CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Within a broad research from online and any physical research medium

for this content, numbers of cited literatures have input to provide background

information for the possibility of this study to attain the main aim. The entire

provided previous study of this chapter has no direct relation or replicated ideas

to the main study.

This chapter presents a review of related literature and studies that has

been the main motivation to contrive this laboratory manual.

Foreign Related Literature

It is fundamental to seek a new form of method significantly to deliver the

main idea of the topic through laboratory experiment. The relevancy in the

current trend is important to give attention and execute it into a new module so

this will be more efficient in application. Being relevant by any means is by

involving into latest technology, coping into new idea published in related studies,

and minimally using latest value for more efficient computation.

The most important but it is occasionally forgotten, before conducting any

kind of experiment related in hydraulics and fluid mechanics, you should be

familiarize with the history of hydraulics because there will be realization that

most of the well-known theory created through observation and conducting

experiment. The foundation of complex information that may be useful for

designing modern hydraulic infrastructure is by familiarization of the concept

current form.

It could be useful for bringing yourself into right path of studying the entire

course. This part of manual will recall a short history which is composed by

Andrew Chadwick, John Morfett and Martin Borthwick from the book of

Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering (5 th edition).

Hydraulics is a very ancient science. The Egyptians and Babylonians

constructed canals, both for irrigation and for defensive purposes. No attempts

were made at that time to understand the laws of fluid motion. The first notable

attempts to rationalize the nature of pressure and flow patterns were undertaken

by the Greeks. The laws of hydrostatics and buoyancy were enunciated;

Ctesibius and Hero designed hydraulic equipment such as the piston pump and

water clock and, of course, there was the Archimedes screw pump. The Romans

appear, like the Egyptians, to have been more interested in the practical and

constructional aspects of hydraulics than in theorizing. Thus, development

continued slowly until the time of the Renaissance, when men such as Leonardo

Da Vinci began to publish the results of their observations. Ideas which emerged

then, respecting conservation of mass (continuity of flow), frictional resistance

and the velocity of surface waves, are still in use, though sometimes in a more

refined form. The Italian School became famous for their work. Torricelli et al.

observed the behavior of water jets. They compared the path traced by a free jet

with projectile theory and related the jet velocity to the square root of the

pressure generating the flow. Guglielmini et al. published the results of

of the word, i.e., they were primarily empiricists. Up to this point, mathematics

had played no significant part in this sort of scientific work. Indeed, at that time

mathematics was largely confined to the principles of geometry, but this was

about to change. In the seventeenth century, several brilliant men emerged.

Descartes, Pascal, Newton, Boyle, Hooke and Leibnitz laid the foundations of

modern mathematics and physics. This enabled researchers to perceive a logical

pattern in the various aspects of mechanics. On this basis, four great pioneers –

Bernoulli, Euler, Clairaut and D’Alembert – developed the academic discipline of

hydrodynamics. They combined a sound mathematical framework with an acute

perception of the physical phenomena which they were attempting to represent.

In the eighteenth century, further progress was made, both in experimentation

and in analysis. In Italy, for example, Poleni investigated the concept of

discharge coefficients. However, it was French and German thinkers who now

led the way. Henri de Pitot constructed a device which could measure flow

velocity. Antoine Chézy (1718–1798), followed by Eytelwein and Woltmann,

developed a rational equation to describe flow in streams. Men such as Borda,

Bossut and du Buat not only extended knowledge but also took pains to see that

the available knowledge was disseminated. Woltmann and Venturi used

Bernoulli’s work as a basis for developing the principles of flow measurement.

The nineteenth century was a period of further advance. Hagen (1797–1884)

constructed experiments to investigate the effects of temperature on pipe flow.

His understanding of the nature of fluid viscosity was limited to Newton’s ideas,
yet so careful was his work that the results were within 1% of modern

measurements. He injected sawdust into the fluid for some of his experiments in

order to visualise the motion. He was probably the first person knowingly to

observe turbulence, though he was unable to grasp its significance fully. At

almost the same time, a French doctor (Poiseuille) was also making observations

on flow in pipes (in an attempt to understand the flow of blood in blood vessels),

which led to the development of equations for laminar flow in pipes. Further

contributions were made by Weisbach, Bresse and Henri Darcy, who developed

equations for frictional resistance in pipe and channel flows (the first attempts to

grapple with this problem coincided with signs of an incipient awareness of the

existence of the ‘boundary layer’). During the latter part of the century, important

advances were made in experimentation. The first practical wind tunnel, the first

towing tank for model testing of ships and the first realistic attempt to model a

tidal estuary (by O. Reynolds) were all part of this flowering of knowledge. These

techniques are still used today. Reynolds also succeeded in defining the different

types of flow, observing cavitation and explaining Darcy’s friction law in greater

detail. Even at this stage, studies of fluid flows were subdivided into ‘classical

hydrodynamics’ (which was a purely mathematical approach with little interest in

experimental work) and ‘experimental hydraulics’. Navier, Stokes, Schwarz,

Christoffel and other hydrodynamicists all contributed to the development of a

formidable array of mathematical equations and methods, including the

conformal transformation. Their work agreed only sporadically with the

practitioners (the hydraulicians) and, indeed, there were frequently yawning

of industry in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was by now producing a

demand for a better understanding of fluid flow phenomena. The real

breakthrough came with the work of Prandtl. In 1901, he proposed that flow was

‘divided into two interdependent parts. There is on the one hand the free fluid

which can be treated as inviscid (i.e., which obeyed the laws of hydrodynamics)

… and on the other hand the transition layer at the fixed boundaries’ (the

transition layer is the thin layer of fluid within which frictional forces dominate).

With this brilliant insight, Prandtl effectively fused together the two disparate

schools of thought and laid the foundation for the development of the unified

science of fluid mechanics. The twentieth century has, in consequence, seen

tremendous advances in the understanding and application of fluid mechanics in

almost every branch of engineering. It is only possible to give the barest outline

here. Prandtl and Th. von Kármán published a series of papers in the 1920s and

1930s, covering various aspects of boundary layer theory and turbulence. Their

work was supplemented by increasingly sophisticated laboratory research (e.g.,

the work of Dryden and his colleagues at NACA in the United States). These

efforts had an impact on every aspect of engineering fluid mechanics. In the

1930s, the efforts of Nikuradse (in Germany), Moody (in America), Colebrook (in

Great Britain) and others resulted in a clearer understanding of pipe flows and, in

particular, of the factors affecting pipe friction. This led directly to the modern

methods for estimating flows in pipes and channels. Since 1945, the advent of

the electronic computer and advances in sensing and data logging equipment
have revolutionized many aspects of hydraulics. Our understanding of the nature

of turbulence, steady and unsteady flows in channels, sediment transport and

maritime phenomena have developed rapidly. This led to developments in

mathematical modelling and hence to ever-improving computer software.

Furthermore, the availability of the Internet means that information can now be

rapidly communicated around the world. Today’s engineer therefore has the tools

to achieve more effective and economic designs. Hydraulics research continues

on an international scale to seek solutions to the many pressing problems in

water and environmental management. There is therefore every reason to expect

that engineers and scientists working in this area will face exciting and difficult

challenges which will make the fullest demands on their skills.

Local Related Literature

Most hydraulics laboratory experiments established as of the current

curriculum that used by many college students relying on how the available

apparatus are working. This laboratory manual refrain of not using apparatus so

most of the situation are explainable and the main ideas of the topic related in the

experiment are easy to delivers. We conclude that using significant apparatus

than any non-apparatus alternatives makes the session of this course have the

professional presence intact.

We take a review of laboratory manual from these various universities

from the Philippines: TIP, DE La Salle and Palawan State Universities. This

Laboratory Manual give importance of standardization moreover we tried to

research with consideration of the international standards.

Foreign Related Studies

This foreign related study has been partitioned by all the experiments

available in this Laboratory. This way it is more comprehensible of what we

actually considered based of the foreign studies that we seek through online

research. Every related study that are input in this lab manual are the most

notable which need to immediate consideration.

Determination of Common Liquid Density and Liquid Viscosity

These topics have very significant methodology in conducting the

experiment. These various topics and including the “Calibration of Pressure

Gauge using Dead weight apparatus are exclusively linear and direct to the point.

Proper equipment and instrument will be mostly the factor to execute the

experiment with satisfaction of gathering information.

As for the Liquid Viscosity, according to teachengineering.org, “Engineers

often design devices that transport fluids, use fluids for lubrication, or operate in

environments that contain fluids. Thus, engineers must understand how fluids

behave under various conditions. Understanding fluid behavior can help

engineers to select the optimal fluids to operate in devices or to design devices

that are able to successfully operate in environments that contain fluids”.

Since it is one of the most principle of hydraulics, its more important the

simplicity and comprehensibility of this topic which need to put in experiment as a

various household fluids by measuring the amount of time it takes marble or steel

balls to fall given distances through the liquids. They experience what viscosity

means, and also practice using algebra and unit conversions”.

From the experiment for Common Liquid Density this laboratory manual

follows the methodologies of teachengineering.org. Example of material should

be precise to the main outcome of the experiment is more visibly.

Buoyancy and Stability of the Floating Object

Base from the anonymous source, all three methods for finding or

measurement the buoyant force should be discussed and emphasize individually

which is the main objective creating the right experiment.

“The buoyant force will be measured three ways and the results

compared. The first method is by the measurement of force. This method

involves weighing an object first in air, then in water, and using the difference in

weight as the buoyant force. Though the object's mass does not change, its

apparent weight will change when measured while immersed in a fluid that is

denser than air”.

“The second method is the displaced volume method. The volume of fluid

displaced by the object is measured and its weight calculated. The weight of the

water displaced is equal to the buoyant force exerted on the object, by

Archimedes' Principle”.
 “The third method is by the buoyant force equation method. By measuring

the dimensions of the object and calculating the volume, one can determine the

buoyant force that would be exerted on the object when it is submerged in a fluid

of known density ρ”.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

The Reynolds number has many practical applications, as it provides

engineers with immediate information about the state of flow throughout pipes,

streams, and soils, helping them apply the proper relationships to solve the

problem at hand. It is also very useful for dimensional analysis and similitude. As

an example, if forces acting on a ship need to be studied in the laboratory for

design purposes, the Reynolds number of the flow acting on the model in the lab

and on the prototype in the field should be the same. (Habib Ahmari et. al.,)

Water Jet

Engineers and designers use the momentum equation to accurately

calculate the force that moving fluid may exert on a solid body. For example, in

hydropower plants, turbines are utilized to generate electricity. Turbines rotate

due to force exerted by one or more water jets that are directed tangentially onto

the turbine’s vanes or buckets. The impact of the water on the vanes generates a

torque on the wheel, causing it to rotate and to generate electricity. (Habib

Ahmari et. al.,)

This topic can use a simple type of materials to execute its significant

experiment despite this method is inconvenient for the most part. Using wooden

block or any available scow as floating material can give more confusion to

students who can’t recall or unable to locate the center of gravity accurately or

compute the moment of inertia of any non-geometric object. It is also important to

review the principle of buoyant forces for this experiment undeniably.

Throughout of all inconvenience from first type that are only noticed

through speculation, Department of Mechanical Engineering in Taxila Education

City, University have introduced to this research the most convenient

methodologies for the experiment of this topic and it is by using apparatus. The

said university used only a general type of Metacentric Height apparatus which is

easier to use, efficient and comprehensible when it comes to analytic approach.

Minor and Major Loss in Pipes

The first objective of this topic is to distinguish to the learners what is the

difference of Minor and Major losses and base to Habib Amhari and Shad Md:

“The total energy loss in a pipe system is the sum of the major and minor

losses.  Major losses are associated with frictional energy loss that is caused by

the viscous effects of the fluid and roughness of the pipe wall.  Major losses

create a pressure drop along the pipe since the pressure must work to overcome

the frictional resistance. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is the most widely

accepted formula for determining the energy loss in pipe flow. In this equation,
the friction factor (f), a dimensionless quantity, is used to describe the friction loss

in a pipe”.

And according to lo.unisa.edu.au “Minor losses behave similarly to major

losses, where a device with a large k value leads to a high-pressure loss. In

general, a very sudden change to the flow path contributes to significant pressure

loss”. In conclusion, due to sudden enlargement and extraction, entry and exit of

pipe, elbows and pipe bend, pipe fittings and etc.

Hydraulic Jump

“The formation of hydraulic jump is associated with a sudden rise in the

water depth, large scale turbulence and dissipation of energy. It is employed at

the foot of spillways and other hydraulic structures of dissipate energy for the

protection of bed against scour. This experiment helps to under the features of

hydraulic jump”. (Thapa et. al., 2016)

It is necessary for this topic to make its related experiment associated with

Open channel flume. Tribhuvan University from Nepal, focus on deep analysis of

hydraulic jump by theoretical approach. The experiment that will present for this

manual will mainly focus on visual presentation and gathering of basic data

needed for analysis. The analysis must be associated with theory conceive by

William Froude with his well-known characterization of critical flow known as

Froude number.

Based on Dr. John Nicklow’s published laboratory experiment about

hydraulic jumps entitled “The rapidly varying water surface is typically

undulations. The high velocity flow is known as supercritical, and occurs at

depths below critical depth, whereas the low velocity flow is subcritical, and

occurs at depths greater than critical depth. The critical depth is the depth

associated with the point of minimum energy in the associated control volume

and is an unstable depth that occurs within the jump. A parameter that further

can be used to characterize critical flow is the Froude number.”

Local Related Studies

Local Related Studies from this broad research contribute mostly the Idea

which gave us a fine direction to finish this manual.

Pipes in Series and Parallel

De La Salle University was independently relied to what the apparatus can

provide immediately. Base on a quick research most of the pipe network

apparatus are associated with digital measurement and computation which is not

necessary in this case to learn the specific topic. Armfield C11 is the specific pipe

network apparatus used in the said universities. It is a generic type but its

excellence comes in terms of understanding the principle regarding calibrating,

measuring and computing the numerical data. This method can provide factors in

inaccuracies and considerations on avoiding discrepancies. This experiment,

specifically the “series” part of the experiment, includes a sub topic which also

provide a significant experiment because the graphical data can be use to

erroneous if one is using an instrument.

The theoretical approach also well known globally but the specific

reference for this case are:

1. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, SI Metric Edition,

Daugherty R.L, Franzini, J., Finnemore, John E., McGraw Hill Book

Company, 1989

2. Fluid Mechanics, Streeter V.,Wylie, B., Metric Edition, 7th Edition, McGraw

Hill, New York

3. Laboratory manual, Armfield C11 – Flow in Pipe Networks Experiments

Minor and Major Loss in Pipes

Foreign related studies provided the point of view of the principles that

lead this laboratory manual to decide the methodologies of conducting the

experiment for this specific topic. De La Salle, similar to pipes in series and

parallel, it also relies to the capability of the available apparatus. In this specific

case, for finding the Major loss, De La Salle mainly focus on basic concept of

friction and Armfield C11 Pipe Network Apparatus provide the job as main

instrument for this experiment.

According also to the theoretical consideration of De La Salle University

(Civil Engineering Department), “Any pipeline of diameter and length carrying a

flow rate within a network will have a head loss along its length. This head loss is

largely the result of pipe fiction and:

On the other side minor losses also uses specific apparatus which have

significant manual regarding to minor losses and its methodology are entirely

follow. The Armfield C6-MKII-10 Fluid Friction Apparatus Manual provides the

help for the observation of said factors of minor losses in foreign related studies.
DEFINITION OF TERMS