COMBINATIONAL LOGIC-1

MODULE 1

ELECTRONICS AND
COMMINICATIONS
ENGINEERING
dr ravi kumar a v

SJB
I N S T I T U T E O F T E C H N O LO G Y
CHAPTER 1
Principles of Combination Logic

Definition of combinational logic, canonical forms, Generation of switching equations from truth tables, Karnaugh maps-3,4,5 variables, Incompletely specified
functions( Don’t care terms) Simplifying Max term equations, Quine-McCluskey minimization technique, Quine- McCluskey using don’t care terms, Reduced
prime implicants Tables.

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SECTION 1

Combinational logic

Combinational logic Lesson Objectives

Also known as "combinatorial logic," it refers to a digital logic function made In this lesson, you will learn about
of primitive logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) in which all outputs of the
function are directly related to the current combination of values on its inputs. • What are combinational circuits
Any changes to the signals being applied to the inputs will immediately • Design procedure of combinational circuits
propagate through the gates until their effects appear at the outputs. Contrast
with sequential logic. • Examples of combinational circuit design

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. Combinational Circuits 

Logic circuit can be classified into two types. Combinational circuit, which
consists of logic gates whose outputs at any time are determined by combining
the values of the applied inputs using logic operations, and sequential circuits,
which will be studied later. 

In combinational circuits, the output at any time is a direct function of the
applied external inputs. In other words,

Z = F(X)

Let us state these steps formally.

1) The first step is to find the truth table from circuit specification.
This involves two sub- steps.
• The first is to determine the required number of inputs and
A combinational circuit can be specified either by a truth table outputs from the specification or verbal description of the
problem. Then, assign a letter symbol to each input.
Design procedure • Then, derive the truth table that defines the required
The design of a combinational circuit starts from the specification of relationship between inputs and outputs
the problem, which leads to the truth table. Using the output values
2) Using the truth table, obtain the simplified Boolean expression for
in the truth table, the logic equation for output function is found and
each output as a function of the input variables. The simplified
simplified using K maps, or Algebraic manipulation or computer
equations can then be obtained using algebraic manipulation,
base tools. The equation of the output functions, the corresponding
circuit is found K-maps, or computer-based tools 

ain the simplified Boolean expression for each output as of the input
variables using 

3) Once the simplified equations are found, the corresponding logic
diagram can be derived 

A practical design must consider constraints such as: 


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• Number of gates used. 


• Number of gate inputs (Fan-in).

• Maximum number of gates an output signal can drive
(Fan-out).

• Speed (propagation delay) requirements. 


1. Example 

Design a combinational circuit which has 3-bit input number
and a single output (F). The output signal F is specified as
follows:

• F = 1 when the input number is less than (3)10

• F = 0 otherwise.

• Implement F using only NAND gates 


Let the three inputs be called X, Y, and Z. X is the most
significant variable and Z is the least significant variable.
The output F goes high, that is, the output produces logic
1 value if the input is less than 011, equivalent to a
decimal value of three. This means that the output will be
logic one for input combinations 000, 001, and 010. For
other input combinations, which are 011 upto 111, the
output is logic zero. 

Code Converters
•  Code converters are circuits which translate information from one
binary code to another 


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•  The inputs to the circuit provide the bit combination belonging to
the first code, while the outputs constitute the corresponding
combination belonging to the second code Interactive 1.1 combinational logic circuit

• The combinational circuit performs the transformation from one

code to another

Figure
shows the general structure of a code converter, containing the
inputs, the code converter circuit, and the outputs. Consider, for
example, a binary BCD to Excess-3 code converter

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SECTION 2

Standard & Canonical Forms

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES to derive a Boolean expression of a function defined by its truth

table. The derived expressions may be in one of two possible
Learn Binary Logic and BOOLEAN AlgebraLearn How to Map a standard forms: The Sum of Min-terms or the Product of
Boolean Expression into Logic Circuit Implementation Learn How Max-Terms.
To Manipulate
2. Learn how to map these expressions into logic circuit
Boolean Expressions and Simplify ThemLesson implementations (2- Level Implementations).
OjectivesLearn how MinTerms

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1 !Consider a system of 3 input signals (variables) x, y, & z. 


2 !A term which ANDs all input variables, either in the true or

complement form, 

is called a minterm. 


3 !Thus, the considered 3-input system has 8 minterms, namely: 





4 !Each minterm equals 1 at exactly one particular input

combination and is 

equal to 0 at all other combinations 


5 !Thus, for example, is always equal to 0 except for the In general,

input 

• !For n-input variables, the number of minterms = the total number
combination xyz= 000, where it is equal to 1. 

of possible input combinations = 2n. 


6 !Accordingly, the minterm is referred to as m0. 
 • !A minterm = 0 at all input combinations except one where the
minterm = 1.
7 !Ingeneral, minterms are designated mi, where i corresponds
the input combination at which this minterm is equal to 1. 
 MaxTerms 


• !Consider a circuit of 3 input signals (variables) x, y, & z.

• !A term which ORs all input variables, either in the true or
complement form, 

is called a Maxterm. 


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• !With 3-input variables, the system under consideration has a total • For n-input variables, the number of Maxterms = the total number
of 8 Maxterms, namely: 
 of possible input combinations = 2n.

• A Maxterm = 1 at all input combinations except one where the

Each Maxterm equals 0 at exactly one of the 8 possible input
Maxterm = 0.
combinations and is equal to 1 at all other combinations. 


• !For example, (x + y + z) equals 1 at all input combinations except

for the combination xyz = 000, where it is equal to 0. 


• !Accordingly, the Maxterm ( x + y + z ) is referred to as M0. 


• !Ingeneral, Maxterms are designated Mi, where i corresponds to

the input 

combination at which this Maxterm is equal to 0. 


In general,

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 OR-ing of the indicated minterms. Thus, F = ∑(2, 4, 5, 7) = (m2 +
m4 + m5 + m7)

• Fromthistable,wecanclearlyseethatF=m2 +m4 +m5 +m7

• ThisislogicalsinceF=1,onlyatinputcombinationsi=2,4,5and7


• Thus, by ORing minterm m2 (which has a value of 1 only at input

combination i= 2) with minterm m4 (which has a value of 1 only at
input combination i= 4) with minterm m5 (which has a value of 1
only at input combination i= 5) with minterm m7 (which has a
value of 1 only at input combination i= 7) the resulting function
will equal F.


• In general, Any function can be expressed by OR-ing all minterms

(mi) corresponding to input combinations (i) at which the function
has a value of 1.

• TheresultingexpressioniscommonlyreferredtoastheSUMofminterm
sand is typically expressed as F = ∑(2, 4, 5, 7), where ∑ indicates

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Conclusions: Since the system has 4 input variables (a, b, c & d)---> The number
of minterms and Maxterms = 24= 16
• Any function can be expressed both as a sum of minterms (∑
mi) and as a product of maxterms. The product of maxterms
expression (∏ Mj) expression of F contains all maxterms Mj F (a, b, c, d) = ∑(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7)
(∀ j ≠ i) that do not appear in the sum of minterms expression
of F.

• The sum of minterms expression of F` contains all

minterms that do not appear in the sum of minterms
expression of F.

• This is true for all complementary functions. Thus, each of the

2n minterms will appear either in the sum of minterms
expression of F or the sum of 

minterms expression of F but not both.

• The product of maxterms expression of F` contains all

maxterms that do 

not appear in the product of maxterms expression of F.

• This is true for all complementary functions. Thus, each of the

2n maxterms 
 Canonical Forms:
will appear either in the product of maxterms expression of F or
The sum of minterms and the product of maxterms forms of Boolean
the product of maxterms expression of F’ but not both. 

expressions are known as the canonical forms (‫ )الصيغ القانونية‬of a
function.
Example:
Standard Forms:
Given that F (a, b, c, d) = ∑(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7), derive the product of
maxterms expression of F and the 2 standard form expressions of F`. • A product term is a term with ANDed literals*. Thus, AB, A’B,
A’CD are all product terms. 


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 • A minterm is a special case of a product term where all input • The first level consists of a number of AND gates which equals
variables appear in the product term either in the true or the number of product terms in the expression. Each AND gate
complement form. 
 implements one of the product terms in the expression.

• The second level consists of a SINGLE OR gate whose number

• A sum term is a term with ORed literals*. Thus, (A+B), (A’+B), of inputs 

(A’+C+D) are all sum terms. equals the number of product terms in the expression. 


• A maxterm is a special case of a sum term where all input

variables, either in the true or complement form, are ORed Example Implement the following SOP function
together.
F = XZ + Y`Z + X`YZ
• Boolean functions can generally be expressed in the form of a
Sum of Products (SOP) or in the form of a Product of Sums
(POS).

• The sum of minterms form is a special case of the SOP form

where all product terms are minterms.

• The product of maxterms form is a special case of the POS

form where all sum terms are maxterms.

• The SOP and POS forms are Standard forms for representing
Boolean functions. 


Two-Level Implementations of Standard Forms

Sum of Products Expression (SOP):
• Any SOP expression can be implemented in 2-levels of gates. 


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12
SECTION 3

K-Map

Lesson Objectives: In contrast, Karnaugh map (K-map) method provides a

straightforward procedure for simplifying Boolean functions.
K-Map 1 K-maps of up to 4 variables are very common to use. Maps of 5 and
6 variables can be made as well, but are more cumbersome to use.
Even though Boolean expressions can be simplified by algebraic
manipulation, such an approach lacks clear regular rules for each Simplified expressions produced by K-maps are always either in the
succeeding step and it is difficult to determine whether the simplest SOP or the POS form.
expression has been achieved.

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The map provides the same information contained in a Truth Table
but in a different format.
The objectives of this lesson are to learn:
1. How to build a 2, 3, or 4 variables K-map.

2. How to obtain a minimized SOP function using K-maps. 
 For example, the top left square corresponds to input combination
Code Distance: AB=00. In other words, this square represents minterm m0.

Likewise, the top right square corresponds to input combination

Let’s first define the concept of Code Distance. The distance between
AB=01, or minterm m1 and the bottom left square corresponds to
two binary code-words is the number of bit positions in which the
input combination AB=10, or minterm m2. Finally, the bottom right
two code-words have different values.
square corresponds to input combination AB=11, or minterm m3.
For example, the distance between the code words 1001 and 0001 is
1 while the distance between the code-words 0011 and 0100 is 3. In general, each map entry (or square) corresponds to a particular
input combination (or minterm).
This definition of code distance is commonly known as the Hamming
distance between two codes. Since, Boolean functions of two-variables have four minterms, a
2-variable K-map can represent any 2-variable function by plugging
Two-Variable K-Maps: the function value for each input combination in the corresponding
square.
The 2-variable map is a table of 2 rows by 2 columns. The 2 rows
represent the two values of the first input variable A, while the two Definitions/Notations:
columns represent the two values of the second input variable B.
Two K-map squares are considered adjacent if the input codes they
Thus, all entries (squares) in the first row correspond to input represent have a Hamming distance of 1.
variable A=0, while entries (squares) of the second row correspond to
A=1. A K-map square with a function value of 1 will be referred to as a
1-Square. A K-map square with a function value of 0 will be referred
Likewise, all entries of the first column correspond to input variable to as a 0-Square.
B = 0, while entries of the second column correspond to B=1.
The simplification procedure is summarized below:
Thus, each map entry (or square) corresponds to a unique value for
the input variables A and B. Step 1: Draw the map according to the number of input variables of
the function. Step 2: Fill “1’s” in the squares for which the function

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is true.
 F=m2 +m3 =AB’+AB=A(B’+B)=A
Step 3: Form as big group of adjacent 1-squares as possible. There
are some rules for this which you will learn with bigger maps. To understand how combining squares simplifies Boolean functions,
the basic property possessed by the adjacent squares must be
Step 4: Find the common literals for each group and write the recognized.
simplified expression in SOP.
In the above example, the two 1-squares are adjacent with the same
Example: value for variable A (A=1) but different values for variable B (one
square has B=0, while the other has B=1).
Consider the given truth table of two variable function. Obtain the
simplified function using K-map. This reduction is possible since both squares are adjacent and the net
expression is that of the common variable (A).
Generally, this is true for any 2 codes of Hamming distance 1
(adjacent). For an n- variable K-map, let the codes of two adjacent
squares (distance of 1) have the same value for all variables except
the ith variable. Thus,

Code of 1st Square: X1.X2......Xi−1.Xi .Xi+1......Xn Code of 2nd Square:

First draw a 2-variable K-map. The function F is true when AB’ (m2) X1.X2......Xi−1.Xi .Xi+1......Xn
is true and when AB (m3) is true, so a 1 is placed inside the square
Combining these two squares in a group will eliminate the different
that belongs to m2 and a 1 is placed inside the square that belongs to
variable Xi and the combined expression will be
m3.
X1.X2......Xi−1.Xi+1......Xn since:

(X1.X2......Xi−1.Xi .Xi+1......Xn )+ (X1.X2......Xi−1.Xi .Xi+1......Xn )

= (X1.X2......Xi−1.Xi+1......Xn )(Xi + Xi ) =(X1.X2......Xi−1.Xi+1......Xn )

The variable in difference is dropped.

Since both of the 1-squares have different values for variable B but
the same value for variable A, which is 1, i.e., wherever A = 1 then F Another Example:
= 1 thus F = A.
Simplify the given function using K-map method:
This simplification is justified by algebraic manipulation as follows:

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F = ∑ (1, 2, 3)

In this example:
F=m1 +m2 +m3 =m1 +m2 +(m3 +m3) F=(m1 +m3)+(m2 +m3)=A+B
Examples of non-adjacent squares are shown below:
Rule: A 1-square can be member of more than one group.

If we exchange the places of A and B, then minterm positions will
also change. Thus,
m1 and m2 will be exchanged as well.

Three-Variable K-Maps:
There are eight minterms for a Boolean function with three-variables.
Hence, a three- variable map consists of 8 squares.
In an n-variable map each square is adjacent to “n” other squares,
e.g., in a 2-variable map each square is adjacent to two other squares
as shown below:

All entries (squares) in the first row correspond to input variable

A=0, while entries (squares) of the second row correspond to A=1.

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Likewise, all entries of the first column correspond to input variable In the figure of 3-variable map, m0 is adjacent to m2 and m4 is
B = 0, C = 0, all entries of the second column correspond to input adjacent to m6 because the minterms differ by only one variable. This
variable B = 0, C = 1, all entries of the third column correspond to can be verified algebraically:

input variable B = 1, C = 1, while entries of the fourth column m0 +m2=A’B’C’+A’BC’=A’C’(B’+B)=A’C’

correspond to B=1, C = 0. m4 +m6=AB’C’+ABC’=AC’(B’+B)=AC’
To maintain adjacent columns physically adjacent on the map, the
column coordinates do not follow the binary count sequence. This
choice yields unit distance between codes of one column to the next
(00 – 01—11 – 10), like Grey Code.

Variations of Three-Variable Map:

The figure shows variations of the three-variable map. Note that the Notes:
minterm corresponding to each square can be obtained by
1. Each square is adjacent to 3 other squares. 

substituting the values of variables ABC in order.

2. One square is represented by a minterm (i.e. a product term

containing all 3 

literals). 


3. A group of 2 adjacent squares is represented by a product term

containing only 2 

literals, i.e., 1 literal is dropped. 


4. A group of 4 adjacent squares is represented by a product term

containing only 1 

literal, i.e., 2 literals are dropped. 


There are cases where two squares in the map are considered to be Four-Variable K-Maps:
adjacent even though they do not physically touch each other.

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There are 16 minterms for a Boolean function with four-variables. Lesson Objectives:
Hence, four- variable map consists of 16 squares.
In this lesson you will learn:
1. The difference between prime implicants and essential prime
implicants.

2. How to get a minimized POS function using a K-map.

3. How to minimize a combinational circuit that is not completely
specified (has don't care conditions).

4. How to make a 5 and 6 variable K-map given a truth table or a
SOP representation.
Notes:
Definitions/Notations:
1. Each square is adjacent to 4 other squares.
A product term of a function is said to be an implicant.

2. One square is represented by a minterm (a product of all A Prime Implicant (PI) is a product term obtained by combining the
4-literals). maximum

3. Combining 2 squares drops 1-literal. possible number of adjacent 1-squares in the map.

If a minterm is covered only by one prime implicant then this prime
4. Combining 4 squares drops 2-literals. implicant is said

5. Combining 8 squares drops 3-literals. to be an Essential Prime Implicant (EPI).

Rule: The combination of squares that can be chosen during the Examples: (see authorware version)
simplification process in the n-variable map are as follows:

A group of 2n squares produces a function that always equal to logic
POS Simplification:
1.
 Until now we have derived simplified Boolean functions from the
A group of 2n-1 squares represents a product term of one literal. maps in SOP form. Procedure for deriving simplified Boolean
functions POS is slightly different. Instead of making groups of 1’s,
A group of 2n-2 squares represents a product term of two literals and make the groups of 0’s.
so on. One square represents a minterm of n literals.
Since the simplified expression obtained by making group of 1’s of
K-Map 2 the function (say F) is always in SOP form. Then the simplified

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function obtained by making group of 0’s of the function will be the There are 32 minterms for a Boolean function with five-variables.
complement of the function (i.e., F’) in SOP form. Hence, Five- variable map consists of 32 squares.
Applying DeMorgan’s theorem to F’ (in SOP) will give F in POS It consists of 2 four-variable maps. Variable A distinguishes between
form. the two maps, as indicated on the top of the diagram. The left-hand
four-variable map represents the 16 squares where A=0, and the other
four-variable map represents the squares where A=1.

Don’t Care Conditions: Minterms 0 through 15 belong to the four-variable map with A=0 and
minterms 16 through 31 belong to the four-variable map with A=1.
In some cases, the function is not specified for certain combinations
of input variables as 1 or 0.
There are two cases in which it occurs:

1. The input combination never occurs.

2. The input combination occurs but we do not care what the outputs
are in response to these inputs.
In both cases, the outputs are called as unspecified and the functions
having them are called as incompletely specified functions. Each four-variable map retains the previously defined adjacency
when taken separately. In addition, each square in the A=0 map is
In most applications, we simply do not care what value is assumed adjacent to the corresponding square in the A=1 map. For example,
by the function for unspecified minterms. minterm 4 is adjacent to minterm 20 and minterm 15 to 31.
Unspecified minterms of a function are called as don’t care The best way to visualize this new rule for adjacent squares is to
conditions. They provide further simplification of the function, and consider the two half maps as being one on top of the other. Any two
they are denoted by X’s to distinguish them from 1’s and 0’s. squares that fall one over the other are considered adjacent.
In choosing adjacent squares to simplify the function in a map, the
Six-Variable K-Maps:
don’t care minterms can be assumed either 1 or 0, depending on
which combination gives the simplest expression. There are 64 minterms for a Boolean function with six-variables.
Hence, Six-variable map consists of 64 squares.
A don’t care minterm need not be chosen at all if it does not
contribute to produce a larger implicant. By following the procedure used for the five-variable map, it is
possible to construct a six-variable map with 4 four-variable maps to
Five-Variable K-Maps: obtain the required 64 squares.

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Movie 1.1 k map simplification

MCQs on Digital Electronics

Question 1 of 5
Identify the function which generates the K-map shown

A. F= Sum m(1,3,4,7)

B. F= Sum m(1,3,5,6)

C. F= Sum m(3,4,5,6)

D. F= Prd M(1,3,4,7)

E. F= Prd M(1,3,5,6)



Check Answer

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SECTION 4

Quine-McCluskey minimization technique

QUINE – McCLUSKEY METHOD 2. List the minterms by increasing index.

3. Separate the sets of minterms of equal index with lines.
Using K-maps for simplification of Boolean expressions with more than six 4. Let i = 0.
variables becomes a tedious and difficult task. Therefore a tabular method illustrate 5. Compare each term of index I with each term of index I+1. For each pair of terms
below can be used for the purpose. that can combine which has only one bit position difference.
6. Increase I by 1 and repeat step 5 . The increase of I continued until all terms are
ALGORITHM FOR GENERATING PRIME IMPLICANTS compared. The new list containing all implicants of the function that have one less
variable than those implicants in the generating list.
The algorithm procedure is listed below 7. Each section of the new list formed has terms of equal index. Steps 4,5, and 6 are
repeated on this list to form another list. Recall that two terms combine only if they
1.Express each minterm of the function in its binary representation.

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have their dashes in the same relative positions and if they differ in exactly one bit
position. wxyz
8. The process terminates when no new list is formed .
9. All terms without check marks are prime implicants.
(0, 2, 8, 10) __ 0 __ 0
(0, 4, 8,12 ) __ __ 0 0(index 0)
Example: Find all the prime implicants of the function (8,10,12,14) 1__ __ 0 (index 1)

f(w,x,y,z) = áîm(0,2,3,4,8,10,12,13,14) F(w,x,y,z)=x z + y z +w z+w x y +w x z

Step 1: Represent each minter in its 1-0 notation

no. minterm 1-0 notation index

0 wxyz 0000 0
2 wxyz 0010 1 PETRICK’S METHOD OF DETERMINING IRREDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS
3 wxyz 0011 2 FIND THE PRIME IMPLICANTS AND IRREDUNDANT EXPRESSION
4 wxyz 0100 1
8 wxyz 1000 1 F(W,X,Y,Z)= áîM(0,1,2,5,7,8,9,10,13,15)
10 wxyz 1010 2 A=X Y , B= X Z C= Y Z D= X Z
12 wxyz 1100 2
13 wxyz 1101 3 P = (A+B)(A+C) (B)(C+D)(D)(A+B)(A+C)(B)(C+D)(D)
14 wxyz 1110 3
P = (A +C)(BD) = ABD +BCD
F1(W,X,Y,Z)= ABD =X Y +X Z +X Z
F2(W,X,Y,Z) = BCD = X Z + Y Z +X Z
Step 2: List the minterm in increasing order of their index.
No. wxyz index
DECIMAL METHOD FOR OBTAINING PRIME IMPLICANTS
0 0000 Index 0
2 0010 The prime implicants can be obtained for decimal number represented minterms.In this
4 0100 Index 1 procedure binary number are not used to find out prime implicants
8 1000
3 0011 f(w, x,y,z) =áîm(0,5,6,7,9,10,13,14,15)
10 1010 Index 2 fsop= xy +xz+xyz+wyz+w x y z
12 1100
13 1101 MAP ENTERED VARIABLE(MEV)
14 1110 Index 3
It is graphical approach using k-map to have a variable of order n. Where in we are using
a K-map of n-1 variable while map is entered with ouput function and variable.
Wxyz index f(w,x,y.z) = áîm(2,3,4,5,13,15) +dc(8,9,10,11)
Ans.fsop= w z +x y + w x y

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 Interactive 1.2 k map
• karnaugh mapping is the best manual technique for boolean equation simplification,
yet when the map sizes exceed five or six variable unwidely.

• the technique called “map entered variables “ ( mevs ) increases the effective size
of a karnaugh maps, allowing a smaller map to handle a greater no. of variables

• the map dimension and the no. of problem variables are related by 2n = m, where
n = no.of problem variable, m = no. of squares in k-maps. mev k-maps permit a cell
to contain a single (x) or a complete switching expression, in addition to the 1s, 0s
and don’t care terms.

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Basic gate

AND, OR, NOT are the basic gates

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here

Index Find Term

Sequential logic

The output depends not only the input but also present state.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here

Index Find Term