Grammar A2-B2

https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/ND_relative_clauses.htm

Separable phrasal verbs

Use:
Separable phrasal verbs consist of two parts. They always require an object.
They are often used, especially in informal spoken English. The meaning of phrasal verbs is
often completely different from the meaning of the verb alone.
Form:
1) The object of a phrasal verb can go either between the verb and the preposition or after the
preposition.
I handed in my homework.
I handed my homework in.
2) If the object of the sentence is a pronoun, it must go between the two parts of the phrasal
verb.
I handed it in         NOT        I handed in it.
Examples:
Some common separable phrasal verbs:
pick someone/something up = collect
Please can you pick me up from the station?
drop someone/something off = take and leave/ deposit
I dropped John off outside his school.
throw away = discard
I threw all my old school papers away.
write down = note
I wrote Sally’s phone number down on a piece of paper.
make up = invent
Henry likes to make stories up about dinosaurs.
take back = return
This shirt is too small. I’m going to take it back to the shop.
let down = disappoint
James studied hard because he didn’t want to let his parents down.
turn down = reject
The company offered me a job, but I turned it down.
wash up = wash (dishes)
Can you wash your plates up please?
take off = remove (clothes)
Please take off your shoes before you come inside.
put on = dress in (clothes)
You’ll need to put a coat on. It’s cold.
turn up / down = increase / decrease  volume/ temperature
Can you turn the music down please? It’s very loud.
try on = wear and test (clothes)
Please can I try on these trousers?
give up = stop doing something.
She smokes a lot, but she wants to give it up.
take up = start doing something (a new hobby)
I’ve decided to take up running.
 Present Continuous tense
There are 10 questions in this quiz. Read the grammar explanation below.
1.   A
Which word CANNOT go in the space?
____ are talking very loudly!

 You   

 She   

 They   

 Hide explanation  

present continuous

Use:
1)           Use the present continuous to talk about actions which are happening now.
           Ellen is having a bath at the moment.
           Right now, Mark is talking to her manager.
Form:
Positive

am / ‘m  
I
verb+ing
You are / ‘re
He / She / It is / ‘s
We / They are / ‘re
Negative

‘m not  
I
verb+ing
You aren’t / ‘re not
He / She / It isn’t / ‘s not
We / They aren’t / ‘re not
Question

I  
Am
verb+ing
Are you
Is he / she / it
Are we / they
Spelling Rules:
If a verb ends in e, delete the e before you add –ing.
come =>           I’m coming.
have  =>           He’s having lunch.
Common mistakes
1)            Some students forget the verb be.
            I watching television.                 =>           I’m watching television.
            She not coming.       =>           She’s not coming.
2)            Some students make questions incorrectly.
            She is working?        =>           Is she working?
3)            Some students make spelling mistakes.
            I’m studing law.   =>           I’m studying law.

Present Continuous for Future

Use:      
The present continuous tense has two uses:
1) Use it to describe what is happening at the moment.
        ‘Where’s dad?’
        ‘He’s watching TV in the living room’.
2) Use it to describe plans and arrangements in the future.
        ‘Tom is arriving on the three o’clock train tomorrow’.
Form:
Make the present continuous in this way.
Positive

am / ‘m verb-ing
I
you / they / we are / ‘re

he / she / it is / ‘s

Examples:   I’m going  / He’s going / We’re going to Spain next week.

Negative

 ‘m not verb-ing

I
you / they / we aren’t  / ‘re not

he / she / it isn’t  / ‘s not

Examples:   I’m not going / You’re not going / She isn’t going to the meeting.
Questions

you / they / we verb-ing?

Are
Is he / she / it

Examples:   Are you coming / Is James coming to the party?

Common Mistakes:
1) Some students use will to talk about future plans. However, present continuous is the correct
tense to use.
I’ll visit my cousin in Paris this weekend.    =>   I’m visiting my cousin in Paris this weekend.
Comparatives

Use:      
The present perfect is used for several reasons:
1) Use it to describe events that happened in the past and are still true now because you can
see the result.
                       I’ve broken my leg!
                       David has painted his house.
2) Use it to describe experiences in your life.
                       I’ve been to New York three times in my life.
 However, you cannot use the present perfect to describe experiences in someone’s life if that
person has died.            
                       Michael Jackson performed in Britain many times.
                NOT
                Michael Jackson has performed in Britain many times.
3) Use it to describe events that started in the past and are still happening now.
                I’ve lived here all my life (and I live here now).
                John has worked here for 10 years (and he works here now).
Never refer to a finished time with a present perfect verb.
 
Form:
Make the present perfect in this way.
Positive

have / ‘ve past participle

I  / you / they / we
he / she / it has / ‘s

Examples:           I’ve seen him; they’ve gone; she’s taken my bag.

Negative

haven’t / ‘ve past participle

I / you / they / we not
he / she / it
hasn’t / ‘s not

Examples:           I haven’t seen him; they haven’t gone yet; she’s not been here.
Questions

you / they / we past participle?

Have
Has he / she / it

Examples:           Have you seen him? Has she taken my bag?

Common mistakes:
1) Don’t use the present perfect to refer to a finished time.
I’ve hurt my arm yesterday.                        =>           I’ve hurt my arm.                            
John’s been to New York last month.     =>           John’s been to New York.   

Subject and object questions

Use:
Some questions ask about the object of a sentence.
     Who did you see?      =>     I saw Helen.
  Helen is the object of the sentence.
Some questions ask about the subject of a sentence.
   Who saw you?=>     Nobody saw me.       
  Nobody is the subject of the sentence.
Subject and Object questions have different structures.
Form:
Object Questions
1) To be
      Use to be before a subject + nouns, adjective or place.
 

to be     Subject  

Is / Was he / she / it / Tom a teacher /  a student?

  happy / cold / tired / ready?
  at the party / in the
classroom?
here / there?

Are / Were we / you / they / your teachers / students?

parents happy / cold / tired / ready?
  at the party / in the
classroom?
here / there?

      Is Tom a teacher?  Is it cold? Was he at the party? Is she here?

      Are you students? Were you tired? Are they in the classroom? Were your parents there?
2) Use Question word + to be before nouns, pronouns, places and this / that.

Question word be  

Where  is / was he / she / it / my bag?

Who this / that?
What   at the party / in the
When classroom?

are / were we / you / they / my keys?

these / those?
at the party / in the
classroom?

     Who is it?  When was it? Where was my bag? Who was at the party?
      Where are my keys? What are those?
3) Use (Question word) + auxiliary verb before a subject + verb

Question word auxiliary verb Subject  

  is / are   doing          seeing

was / were going          eating  
Where  you
Who do / does he do     see
What did she go     eat        
When it
Why can / could we do     see
will / would
 should go     eat

have / has done          saw

they
had gone           eaten

Where are you going? Who did you see? What did you do? When will we go? Why have they
gone?
Subject Questions
1) Subject questions have no subject in the question. Any present / past simple verbs should go
in the past / present simple tense, not the infinitive form.
     Only What and Who can be used in this kind of question.

Question word verb object

Who likes / needs / wants me / you / him / her / us /

is following / calling them?
  saw / called the film?
 

What happened (to  me / you / him / her / us /

them?)
is happening (to

     Who likes me? What happened to you?

     In the present tense, always use the third person singular form of the verb.
      What happens next?           NOT            What happen next?
Common mistakes:
1)            Some students use an auxiliary verb in an subject question.
     What did happen?         =>     What happened?
     Who did meet you at the station?=>     Who met you at the station?

Future perfect
Use:      

 Use the future perfect to talk about an event that will be finished and complete before a
specified time in the future.

This time next week, I’ll will have finished  this project.

Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include:
By ..., This time next week...,  In __ years’ time...; when + present simple; by the time +
present simple.
When you arrive, I’ll have prepared the dinner.
By the time I get home, my mum will probably have tidied the house.

 The future perfect is also use to make predictions about future events that will be
complete before a specified future time.

Do you think Mel will have eaten all the chocolate cake?
No, she won’t have done that! 
Form:
Make the future continuous this way:
Positive and Negative

     
I will have  
you won’t have past participle
he / she it
we  
they

 
Questions

       
  I    
you
Will he / she it have past participle?
Won’t we    
they
 

Be going to is rarely used to make the future perfect tense.

Tom’s going to have finished  his lecture by the time we get there.

Future perfect continuous

Use:

 Use the future perfect continuous to talk about an event that will be in progress for
some time before a specified time in the future.

Janet will be really tired when we get home. She  will have been looking after the children all
day!

 It can be used to make predictions about event that will be in progress before a
specified time in the future.

 
Joe won’t mind that we are late. He  won’t have been waiting long.

 It can be used to predict what was happening in the past.

“What do you think the men were doing in the store room?”
“Don’t worry. They will have been unpacking  boxes.”     

 Both the fixed future time and the length of time of are often mentioned in future
perfect continuous sentences.

By the end of this week, I’ll have been working here for five months.
Fixed future time:           the end of this week
Length of time:                 five months
But this is not always the case.
Anne will be in a bad mood at the party this evening because she’ll have been
doing  housework.
Form:
Positive and Negative

     
I will have  
you
he / she it won’t have been + verb-ing
we
they  

 
Questions

   
  I
you
Will he / she it
Won’t we
they
 

Mixed Conditionals
Use:      
Mixed conditional sentences combine two different conditional patterns.
Several patterns can be used:

 mixed first conditional sentences

First conditional sentences can use a variety of modal verbs.

If + present simple, can / may / might / will / should + verb (infinitive)
If you give me some money, I can buy some milk.
If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?
If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.
First conditional sentences can also use going to, as well as will.
If + present simple, going to + verb (infinitive)
If you don’t get ready soon, we’re going to be late!
The present continuous and going to can also appear in the If clause
If you’re going to the shop, can you buy me some cola?
If you’re going to pay him, make sure you get a receipt.
The present perfect may also appear in the If clause.
If you’ve finished your work, you can go home.

 mixed third / second conditional

This combination describes an imagined event in the past and the present result.
If + past perfect, would + verb (infinitive)
If he'd taken the medicine, he wouldn't still be sick.
He wouldn’t still be sick if he’d taken the medicine.

 mixed second / third conditional

This combination describes a situation which is never true, and the past consequence of this
situation.
If + past simple, would have + verb (infinitive)
If you were better at speaking in public, the presentation would have been more successful.
The presentation would have been more successful if you were better at speaking in public.

Past Modals for Deduction

Use and Form:
The following modals can be used to guess what happened in the past.
must have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is
correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They  must have got out under the gate. There is no other way out.’
may have + past participle verb
might have + past participle verb
could have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility.
You are not certain you are correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They  may have got out under the gate, or they might have escaped through this hole in the
fence.’
may not have + past participle verb
might not have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, but you are only
suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John? Why isn’t he at the meeting?’
‘He may not have got  the message.’ / ‘He  might not have received  the message.’
NOTE: may not is not contracted to mayn’t, and might not is rarely contracted to mightn’t.
can’t have + past participle verb
couldn’t have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, and you are almost
certain that your guess is correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They  can’t have got  out under the gate. I fixed that yesterday.’
NOTE: you cannot use: mustn’t have + past participle verb to make deductions about the
past.
Common Mistakes:
1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can.
Maybe I left my book at home. → I may have left my book at home.
I think Robin went to the restaurant without us. → Robin must have gone to the restaurant
without us.
2. Note that could have has the same meaning as might have and may have.
Why is Tom late?
He may / might / could have  got stuck in traffic.
    However, in the negative form the meaning is not the same.
Why is Tom late?
He may / might not have got your message. (NOT could not)
= Maybe he didn’t get your message.
  Couldn’t have has the same meaning as can’t have.
Why is Tom late?
I’m not sure! He  can’t / couldn’t have forgotten about the party! 
= I’m sure he didn’t forget.

Defining Relative Clauses

Use:      
Use defining relative clauses to give information about a noun in a sentence. The listener or
reader NEEDS this information to understand the sentence.
A doctor is a person who cures sick people.
The girl  who sits next to me at work  has a bag just like yours.
Form:

 Use who to give more information about a person.

An architect is a person  who designs buildings.

 Use which or that to give more information about a thing.

A corkscrew is a thing  which you use to open bottles.

The book that you gave me for my birthday is really interesting.

 Use where to give more information about a place.

That’s the place  where we got married.

The town where my uncle lives  is a few miles from here.

 Because non-defining relative clauses give essential information, no commas (,) are
needed.
 If the noun which the relative clause describes (usually at the beginning of the
sentence) is the OBJECT of the sentence, you can delete which, that or who.

The man  who  is wearing the blue suit is my brother.

The man is the subject of the sentence. You cannot delete who.
The man (who) George is talking to is my brother.
George is the subject of the sentence.
The man is the object of the sentence.
(The sentence can be rewritten: George is talking to  a man. The man is my brother). So
you can delete who.
The book you lent me is really good.
You is the subject of the sentence.
The book is the object of the sentence.
(The sentence can be rewritten: You lent me a  book. The book is really good. Which /
that is not necessary.)
The book which is on the table is really good.
The book is the subject of the sentence. (The sentence can be rewritten: The book is on the
table. It’s really good. Which / that is necessary.)

Non Defining Relative Clauses

Use:
Use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about a noun in a sentence, or part
of a sentence. The listener or reader does not need this information to understand the sentence.
Relative clauses can define the subject of the sentence:
Miranda, who used to go to the same university as me, is having a baby.
Or the object of a sentence:
We went to a lovely restaurant,  where we both had steak.
Or the sentence as a whole.
She gave me some money, which was very nice of her.
 
Form:
  Always put the relative clause as close as possible to the noun that you are describing.
 Use who to give information about a person, whose to introduce a possession,
and which to give information about a thing. Do not use that.
 Use where to give information about a place ONLY if you introduce another subject
after where. Otherwise, use which.

We met at Bristol University,  where we both studied Biology.

We met at Bristol University,  which  is in the west of England.

 Who, which, where and whose cannot be omitted in defining relative clauses.

 As non-defining relative clauses are not necessary to understanding the sentence, they
are always placed within commas.

The man who lives next to me has five motorbikes.

In this sentence, ‘who lives to me’ is necessary. Without it, the sentence (‘The man has five
motorbikes’) is meaningless because it is not clear which man is being talked about. Therefore,
commas are NOT necessary.
Tom, who lives next to me, has five motorbikes.
In this sentence, ‘who lives to me’ is not necessary. Without it, the sentence (‘Tom has five
motorbikes’) still has meaning. ‘Who lives next to me’ adds more information, therefore,
commas ARE necessary.
 
Common Mistakes
Some Students do not put the non defining relative clause close to the noun it describes.
The chemicals flow into rivers, which are toxic.  =>  The chemicals, which are toxic, flow into
rivers.

Past Perfect Continuous

Use:
The past perfect continuous is used when telling a story about the past. It is generally used
alongside other narrative tenses such as the past simple.
The past perfect continuous describes an event which was in progress for a period of
time before another event in the past. We use it when we do not want to say the events in the
order they happened.
Example:
A sentence with the events in the order they happened:
John was having trouble sleeping, so he went to the doctor late.
A sentence in which the events are NOT in order:
John went to the doctor because he  had been having trouble sleeping.
The continuous event which happened before the other verb is in the past perfect tense.
b) Write any adverbs between had and been
They  had already been  waiting for half an hour.
He’d  only been working there a week before he got fired.
Form:

I    
you
he / she / it had / ‘d been + verb-ing
we hadn’t
they
will / be going to for prediction
Use:
Both be going to and will can be used to predict future events. In many cases they can be
used interchangeably.
Experts believe that the recession  will continue.
Experts believe that the recession  is going to  continue.
However, in some cases they are used differently:

 Use going to when there is evidence about what is going to happen.

Look at the time! We’re going to be  late!

 Use will / won’t when guessing about the future.

I bet Robin will be late again.

 Will is often used with phrases such as I think…, I expect…, I don’t think…, I bet… , I’m
sure…, I doubt if/that…   when making predictions

 It is more common to use I don’t think + will, not I think + won’t

I think it won’t rain => I don’t think it will rain

Form:
be going to
Positive

I am / ‘m going to verb (infinitive form)

you / we / they are / ‘re

he / she / it is / ‘s

Negative

I ‘m not going  to verb (infinitive form)

you aren’t    OR   ‘re not

he / she / it isn’t      OR     ‘s not

Questions

Am I going  to verb (infinitive form) ?

Are you / we / they

Is he / she / it

Short Answers

I am. No, I’m not.

Yes, you / we / they are. you / we / they    ‘re not / aren’t

he / she / it is. he / she / it ‘s not / isn’t

will
Positive / Negative

will verb (infinitive form).

I / You / He / She / It  / We / They
won’t

I / you / he / she / it  / we / they / verb (infinitive form)?

Will

Used to / Would
Use:

 We say Used to to talk about something that was true in the past, but is not true now.

                There used to be a park here, but now there’s a shopping centre.

                       My grandmother used to have beautiful blonde hair, but now her hair is grey.
 
You can say used to to talk about states (things that were true for a long period of time) or
repeated actions (things that happened several times).
                I used to live in Denver. (True for a long period of time)
                       I used to go to the park every Friday. (A repeated action)
                Write adverbs before used to.
                       I always used to cycle to school.
                       I never used to eat vegetables.

 You can use Would in a similar way to used to. It describes things that were true in the
past but are not true now.

                       When I was a child, my dad would read to me every night.

Would CANNOT be used to talk about states. It can only be used to talk about repeated
actions.
There would be a park here.            =>                There used to be a park here.
               
                Write adverbs after would.
                I would always talk to my grandma when I had a problem.
Form:

  used to  
didn’t use to / never
I / You / He / She / It / verb (infinitive)
used to
They / We
would
wouldn’t
Questions

  use to + verb (infinitive)

Did
you / he / she / it / they
Would verb (infinitive)
Common Mistakes:
Many students confuse used to do and be used to doing. This is another phrase. It means ‘be
familiar with doing something’.
I am used to live near here.                          =>                           I used to live near here.

Wish / If only
Use:
Wish and If only can be used:
a) To wish for an ability now or in the future.
I wish I could play the guitar!          
If only I could dance like that!     

I wish I could go to your wedding next week, but I can’t.

If only I could see my grandmother more often, but I can’t.
b) To wish that something could be true at the moment.
I wish I had long hair!          If only I were taller!
c) To wish that something was happening at the moment.
I wish I was lying on the beach right now!                 If only I was lying on the beach right now!
d) To wish that something kept happening again and again, or to wish it could stop happening.
I wish you wouldn’t shout so loudly.           If only he wouldn’t shout so loudly.
e) To wish that something in the past had happened in a different way.
I wish I had studied for my exam!                    If only I hadn’t argued with him!

Form:

 To wish for an ability now or in the future.

I wish (that) / If only + subject + could + infinitive verb

  I wish that I could sing.
  If only I could come to Australia too!

 To wish that something could be true at the moment.

I wish (that) / If only + subject + past simple

I wish I had a pony.
I wish I was rich.
When using the verb ‘be’, you can use ‘were’ for all persons.
I wish I were rich.             If only I were rich.

 To wish that something was happening at the moment.

I wish (that) / If only + subject + past continuous

I wish that this traffic was moving.
If only this traffic was/were moving!

 To wish that something kept happening again and again, or to wish it could stop
happening.

I wish (that) / If only + subject + would + infinitive

I wish you would tidy up more often.
Often:   I wish (that) / If only + subject + would stop + verb-ing
I wish he would stop shouting.
I wish (that) / If only + subject + wouldn’t keep + verb-ing
I wish you wouldn’t keep hitting me.

 To wish that something in the past had happened in a different way.

I wish (that) / If only + past perfect        

I wish I had studied for my exam!                   
If only I hadn’t argued with him!