Chapter 10 Pragmatics

Pragmatics
Chapter # 10
Lecture by: Ms. Sadaf siddiq
Pragmatics
• The study of speaker meaning and how more is communicated than is said.
• It studies what speaker intends to say.
E.g.
Friend A: Are you coming to the concert this evening?
Friend B: I have an exam tomorrow!
(Friend B didn’t say no, but we know that the answer implies a no)
• We are actively involved in creating an interpretation of what we read and
hear.
1.
Context
What helps us construct the meaning of what is not actually said?
Context!
the conditions that form the setting for an experience, speech event either written
or spoken, or idea, and in such a way that we are able to infer meanings.
• Linguistic context: the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence,
also called co-text
• Physical context: the situation, time or place in which words are used
e.g.
Friend A (on phone): could you arrange the money?
Friend B (answering a): I have just reached the bank.
(Which bank could it be? A financial institution or river of a bank?)
Deixis
• Deixis /ˈdaɪksɪs/: are the general words and phrases to refer to a specific time,
place, or person in context. Greek word deixis means “pointing” via language
• There are some very common words in our language that can’t be interpreted at
all if we don’t know the context, especially the physical context of the speaker.
These are words such as here and there, this or that, now and then, yesterday,
today or tomorrow, as well as pronouns such as you, me, she, him, it, them.
e.g. You must return it to her tomorrow!
• knowledge of the immediate physical context is needed for interpretation of this
and other such sentences.
Lets see it in context again:
Friend A (on phone) to friend B: I wanted to tell you that I have brought Jenny’s
book with me mistakenly.
Friend B: She has an exam upcoming. You must return it to her tomorrow!
Deictic expressions
deictic (/daɪktɪk/) expressions are of three types:
• Person Deixis: We use deixis to point to things (it, this, these boxes)
and people (him, them, those idiots), sometimes called person deixis.
• Spatial deixis: Words and phrases used to point to a location (here,
there, near that) are examples of spatial deixis,
• Temporal deixis: those used to point to a time (now, then, last week)
are examples of temporal deixis.
2.
Reference
• Reference: an act by which a speaker/writer uses language to enable
a listener/reader to identify someone or something.
• To perform an act of reference, we can use proper nouns (Chomsky,
Jennifer, Whiskas), other nouns in phrases (a writer, my friend, the
cat) or pronouns (he, she, it).
• We sometimes assume that these words identify someone or
something uniquely, but it is more accurate to say that, for each word
or phrase, there is a “range of reference.”
• A range of reference is a collection of all possible entities (she can be
my sister, your mother, a friend, a classmate or a neighbor etc) in the
referential situation represented by a word.
Inference
• Inference means creating a connection between the
prior/background knowledge while trying to understand
speakers’/writers’ meanings when he/she is referring to something or
someone.
e.g.
Waiter A: Where is Mr. cheese-burger sitting?
Waiter B: To the right of the entrance.
(Waiter A didn’t say “where is the man, who ordered cheese burger,
sitting? But waiter B didn’t get confused! Why?)
Anaphora
• Anaphora is the use of an expression whose interpretation depends
upon another expression in context. use of pronouns to refer back to
something already mentioned.
e.g. I have bought a new book. It is small in size but has a huge amount
of knowledge. I am loving it.
Book= antecedent (The first mention is called the antecedent.)
It= anaphora (referring back)
Presupposition
It is an assumption by a speaker/ writer about what is true or already
known by the listener/reader. The writer or speaker presumes
(believes) that the listner or reader already has the knowledge of the
facts.
e.g.
Your brother is waiting outside. (Presupposition: you have a brother)
Have you quit smoking? (Presupposition: you used to smoke)
I have passed the examination. (presupposition: I appeared in an exam)
Speech acts
Words are not just containers of meanings or meaningful in relationship with
other words. We perform certain actions with words. For instance promising,
naming (a person or thing), court announcing verdict/penalties etc.
“an action such as “promising” performed by a speaker with an utterance,

either as a direct speech act or an indirect speech act”
• I will return your book tomorrow. (promising)

• Pick up your bag and get lost. (ordering)
• Please pass me the salt. (requesting)
Direct and indirect speech acts
• Can you write Spanish? (A question)
• Can you pass me salt? (is it really a question? Doesn’t it seem more like a request
instead of a question)
Direct Speech Act: an action in which the form used (e.g. interrogative) directly
matches the function (e.g. question) performed by a speaker with an utterance.
Indirect Speech Act: an action in which the form used (e.g. interrogative) does not
directly match the function (e.g. request) performed by a speaker with an
utterance.
Now consider following examples:
• Mom: We are having guests. Clean the mess. (imperative, order)
• Mom: We are having guests. Your room seems to be untidy. (Declarative, (indirect
order)
Cont.
• The main reason we use indirect speech acts seems to be that actions
such as requests, presented in an indirect way (Could you open that
door for me?), are generally considered to be more gentle or more
polite in our society than direct speech acts (Open that door for me!).
Politeness
• In the previous slide we talked about being polite through indirect
speech. We can think of politeness in general terms as having to do
with ideas like being tactful, modest and nice to other people.
• What is politeness exactly in linguistics?
• Politeness: showing awareness and consideration of another person’s
public self image/face. In the study of linguistic politeness, the most
relevant concept is “face.” Your face, in pragmatics, is your public self-
image. This is the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has
and expects everyone else to recognize.
Cont.
• Face-threatening Act: saying something that represents a threat to another
person’s self-image
E.g. Mother: we are having guests. Clean the mess!
Child: I can’t! (Child’s response to mother’s order is a face-threating
act)
Or
Boss: You were required to complete this task by 2 pm and it is 4 pm now!
Employee: So what? (instead of being sorry or apologetic. The employee is
causing threat to boss’s self image or face. )
• Face-saving Act: saying something that reduces a possible threat to
another person’s self-image
Negative and positive face
• Positive Face: the need to be connected, tobelong, to be a member of a group. (it
shows solidarity)
e.g.
Colleague 1: I need your help in completing this assignment! (it is an example of
face-saving act while interacting with a person with positive-face)
• Negative Face: the need to be independent and free from imposition. (Note that
“negative” doesn’t mean “bad” here, it’s simply the opposite of “positive.”)
E.g.
Colleague 1: I am sorry to bother you, I know you are busy with other tasks but I
need your help in completing this assignment! (it is an example of interaction (face-
saving act) with a person with negative-face)
Thank you

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Pragmatics

“an action such as “promising” performed by a speaker with an utterance,

• I will return your book tomorrow. (promising)

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