It is commonly believed that learning is enhanced through the use of technology and that

students need to develop technology skills in order to be productive members of society. For this
reason, providing a high-quality education includes the expectation that teachers use educational
technologies effectively in their classroom and that they teach their students to use technology.
In this chapter, we have organized our review of technology integration research around a
framework based on three areas of focus: (1) increasing access to educational technologies, (2)
increasing the use of technology for instructional purposes, and (3) improving the effectiveness
of technology use to facilitate learning. Within these categories, we describe findings related to
one-to-one computing initiatives, integration of open educational resources, various methods of
teacher professional development, ethical issues affecting technology use, emerging approaches
to technology integration that emphasize pedagogical perspectives and personalized instruction,
technology-enabled assessment practices, and the need for systemic educational change to fully
realize technology’s potential for improving learning. From our analysis of the scholarship in this
area, we conclude that the primary benefit of current technology use in education has been to
increase information access and communication. Students primarily use technology to gather,
organize, analyze, and report information, but this has not dramatically improved student
performance on standardized tests. These findings lead to the conclusion that future efforts
should focus on providing students and teachers with increased access to technology along with
training in pedagogically sound best practices, including more advanced approaches for
technology-based assessment and adaptive instruction.

Technology is changing the nature of learning.  As noted in the National

Education Technology Plan 2010 (U.S. Department of Education, 2010), there
are "three connected types of human learning—factual knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and motivational engagement ...  supported by three different
brain systems. ... Social sciences reveal that human expertise integrates all
three types of learning. Technology has increased our ability to both study and
enhance all three types of learning" (p. 15).

In general, contemporary digital learning environments with their multimedia

components provide important learning opportunities: interactivity; adaptivity
to a user's behavior, knowledge, and characteristics; feedback on
performance, choices so that learners can regulate their own learning,
nonlinear access, linked representations, open-ended learner input, and
communications with other people (National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering, and Medicine, 2018, pp. 165-166).

One does not have to look far to see the affect and influence of the rise of
broadband Internet connectivity, the increase in social networking, and greater
use of mobile devices on learning.  These have enabled those who possess
technology to quickly capture knowledge and information, easily
communicate, get feedback from, and collaborate with peers.  Technology
becomes another vehicle for creativity, self-expression, and self-production
and publication.  It allows for constant engagement.

However, in promoting active use of technology such as seen in the figure

found in the 2016 National Education Technology Plan (p. 18), the U.S.
Department of Education (2016) noted that schools have a role to play not just
in making technology available to close a digital divide, but to close a digital
use divide by "ensuring all students understand how to use technology as a
tool to engage in creative, productive, life-long learning rather than consuming
passive content.  Simply consuming media or completing digitized worksheets
falls short" (p. 18).

Raj Vali (2015) pointed out changes in how students learn brought about by
mobile technologies:

1. "Tablets change how we perceive computing."  Consider apps with

animation, interactivity, and the entertainment factor.
2. "Education is gamified."  Consider the impact on motivation when
educators introduce elements of games into curriculum.
3. Learners expect "real-time feedback."
4. However, the rise of digital communication platforms (e.g., use of
Twitter and other social media hubs) does come with a potential danger
in that "communication becomes truncated."  Vali stated that "some
students are losing the ability to articulate ideas in longer form.
Additionally, they have fewer opportunities to engage in face-to-face
communication.  For that reason, it's important for educators to make
sure students have the opportunity to participate in collaborative
activities and face-to-face meetings" (section 4).
5. "Hands-on learning" via mobile technologies.  "Technologies such as
the augmented reality Google Glass, digital and interactive paper, and
animated learning through apps are changing the way education is
becoming personalized. Today, forward-thinking learning centers avoid
video lectures in favor of two-way interactions in which tutors walk
students through problem solving and demonstrate new concept using
tablets" (section 5).

Unlike using a paper-based book with a finite number of pages, technology

makes the user aware that acquisition of knowledge is potentially limitless. 
Knowledge is constantly evolving with the end result that complete mastery of
any topic is not truly possible.  Not all information is complete, there are
multiple points of view and opinions on a topic that can easily be accessed. 
Not all of those perspectives are from authoritative, peer-reviewed sources. 
The ease of anyone publishing anything leads to a need for constant
questioning of what one reads.  The result is that schools must take a greater
role in helping learners to critically evaluate online content.

Empowering Students

Technology is empowering students in four key ways, according to Lemke and

Coughlin (2009): democratization of knowledge, participatory learning,
authentic learning and multimodal learning.  Democratization is brought about
because the "Internet has become a treasure trove for content related to the
academic curriculum, providing learners with free access to thousands of
valuable courses, information sources, and experts" (p. 54).  Consider
evidence such as the following:

 Wikiversity is "devoted to learning resources, learning projects, and

research for use in all levels, types, and styles of education from pre-
school to university, including professional training and informal
learning" (Main page welcome section).
 Khan Academy claims you can learn anything for free working at your
pace at the site: math, science, computer programming, history, art,
economics, and more.
 YouTube Education even includes a channel for life long learning.
 School of Everything promotes itself as "the website that helps you learn
whatever, whenever and wherever you want. From Biology to
Beekeeping, History to Hula hooping" and more (About Us section).
 P2P Foundation is dedicated to "peer-to-peer dynamics in society,"
which are  "most visible today in the many communities and movements
self-organising around the co-creation of culture and knowledge. Well
known general examples include the free/open source software
movement; free culture; open hardware; and open access in education
and science." (About the P2P Foundation section).
 MIT OpenCourseware is a web-based initiative that contains "virtually all
MIT course content. OCW is open and available to the world" (About
OCW section).
 OpenStudy, as the name implies, enables its users to "Connect with
other students studying the same things. Get help and give help."

"The advent of low-cost global communications has led to mass collaboration

in the social, economic, and political sectors" (Lemke & Coughlin, 2009, p. 56)
and has found its way into classrooms.  Teachers and students can use tools
such as blogs and wikis for participatory and authentic learning in the context
of those global issues. Sophisticated media combining text and visuals is
supporting multimodal learning, but at the same time is posing challenges for
educators in terms of helping learners to interpret and understand multimedia
messages (Lemke & Coughlin, 2009).

Caution: This multimodal learning is evident in what 21st century students

have come to expect in their learning.  They want learning on demand and
speed is the name of the game.  They are not afraid of technology. They
multi-task, think less linearly than those of us over 30, enjoy fantasy as an
element of their lives, are less tolerant of passive activities, and use their tools
to stay connected with each other.  That connectedness is the main goal of
their multitasking, according to Sprenger (2009), rather than for being
productive.  However, excessive connectedness can lead to stress, which
overtime can potentially "lower the effectiveness of the immune system,
weaken cognitive functioning, and, in some cases, lead to depression" (p.
36).  Their excessive communicating digitally, while being efficient, also has
the potential to weaken the development of emotional intelligence in dealing
with face-to-face situations (e.g., reading facial cues and body language).

If parents do not monitor the time their kids spend on digital devices, there is a
real danger that their overexposure will lead to worrisome behavior changes
and addiction.  Per Dr. Nicholas Kardaras (2016), researchers have called
screens "electronic cocaine" and "digital heroine."  The problem can be
serious (e.g., increased depression, anxiety, aggression, loss of touch with
reality) and difficult to treat.  He stated:

"Many parents intuitively understand that ubiquitous glowing screens are

having a negative effect on kids. We see the aggressive temper tantrums
when the devices are taken away and the wandering attention spans when
children are not perpetually stimulated by their hyper-arousing devices.
Worse, we see children who become bored, apathetic, uninteresting and
uninterested when not plugged in" (para. 10).

"We now know that those iPads, smartphones and Xboxes are a form of
digital drug. Recent brain imaging research is showing that they affect the
brain’s frontal cortex — which controls executive functioning, including
impulse control — in exactly the same way that cocaine does" (para. 12).
What does the integration of technology into the curriculum look like?Is it being able
to create a spreadsheet that calculates student marks? How about typing a handout and
printing it out for students? Is it having students line up at a computer to complete
several levels of a drill and practice software program?  My answer is a firm NO! 
Technology is a wonderful tool that can be used to assist teachers and students in the
classroom.  In fact, teachers should be encouraged to use technology to assist them in
their role as teacher.  This is an important step towards integrating technology into the
curriculum.  However the true integration of technology goes far beyond the role of
assistant.Technology is changing at a rapid pace and causing more and more
confusion on how to use it in an effective, integrated manner in schools.  It seems that
there has been a focus on the physical machine when it comes to teaching with
computers.  In fact, the teaching has been teaching computers.  Students spend many
hours learning how to use software applications or computer science concepts. The
question arises should students be learning about computers or should you let students
learn with computers as they learning content related to curriculum objectives.  The
integration of technology should contribute to the teaching and learning in the
classroom.  Computers shouldnt be an add-on or used as a time filler.  The computer
should be a means for reaching the instructional objectives in the classroom. 
Therefore, the curriculum is the place to start when integrating technology.  The
teacher, along with the curriculum, should guide the integration of technology and not
the computer.

The integration of technology should serve to guide, expand and enhance learning
objectives.It is understood that teachers and students do need to spend time
learning the basics of using a computer. This is necessary in order to move to
effectively integrating technology.  Curriculum integration with the use of technology
involves the infusion of technology as a tool to enhance the learning in a content
area or multidisciplinary setting  Technology enables students to learn in ways not
previously possible  Effective integration of technology is achieved when students
are able to select technology tools to help them obtain information in a timely
manner, analyze and synthesize the information, and present it professionally. The
technology should become an integral part of how the classroom functions as
accessible as all other classroom tools. (ISTE, page 6)
It is imperative that administrators provide technological support in two
areas:technical and curricular.Many times the responsibility of the maintenance and
purchasing of hardware and software for computers fall on the shoulders of a teacher
in the school.This can become a difficult situation if the teacher is not provided with
adequate release time to perform these duties plus it sends a negative message to other
teachers.Dont use the computers because we have to depend on a colleague to rescue
us if we have a problem and that person already has too much to deal with.  A
knowledgeable technician that is trained to repair computers and deal with networking
issues best provides technical support.. A skilled teacher can also provide technical
support but appropriate release time to deal with this added responsibility is a
must. Classroom teachers should be educated on basic troubleshooting measures but
should also understand that they are not expected to be technicians. Administrators
must also seek ways to provide curricular support to teachers. Teachers need
professional development on integrating technology plus a knowledgeable teacher to
work in the classroom with them as they work to find ways to integrate technology. A
technology coordinator hired by the school division is often an ideal person for
providing curriculum support in the area of technology. The technology coordinator
can provide professional development plus mentor teachers in their classrooms. 
Administrators should also ensure that a professional development fund is in place to
encourage teachers to take advantage of conferences and workshops that focus on
integrating technology into the curriculum.

It is obvious that if we expect teachers to integrate technology into the curriculum

there needs to be a degree of familiarity with the computer. The question is how
familiar? How much does a teacher need to know about computers to effectively
integrate them into the curriculum? Teachers don't need to know how a computer
works but rather how to use and apply a computer in the classroom. A simple analogy
can be used when comparing a computer user to a person that operates a vehicle.In
order to operate a vehicle a driver does not need to understand how the engine of the
vehicle works, how to repair the vehicle, or even know how to buy a vehicle.It is
expected that the driver will know how to operate the vehicle on the road
understanding road signs and expectations of drivers on the road.As the driver gains
more experience driving, their confidence level increases as well as their skill on the
road.When operating a computer a basic level of knowledge is necessary in order to
be successful.The user does not need to know how the computer works, how to repair
the computer, or even know how to buy a computer.Over time the user will become
more experienced and confident with using a computer. Teachers should strive for
two goals when integrating technology.The first goal is to become a computer-using
teacher. It may be the producing materials to use in the classroom such as handouts,
banners or newsletters. It may be using the computer to manage your students' marks
or using a software program to strengthen a particular skill. The second goal is to
make the computer a teaching partner rather than an object of study. "The
instructional goals of computer-using teachers are in art, science, math, language arts,
social studies, or other disciplines, not in computers."  Geisert & Futrell, 1995

It's important that teachers have a clear understanding of what technology can and
can't do in the classroom.

Computers can help teachers and students find old information (for example from the
Library of Congress Web site) and new information from thousands of sites on the
Internet that are updated daily.  Computers enable students to view live, synchronous
events happening almost anywhere in the world (e.g. MayaQuest) or from space (e.g.
the current weather as seen from a satellite).  Computers can be used to manipulate
data so that students can grasp quickly how a change in one variable in a system
affects other variables.  Computers enable students to assemble and create new
information. Computers enable students to have text, audio, and graphic information
that they might not have access to in some less densely populated areas. Computers
allow students to communicate with just about anyone, anywhere, and anytime

Valmont and Wepner, 2000, p. 8

On the other side of the coin computers cannot replace teachers. 

"Contrary to the wisdom of the most fanatical technologists, computers do not think,
initiate, or react the way teachers do. Although some people believe that information
equals education, teachers know that understanding is not automatic with the
acquisition or memorization of facts. Knowing how to apply information, how to use
ideas in new ways, how to evaluate information, and how to extrapolate or go beyond
basic information are important aspects of learning.

Valmont and Wepner, 2000, p.9 

Teachers understand when the teachable moment is at hand and guide students'
academic growth. The teacher facilitates learning and helps students transfer ideas to
new learning situations. Integrating technology isn't about using complex technology
programs but rather simplifying technology choices and focusing on how technology
connects to learning.