Chapter 3

Network Models

Data Networks
Dr. S. A. Moiz
3.1
Review of Chapter 2 (Introduction to Networks)
• Definition of Data, information, and purpose of
Communication
• Network performance parameters
• Components of Data communication
• Data flow, simplex, half duplex and full duplex
• Types of network point to point and multipoint
• Topology of network
• Internet TCP/IP protocol, web, ISP
• Protocols
• Protocols and standard
3.2
 Objective of the Chapter

• To define the importance of layered

structure
• To discuss the OSI layered
architecture model
• To discuss the different types of
switching

3.3
 Topics of Chapter 3 (Network Model)
• Layered Structure of Communication
• ISO and OSI model
• Physical Layer
• Data Link Layer
• Network Layer
• Transport Layer
• Session Layer
• Presentation Layer
• Application Layer
• Switching Techniques
• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
3.4
 Network Hardware and Software
• Network is a combination of hardware and
software
• The hardware consists of the physical
equipment that carries signals
• The software consists of instruction sets that
make possible the services that we expect
from a network.
• Network Software is designed with layer
structures

3.5
 Layer Structure
• Modern system software either as operating
system or computer communication protocols,
they are modular in structure
• With modularity, layers are selected such that
each uses functions (operations) and services of
only lower-level layers
• Layered structure software has a greater
control over the computer resources and
applications that make use of it.
• Modularization makes debugging and
verification much easier
3.6
 Layer Structure (Post a Letter)

3.7
 Layer Structure (Post a Letter)
◼Three different activities at the sender site and
receiver site.
◼Tasks must be done in the order given in the
hierarchy.
◼sender site, the letter must be written and dropped
in the mailbox before being picked up by the letter
carrier and delivered to the post office.
◼At the receiver site, the letter must be dropped in
the recipient mailbox before being picked up and
read by the recipient.

3.8
 The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Model
◼ The OSI model is not a protocol;
◼ It is a model for understanding and designing
a network architecture that is flexible, robust,
and interoperable.
◼ An OSI is a set of protocols that allows any
two different systems to communicate
◼ It consists of seven separate layers

3.9
 The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Model

3.10
 The interaction between layers in the
OSI model

3.11
 An exchange using the OSI model

Encapsulation

Every layer added header to the previous layer data.

But Data link also add trailer (T2) to the Network
layer data
3.12
 Physical Layer

• The physical layer coordinates the functions required

to carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

3.13
 Physical Layer Responsibilities
◼ Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium, e.g.
type of transmission medium.
◼ Representation of bits, e.g. how Os and I s are changed
to signals
◼ Data rate, e.g. set number of bits per sec
◼ Synchronization of bits. Internal clock
◼ Line configuration, e.g. dedicated or multipoint
configuration
◼ Physical topology, e.g Bus, Ring etc
◼ Transmission mode. E.g. Simplex, Duplex, half duplex

3.14
 Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
3.15
 Data Link Layer Responsibilities
◼ Framing. Divides the stream received from the
network layer into manageable data as frames.
◼ Physical addressing.
◼ Flow control. For speed mismatch between sender and
receiver then control the data flow
◼ Error control. Error control is normally achieved
through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
◼ Access control. When two or more devices are
connected to the same link, data link layer protocols
are necessary to determine which device has control
over the link at any given
3.16
 Hopping of Data Link Layer

Switches are Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) Device

3.17
 Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the delivery

of individual packets from the source host to the
destination host.

3.18
 Network Layer Responsibilities
◼ Logical
addressing is an
IP address that is
assigned to it for
the purpose of
routing
between networks.
◼ Routing. Select the
route for the given
data packet

3.19
 Source-to-destination delivery
◼ The network layer at A sends the packet to the
network layer at B.
◼ When the packet arrives at router B, the router
makes a decision based on the final destination (F)
of the packet.
◼ Router B uses its routing table to find that the next
hop is router E.
◼ The network layer at B, therefore, sends the packet
to the network layer at E.
◼ The network layer at E, in turn, sends the packet to
the network layer at F.
3.20
 Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

3.21
 Transport Layer Responsibilities
◼ Service-point addressing. Addressing to specific
process (running program) on one computer to a
specific process (running program) on the other.
Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided
into segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the
transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arriving at the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in transmission.
◼ Connection control. The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection oriented.

3.22
 Transport Layer Responsibilities II
◼ Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport
layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather
than across a single link.
◼ Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport
layer is responsible for error control. However, error
control at this layer is performed process-to process
rather than across a single link.

3.23
 Reliable process-to-process
delivery of a message

3.24
 Session layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

3.25
 Session Layer Responsibilities
◼ Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to
enter into a dialog. It allows the communication
between two processes to take place in either half
duplex or full-duplex
◼ Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to
add checkpoints, or syn-chronization points, to a
stream of data.

3.26
 Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

3.27
 Presentation Layer Responsibilities
◼ Translation. Because different computers use different
encoding systems,
◼ Encryption. Encryption means transforms the original
information to another form and sends the resulting
message to ensure security. Decryption reverses the
original process to transform the message back to its
original form.
◼ Compression. Data compression reduces the number
of bits contained in the information. Data compression
becomes particularly important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

3.28
 Application layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

3.29
 Presentation Layer Responsibilities
◼ Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a
software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a
user to log on to a remote host.
◼ File transfer, access, and management. This application
allows a user to access files in a remote host
◼ Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-
mail forwarding and storage.
◼ Directory services. This application provides distributed
database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.

3.30
 Summary of layers

3.31
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.32
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.33
 MAC Address
◼ A media access control address (MAC address) is a unique
identifier assigned to a network interface controller (NIC) for
use as a network address in communications within a network
segment.
◼ MAC addresses are assigned by manufacturers, and are
therefore referred as the burned-in address, or as an Ethernet
hardware address, hardware address, or physical address.

3.34
 MAC Address
◼ Each address can be stored in hardware, such as the
card's read-only memory, or by a firmware mechanism.
◼ The address typically includes a manufacturer organizationally
unique identifier (OUI).

3.35
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.36
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.37
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.38
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.39
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.40
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.41
 IETF
◼ Internet Engineering Task Force
◼ Voluntary offer services to Internet
Standards
◼ Large number of working groups
◼ RFC: Request for Comments
◼ RFC is a publication for IETF for internet
standard or protocols
◼ E.g RFC123 is the early document for
application layer

3.42
 Switching Techniques
In large networks there might be multiple paths linking
sender and receiver. Information may be switched as it
travels through various communication channels. There
are three typical switching techniques available for
digital traffic.

• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching

3.43
 Circuit Switching Technique

3.44
 Circuit Switching Technique
• Circuit switching is a technique that directly
connects the sender and the receiver in an unbroken
path.
• Telephone switching equipment, for example,
establishes a path that connects the caller's telephone
to the receiver's telephone by making a physical
connection.
• With this type of switching technique, once
connection is established, a dedicated path exists
between both ends until the connection is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the circuit
is first established, but there are no decisions made
after that time.

3.45
 Message Switching Technique
• With message switching there is no need to establish
a dedicated path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination
address is appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the
network, in its entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in
its entirety on disk, and then transmits the message
to the next node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward
network.

3.46
 Message Switching

A message-switching node is typically a general-

purpose computer. The device needs sufficient
secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming
messages, which could be long. A time delay is
introduced using this type of scheme due to store-
and-forward time, plus the time required to find the
next node in the transmission path.
3.47
 Packet Switching
• Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to
combine the advantages of message and circuit switching
and to minimize the disadvantages of both.
• There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram
and virtual circuit.
In both packet switching methods, a message is broken
into small parts, called packets

3.48
 Packet Switching: Datagram
• Datagram packet switching is similar to message
switching in that each packet is a self-contained unit
with complete addressing information attached.
• This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible
paths through the network and they may arrive out of
sequence at the exit point node (or the destination).
• Reordering is done at the destination point based on
the sequence number of the packets.

2.49
 Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit I
• In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is
established before any data packets are sent. A logical
connection is established when a sender send a "call
request packet" to the receiver and the receiver send
back an acknowledge packet "call accepted packet" to
the sender.
• The conversational parameters can be maximum
packet sizes, path to be taken, and other variables
necessary to establish and maintain the conversation.

3.50
 Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit II
•Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow
control, and error control, so virtual circuits are
reliable.
• That is, they have the capability to inform upper-
protocol layers if a transmission problem occurs.
•In virtual circuit, the route between stations does
not mean that this is a dedicated path.
• A packet is still buffered at each node and queued
for output over a line
3.51
 Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit III
•VC's offer guarantees that
• the packets sent arrive in the order sent
•with no duplicates or omissions
•with no errors (with high probability)
•regardless of how they are implemented
internally.

3.52