United States History - Milestones Study Guide – Georgia Standards of Excellence

DOMAIN I - COLONIZATION TO CONSTITUTION

SSUSH1 - COLONIAL ERA (EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA DURING THE 1600’S)
a. Mercantilism and Tran-Atlantic Trade
 Mercantilism – Unbalanced economic system in which the “Mother Country” (England) takes advantage of its “Daughter Colony”
(North America) by cheaply purchasing the daughter country’s raw goods and selling them back as expensive manufactured goods.
 Trans-Atlantic Trade – Colonies were founded to harvest and export to Europe the abundant natural resources of the Americas
b. Southern Colonies – Virginia, Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia (1607)
 Founded for economic reasons - economy based on cash crops like tobacco - long growing seasons, warm climate, and fertile
soil – labor intensive crops led to the use of slave labor – Jamestown, Virginia (the Virginia Colony) was the first successful English
colony
 Tropical climate and swampy land leads to a very high mortality [death] rate due to sickness
 Had an ok relationship with the American Indians (Powhatan) which degraded to warfare as colonist claimed their lands
c. New England Colonies – Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire (1620)
 Founded for religious reasons - thin, rocky soil prevented farming, but forest and coastal areas led to an economy based on ship
building, fishing, and whaling - good harbors also drove trade, making New England the merchants of trans-Atlantic goods
 Puritans wanted to “purify” the Church of England, Pilgrims were called “separatists” because they permanently left it
 Religious tension with Puritans led Roger Williams to found Rhode Island, creating a more tolerant alternative to Massachusetts
 Initially friendly toward American Indians, the settler’s relationships with them collapsed due to expansion, leading to King
Phillip’s War and the Pequot Wars – nearly destroyed New England but ended any threat from American Indians
d. Mid Atlantic Colonies – New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware (1614)
 New Netherlands was established by the Dutch as a private money-making venture based on trade. The port city of New
Amsterdam was between the English New England and Southern colonies, who took it from the Dutch and renamed it New York
 Economic mix - good ports and river mouths from the interior made it a major commercial hub, and it also had good food crop
farming
 Very diverse in religion and culture due to its transition from Dutch to English
 Pennsylvania was founded by a Quaker, William Penn – tolerant, friendly to American Indians
 Fur trade and strong American Indian alliance, along with Quaker influences, led to peaceful relations with American Indians
SSUSH2 - ECONOMY & SOCIETY IN COLONIAL NORTH AMERICA
a. European Cultural Diversity
 Scottish immigrated in large numbers after Scotland and England joined in 1707 – They settled in mountainous back-country
away from English authority and created the unique speech patterns and music of the Appalachian region
 German immigrants fled constant rival-state warfare in their homeland – Many were recruited by William Penn to settle in
Pennsylvania – their reports drew more immigrants, who influenced American with ideas of recreational days and public education
 Dutch, Swedish, Finnish, and French brought their own cultural influences on language, food, and architecture
 New England brought strict religious practices, while Maryland was established by Catholics and passed the first religious
freedom law, the Acts of Toleration in 1649 – Rhode Island and Quaker Pennsylvania were also tolerant of other faiths
e. Middle Passage and African Contributions
 The labor demands of cash crops led a need for inexpensive labor – at first indentured servants (men who worked for up to
seven years in exchange for land) were used, but West African slaves became the preferred source of labor because they were
easier to control than indentured servants and there were no worries about freeing them and then having them revolt later (see
Bacon’s Rebellion)
 Triangle Trade – A trade route that started in Europe, shipped finished products to Africa in exchange for slaves, then shipped
slaves from Africa to the Americas, then shipped raw materials back to England, creating a trade path like a large triangle
 The Middle Passage was the brutal trans-Atlantic leg of the triangle trade, from West Africa to the Americas, in which 1 in 5
slaves died from inhumane conditions like “tight packing”
 While West African slaves were from many cultural groups, their slavery created a unique, blended “Black” culture
 Food, like okra, watermelon, yams, rice, and grits have been attributed to African American cultural blending, along with
language patterns like Creole and Gullah, and architecture influences via shotgun houses and “wattle and daub”
f. Colonial Self-Government in the Period of Salutary Neglect
 Salutary Neglect was the 1721 English decision not to strictly enforce colonial policies while wealth continued to flow to England
 In Jamestown, Virginia, the House of Burgesses became the first representative legislative government in North America - The
upper house consisted of nobility selected by the governor, the lower of popularly elected citizens
 New England had Town Hall Meetings that allowed the public to vote on issues, though in many colonies only men could vote
 Bacon’s Rebellion – Wealthy backwater aristocrat Nathaniel Bacon felt like not enough was being done to protect the
backwater colonist (ex-indentured servant and freed slaves) from Native Americans. He led them in revolt against Jamestown,
establishing the idea that government should work for all citizens, not just the wealthy
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g. The Great Awakening (1730)
 The Great Awakening was a religious revival that spread across the colonies in the 1730s. It was started by Jonathan Edwards
with his famous sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” but was spread far and wide by the dynamic public speaker
George Whitefield.
 The Great Awakening contributed to public education by creating a desire to read scripture, contributed to civil rights by being
preached to all people regardless of social status or ethnicity, and contributed to the American Revolution by creating a shared
experience across the colonies and by spreading the idea of natural rights.
SSUSH3 - CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
a. French & Indian War, 1763 Treaty of Paris
 The French & Indian War, was the North American part of the “The Seven Years War” – French and Indians fought British
soldiers and colonial militia over fertile land in the Ohio River valley west of the Appalachian Mts.
 British win, the Treaty of Paris (1763) gives all French land east of the Mississippi to England, including Canada
 The war costs England a great deal of money, leading them to explore new tax revenues from colonies, ending salutary neglect
h. Proclamation of 1763, Stamp Act, Intolerable Acts, Revolutionary Organizations
 Proclamation of 1763 restricts settlement to east of the Appalachian Mountains – meant to appease the Native Americans, it
instead outraged the colonists, who feel that they should be able to settle the land they just fought for
 Stamp Act –Requires most printed paper to have a paid government stamp - First direct tax on the colonists, leads to outrage
 Colonist form the Committees of Correspondence to secretly and efficiently coordinate matters of concern and boycotts
 Sons of Liberty – Led by Samuel Adams, they used violence to maintain boycotts of British good and intimidate stamp officials
 Daughters of Liberty – Wove fabrics and other products in order to provide alternatives for boycotted goods
 When England coordinated with the British East India Company to expand their tea monopoly, colonist dumped three ships
worth of tea in Boston Harbor in what became known as the “Boston Tea Party”
 The British responded harshly with what the colonists called the “Intolerable Acts,” which included closing Boston Harbor,
forcing residents to quarter British soldiers in their homes (Quartering Act), and Massachusetts being placed under military control
i. Common Sense
 Thomas Paine’s best-selling booklet, Common Sense, effectively argued that the U.S. should and could defy British rule, leading
many undecided colonists to support the independence movement – It also shifted blame from British Parliament to King George III
SSUSH4 – THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
a. Declaration of Independence - 1776
 Among those chosen to write the Declaration (the Committee of Five), Thomas Jefferson was primary author – He was heavily
inspired by philosopher John Locke, whose writings defined “Life, Liberty, & Property” as our “unalienable” natural rights
 The opening states, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, and are endowed by their Creator
with certain unalienable rights” – The second half lists grievances against King George III – The last part is a statement of
independence
 The Social Contract Theory justified independence – people give the government power in exchange for protection of natural
rights – If the government doesn’t protect them, the people can replace the government
j. Diplomacy in the American Revolution
 France became America’s best ally during the war, supplying guns, supplies, troops, and most importantly, a navy – They helped
to weaken British control of American resources and gain access to North American trade
 Benjamin Franklin, as ambassador to France, was a key figure in completing the alliance
 John Adams, as ambassador to the Netherlands, secured a key loan from the Dutch that helped finance the new United States
k. George Washington and Military Leadership
 George Washington was not the most skilled military leader, but his strong leadership skills gave him respect and support
 The continental army spent the winter in Valley Forge, enduring bitter cold and disease - While it was a low point in the war,
the colonial military emerged as a capable military force due to the boot-camp-like training regime of Baron von Steuben
 The Marquis de Lafayette also helped with training, and was a critical link between the colonials and the French military
l. American Revolution Battles
 The Battle of Trenton was the Continental Army’s 1st victory under the military leadership of George Washington – It was a
midnight sneak attack, crossing the Delaware and defeating the Hessians (mercenary troops hired by the British) – Huge moral
boost for the continental army – Geographically, the Hessians thought the Delaware River protected them, but it was their weak
point
 In the Battle of Saratoga, the Continental Army under Gen. Gates used the high ground, rough terrain, and the Hudson river to
trap the British and Gen. Burgoyne – The colonial victory convinced the French that the Americans could win large battles – From
that point, France began to provide much needed naval support
 The Battle of Yorktown was the deciding battle of the American Revolution. The Continentals pursued the British army to the
coastal town of Yorktown, Virginia – There, trapped on a peninsula and blocked from sea escape by the French navy, British
General Charles Cornwallis was forced to surrender his army

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m. Women, American Indians, and Free Black in the American Revolution
 Women known as “camp followers” would wash, sew, cook, and nurse wounded soldiers – Few women participated in fighting,
though some women functioned as spies
 American Indians in west sided with the British in hopes that their land would be protected – In the east they were evenly
divided
 Some free and slave blacks fought for colonies in hopes of realizing “all men are created equal” – Crispus Attucks was killed in
the “Boston Massacre” – However, many more fought for the British, who promised them freedom
n. The Treaty of Paris
 In the Treaty of Paris 1783, America received its independence and gained all British land south of Quebec and east of the
Mississippi
SSUSH5 – THE CONSTITUTIONAL ERA
a. Articles of Confederation – Strengths
 The Land Ordinance of 1785 divided new territory west of the Appalachians into six-square-mile townships, which were divided
into one-square-mile plots and auctioned – Money from every 16 th plot funded public education – the rest helped pay off war debts
 The first territory after the original states was the Northwest Territory (Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana) –
Created by the Northwest Ordinance – The ordinance defined the pathway to statehood (at pop. 60,000) and set the Ohio River as
a boundary between free states to the north and slave states to the south – all new states were equal members with the original
thirteen
o. Articles of Confederation – Weaknesses
 The Articles of Confederation was our first constitution, but it was made deliberately weak to prevent another monarchy –
states held more power than the central government – it could not even tax
 The weakness of the federal government under the Articles was evident in Shays’ Rebellion. Farmers who were deep in war
debt and losing their property rebelled against new federal laws and taxes, and the government lacked the ability to put down the
revolt
 After Shay’s Rebellion, George Washington saw the need for a stronger central government and created the Constitutional
Convention in 1787 to explore the creation of a new constitution
p. Key Features of the Constitution
 The constitution was heavily influenced by the writings of Baron Charles de Montesquieu, who believed that a system of Checks
& Balances and Separation of Powers would keep the government from abusing its power
 Three branches were created: Legislative (Congress), Judicial (The Supreme Court), and Executive (The President) – Each branch
shared power and had the ability to overrule (or check) another branch – Power was also split between state and federal gov.
 The combination of checks and balances and separation of powers is known as Limited Government
 The Great Compromise: In the legislative branch, states with small populations wanted an equal number of representatives for
each state (New Jersey Pan). States with large populations wanted representation based on population (Virginia Plan). The Great
Compromise created two congressional houses (called a bicameral legislature): One based on population (House of
Representatives) and one with two representatives per state (Senate), which satisfied both sides
 Population determined the number of members in the House of Representative, and free states felt it was unfair for slave states
to count slaves as part of their population – In the 3/5th Compromise, only 3 of every 5 slaves were counted toward representation
q. Ratification of the Constitution (1788)
 Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, supported the constitution’s strong central government – James Madison, with
Hamilton’s help, wrote The Federalist Papers, a series of essays in support of the Constitution
 Anti-Federalists, led by Thomas Jefferson, feared that the federal government would be too powerful and individual and state’s
rights wouldn’t be protected – This conflict between Federalist and Anti-Federalist led to the first political parties
r. The Bill of Rights
 To help convince all states to ratify (sign into law) the constitution, federalist promised to add a Bill of Rights to the Constitution
that would protect individual rights – Madison added these first 10 amendments in 1792

1. Freedom of religion, 2. The 3. Government 4. No 5. Right not to

speech, press and public right to cannot require unreasonable incriminate
gathering to petition possess people to house searches or yourself, right
government firearms soldiers during seizures not to testify,
peacetime right to due
process
6. Right to a 7. Right to 8. Right to 9. Rights not 10. Powers not
speedy trial and trial by reasonable bail, covered in the given to the
to a lawyer, right jury in no cruel or constitution gov. belong to
to hear witnesses most civil unusual belong to the the states or
cases punishment people people

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SSUSH6 – FIRST FIVE PRESIDENTS (1788 – 1824)
a. George Washington
 At the creation of the Constitution, George Washington became the first President – In that role, he set many traditions and
patterns [precedents] that future Presidents would follow
 One precedent was Washington’s cabinet – a group of close advisors, including Sec. of State Jefferson and Sec. of Treasury
Hamilton
 The Whiskey Rebellion was an uprising of corn farmers upset at Hamilton’s taxes on alcohol. Because of the new Constitution,
Washington was able to use the military to quickly end the rebellion – Just as Shays’ Rebellion demonstrated the weakness of the
old confederate government, the Whiskey Rebellion demonstrated the strength of the new and stronger federal government
 At the end of his second term, Washington stepped down, setting another precedent, that of a two-term limit
 Washington penned a farewell address urging U.S. not to be involved in European affairs and to avoid political parties and
geographic sectionalism (loyalty to one’s party or region over loyalty to the nation as a whole)
s. John Adams
 John Adams, a Federalist, narrowly defeated Thomas Jefferson to become the second President – Jefferson had left
Washington’s cabinet to form the “Democratic-Republicans”
 In support of Adams, Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which allowed the government to prevent Jefferson-leaning
immigrants from voting and made criticizing the President a crime – Jefferson and Madison responded with the Virginia and
Kentucky Resolutions, which said states could ignore (nullify) unconstitutional laws – The Alien and Sedition Acts contributed to
Adam’s defeat
t. Thomas Jefferson and the Louisiana Purchase
 His reputation damaged, Adams was easily defeated by Jefferson in 1800, ushering in for the first time a new political party –
the “Revolution of 1800” – Jefferson believed in smaller government and felt that the government could not do anything that was
not explicitly stated in the Constitution (strict construction)
 The Louisiana Purchase, which stretched West from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, doubled the size of the United
States at the very lost cost of $15 million – Jefferson sought to purchase New Orleans from Napoleon to protect the important
Mississippi River waterway. Napoleon offered to sell everything, and Jefferson’s administration accepted before permission was
granted by Congress – the purchase went against Jefferson’s own position of strict construction
 Lewis and Clarke explored from Louisiana to the Pacific in a 28-month, 8,000-mile expedition up the Mississippi and Missouri
rivers, across the Rockies to the Pacific. They were helped by a young female Native American, Sacagawea, who acted as a guide
and interpreter – The expedition gave the United State claims to the Oregon territory
u. James Madison and the War of 1812
 As Jefferson’s secretary of state, Madison easily won the election to become the fourth U.S. President
 The War of 1812 was a second war against Britain – There were four causes: 1) British restrictions against trading with France, 2)
the British policy of impressment [kidnapping] of American sailors into British service, 3) suspicion that the British were arming the
Native Americans, and 4) the desire to conquer Canada and drive the British out of North America
 The war, ending with the Treaty of Ghent, was more of a tie, but it concluded with the American victory at New Orleans. The
pride of fighting Britain to a stand-still created a spirit of national unity & identity that would be a defining aspect American culture
in the decades to come – Inability to import goods during the war also jump-started U.S. industrial production
v. James Monroe
 Victory in the War of 1812 crushed the anti-war Federalist Party but left much of America unified under new President James
Monroe in what was called the “Era of Good Feelings”
 The Monroe Doctrine, a foreign policy that still exists today, warned Europe to avoid starting any new colonies the Western
Hemisphere and said the U.S. would stay out of European wars – The doctrine hoped to avoid unnecessary conflicts with Europe

DOMAIN II - NEW REPUBLIC THROUGH RECONSTRUCTION (1824 – 1877)

SSUSH7 – THE AGE OF JACKSON
a. Jacksonian Democracy
 Jacksonian Democracy sought to strengthen the Executive Branch and weaken the Legislative and Judicial Branches – It also
expanded voting rights to all white males (universal male suffrage), not just land owners
 The Spoils System rewarded supporters of President Andrew Jackson with government jobs
 The Nullification Crisis occurred when John C. Calhoun of South Carolina tried to nullify a Jackson tariff – Jackson refused to
compromise, and South Carolina threatened to secede from the United States – Jackson threatened force but also relaxed the
tariff, and South Carolina backed down – This illustrated the rise in federal over state power
 The Indian Removal Act: Jackson defied the Justice Marshall and the Supreme court, forcing 45,000 Native Americas to move
west of the Mississippi River – Thousands of Cherokee died in the relocation march, known as the Trail of Tears
w. Industrial and Economic Expansion
 Henry Clay’s American System sought to unite the country geographically with national infrastructure like canals, roads, and
railroads, which would increase trade and America’s status in the world
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  The Erie Canal connected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean – 363 miles long – Its connection to New York’s ports
transformed New York City into the largest and most prosperous city in the U.S. and helped unite new western regions to the U.S.
 The Industrial Revolution introduced steamboats and trains, both of which greatly expanded travel and connected rural farms
to cities, and steam powered factories, which led to an increase in urban growth
x. Second Great Awakening and Reform Movements
 The Second Great Awakening was a religious revival for all classes that spread across the country, leading to reform movements
 Temperance – Sought to end the drinking of alcohol, which was cheap and germ-free, but led to many other social problems
 Educational Reform – Mandatory but free public education – Led by Horace Mann, who created the Common School
Movement
 Women’s Rights - At the Seneca Falls Convention, organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the Declaration of Sentiments was
written. Drawing from the Declaration of Independence, it outlined equality for women, especially suffrage (the right to vote,
granted with the 19th Amendment in 1920). Stanton’s Declaration said, “All men and woman are created equal.”
y. Abolitionism
 Eli Whitney’s invention of the Cotton Gin in 1793 made it far easier to de-seed cotton but also drastically increased the need for
slave labor in the south – Slavery also spread west and new lands were needed to grow cotton
 Abolitionism was a movement to ending slavery – it made slavery an important political issue in the creation of new states
 Frederick Douglass – Self-educated slave who published the paper North Star and became a famous speaker on abolition
 William Lloyd Garrison – White “radical” abolitionist and editor, published The Liberator – Wanted immediate end to slavery
 The Grimke Sisters – Sarah and Angela grew up in the South, but lectured in the North about slave mistreatment on plantations
 Nat Turner’s Rebellion, in which African American preacher Nat Turner led a slave uprising that killed 60 whites, unified
southerners out of fear. Many new laws were passed limiting slave activities and strengthening the institution of slavery.
SSUSH8 – CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR
a. The Missouri Compromise
 Missouri Compromise of 1820 settled the dispute over keeping the number of free and slave states Senate representatives
equal. Missouri = slave; Maine = free. Other than Missouri, states north of the 36°30′ line of latitude free, states south of it would
be slave.
z. James K. Polk and Manifest Destiny
 Manifest Destiny was the mid-1800s belief that it was a God-given right to expand and settle westward from “sea to shining
sea.”
 Three reasons for westward growth: 1) Desire for cheap land 2) Discovery of gold 3) Inexpensive, reliable transportation via rail
 James K. Polk was elected in 1844 – A believer in Manifest Destiny, he immediately annexed [added] Texas to the U.S.
 The 1846 Oregon treaty gave half of Oregon to the Unites States – though Polk had campaigned for all of it with “54-40 or
Fight!”
aa. Mexican War
 The Mexican War happened in 1845 after Texas joined the U.S. (as a slave state). Polk put soldiers in disputed territory, then
declared war when they were attacked – Mexico was quickly defeated, and in the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, California and New
Mexico were added to the U.S. and the Rio Grande became the southern border of Texas
 The Wilmot Proviso was attached to the treaty, stating the land won had to be free of slavery, but it was defeated as sectional
tension rose between pro and anti-slavery political forces (sectionalism is when you put the needs of your territory over those of
the country)
bb. Compromise of 1850
 The Compromise of 1850 addressed the issue of slavery in lands acquired from Mexico – New Mexico would be carved out of
Texas, with voters deciding on slave or free, and California admitted as a free state – A strict fugitive slave law was created that
required all citizens to apprehend fugitive slaves, though it also ended the slave trade in Washington D.C. – It eased tension for a
little while
cc. Kansas-Nebraska, Scott v Sanford, John Brown, and Lincoln’s Election
 The Kansas-Nebraska Act said that citizens could vote on whether their territories would be slave or free – called “popular
sovereignty”
 The Act overturned the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850, and pro and anti-slavery forces flooded into Kansas,
sparking a violent conflict called “Bleeding Kansas” – The Act also split the Democrats into weakened Northern and Southern
factions
 The Dred Scott Case, Scott v Sanford, was an 1852 attempt by the slave Dred Scott to sue for his freedom after his owner took
him into the Illinois Territory where slavery was illegal – Scott lost the case because the Supreme Court defined him as property, but
the Supreme court then went further, ruling that the concept of free states itself was unconstitutional
 Abolitionist John Brown raided the Harper’s Ferry, Virginia federal armory, hoping to start a slave uprising – He was caught and
hanged for treason. Brown was seen as a terrorist by the south and a martyr by the north
 Lincoln promised in his campaign to replace the Scott v Sanford Justices – Running against a divided Democratic Party, he easily
won, but southern states immediately began to secede, starting with South Carolina

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SSUSH9 - THE CIVIL WAR (1861 – 1865)
a. Economic Differences Between North and. South
 North: Industrial economy with extensive railway system, larger population, powerful central gov. and military
 South: Agrarian economy with little industry, minimal railway system, smaller population that included many slaves who could
not fight, powerful state governments but weak central government, better military leadership, but no navy to speak of
dd. Lincoln’s War Efforts
 Lincoln used his congressional war powers to suspend habeas corpus – the right to be notified of charges and given a speedy
trial, and he suspended freedom of the press in order to suppress southern sympathizers, especially in Northern border states like
Maryland
 The Emancipation Proclamation, issued immediately after Antietam, ended slavery in the Confederacy but was not enforceable
without Union control of an area. Lincoln used it to turn the war from a political battle into a moral/religious battle, increasing
Union morale
 Lincoln dedicated the Gettysburg battlefield as a national cemetery in his Gettysburg Address, which called for the Union to
strengthen its resolve by remembering the sacrifices of the dead. “Four score and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth…”
 Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address, shortly after Atlanta’s fall, called for reconciliation – “malice toward none, charity toward
all.”
ee. Civil War Military Leaders
 Abraham Lincoln – U.S. president / Commander-in-chief of military until his assassination in 1865 by John Wilkes Booth
 Ulysses S. Grant – Commanding General of U.S. forces after success at Vicksburg
 William Tecumseh Sherman – Union general known for his March to the Sea in Georgia, burning every city from Atlanta to
Savannah near the end of the war in 1864
 Jefferson Davis – Confederate president during the Civil War – Had less control of military than Lincoln
 Robert E. Lee – Overall Confederate commander throughout the Civil War
 Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson – Brilliant Confederate general under Lee - He was killed by friendly fire during night combat
ff. Civil War Battles
 Fort Sumter – Officially began the war - South Carolina bombarded and then captured this federal island fort
 Antietam – Lee invades Maryland, hoping to convince it to secede - The bloodiest single day battle of the Civil War – With Lee
withdrawing to the south, Lincoln used the opportunity to announce the Emancipation Proclamation
 Vicksburg – A 6 week siege of this Mississippi River town by Ulysses S. Grant – The town fell, cutting off AK, LA, and TX from the
rest of the Confederate South
 Gettysburg – This 3-day battle was the bloodiest of the war – It ended in defeat for Lee after he tried to take heavily fortified hill
locations and lost 1/3 of his army – along with Vicksburg, it marked the turning point the war
 Atlanta – Sherman’s siege and capture of Atlanta and his destructive march to Savannah ended the Confederate ability to wage
war and helped Lincoln win reelection
SSUSH10 - RECONSTRUCTION – THE REBUILDING & REUNITING OF AMERICA (1865 – 1877)
a. Presidential Reconstruction vs. Congressional Reconstruction
 Lincoln and VP Andrew Johnson led Presidential Reconstruction. It sought to readmit southern states into the Union as quickly
as possible – Lincoln demanded 10% of southern states swear allegiance, and they had to ratify the 13 th Amendment
 This was viewed as too lenient on the South, especially after Lincoln was killed – Few confederates were prosecuted, and
thousands were pardoned
 Republicans led Congressional Reconstruction, (sometime called “Radical Republican Reconstruction”) which sought to punish
the South. However, Andrew Johnson interfered with the Congressional Reconstruction, vetoing many bills, including the first civil
right acts.
 House Republicans impeached President Andrew Johnson for interfering, but he was found not-guilty in the Senate by one vote
– Republicans where then able to pass laws that placed African-Americans in southern state governments
gg. Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands
 Congress created the Freedmen’s Bureau to help Black Americans make the transition to freedom and citizenship by providing
education, job training, and social integration services – it also helped poor whites and American Indians
 There was an effort to redistribute land in the South among former slaves, but it failed because seizing the land violated the 5 th
amendment. However, the Freedmen’s Bureau did help some former slaves get lands that were abandoned
 Morehouse College was founded by a minister and two former slaves in Atlanta in 1867 as the Augusta Institute
hh. Constitutional Amendments (Reconstruction Amendments)
 13th Amendment: Abolished slavery in the United States
 14th Amendment: Defined U.S. citizenship as including all persons born in the United States, including Black Americans;
guaranteed that no citizen could be deprived of his or her rights without due process, provided for equal protection under the law
 15th Amendment: Removed restrictions on voting based on race, color, or ever having been a slave; granted voting rights to all
male U.S. citizens over the age of 21

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ii. Resistance to Reconstruction
 Black Codes were laws by which the South continued to treat Black Americans as second-class citizens and to take advantage of
them in ways that made it seem slavery had not been abolished – Many were forced to work for former owners
 The Ku Klux Klan formed to resist reconstruction This secret society used murder, arson, and the threat of violence as a means
of controlling Black Americans and supporters – It was suppressed by Federal troops but reignited after Reconstruction ended,
helping shape the “New South”
jj. End of the Reconstruction
 In the controversial Presidential Election of 1876, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes technically lost the election to Democrat
Samuel Tilden, but Tilden offered 20 disputed electoral votes to Hayes in exchange for the removal of Federal troops from the
South, ending the Reconstruction and Republican dominated state governments in the South, beginning the disenfranchisement of
southern Black Americans – This deal was known as The Compromise of 1877

DOMAIN III - INDUSTRIALIZATION, REFORM, AND IMPERIALISM

SSUSH11 – POST RECONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIALISM, BUSINESS, AND INVENTION
a. Effect of Railroads Steel, Oil, and Other Industries
 The Pacific Railway Act created the transcontinental [cross-country] railroad
 Demand for steel railroad tracks led to dramatic growth in the steel industry, forcing the steel industry to develop
quicker, cheaper methods to make steel (like the Bessemer Process), driving the price down
 Railroads boosted other industries, increasing demand for coal for the engines and wood, cloth, and glass for the cars -
Time zones were also introduced to adjust for faster travel times
 As smaller railroad companies were purchased by larger ones, railroads became dominated by powerful corporations.
kk. Rockefeller and Carnegie, and the Rise of Trusts and Monopolies
 Powerful men came to control entire industries. Because of this, they were able to manipulate prices and supplies of
goods to create massive wealth. These men were sometimes called “Robber Barons” or “Captains of Industry”
 Control of an entire industry by one person or company is known as a monopoly. Trusts were agreements between
companies that allowed powerful individuals to control entire industries
 John D. Rockefeller dominated the oil industry via the Standard Oil Company. He used “vertical integration” – buying
every part of the manufacturing process from lumber for barrels to pipelines to transport – to reduce costs. Rockefeller also
used “horizontal integration” – buying competing companies to create a massive trust, controlling 90% of U.S. oil production
 Andrew Carnegie used the Bessemer process to dominate the steel industry - J. P. Morgan would eventually control
steel and influence banking, and Cornelius Vanderbilt dominated the railroad industry
ll. New Technologies
 Samuel Morse invented the telegraph, which allowed instant communication over wires with “Morse Code”
 Alexander Graham Bell created the first marketable telephone
 Thomas Edison was the most famous inventor of the 20th century – His inventions include:
o First practical light bulb - huge impact on society, allowing productivity to continue after dark in homes and factories
o Motion pictures – An invention called the Kinetoscope was the first step in revolutionizing social entertainment
o Phonograph – This early record player helped spread and mix musical styles, influencing new types of music
 Electrical advances based on Edison’s work soon replaced humans as the source of power in household appliances and
steam as the primary source of power in factories. The rise in industrial output led to increased migration to cities
mm. New Immigration
 In the last half of the 1800s, low wages, unemployment, disease, and religious persecution drove many southeastern
Europeans to immigrate to the U.S. – Previous immigrants had been from northeast Europe
 These “new immigrants” were often poor and worked as unskilled laborers in cities – they did not blend in like earlier
immigrants
 Problems grew, including overcrowded cities, crime, and disease – However, the immigration helped economic growth
 They introduced new cultural items – arts, food, and literature – Opera, polkas, hamburgers, hotdogs, and spaghetti
 Ellis Island – East coast Immigration center in New York Harbor. It processed poorer immigrants with health and
welfare tests.
 Angel Island – Processes immigrants, mainly Asians, on the west coast [E-Ellis-Europeans / A-Angel-Asians]

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nn. Samuel Gompers / AFL
 Workers faced harsh and unsafe work conditions - banded together to form labor unions, used the power of collective
bargaining
 Samuel Gompers started the AFL (American Federation of Labor) which used strikes (work stoppages) to force
employers to give workers shorter workdays, better working conditions, and higher wages

SSUSH12 – SOCIAL CHANGES AND UNREST

a. Transcontinental Railway
 The Transcontinental Railroad connected the east and west coasts, fulfilling Manifest Destiny– completed at
Promontory Point, Utah in 1869 – Construction used low wage immigrant Chinese labor in the west and Irish labor in the east –
1,500 of 15,000 Chinese laborers would die blasting through the Sierra Nevada Mts.
 The U.S. government granted huge swaths of land, 10 miles on each side of the track, to railway investors, which
helped settlement of the West by creating a source of cheap land to settlers and transporting goods and people
b. Mid-west Settlement
 Along with cheap railroad land, the government enacted the Homestead Act – 160 acres to all who could farm it for 5
years
 The steel plow made it easier to till the deep sod of the plains, and the railroad transported goods to markets
 Wild Spanish cattle were rounded up by cowboys and herded to train stations in cattle-drives – Later, barbed wire
would make it easy to ranch or keep cattle out of farms – But a side effect was the fencing restricted Plains Indian’s movement,
leading to conflict
c. Conflict with Plains Indians
 As people looking for rural lifestyles moved further west, conflict with Native Americans began increased
 Chief Sitting Bull wiped out Gen. Custer’s small 200-man U.S. Army unit with 3,000 warriors at the Battle of Little Big
Horn but was forced to flee into Canada. Facing starvation, the Sioux agreed to settle on a reservation
 The 1887 Dawes Act attempted to carve up Sioux land and dilute their culture – Sioux Indians, under the influence of
the Ghost Dance religious movement, resisted - resulting in a confrontation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. While the army
was confiscating weapons, a shot was fired, leading to the killing of as many as 300 Sioux men, women, and children by machine
gun fire - 31 U.S. soldiers were also killed

SSUSH13 – SOCIAL REFORMS IN THE PROGRESSIVE ERA

a. Muckrakers
 Journalist who investigated and exposed political corruption, child labor, slum conditions, and other social issues were
called Muckrakers. The most famous muckrakers were Upton Sinclair and Ida Tarbell
 Upton Sinclair’s Novel The Jungle exposed the tremendously unsanitary conditions in the meat packing industry,
leading to a boycott and the creation of federal regulation agencies – The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture)
inspected meat processing, and the FDA (Food & Drug Administration) regulated food products and medicines and forced the
use of ingredient labels. One of the first meat packing regulation laws was the Meat Inspection Act
 Ida Tarbell exposed political corruption in New York, Chicago, and other cities, and criticized Standard Oil Company’s
unfair business practices. Her findings, published as The History of the Standard Oil Company, angered the public and led to the
break up the Standard Oil Company trust
 Jacob Riis used flash photography to expose the filthy, overcrowded NY tenement housing in How the Other Half Lives,
leading to the creation of municipal [city] housing codes and the creation of modern sanitation and water services
oo. Women Reform Movements
 Jane Addams founded the Hull House, a social agency that helped recent immigrants and working-class citizens learn
about home economics, basic medical care, the English language, legal rights, and other topics . She also helped found the
NAACP
 Other reform movements headed by women included temperance [anti-alcohol], women’s suffrage, and educational
reform
pp. Civil Rights Reforms
 Jim Crow laws required separate public and private facilities for African Americans. They resulted in inferior education,
health care, and transportation systems for African Americans

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  In 1896, Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson gave constitutional support to Jim Crow laws, defining the
“separate but equal” doctrine that racial segregation was legal in public accommodations. Oponents noted that separate was
never equal
 Jim Crow laws lead to a rise in lynchings – where a person is murdered by citizens before the judical system can rule
 This led to the formation of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), a group
dedicated to removing these injustices in American society. Founders included Ida B. Wells, who fought against lynching, and W.
E. B. DuBois
qq. Reform in Voting, Labors Laws, and Conservation
 Voter Empowerment included the initiative (allowing the people to propose laws), referendum (putting issues or laws
to a public vote), and recall (voting to removing a politician from office), as well as the direct election of Senators (17th
Amendment)
 Reform of Labor laws instituted the 40-hour work weeks, overtime and worker’s comp, minimum wage, and ended
child labor
 President Roosevelt led the Conservation Movement with the creation of 150 million acres of national parks and
forests to preserve natural habitats and resources – He also created the Yellowstone and Yosemite national parks

SSUSH14 – SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, EXPANSIONISM, PANAMA CANAL, AND THE ROOSEVELT COROLLARY
a. The Spanish-American War
 The Spanish-American War took place in the Philippines & Cuba (Spanish territories) over Spain’s refusal to grant
independence to Cuban revolutionaries – It started after the battleship Maine blew up in Havana harbor in 1898
 Yellow Journalism stokes war fever – desire for new U.S. territory in Latin America under the guise of “spreading
democracy”
 America wins quickly - Cuba became an independent country, Puerto Rico and the Philippines became American
territories. First unit of Black-American (Buffalo Soldiers) give outstanding performance – Teddy Roosevelt also leads “Rough
Riders” to fame
 The Philippine-American War was a result of the Spanish-American War. When the U.S. purchases the Philippines as an
American territory, the Filipinos revolted in costly guerilla warfare for three years
 The new territories led to a debate over American Expansionism: Was it spreading democracy or was it imperialism -
the use of power to increase territory and influence? Hawaii, Alaska become states, Puerto Rico and Gaum become territories
rr. America and Latin-America
 The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine stated that the United States had the right to intervene in Latin
American countries on behalf of European powers. For example, the U.S. would collect debts owed to Europeans to maintain
the Monroe Doctrine
 The Roosevelt Corollary was part of Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” policy where negotiations were backed by military force –
but U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and Haiti angered Latin American countries
 The building of the Panama Canal extended American’s influence in the Western Hemisphere as a part of the Roosevelt
Corollary – It allowed the U.S. Navy to operate in both the Atlantic and Pacific and project power into Latin America
 The canal was a massive engineering project - 48 miles through tropical forest and difficult terrain. When it opened in
1914, a voyage from San Francisco to New York was cut from 14,000 miles to 6,000 miles

DOMAIN IV - ESTABLISHMENT AS A WORLD POWER

SSUSH15 – WORLD WAR I
a. The End of American Isolationism
 American Isolationism or neutrality [not taking a side] in world affairs changed due to Germany’s unrestricted
submarine warfare which resulted in the sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania and the death of many Americans
 America refused to join the war until the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram in 1917, sent from Germany to
Mexico. It promised that Mexico could have back territory taken during the Mexican-American war if Mexico would declare war
on the U.S

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ss. Domestic Impact of World War I
 As white males joined the military, more northern industrial jobs became available. The promise of jobs combined with
repressive laws in the South led to the Great Migration, a mass movement of ½ mil. African Americans to the North between
1916 and 1919
 The Espionage Act made it a crime to communicate information that could interfere with U.S. military operations or aid
its enemies – The Sedition Act went further and made it a crime to speak against military operation. In Schenck v U.S., Chief
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes ruled speech could be restricted if it presented a “clear and present danger”
 Labor leader Eugene Debs, a socialist presidential candidate, was imprisoned for speaking against military recruits and
the draft
tt. Political Impact of World War I
 In October 1918, Germany requested an armistice – a halt in conflict to discuss peace. The Treaty of Versailles ended
the war, but with conditions so harsh on Germany that it would eventually lead to the rise of Hitler and WWII
 Wilson’s Fourteen Points included plans to prevent future world wars. Its major aim was the creation of the League of
Nations – a peace-keeping organization like the United Nations. However, the Senate did not approve American entry into the
league

SSUSH16 – THE RED SCARE, SUFFRAGE, AND SOCIAL CHANGES IN THE EARLY 1900’S
a. The First Red Scare
 With the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, Americans begin to fear the rise of communism, socialism, and anarchy.
Known as the Red Scare (the communist flag was red), this period of hysteria (panic) led to anti-immigrant, anti-Jewish, and
anti-Catholic protests, including the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in the north.
 Immigration restrictions like the National Origins Act of 1924 limited immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe
with quotas to prevent communists and anarchists from entering the country
b. The 18th and 19th Amendments
 The 18th Amendment was a victory for Prohibition, which outlawed the creation, transportation, and sale of alcohol
 As a reward for women’s economic contribution during the war, which included working in factories and raising money
and food through social outreach, the 19th Amendment was passed, giving women the right to vote (Suffrage) – These events
led to greater independence for women and a gradual shift in the ideas of gender roles
uu. Mass Production, Advertising, and Consumerism
 Henry Ford pioneered mass production via assembly line with the introduction of the Model T automobile. Mass
production made cars more affordable to the masses
 Lower prices plus advertising of cars and new household appliances via radio, magazines, and movies create a
consumer culture
c. Movies and Radio, Modernism, and the Harlem Renaissance
 Commercial radio and movies grew dramatically during the 1920. These forms of mass media helped created a
common cultural experience as Americans listened to and watched the same programs
 The Modernists Movement focused on impressionistic works – as skyscrapers became common, the art deco
movement popularized the use of glass, aluminum, and plastic in construction – literature featured themes of alienation and
disillusionment
 The Harlem Renaissance was a significant artistic movement that celebrated African-American culture through
literature, art, and music. It included poet Langston Hughes, who wrote poetry about the lives of working-class African
Americans that was set to a blues or jazz rhythm, and trumpet player Louis Armstrong, one of the most famous jazz players ever
 Popularized by the Harlem Renaissance, Jazz combined themes and note patterns developed by enslaved African
Americans with the rhythms of musicians in New Orleans and the South. It was an original American art form and became very
popular in the 1920s

SSUSH17 - THE GREAT DEPRESSION

a. Causes of the Great Depression

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  Stock Market Crash of 1929 – The beginning of the crash was called Black Thursday - the final and worst day of the
crash was called Black Tuesday. It ushered in a more than decade long economic crisis known as the Great Depression
b. The Dust Bowl
 The Dust Bowl was an ecological disaster in which a combination of poor farming practices and drought led to an
erosion of top soil, which wind turned into huge dust storms – The Soil Conservation Act was later passed to encourage smarter
farming
 More than 1/3 of the farmers left toward the west coast – these migrants were called “Okies”
c. Social and Political Impact of the Great Depression
 Mass immigration of farmers to cities changed the American culture from primarily agrarian (farming) to urban (city)
 In 1932, unemployment was greater than 25%. Women and minorities were often fired first. Huge shanty and tent
villages, nick-named Hoovervilles (after President Hoover, who they blamed), sprang up to shelter the homeless
 Though he created work projects like the Hoover Dam and the Golden Gate Bridge, images of Hoovervilles and a
perception that Hoover wasn’t helping the common people led to his presidential loss to FDR in 1932

SSUSH18 – ROOSEVELT’S NEW DEALS

a. First New Deal
 President Franklin D. Roosevelt created a series of programs called the New Deal that would hopefully reboot the
economy. One of the programs was the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The TVA attempted to control flooding and create
hydro-electricity for rural Americans via the construction of dams. It also created many jobs
 The New Deal also created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which employed at least 2.5 million young men in
flood control, reforestation, park creation, and other projects
 A third project was the Public Works Administration (PWA), which provided money to states for the construction of
roads, bridges, and dams
 The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) boosted confidence in the banks with federal insurance savings. The
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), helped recover crop prices by paying farmers to cut production. The Securities and
Exchange Commission (SEC) was created to regulate the Stock Market by limiting some types of stock speculation
vv. Second New Deal
 When it became apparent that the first New Deal wasn’t fixing the depression, Roosevelt created the Second New
Deal. It included the Wagner Act of 1935, which increased labor union abilities to address workplace problems, and the Works
Progress Administration (WPA), which constructed buildings and roads and created employment for artists.
 The 2nd New Deal also passed the Social Security Act, which is still in effect today. It provided government assistance
for the elderly and disabled and introduced unemployment benefits. The 2 nd New Deal also directly addressed the needs of
minorities and women
ww. Political Challenges
 Roosevelt’s biggest critic was Senator Huey Long of Louisiana. Long ran against Roosevelt with his “Share the Wealth”
plan. Nicknamed “The Kingfish,” he became even more popular than Roosevelt but was assassinated in 1935.
 After the Supreme Court overturned some of Roosevelt’s programs, he introduced the “court-packing bill,” a law that
would allow him to add six of his supporters to the Supreme Court. The bill was dropped after heated criticism from even his
own party
xx. Eleanor Roosevelt and Women’s Rights
 Roosevelt’s wife, Eleanor, was very influential in improving social conditions. She traveled extensively to keep the
president informed as to the state of the nation. She also convinced Roosevelt to appoint more women to government positions
 Eleanor’s work with minorities, along with social programs of the New Deal, began a shift of Black-American voters
from Republican support to support of Democrats. She is also credited with changing the role of First Ladies from that of passive
spouses to women who use their position of influence to address societal issues

SSUSH19 – WWII
a. Lend-Lease Act, Pearl Harbor Attack
 To prevent Roosevelt from involving America in WWI, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts to make it illegal to
sell arms or make loans to nations at war. The fourth act relaxed some restrictions as many saw that war was inevitable
 The Lend-Lease Act allowed U.S. support of Allies while neutral – The U.S. supplied war materials as an “arsenal of
democracy”
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  In response to the Japanese invasion of China, the U.S. stopped supplying them oil. The Japanese, sensing increased
U.S. opposition to their expansion, attacked the U.S. Navy at Pearl Harbor in a surprise attack, hoping to cripple U.S. ability to
intervene in the South Pacific. The attack forced the U.S. to enter the war, not only against Japan, but against Germany and Italy
as well (Axis Powers)
yy. Pacific Theater
 The Battle of Midway was the first major American victory in the Pacific. The sinking of 4 Japanese aircraft carries
marked a turning point in the war against Japan. After the defense of Midway, the U.S. was able to begin capturing strategic
islands from Japan, a process called Island Hopping. Airstrips were built on them, overcoming geographical supply difficulties
due to distance in the Pacific
 The Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, New Mexico, was a massive yet secret effort to develop nuclear weapons. Led
by Robert Oppenheimer, it resulted in the creation of the first atomic bomb – President Truman made the decision to use it on
Japan, forcing Japan to surrender in September 1945
 Nuclear technology created a new source of electrical power for ships and cities, gave the U.S. increased economic
status in foreign markets, allowed the development of new medical imaging technology – However, Russians quickly developed
their own atomic bomb, marking the beginning of the Cold War
zz. European Theater
 D-Day was the Allied invasion of Nazi occupied France and marked a change from defense to offense in Europe. The
landing enabled the Allies to maintain a permanent beach head in Europe, allowing easier supply of troops across the Atlantic
Ocean
 The Battle of Berlin was the last major battle of WWII, fought in the capital of Germany against Russian and U.S. troops
aaa. The War at Home
 Rationing, or the restricted sale of certain products, helped preserve supplies for the war effort.
 Wartime conservation preserved resources like fuel, rubber, and metals for the military industrial system.
 The Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps was formed to fill noncombat positions, freeing up the men for frontline duty
 18 million women replaced men in factories while the men fought overseas. Rosie the Riveter is a famous symbol of
their effort
 In 1941, A. Philip Randolph, the founder of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, proposed a march of African
Americans on Washington, D.C., to protest discrimination in the military and in the war industry.
bbb. Executive Actions
 Before Randolph’s March on Washington could take place, Roosevelt issued an executive order that called on
employers and labor unions to cease discrimination in hiring practices in industries related to defense. Randolph then cancelled
the march
 War fear led Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 9066, which placed Japanese-American citizens, as well as some Italian
and German citizens, in internment camps. This was a huge violation of civil rights
SSUSH20 – Truman and Eisenhower – The Cold War
a. Cold War Policies and the Korean War
 The Truman Doctrine was a foreign policy in which America pledged to finance any nation fighting against Communism
 The Truman Doctrine was a part of Containment, a multi-pronged strategy which opposed the spread of communism
 The Marshall Plan gave $17 billion to the rebuilding of Europe. This demonstrated U.S. commitment to Europe and
sought to
 promote democracy and reduce anarchy and communism
 The Domino Theory was the idea that if a country fell to communism surrounding countries would fall as well
 In 1950, the U.S. supported South Korea in the Korean War, fighting to a stalemate at the 38th parallel against North
Korean and Chinese troops – Hostilities still exist today
b. Domestic Issues During the Cold War
 In 1956 Congress passed the National Interstate and Defense Highway Act, creating the “Eisenhower Interstate
System.” It connected every major city in America and was one of the largest public works projects ever – also changed
population patterns
 The G.I. Bill of Rights gave veterans low interest loans for homes and grants to attend college – led to a large housing
and consumer boom, boosting the economy and creating the first suburbs, including Levittown

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  After the fall of North Korea, anti-communist hysteria in the U.S. allowed Senator Joseph McCarthy to rise to power in
the 2nd Red Scare. He used a series of “red scares” and a hidden list of supposed communist to institute a witch hunt in the U.S.
known as the “McCarthy Era.” After destroying hundreds of political careers, he was finally removed from his position by
President Eisenhower and a Senate investigation. “McCarthyism" became a mocking term for the type of false accusations and
badgering he used
 In 1948, Pres. Harry Truman used an executive order to integrate the military, paving the way for the civil rights
movement
 1954 – In Brown v. Board of Education the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that “separate but equal” from the Plessy v.
Ferguson (1869) violated the 14th Amendment’s equal education clause. President Eisenhower used the military to force a
school in Little Rock, AK to integrate when the state governor used the National Guard to resist the desegregation order
 In 1957, the USSR launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik I, into orbit, marking the beginning of the Space Race.
Fearing the U.S. would be left behind, Eisenhower responded with the formation of NASA (National Aeronautics & Space
Association) and increased government spending on science and mathematics education and military defense programs, leading
to advances in ballistic missile technology, personal computers, and the development of the internet

DOMAIN V – MODERN ERA

SSUSH21 – KENNEDY AND JOHNSON PRESIDENCIES (1961 – 1969)
a. Cuban Missile Crisis, Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
 In 1956, Fidel Castro led the Cuban Revolution. Initially he had U.S. support but shortly after he took power he allied
himself with the Soviet Union, suspended all elections, and named himself president-for-life
 In 1961, 1,500 Cuban exiles, armed and trained by the CIA, staged an invasion at Cuba’s Bay of Pigs. However, newly
elected President John F. Kennedy refused to provide air cover, and the small force was crushed, causing the U.S. gov.
international embarrassment
 Perceiving weakness, the Soviets began installing nuclear missiles in Cuba - a serious threat to U.S. security. During the
Cuban Missile Crisis, President Kennedy blockaded Cuba and threatened to invade. On the brink of nuclear war, the Soviets
agreed to remove the missiles if the U.S. would remove its missiles in Turkey and Italy and promise never to invade Cuba
 In 1960s, conflict erupted between North Vietnamese Communists and a South Vietnamese guerilla military called the
Vietcong. U.S. officials feared the fall of democratic South Vietnam would cause a domino effect, spreading communism to
Southeast Asia and beyond. The U.S. helped take over the South Vietnamese government in 1963. In 1964, a perceived attack
on U.S. Navy ships in the Gulf of Tonkin led Congress to issue the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution to President Johnson, in effect giving
him a “blank check” to wage war with. In 1965, Johnson put U.S. troops in Vietnam, up to 500,000 by 1968. Supported by the
Soviet Union and China, North Vietnam resisted, dragging the conflict out into a long, brutal war
ccc. Johnson and the Great Society
 In 1963, the assassination of President Kennedy took place in Dallas, TX. The killing showed that American government
was resilient and gave the new president, Lyndon B. Johnson, the political momentum to push progressive laws through
congress. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed major forms of discrimination against Blacks and women, along with racial
segregation of schools, places of work, and facilities that served the public. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 made it illegal for
Black voters to be disenfranchised through unfair voter registration criteria like literacy tests. Johnson also launched “War on
Poverty” legislation
 Johnson called this vision for American the “Great Society.” Its programs sought to raise the standard of living create
opportunities for all, as well as improve education, the environment, and immigration policies
 The Great Society included programs like Medicare, which extended and improved Roosevelt’s Social Security Act by
providing health insurance for all people over 65. It also created Head Start, a program for disadvantaged preschoolers, and the
National Endowment for the Arts and the Humanities. Medicaid provided health care for the poor
ddd. Impact of Television
 The 1960 national election campaign was the first ever televised, featuring the Kennedy and Nixon presidential
debates. Nixon was more knowledgeable, but Kennedy looked more presidential. His win helped give him the election and
changed the shape of American politics forever
 TV coverage of the civil rights movement helped expose many otherwise oblivious Americans to the abuses endured
by African Americans during civil right protest marches, turning their sympathies toward ending segregation
 TV coverage of the brutality of the Vietnam War gave momentum to the anti-war movement

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 Live TV footage of Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin planting an American flag on the Moon after their sucessful Moon landing on
July 20, 1969 symbolically ended the Space Race
eee. The Civil Rights Movement (1960’s)
 The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was started by Dr. Martin Luther King and other leaders and
used non-violent methods like marches, protests, and demonstrations in the South to end the treatment of African Americans
as second-class citizens
 The Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was founded by African American college students. Their
tactics included sit-ins, in which they would sit at segregated lunch counters and refuse to leave, registering African Americans
to vote hopes of forcing a voting rights legislation, and Freedom Rides – bus trips into southern states to see if states would
enforce laws against segregation in public transportation. In later years, whites were banned from participating and violence
based on “black power” and African American pride began to override their original non-violent philosophy
 Martin Luther King, Jr.’s 1963 “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” defended non-violence and addressed fears that he was
moving too quickly toward desegregation. His “I Have a Dream” speech during the 1963 March on Washington called for racial
harmony. It is one of the most famous speeches in U.S. history and solidified King’s role as the leader of the non-violent civil
rights movement
 Latinos also used non-violent protests to gain civil rights. Their leader was César Chávez, an American of Mexican
descent. He founded the United Farm Workers’ movement. In 1965 he started a nationwide boycott of California grapes,
forcing grape growers to negotiate a contract with the United Farm Workers, giving farmworkers higher wages and other
benefits
fff. Social and Political Turmoil in 1968
 In January of 1968, the Vietcong and Soviet Union supported North Vietnamese Army launched the Tet Offensive – a
simultaneous attack on cities all over South Vietnam. While the offensive failed badly, televised scenes of the fighting severely
damaged President Johnson’s credibility, who had claimed the U.S. was near victory. In March, Johnson announced that he
would not run for re-election
 In April of 1968, the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. caused riot in more than 100 cities
 In June of 1968, the assassination of Robert Kennedy, JFK’s brother, disheartened those looking for social reform and
the end of the Vietnam War. He was campaigning for the democratic presidential nomination when killed
 In August 1968, the Democratic National Convention in Chicago was the scene of massive riots that pitted police
against anti-war protestors, broadcasted on live TV
 Republican candidate Richard Nixon claimed he represented the “silent majority” of conservatives who were tired of
liberal excesses and violence. He wanted to replace President Johnson’s Great Society programs with what he called the New
Federalism. This conservative initiative would take away some federal government powers, such as social welfare, and give
them to state and local governments. With the Democratic party in disarray, Nixon easily won the election in November

SSUSH22 – NIXON, FORD, AND CARTER ADMINISTRATION (1969-1981)

a. International Policies and Actions
 Nixon hoped to end the Vietnam conflict via “peace with honor,” but increased bombings and expanded the war into
Cambodia, hoping to force the North Vietnamese to negotiate. His actions were met with widespread protests in the U.S.,
including Kent State, where the Ohio National Guard killed four rioting students
 Nixon’s visit to China in 1972 took advantage of a 10-year standoff between China and the Soviet Union, creating trade
and science agreements and forcing Russia to begin negotiating with the U.S. in order to prevent a U.S. alliance with their
communist rival
 The thaw removed support Chinese and Soviet support from the North Vietnamese, who agreed to peace in 1973. After
U.S. troops withdrew, Congress passed the War Powers Act, which limited the President’s ability to wage war with
Congressional permission
 The Soviet Union also signed the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) agreements, which reduced nuclear weapon
stockpiles
 Jimmy Carter, who became President in 1977, based his foreign policy on human rights. In the Camp David Accords, he
negotiated the first ever peace agreement between the Egypt and Israel at the Camp David retreat in Maryland, 1978
 In 1979, Islamic fundamentalist overthrew the U.S. backed government in the Iranian Revolution. During the
revolution, Iranian students stormed the U.S. Embassy in Iran, taking 52 Americans hostage. The Iranian Hostage Crisis lasted
444 days, only ending when Reagan became president and the hostages were released. The crisis was one of the major reason
Carter lost the election

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ggg. Domestic Issues
 In 1970, Rachel Carson’s book about the dangers of pesticides, Silent Spring, led to the first Earth Day and creation of
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) by Nixon. The EPA was tasked with protecting the air, land, and water, provided for
environmental research, and assisted in cleanup of polluted sites. This was the birth of modern environmentalism or being
“green”
 The National Organization of Women (NOW) sought to extend civil rights equality to full equality, including equality in
employment, pay, social situations, and politics. NOW also contributed to the formation of the modern feminist movement
 After being re-elected in 1972, Nixon was implicated in the Watergate scandal, when his re-election team bugged the
offices of the Democratic Party in the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. and then tried to cover it up. Facing
impeachment, he resigned in 1974. The scandal left Americans cynical about politics in general
 Nixon was succeeded by his vice president, Gerald Ford, whose 2-year presidency was damaged by his pardon of Nixon.
Ford’s domestic policies didn’t stop growing inflation and unemployment and America experienced its worst economic recession
since the Great Depression. In 1975, North Vietnam violated the peace agreement and attacked South Vietnam. Congress would
not give Ford permission to defend South Vietnam, which fell to communism later that year. In 1976, Ford was easily defeated
by Jimmy Carter
 Having lost faith in the government, far fewer American voted in 1976 than in previous elections. However, the turmoil
showed the strength of checks and balance and freedom of the press

SSUSH23 – REAGAN, BUSH, CLINTON, BUSH, AND OBAMA ADMINISTRATIONS (1981-2017)

a. Reagan Administration and Bush Administration
 Ronald Reagan was President for much of the 1980s. His supply-side economic policy, nicknamed Reaganomics, was
defined by de-regulation of businesses to allow increased competition, budget cuts (including cutting social welfare programs),
tax cuts, and increased defense spending
 The Iran-Contra affair happened when the Reagan administration sold weapons to moderate elements in Iran and then
used the money to fund Contra rebels in Nicaragua. The legality of this was questionable, but Reagan claimed to have not
known about it
 The beginning of the collapse of the Soviet Union also occurred during the Regan Administration. After years of
economic stagnation, the Soviet Union was unable to match the huge spending Reagan had allocated for defense. Reagan also
cultivated a working relationship with the Soviet leader, Gorbechev. After an attempted takeover by communist elements of the
Russian military in 1991, Gorbechev announced the end of the Soviet Union, ending the Cold War
 Reagan’s VP, George H. W. Bush, was elected in 1988. In 1991, Bush led an international coalition of military forces in
the Gulf War. The U.S. forces quickly and surgically destroyed Iraq’s forces and forced Iraqi President Saddam Hussain to leave
Kuwait
 With a slowing economy and a broken campaign promise of “no new taxes,” George H. W. Bush lost his reelection bid
to the Democratic Candidate, Bill Clinton, in 1992
hhh. Clinton and Bush Administrations
 Bill Clinton’s presidency included the ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which created
a free-trade zone between Mexico, the U.S., and Canada. Driven by tax revenue from the dot-com boom, Clinton was able to
balance the national budget for the first time since 1969 and saw almost 8 years of economic growth
 Clinton became the second president in U.S. to be impeached by the House of Representatives, primarily for lying
under oath about a sexual relationship with an intern. However, he was acquitted by the Senate and allowed to finish his second
term
 During the Clinton administration, both the House and Senate came under Republican control. Much of Clinton’s
administration was defined by the power struggle between Congress and the Executive Office
 In the 2000 presidential election, Clinton’s vice president, Al Gore, faced George W. Bush. In one of the closest
elections in U.S. history, Gore won the popular by less than ½ a percent, but Bush won the electoral vote and the presidency
after the Supreme court ruled against further recounts in Florida, which Bush won by less than 600 votes
 On September 11, 2001 (9/11), the terrorist organization al-Qaeda staged a devastating attack, destroying the World
Trade Center towers and severely damaging the Pentagon. Bush responded by signing the Patriot Act, which made it easier to
tap international phone calls and allowed foreign suspects to be held for 7 days without being charged for a crime. He also
created the Department of Homeland Security to prevent future attacks
 One month after 9/11, Bush authorized Operation Enduring Freedom, the invasion of Afghanistan in order to destroy
the Taliban government, which trained al-Qaeda networks there

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  In 2003, Bush expanded the war on terror by invading Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. The mission was to search for
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) and capture Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. While no WMDs were found, Saddam was
captured, convicted, and in 2006, executed
iii. Technological Changes
 Personal computers began to multiply in the 1970s and 80s, marking the beginning of the information revolution. The
internet was also started by DARPA, a U.S. defense agency. In the mid-1990s, email radically changed the way that people
communicated
 Social Media rapidly became a source for news and instant information, decreasing the use of traditional media like
newspapers and magazines – thought problems like cyber-security, the reliability of news, and cyber-bullying have become
issues
jjj. The Obama Administration
 In the 2008 election, Obama became the first Black-American to be elected President of the United States. The election
was marked by record turnouts among minorities and heavy use of social media as a campaign tool
 The Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) was a controversial healthcare reform billed passed during his second year of
presidency
 In 2011, a Navy Seal team killed Osama bin Laden, the orchestrator of the September 11 attack – Obama authorized the
team to conduct the raid in Pakistan without that country’s knowledge, a move necessary to prevent Osama bin Laden from
being warned
 A growing conservative movement that increasingly opposed liberal legislation resulted in a deep political divide in the
U.S. that pitted Democrats and Republican in bitter campaigns for state and national elections

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