Text Code

A Text Code is a Static Code that allows you to enter text that you want people to see when
they scan the code.
Some disadvantages of the Text Code are that the codes cannot be changed or reused and if
you have any problems with the text code we unfortunately cannot help you with them.
Another disadvantage is that you cannot get additional features out of the QR Code such as
tracking information or Design Codes. One way to have the same effect as a Text Code while
still getting those features is to host a PDF or Document online
What is Flash Memory Technology?
Flash memory was first introduced in the 1980s and since then it has been used in many
applications and products: USB memory sticks, Compact Flash cards, SD memory cards,
computer non-volatile memory, solid state hard drives and more.
Flash memory is a non-volatile form of electronic data storage and as a result it is used in many
areas where short and medium term data storage is needed.
Computer Clock
Computers use an internal clock to synchronize all of their calculations. The clock ensures that
the various circuits inside a computer work together at the same time.
Clock speed is measured by how many ticks per second the clock makes. The unit of
measurement called a hertz (Hz), which is technically one cycle per second, is used to measure
clock speed. 
What does Coprocessor mean?
A coprocessor is a supplementary processor unit or an entirely different circuitry that is
designed to complement the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. Its basic functionality
is to offload other processor-intensive tasks from the CPU in order to achieve accelerated
system performance, by allowing the CPU to focus on tasks essential to the system. There are
various types of coprocessors available to perform unique tasks – from I/O interfacing or
encryption, string processing, floating-point arithmetic and signal processing.

Types of Microprocessor
Microprocessors are classified into five types, namely:
 CISC-Complex Instruction Set Microprocessors, RISC-Reduced Instruction Set Microprocessor,
ASIC- Application Specific Integrated Circuit, Superscalar Processors, DSP’s-Digital Signal
Microprocessors.
 1. Complex Instruction Set Microprocessors
The short term of Complex Instruction Set Microprocessors is CISM and they classify a
microprocessor in which orders can be performed together along with other low-level activities.
These types of processors perform different tasks like downloading, uploading, recalling data
into the memory card, and recalling data from the memory card. Apart from these tasks, it also
does complex mathematical calculations in a single command.
2. Reduced Instruction Set Microprocessor
The short term of Reduced Instruction Set Microprocessor is RISC. These types of
processors are made according to the function in which the microprocessor can carry out small
things in specific commands. In this way, these processors complete more commands at a
faster rate.

3. Superscalar Microprocessors
Superscalar processor facsimiles the hardware on the processor to perform various
tasks at a time. These processors can be used for ALUs or multipliers. They have different
operational units and these processors can carry out more than one command by continuously
transmitting several instructions to the extra operational units inside the processor.
4. The Application Specific Integrated Circuit
The short term of Application Specific Integrated Circuit processor is an ASIC. These
processors are used for particular purposes that include automotive emissions control or
personal digital assistant’s computer. This type of processor is made with the proper
specification, but apart from these, it can also be made with off the shelf gears.
5. Digital Signal Multiprocessors
Digital signal processors are also called DSP’s, these processors are used to encode and
decode the videos or to convert the D/A (digital to analog) &A/D (analog to digital). They need a
microprocessor that is excellent in mathematical calculations. The chips of this processor are
employed in RADAR, home theaters, SONAR, audio gears, TV set-top boxes, and Mobile phones
Magnetic disk: A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to read,
write, rewrite and access data. The Magnetic disk is made of a set of circular platters. It is
covered with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks, spots, and sectors. Hard
disks, zip disks, and floppy disks are common examples of magnetic disks. The number of bits
stored on each track does not change by using the simplest constant angular velocity.
Optical disk: An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and
technology to read and write data. It is a storage device in which optical (light) energy is used. It
is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally and uses laser beams to read and write
data. It uses the optical technology in which laser light is centered to the spinning disks.

S.NO MAGNETIC DISK OPTICAL DISK

.
1 Media type used is Multiple fixed disk Media type used is Single removable
disk
2 Intermediate signal to noise ratio Excellent signal to noise ratio
3 Sample rate is Low Sample rate is High
4 Implemented where data is randomly Implemented in streaming files.
accessed.
5 Only one disk can be used at a time Mass replication is possible
6 Tracks in the magnetic disk are In optical disk the tracks are
generally circular constructed spirally.
7 The data in the magnetic disk is In the optical disk, the data is
randomly accessed. sequentially accessed.
8 In the magnetic disk, only one disk is Optical disk allows mass replication
accessed at a time.

System Software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's hardware
and application programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered model, the system
software is the interface between the hardware and user applications.
The operating system is the best-known example of system software. The OS manages all the
other programs in a computer.
Shareware
Shareware is software that is distributed free on a trial basis with the understanding that the
user may need or want to pay for it later. Some software developers offer a shareware version
of their program with a built-in expiration date (after 30 days, the user can no longer get access
to the program). Other shareware (sometimes called lite ware) is offered with certain
capabilities disabled as an enticement to buy the complete version of the program.
What is application software?
Application software is a type of computer program that performs a specific personal,
educational, and business function. Each program is designed to assist the user with a particular
process, which may be related to productivity, creativity, and/or communication.
User interface
The OS provides a user interface (UI), an environment for the user to interact with the machine.
The UI is either graphical or text-based.

Graphical user interface (GUI)

The OS on most computers and smartphones provides an environment with tiles, icons and/or
menus. This type of interface is called the graphical user interface (GUI) because the user
interacts with images through a mouse, keyboard or touchscreen.
Command line interface (CLI)
An OS also provides a method of interaction that is non-graphical, called the command line
interface (CLI). This is a text-only service with feedback from the OS appearing in text. Using a
CLI requires knowledge of the commands available on a particular machine.
Advantages of using the command line include:

 a faster way to get tasks done

 it is more flexible than a GUI

 it uses less memory
Running Programs
The OS is used to run programs by clicking on an icon, selecting the program from a menu, or
typing in an instruction at the command line.
When the OS runs a piece of software it has to find the program files on the storage drive, load
them into main memory, and instruct the CPU to start executing the program from the
beginning.
In each case, the OS performs the same sequence of steps:
1. the program code is found on the storage drive
2. a section of RAM is reserved for the program and space is allocated for the program's
data
 3. the program code is copied from storage into the reserved space in the memory
4. the CPU program counter is set to the memory location of the first instruction in the
program, and execution begins

Managing Files
The OS manages how data is organized into files. This makes it easier for the user to see files
using programs like the Windows File Explorer or Mac OS X Finder. The OS organizes where and
how files are stored, deleted, read, found and repaired. It detects errors such as missing disks
or incorrect file names, and informs the user that errors have occurred.
Each file has a unique name and the OS maintains a set of look-up tables that relate file names
to locations on storage drives.
Hierarchies:
File systems work in a similar way to the way that libraries organize books. Folders and
directories correspond to different sections of the library. Inside each folder can be other
folders (sub-sections within a subject) and files (the books themselves). If you need to access a
specific file you just need to know how to look for it in the index which describes where each
file is located.
Managing Hardware:
The first task, managing the hardware and software resources, is very important, as various
programs and input methods compete for the attention of the central processing unit (CPU)
and demand memory, storage and input/output (I/O) bandwidth for their own purposes. In this
capacity, the operating system plays the role of the good parent, making sure that each
application gets the necessary resources while playing nicely with all the other applications, as
well as husbanding the limited capacity of the system to the greatest good of all the users and
applications.
Utility Programs:
Utility programs, commonly referred to as just "utilities," are software programs that add
functionality to your computer or help your computer perform better. These include antivirus,
backup, disk repair, file management, security, and networking programs
Maintenance utilities
These include:

 Backup - This allows the user to restore the system to a previous state which is saved as
a backup. This is only usually used if a system malfunctions.
  Disk cleaner - The storage drive is divided into a number of clusters. The table of
contents serves as an address book, keeping a record of each file and the clusters used
to store that file. When a file is deleted, the address to the location on the disk is
removed.

 Disk defragmentation - When files are deleted, unused clusters become available for
reuse. These can end up being distributed across a drive, especially if the original files
were small. If a large file is then written to a drive, its data could be spread across
different clusters leading to file fragmentation. Defragmentation involves rearranging
the information on a disk so that files appear in continuous sequences of clusters. This
will improve file access times. Most modern operating systems run this process
automatically.

 Formatting - Storage drives need to be formatted to be compatible with an OS. The OS

usually formats storage media when it is connected to the computer. It is often the case
that a storage drive cannot be compatible with both Windows and Mac OS X.
Security utilities
These include:

 User accounts - allow the user to allocate specific users and protects personal files and
programs from unauthorized access.

 Encryption - can encrypt data when it is stored, or whenever it is transmitted over a

network.

 Anti-virus software - detects and blocks viruses.

 Firewall - can be used to filter between trusted and untrusted networks and prevent
programs from communicating through the use of ports.
Uses of Computer Networks

 Here are some common application of computer network

 Helps you to share resource such as printers
 Allows you to share expensive software's and database among network participants
 Provides fast and effective communication from one computer to another computer
 Helps you to exchange data and information among users via a network.
Local Area Network (LAN)
We’re confident that you’ve heard of these types of networks before – LANs are the most
frequently discussed networks, one of the most common, one of the most original and one of
the simplest types of networks. LANs connect groups of computers and low-voltage devices
together across short distances (within a building or between a group of two or three buildings
in close proximity to each other) to share information and resources. Enterprises typically
manage and maintain LANs.
Using routers, LANs can connect to wide area networks (WANs, explained below) to rapidly and
safely transfer data.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer physical
distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected to each
other over one large network to communicate even when they’re miles apart.
The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around
the world. Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by multiple
administrators or the public.
Network Media and Hardware
Devices and media are the physical elements, or hardware, of the network. Hardware
comprises the components of the network platform that typically are visible, such as a laptop,
PC, switch, router, wireless access point, or the cabling used to connect the devices.
Occasionally, some network components may not be visible. In the case of wireless media, for
example, messages are transmitted through the air using invisible radio frequency or infrared
waves.
Network Cables
Network cables are the transmission media to transfer
data from one device to another. A commonly used
network cable is category 5 cable with RJ – 45
connector, as shown in the image

Router
A router is a connecting device that transfers data
packets between different computer networks.
Typically, they are used to connect a PC or an
organization’s LAN to a broadband internet connection.
They contain RJ-45 ports so that computers and other
devices can connect with them using network cables

Repeaters, Hubs, and Switches

Repeaters, hubs and switches connect network devices together so that they can function as a
single segment.
A repeater receives a signal and regenerates it before re-transmitting so that it can travel longer
distances.
A hub is a multiport repeater having several input/output ports, so that input at any port is
available at every other port.
A switch receives data from a port, uses packet switching to resolve the destination device and
then forwards the data to the particular destination, rather than broadcasting it as a hub.

Bridges
A bridge connects two separate Ethernet network
segments. It forwards packets from the source network
to the destined network.

Gateways

A gateway connects entirely different networks that

work upon different protocols. It is the entry and the
exit point of a network and controls access to other
networks.

Network Interface Cards

NIC is a component of the computer to connect it to a

network. Network cards are of two types: Internal
network cards and external network cards.

Network Software
Network software is an extremely broad term for a range of software aimed at the design and
implementation of modern networks. Various types of network software support the creation,
calibration and operation of networks.
Explanation
In using network software, the size and scope of a network plays a key role in decision making.
Companies or other parties can choose specific network software tools for setup and
installation. Other network software resources help administrators and security personnel to
monitor a network to protect it against a range of attacks, to prevent data breaches, or to limit
unauthorized access. Other tools help to make network operations work better.
Another category of network software is related to network virtualization. With new virtual
networks, various tools take the place of old legacy systems built on physical hardware setups.
In general, network software must be applied according to security needs. This can include
factors such as whether a network is attached to the global Internet as well as specific goals and
objectives for use.
Data Communication over Telephone Lines
We can use serial I/O technique to send data over long distance through telephone lines. But,
telephone lines are designed to handle some specific range of voice; the bandwidth of
telephone lines range from 300 Hz to 3300 Hz. When the time of digital signals will be in
nanoseconds then we requires a bandwidth of several megahertz.
What is Modem?
A modem is short form of Modulator/Demodulator. Modem is a hardware component/device
which can connects computer and other devices such as router and switch to internet. Modems
converts or modulates the analog signals coming from telephone wire into digital form i.e in
form of 0 s and 1 s.
Modems of present time can transfer data at rates of 300-2400 bps (bits per second).
Generally, two types of modulation techniques are used: frequency-shift keying (FSK) for low-
speed modems and phase shift keying (PSK) for high-speed modems.
The first modems were “dial-up” which means we have to dial a phone number to connect
computer to ISP. Their maximum data transfer rate is almost 56 kbps. Modern modems are DSL
or cable modems. They have high data transfer rate and wider frequency range as compared to
dial-up modems.
ISDN
ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network is a circuit-switched telephone network system that
transmits both data and voice over a digital line. You can also think of it as a set of
communication standards to transmit data, voice, and signaling.
These digital lines could be copper lines. It was designed to move outdated landline technology
to digital.
ISDN connections have a reputation for providing better speeds and higher quality than
traditional connections. Faster speeds and better connections allow data transmissions to travel
more reliably.

T1
A T1 line is a dedicated transmission connection between a service provider and client. It uses
an advanced telephone line to carry more data than a traditional standard analog line that
carries a single channel of data at 64 Kbps.
T1 line speed is consistent and constant. A T1 line can carry 24 voice channels for telephone
calls or digital data at a rate of 1.544 Mbps, and with usage of compression, carried channels
double to 48.
Explanation
Developed by AT&T Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s, traditional T1 lines use copper wire, but
most new installations use optical fiber. T1 lines use pulse-code modulation, which allows coder
and decoder sharing by multiple voice trunks. Channels are preconfigured to carry voice traffic
or Internet data
T3
A T3 line is a dedicated physical circuit that uses high-speed media to transmit data, voice and
video at the rate of 45 Mbps. It offers a broadband connection consisting of 672 individual
channels of 64 kilobits each.
They are commonly used in applications requiring high bandwidth, such as in research centers
and big organizations, to provide uninterrupted data transmission, and other multi-channel
services such as email and Internet. Other applications include Internet telephony, large file
transfers, telemedicine, videoconferencing, credit card processing and more.
A T3 line is also known as digital signal level 3 (DS3)
Explanation
T3 refers to the trunk line level 3, and is sometimes used interchangeably with DS3 (digital
signal level 3). In practice, the DS3 signal is transmitted over a T3 physical line, consisting of a
fiber optic cable or coaxial cable. The T3 lines, which are symmetrical and duplex, have equal
speeds on both upload and download, and therefore allow simultaneous transmissions without
clogging the data lines.
ATM
ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It is a switching technique that uses time
division multiplexing (TDM) for data communications.
ATM networks are connection oriented networks for cell relay that supports voice, video and
data communications. It encodes data into small fixed - size cells so that they are suitable for
TDM and transmits them over a physical medium.
The size of an ATM cell is 53 bytes: 5 byte header and 48 byte payload. There are two different
cell formats - user-network interface (UNI) and network-network interface (NNI). The below
image represents the Functional Reference Model of the Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
ATM Networks (tutorialspoint.com)

How internet works?

The internet is a worldwide computer network that transmits a variety of data and media
across interconnected devices. It works by using a packet routing network that follows Internet
Protocol (IP) and Transport Control Protocol (TCP) [5].
TCP and IP work together to ensure that data transmission across the internet is consistent and
reliable, no matter which device you’re using or where you’re using it.
When data is transferred over the internet, it’s delivered in messages and packets. Data sent
over the internet is called a message, but before messages get sent, they’re broken up into
tinier parts called packets.
These messages and packets travel from one source to the next using Internet Protocol (IP) and
Transport Control Protocol (TCP). IP is a system of rules that govern how information is sent
from one computer to another computer over an internet connection.
Using a numerical address (IP Address) the IP system receives further instructions on how the
data should be transferred.
The Transport Control Protocol (TCP) works with IP to ensure transfer of data is dependable and
reliable. This helps to make sure that no packets are lost, packets are reassembled in proper
sequence, and there’s no delay negatively affecting the data quality.
Backbones
An Internet backbone refers to one of the principal data routes between large, strategically
interconnected networks and core routers on the Internet. An Internet backbone is a very high-
speed data transmission line that provides networking facilities to relatively small but high-
speed Internet service providers all around the world.
Internet backbones are the largest data connections on the Internet. They require high-speed
bandwidth connections and high-performance servers/routers. Backbone networks are
primarily owned by commercial, educational, government and military entities because they
provide a consistent way for Internet service providers (ISPs) to keep and maintain online
information in a secure manner
Gateways
In simple, the gateway is a single component of networking hardware system applied in the
field of telecommunication for the interaction of devices, that enable the data flow from one
discrete network to others. It act as routers or switches that are capable of interacting with
multiple networks and can work on seven layers of the OSI model. The default gateway is
referred to as the computer program configures to do that task. It serves interoperability
between networks and connected components like signal translators, fault isolators, protocol
translators, rate converters and impedance matchers. A network gateway is also called protocol
translators or mapping gateways that can operate on the conversion of protocols to link
networks with different network structures. It need the formation of the mutually acceptable
administrative process between the networks that employ on gateways.