salafism in Tunisia, the media site Al-Monitor
reported that 39 Sufi shrines were destroyed or desecrated in Tunisia, from the 2011
revolution to January 2013.

Bibliography
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism
[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_philosophy
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_cosmology
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Arabi
[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life
[7]-[27] The Wikipedia sites for 20 Sufi Orders mentioned above.