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Earth Science
WEEK 7

Module 3
Lesson 3

TOPIC: Endogenic Processes (Erosion and Deposition) – Part 1

INTRODUCTION:
 Review the parts of the different layers of the Earth – layering based on physical and chemical
properties.
 Review the rock cycle and definition of magma.

INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY/PRACTICE:

A. Heat in Earth’s Interior

 The heat generated during the Earth’s formation came from the following sources: accretion energy,
adiabatic compression, core formation energy and decay of short-lived radio-isotopes.
 Radioactive heat (the heat generated by long-term radioactive decay): main sources are the four
long-lived isotopes (large half- life), namely K40, Th232, U235 and U238 that continuously produces heat
over geologic time.
 Geothermal gradient or geotherm: the temperature increase with depth into Earth.
 Temperature gradient in the crust: ~25°C/km
 Some areas exhibit a much higher gradient as a result of a greater concentration of heat at
relatively shallow depths. These areas (areas of anomalously high temperature gradient) are
exploited for geothermal energy.
 If temperature was simply a linear function of depth (linear relationship), we should expect that
at depths below 100 km (the average thickness of the lithosphere), temperature could reach as
much as 2500°C. Partial melting of rocks can occur at this temperature yet we know that, except
for the outer core, the rest of the Earth is essentially solid. Most of the rocks beneath the surface
of the Earth is solid due to the fact that the geothermal gradient drops sharply a short distance
into the earth and that increasing confining pressure with depth counteracts the effect of
increasing temperature.
 Temperature gradient at the mantle: between 0.5°C/km to 1°C/km.

 Estimated internal temperature of the Earth

 Based on the geotherm curve above, it can be deduced that the mantle is considerably hotter than
the crust, and the core is much hotter than the mantle.
 Core-mantle boundary: 3,700°C
 Inner-core – outer-core boundary: 5,000°C±500°C
 Earth’s center: 6,400°C±600°C

 How the Earth's internal heat is redistributed

 Simultaneous conduction, convection and radiation
 Convection occurs at the mantle but not between the core and mantle or even between the
asthenosphere and lithosphere (except at sea-floor spreading zones).The only heat transfer
mechanism in these transition zones is through conduction.
 How heat is transferred in the Earth’s interior

Instruction
Heat water in the beaker until it boils. Pour coffee or tea into it.

Discussion
1. Explain the concept of convection by enumerating the mechanisms that occur when boiling the water.
a. There is a heat source at the bottom of the water.
b. The heat is rising to the top from the bottom.
c. The surface water becomes hot, and it radiates its heat into the air and then cools.
d. The cooler water sinks into the space vacated by the ascending warmer water. This cooler water
starts to warm again while the one that rises starts to cool.
e. The process goes on, forming a top to bottom circulation of water.

2. Observe what happens to the coffee or tea, especially the top portion. Explain what happens. The top
portion has a relatively lighter color relative to the lower portion and represents the top of a convection
cell. Condensing water vapor marks the top of rising columns of warm water. Dark line separating them
marks the location of sinking cooler water.
 B. Magma Formation

 Crust and mantle are almost entirely solid indicating that magma only forms in special places where
pre-existing solid rocks undergo melting.
a. Melting due to decrease in pressure (decompression melting): The decrease in pressure affecting
a hot mantle rock at a constant temperature permits melting forming magma. This process of hot
mantle rock rising to shallower depths in the Earth occurs in mantle plumes, beneath rifts and
beneath mid-ocean ridges.
b. Melting as a result of the addition of volatiles—compounds that have low boiling points (flux
melting): When volatiles mix with hot, dry rock, the volatile decreases the rock’s melting point
and they help break the chemical bonds in the rock to allow melting.
c. Melting resulting from heat transfer from rising magma (heat transfer melting): A rising magma
from the mantle brings heat with it and transfer heat to their surrounding rocks at shallower
depths which may melt.

 Places where magma can form:

 Mid-oceanic ridges: the rising magma in mantle convection cell brings heat to the surface,
transferring heat to the overlying rocks. The transfer of heat due to convection is accompanied by
a decrease in pressure or "decompression" associated with the spreading of the lithospheric
plates. These two work in tandem promoting the partial melting of rocks along the spreading
center.
 Mantle plumes (hot spots): Similar to mid-oceanic ridges, the transfer of heat and
decompression result to magma generation. The source of heat for mantle plumes is much
deeper.
 Subduction zones: Oceanic crustal rocks are formed along spreading centers, typically beneath
several kilometers of seawater. The presence of water during generation results to the formation
of hydrous minerals. As the oceanic slab is down-thrusted along subduction zones, the change in
temperature and pressure conditions brings about mineral instability (e.g. hydrous minerals) and
the release of water to the surrounding hot rocks.

The introduction of water effectively lowers the melting temperature of rocks and therefore causes
partial melting or magma generation.

Schematic diagram showing different zones where melting occurs

ENRICHMENT:

Draw a schematic cross section of the earth, showing the different layers of the earth. Include and label
(when necessary) the following in the illustration:
1. different tectonic settings where magma is generated
2. type of melting that is usually associated with the settings identified in #1
 3. heat transfer mechanisms and the direction of heat transfer (thru arrows)

Below the drawing, make a simple research on the different zones where magma is formed and cite one
known location of each.

EVALUATION:

1. What are the two categories of the source of Earth’s internal heat? Give examples.
2. How is the Earth's internal heat redistributed?
3. Differentiate decompression melting and flux melting.
4. Describe how magma is formed.
5. Cite three tectonic settings where magma is formed.
6. Cite an example of a tectonic setting where two melting processes occur simultaneously to generate
magma.
7. Are there any significance or relations of magmatic formation and their eventual rise to the shallower
depths to our daily lives?

TOPIC: Endogenic Processes (Erosion and Deposition) – Part 2

INTRODUCTION:

 Review the processes and conditions for magma generation and the areas where magma is generated.

MOTIVATION:
 What happens to magma after it is formed?

INSTRUCTION /DELIVERY/PRACTICE:

A. Why And How Magma Rises Up

 Density contrast: magma is less dense than the surrounding country rock. Magma rises faster when
the difference in density between the magma and the surrounding rock is greater.
 At deeper levels, magma passes through mineral grain boundaries and cracks in the surrounding
rock. When enough mass and buoyancy is attained, the overlying surrounding rock is pushed
aside as the magma rises. Depending on surrounding pressure and other factors, the magma can
be ejected to the Earth’s surface or rise at shallower levels underneath

Two processes as magma rises up: (1) ejected out to the surface through volcanoes (2) solidifies within the
shallower levels.
  At shallower levels, magma may no longer rise because its density is almost the same as that of
the country rock. The magma starts to accumulate and slowly solidifies.

The magma chamber and rising magma.

 Viscosity: a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Magmas with low viscosity flow more easily
than those with high viscosity. Temperature, silica content and volatile content control the viscosity
of magma. Use the table below to clarify the effects of different factors on magma viscosity.

 Different factors that affect magma’s viscosity.

Factor Effect to Viscosity
↑ temperature ↓ viscosity

↑ Silica content (SiO2) ↑ viscosity

↑ dissolved water (H2O) ↓ viscosity

 Mafic magma is less viscous than silicic (felsic) magma because it is hotter and contains less
silica. Also, the volatiles in magma decreases viscosity.

B. The Bowen’s Reaction Series

 Certain minerals are stable at higher melting temperature and crystallize before those stable at lower
temperatures.
 Crystallization in the continuous and discontinuous branches takes place at the same time.
 Continuous branch: contains only plagioclase feldspar, with composition changing from calcium-
rich to sodium rich as temperature drops.
 Discontinuous branch describes how ferromagnesian minerals in the magma are transformed as
temperature changes. The early formed crystals, olivine in this case, reacts with the remaining melt
as the magma cools down, and recrystallizes into pyroxene. Further cooling will transform pyroxene
into amphibole. If all of the iron and magnesium in the melt is used up before all of the pyroxene
recrystallizes to amphibole, then the ferromagnesian minerals in the solid rock would be amphibole
and pyroxene and would not contain olivine or biotite.
 Generalized Bowen’s reaction series

 Important concepts derived from the Bowen’s reaction series:

o A mafic magma will crystallize into pyroxene (with or without olivine) and calcium-rich plagioclase
̶that is, basalt or gabbro ̶if the early formed crystals are not removed from the remaining magma.
Similarly, an intermediate magma will crystallize into diorite or andesite, if early formed minerals
are not removed.
o If minerals are separated from magma, the remaining magma is more silicic than the original
magma. For example, if olivine and calcium-rich plagioclase are removed the residual melt would be
richer in silicon and sodium and poorer in iron and magnesium.
o When rocks are heated in high temperatures, minerals will melt in reverse order, going up the series
in the Bowen’s reaction series diagram. Quartz and potassium feldspar would melt first. If the
temperature is raised further, biotite and sodium-rich plagioclase would contribute to the melt. Any
minerals higher in the series would remain solid unless the temperature is raised further.

C. Different processes by which the composition of magma may change

Magmatic differentiation is the process of creating one or more secondary magmas from single parent
magma.

1. Crystal Fractionation – a chemical process by which the composition of a liquid, such as magma,
changes due to. There are several mechanisms for crystal fractionation. One that is directly related to the
Bowen’s reaction series is crystal settling.
 Crystal settling - denser minerals crystallize first and settle down while the lighter minerals
crystallize at the latter stages. Bowen’s reaction series shows that denser minerals such as olivine
and Ca-rich plagioclases form first, leaving the magma more silicic.

2. Partial Melting – as described in Bowen’s reaction series, quartz and muscovite are basically formed
under low temperature conditions, making them the first ones to melt from the parent rock once exposed
in higher temperature and/or pressure. Partial melting of an ultramafic rock in the mantle produces a
basaltic magma.

3. Magma mixing – this may occur when two different magma rises up, with the more buoyant mass
overtakes the more slowly rising body. Convective flow then mixes the two magmas, generating a
single, intermediate magma.

4. Assimilation/contamination of magma by crustal rocks - a reaction that occurs when the crust is mixed
up with the rising magma. As magma rises to the surface, the surrounding rocks which it comes in
contact with may get dissolved (due to the heat) and get mixed with the magma. This scenario produces
 change in the chemical composition of the magma unless the material being added has the same
chemical composition as the magma.

ENRICHMENT:

a. Define viscosity.
b. Identify the three major factors controlling the viscosity of magma/lava.

EVALUATION:

1. Describe how viscosity affects the movement of magma. Compare the viscosity of basaltic and granitic
magmas.
2. True or False: Magmatic differentiation is the process of creating one or more secondary magmas from
single parent magma.
3. How does magma composition change during crystallization?
4. What are the two branches of the Bowen’s reaction series? Give one mineral example for each branch.
5. What is the Bowen’s reaction series?
6. Rising magma assimilates crustal rocks but does not result in any change in the composition of the
resulting magma. In what condition/s can this occur?

REFERENCES:

 https://wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/rocklibrary/viewglossrecord.php?
gID=00000000159
 http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens212/magmadiff.htm
 http://www.science.marshall.edu/elshazly/Igmet/Differentiation.doc
 http://www.eos.ubc.ca/resources/webres/concepts/igneous/magma/magexper.html
 http://www.eos.ubc.ca/resources/webres/concepts/igneous/magma/magmovie.html
 Monroe, J. S., et al, Physical Geology Exploring the Earth, 6th ed., 2007, pp107-113.
 Carlson, D. H., Plummer, C. C., Hammersley L., Physical Geology Earth Revealed 9thed, 2011,
pp289-292.
 Marshak, S., Essentials of Geology, 4th ed., 2013, pp102-105.
 Tarbuck, E. J. et al Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology, 2014, pp137-140.
 http://www.colorado.edu/geolsci/courses/GEOL3950/class_notes/ Lecture%20%239%20notes
%202006.pdf
 Carlson, D. H., Plummer, C. C., Hammersley L., Physical Geology Earth Revealed 9thed, 2011,
pp46-47
 Kirkland, K., Earth Sciences Notable Research and Discoveries, 2010, pp 18-21
 Marshak, S., Essentials of Geology, 4th ed., 2013, pp99-100
 Tarbuck, E. J. et al Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology, 2014, p 134-136.
 http://www.ucl.ac.uk/EarthSci/people/lidunka/GEOL2014/ Geophysics8%20-%20Thermal
%20evolution/Heat.htm
 http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/ earths_interior.htm
 http://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol100/lectures/10.html
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PdWYBAOqHrk