Compressible Flow1
Compressible Flow1
Compressible Flow1
Majeed
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
Since the variations in pressure and temperature are negligibly small and the
change of state is so fast as to be essentially adiabatic, and the absence of any internal
friction or viscosity, the process is reversible and isentropic. Hence, the sonic velocity
is given by:-
dP
c (3)
d s
For an ideal gas, in an isentropic process
P
P k const or const.
k
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
dP
c kRT (4)
d s
2- Mach Number
The Mach number, M, is defined as the ratio of the actual velocity V to the sonic
velocity c.
V
M (5)
c
Where M>1, the flow is supersonic,
And where M<1, the flow is subsonic,
and M=1, the flow is sonic
Example-1
Air enters a diffuser with a speed of 200 m/s. Determine (a) the speed of
sound and (b) the Mach number at the diffuser inlet when the air temperature is
30°C.
Solution: At the enter of diffuser V=200m/s, T=30oC=303K
Analysis: (a) the velocity of sound at 303K where R=287J/kg.K, k=1.4
c kRT 1.4287 303 349m / S
V 200
(b) Mach number M 0.573
c 349
3- Stagnation Properties
Let us consider an isentropic steady flow of compressible gas through a
system (Fig.2) with no work and neglecting potential energy. The energy equation can
be written as below
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
1 1
Then ho h1 V12 h 2 V22
2 2
And this relation can be written for any state as
1 1
ho h V 2 or ho h V 2
2 2
For ideal gas h=CpT , then
1
Cp To T V 2
2
The properties without any subscript denote static properties, and
To V2
1
T 2CpT
kR
And we know that: Cp and by substituting this in the equation before, we
k 1
To V 2 k 1 k 1 V 2
get 1 1 2 where c 2 kRT
T 2kRT 2 c
And by using Mach number we obtain that
To k 1 2
1 M (6)
T 2
The stagnation pressure Po is related to the Mach number and static pressure in the
case of an ideal gas by the following equation:
k k
Po To k 1 k 1 2 k 1
1 M (7)
P T 2
And also for the density
1 1
o To k 1 k 1 2 k 1
1 M (8)
T 2
Example.2.
An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of (250 m/s) at an altitude of (5000 m)
where the atmospheric pressure is (55kPa) and the ambient air temperature is
(256.7K). The ambient air is first decelerated in a diffuser before it enters the
compressor (Fig.3). Approximating both the diffuser and the compressor to be
isentropic, determine (a) the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet and (b)
the required compressor work per unit mass if the stagnation pressure ratio of
the compressor is 8.
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
V2
Analysis: T o1 T1 Take Cp=1005J/kg.K
2Cp
T o1 256.7
2502 287.8K
21005
k k 1.4
P T k 1 T k 1 287.8 1.4 1
And o1 o1 Po1 p o1 55 82.07 kPa
P1 T1 T
1 1 256.7
Now we can find To2 stagnation temperature at the compressor inlet
k 1 k 1
To 2 P o 2 k P k 1.4 1
To 2 To1 o 2 287.88 1.4 521.33K
To1 Po1 Po1
Disregarding potential energy changes and heat transfer, the compressor
work per unit mass of air is determined from equation of energy
w Cp To 2 To1 1.005521.33 287.8 234.7 kJ / kg
Example-3
Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct
such as a nozzle shown in Fig. 4 at a mass flow rate of (3.00kg/s). The carbon
dioxide enters the duct at a pressure of (1400kPa) and (200°C) with a low
velocity, and it expands in the nozzle to an exit pressure of (200kPa). The duct is
designed so that the flow can be approximated as isentropic. Determine the
density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each location along the duct
that corresponds to an overall pressure drop of (200kPa).
Solution: CO2 flow in varying cross-sectional area duct m 3kg / S , P1=1.4MPa, and
T1=200oC, and P2=200kPa. The flow is isentropic. It is to determine the , V, A, and
M at each location to an overall pressure drop of (200kPa). For CO 2 k=1.289,
R=0.1889kJ/kg.K, Cp=0.846kJ/kg.K
Analysis: When the velocity at the inlet of the duct so To=T1=200oC=473K,
Po=P1=1.4MPa.
For a pressure drop of 200kPa=0.2MPa
To illustrate the solution procedure, we calculate the desired properties at the location
where the pressure is 1.2MPa, the first location that corresponds to a pressure drop of
0.2MPa. Then
k 1 1.289 1
P k
1. 2 1.289
T To 473 456.93K
Po 1. 4
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
5- An object from space enters the earth’s upper atmosphere at (5kPa), (100K), with
a relative velocity of (2500 m/s) or more. Estimate the object’s surface
temperature.
6- The products of combustion of a jet engine leave the engine with a velocity
relative to the plane of (500 m/s), a temperature of (527◦C), and a pressure of
(75kPa). Assuming that (k = 1.32), (Cp = 1.15 kJ/kg.K) for the products,
determine the stagnation pressure and temperature of the products relative to the
airplane.
7- Air flows through a device such that the stagnation pressure is (0.6MPa), the
stagnation temperature is 400oC, and the velocity is 570 m/s. Determine the static
pressure and temperature of the air at this state.
8- Air at (320K) is flowing in a duct at a velocity of (a) 1, (b) 10, (c) 100, and (d)
1000 m/s. Determine the temperature that a stationary probe inserted into the duct
will read for each case.
9- Calculate the stagnation temperature and pressure for the following substances
flowing through a duct: (a) helium at (0.25MPa), (50oC), and (240 m/s); (b)
Nitrogen at (0.15MPa), (50oC), and (300 m/s); and (c) steam at (0.1MPa),
(350oC), and (480 m/s).
10- Determine the stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure of air that is
flowing at (38kPa), (238K), and (320 m/s).
11- Air enters a compressor with a stagnation pressure of (100kPa) and a stagnation
temperature of (38oC), and it is compressed to a stagnation pressure of (900kPa).
Assuming the compression process to be isentropic, determine the power input to
the compressor for a mass flow rate of (0.04 kg/s).
12- Products of combustion enter a gas turbine with a stagnation pressure of
(0.75MPa) and a stagnation temperature of (690oC), and they expand to a
stagnation pressure of (100kPa). Taking (k= 1.33) and (R=0.287 kJ/kg·K) for the
products of combustion, and assuming the expansion process to be isentropic,
determine the power output of the turbine per unit mass flow.
13- Carbon dioxide enters an adiabatic nozzle at (1200 K) with a velocity of (50 m/s)
and leaves at (400 K). Assuming constant specific heats at room temperature,
determine the Mach number (a) at the inlet and (b) at the exit of the nozzle.
14- Nitrogen enters a steady-flow heat exchanger at (150kPa), (10°C), and (100 m/s),
and it receives heat in the amount of (120 kJ/kg) as it flows through it. Nitrogen
leaves the heat exchanger at (100kPa) with a velocity of (200 m/s). Determine the
Mach number of the nitrogen at the inlet and the exit of the heat exchanger.
15- Assuming ideal gas behavior, determine the speed of sound in refrigerant-134a at
(0.9MPa) and (60°C).
16- Determine the speed of sound in air at (a) 300 K and (b) 800 K. Also determine
the Mach number of an aircraft moving in air at a velocity of 330 m/s for both
cases.
17- Air expands isentropically from (2.2MPa) and (77°C) to (0.4MPa). Calculate the
ratio of the initial to the final speed of sound.
18- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle at a pressure of (1200kPa) with
negligible velocity. What is the lowest pressure that can be obtained at the throat
of the nozzle.
19- In March 2004, NASA successfully launched an experimental supersonic-
combustion ramjet engine (called a scramjet) that reached a record-setting Mach
number of 7. Taking the air temperature to be (220oC), determine the speed of this
engine.
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
20- Air at (200kPa), (100oC), and Mach number (M=0.8) flows through a duct.
Calculate the velocity and the stagnation pressure, temperature, and density of the
air.
21- An aircraft is designed to cruise at Mach number (M=1.1) at (12,000 m) where the
atmospheric temperature is 236.15 K. Determine the stagnation temperature on the
leading edge of the wing.
4- Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
Consider the mass balance (continuity equation) for a steady-flow process:
m AV
Differentiating and dividing the resultant equation by the mass flow rate, we obtain
d dA dV
0 (9)
A V
Using the Conservation of Energy equation of steady state with no work and heat
transfer and potential energy, then
V2
h 0
2
And the differentiation form is dh VdV 0 (10)
dP
And we also know that Tds dh dP dh
dP
Or dh (11)
dP
From eq.(10) and eq,(11) we get that: VdV 0 (12)
This relation is also the differential form of Bernoulli’s equation when changes in
potential energy are negligible, which is a form of Newton’s second law of motion for
steady-flow control volumes.
Eq.(9) and eq.(12) can be rewritten as
dA d dV dP
and VdV
A V
And by combining these two equations, we obtain that
dA d 1 dP dP 1 d dP 1 1
2 2 2 2
A V V dP V c
dA dP
A V
2
1 M 2 (13)
This is an important relation for isentropic flow in ducts since it describes the
variation of pressure with flow area. We note that A, , and V are positive quantities.
For subsonic flow (M<1), the term (1-M2) is positive; and thus dA and dP must have
the same sign. That is, the pressure of the fluid must increase as the flow area of the
duct increases and must decrease as the flow area of the duct decreases. Thus, at
subsonic velocities, the pressure decreases in converging ducts (subsonic nozzles) and
increases in diverging ducts (subsonic diffusers).
In supersonic flow (M>1), the term (1-M2) is negative, and thus dA and dP must have
opposite signs. That is, the pressure of the fluid must increase as the flow area of the
duct decreases and must decrease as the flow area of the duct increases. Thus, at
supersonic velocities, the pressure decreases in diverging ducts (supersonic nozzles)
and increases in converging ducts (supersonic diffusers).
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
dA
For subsonic flow (M< 1) 0
dV
dA
For supersonic flow (M> 1) 0
dV
dA
For sonic flow (M=1) 0
dV
Fig.6
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
To k 1 2
And then 1 M (15)
T 2
The ratio of the stagnation to static pressure is obtained as:
k
Po k 1 2 k 1
1 M (16)
P 2
The ratio of the stagnation to static density is obtained as:
1
o k 1 2 k 1
1 M (17)
2
Numerical values of T/T0, P/P0, and /o are listed versus the Mach number in Table
for k=1.4, which are very useful for practical compressible flow calculations
involving air.
The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach number is unity (the throat) are
called critical properties, and the ratios in Eq.(15) through eq.(17) are called critical
ratios when M=1 (Fig.7). It is standard practice in the analysis of compressible flow
to let the superscript asterisk (*)represent the critical values. Setting M=1 in Eq.15
through 17, yields
T* 2
(18)
To k 1
k
P * 2 k 1
(19)
Po k 1
1
* 2 k 1
(20)
o k 1
Example-4
Calculate the critical pressure and
temperature of carbon dioxide for the flow
conditions at a stagnation pressure of
(1400kPa) and stagnation temperature of (200oC).
Solution: The critical Pressure and temperature of the carbon dioxide at condition of
Po=1400kPa, To=200oC=473K.
Analysis: for carbon dioxide k=1.289
2 2
By using eq.(18) T * To 473 413.3K
k 1 1.289 1
k 1.289
2 k 1 2 1.289 1
And by using eq.(19) P* Po 1400 766.8kPa
k 1 1.289 1
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
For a specified flow area A and stagnation properties To and Po, the maximum mass
flow rate can be determined by differentiating Eq.21 with respect to M and setting the
result equal to zero. It yields M=1. Since the only location in a nozzle where the Mach
number can be unity is the location of minimum flow area (the throat), the mass flow
rate through a nozzle is a maximum when M=1 at the throat. Denoting this area by
A*, we obtain an expression for the maximum mass flow rate by substituting M=1 in
Eq.21:
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
k 1 / 2 k 1
k 2
m max A * Po (22)
RTo k 1
k 1 / 2 k 1
A 1 2 k 1 2
And 1 M (23)
A * M k 1 2
Another parameter sometimes used in the analysis of one-dimensional isentropic flow
of ideal gases is M*, which is the ratio of the local velocity to the speed of sound at
the throat:
V
M* (24)
c*
V c Mc M kRT T
Eq.(24) can be expressed as M * M (25)
c c* c* kRT * T*
Where M is the local Mach number, T is the local temperature, and T* is the critical
temperature. And we can get also:
k 1
M* M (26)
2 k 1M 2
Example-5
Air at (1.2MPa) and (650°C) enters a converging nozzle, shown in Fig.9, with a
velocity of (200 m/s). Determine the mass flow rate through the nozzle for a
nozzle throat area of (60cm2) when the back pressure is (a) 0.75MPa and (b)
0.42MPa.
Solution: Pi=1.2MPa, Ti=650oC=923K
2
Vi=200m/S At=60cm (a) Pb=0.75MPa,
(b) Pb=0.42MPa
For air k=1.4 Cp=1.005kJ/kg.K,
R=0.287kJ/kg.K
Analysis: we can find at the beginning the
stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature
at the inlet of the nozzle.
V2 200 2
Toi T 650 670 K
2Cp 21005
k 1.4
T k 1 670 1.4 1
and Poi P oi 1.2 1.334 MPa
T 650
these stagnation temperature and pressure can be assumed to be that of the nozzle.
To=Toi , and Po=Poi
(a) Pb=750kPa
For mach number M=1 and from eq.(19)
k k 1.4
P * 2 k 1 2 k 1 2 1.4 1
, P* Po 1.334 0.705MPa
Po k 1 k 1 1.4 1
In this case Pb>P* there is no chocking at the exit of the nozzle and from eq.(16) we
can find Mach number M
1/ 2
k
k 1
Po k 1 2 k 1 Po k 2
1 M M 1
P 2 P k 1
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
1/ 2
1.4 1
1.334 1.4 2
M 1 0.9456
0.75 1.4 1
And from eq.(15) we can get T at the exit Tb
1 1
To k 1 2 k 1 2 1. 4 1 2
1 M T To 1 M 670 1 0.9456
T 2 2 2
T=568.36K
cb kRT 1.4287 568.36 477.88m / S
Vb Mcb 0.9456477.88 451.88m / S
P 750
m AbVb b AbVb b 60 10 4 451.88 12.466kg / S
RTb 0.287568.36
(b) Pb=0.420MPa
In this case we find that P*=0.705MPa which is greater than Pb the flow is
chocked in the throat of the nozzle. There will be maximum flow. We can also find T *
2 2
T* To 670 558.3
k 1 1.4 1
c kRT 1.4287 558.3 473.63m / S V for M=1
P 705
m A AV 60 10 4 473.63 12.5034kg / S
RT 0.287558.3
Or we can calculate mass flow rate from eq.(22)
m max A *P
k 2
RTo k 1
4
60 10 1334 10 3
1. 4 2
287670 1.4 1
o
12.5kg / S
5-2 Converging–Diverging Nozzles
Consider the converging–diverging nozzle shown in Fig. 10. A fluid enters the nozzle
with a low velocity at stagnation pressure Po. When Pb=Po (case A), there is no flow
through the nozzle. This is expected since the flow in a nozzle is driven by the
pressure difference between the nozzle inlet and the exit. Now let us examine what
happens as the back pressure is lowered.
1. When Po>Pb>PC, the flow remains subsonic throughout the nozzle, and the mass
flow is less than that for choked flow. The fluid velocity increases in the first
(converging) section and reaches a maximum at the throat (but M<1). However, most
of the gain in velocity is lost in the second (diverging) section of the nozzle, which
acts as a diffuser. The pressure decreases in the converging section, reaches a
minimum at the throat, and increases at the expense of velocity in the diverging
section.
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
2 2
k 1 k 1
To Po k P k 1.4 1
Or T T 2930.1013 1.4 152.3K
T P o
Po
(c) To find the exit velocity firstly we will find the velocity of sound at the exit
ce kRT 1.4287 152.25 247.334m / S
And Ve Mce 2.15247.334 531.77 m / S
(d) Since the exit velocity is supersonic, the throat must be sonic, then to find the
pressure at the throat we can apply eq.(19)
k k 1.4
P * 2 k 1 2 k 1 2 1.4 1
P* Po 1.0 0.528MPa
Po k 1 k 1 1.4 1
(e) from eq.(18) also we can calculate the throat temperature
T* 2 2 2
T * To 293 244.17 K 28.83o C
To k 1 k 1 1. 4 1
k 1 1.4 1
P * k
0.528 1.4
Or T * To 293 244.17 K
Po 1
Example-7
A conical air diffuser has an intake area of (0.11m2) and an exit area of (0.44m2).
Air enters the diffuser with a static pressure of (0.18MPa), static temperature of
(37oC), and velocity of (267m/S). Calculate (a) the mass flow rate of air through
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
the diffuser, (b) the Mach number, static temperature, and static pressure of air
leaving the diffuser.
Solution:- conical diffuser Ai=0.11m2, A2=0.44m2 P1=0.18MPa, T1=37oC=310K,
V1=267m/S
k 1 2 1. 4 1
To 1 M T 1 0.762 310 345.435K 72.435o C
2 2
And from eq.(7) we can calculate Po
k 1.4
k 1 2 k 1 1. 4 1
0.762 0.264MPa
1.4 1
Po P1 M 0.181
2 2
From the isotropic flow tables and at M1=0.76 (eq.(23)) we find that
k 1 / 2 k 1
A 1 2 k 1 2
1 M
A * M k 1 2
1.4 1 / 2 1.4 1
1 2 1.4 1
A1
1 0.762 1.057
A * 0.76 1.4 1 2
A1 A2 0.44
1.0570 and A*=0.104068 then 4.2280
A* A * 0.104068
Or we can find M2 from the following relation
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
m P k P2 M 2 To k P2 M 2 To
m A2 2V2 V2 2 kRT2 .M . .
A2 RT2 R T To R To T
m P k P2 M 2 k 1 2 k P2 k 1 2
o . 1 M 2 Po M 2 1 M2
A2 Po R To 2 RTo Po 2
k 1
1
m k k 1 2 k 1 k k 1 2 k 1
Po M 2 1 M2 Po M 2 1 M2
A2 RTo 2 RTo 2
1 1
m k k 1 2 k 1
M 2 Po 1 M2
A2 RTo 2
And we know that m 59.42kg / S , A2=0.44m2, Po=263kPa, To=345.435K,
R=287J/kg.K, k=1.4
1 1
59.42 1.4 1.4 1 2 1.4 1
M2 263 103 1 M2
0.44 287345.435 2
M 2 0.1336642 1 0.2 M 22
1 / 0.4
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
A2 1000
Analysis:- We know from the known information that 2.0
A * 500
From eq.(22) we can find the maximum mass flow rate in the nozzle.
k 1 / 2 k 1
k 2
m max A * Po
RTo k 1
1.4 1
6
m max 500 10 1 10 6
1.4 2 21.4 1
287360 1.4 1
1.065kg / S
A
Then from Table of isentropic properties of flow at 2 2.0 we get that
A*
That M=0.308 and M=2.197.
(a) for the divergent section as nozzle M2=2.197
then T2 from eq.(6)
k 1 2 k 1 2 1. 4 1
To
1 M T2 To / 1 M 2 360 / 1 2.197 2 183.2 K
T 2 2 2
k 1.4
T k 1 183.2 1.4 1
P2 Po 2 1.0 0.094 MPa
To 360
V2 M 2c2 M 2 kRT2 2.197 1.4287 183.2 596.1m / S
P 94
2 2 1.788kg / m3
RT2 0.287183.2
m 2V2 A2 1.788 1 10 3 596.1 1.065kg / S
(b) for divergent section as diffuser M2=0.308
k 1 2 1.4 1
Then T2 To / 1 M 2 360 / 1 .3082 353.3K
2 2
k 1.4
T k 1 353.3 1.4 1
P2 Po 2 1.0 0.938MPa
To 360
V2 M 2c2 M 2 kRT2 0.308 1.4287 353.3 116.0m / S
P 938
2 2 9.25kg / m3
RT2 0.287353.3
m 2V2 A2 9.25 1 10 3 116.0 1.065kg / S
Problems-2
1- Nitrogen enters a converging–diverging nozzle at (700kPa) and (400K) with a
negligible velocity. Determine the critical velocity, pressure, temperature, and density
in the nozzle.
2- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle at (1.2MPa) with a negligible velocity.
Approximating the flow as isentropic, determine the back pressure that would result
in an exit Mach number of (1.8).
3- A convergent nozzle has an exit area of (500mm2). Air enters the nozzle with a
stagnation pressure of (1.0MPa) and a stagnation temperature of (360K). Determine
the mass rate of flow for back pressures of (0.800MPa), (0.528MPa), and (0.3MPa),
assuming isentropic flow.
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
4- An ideal gas with (k=1.4) is flowing through a nozzle such that the Mach number
is (1.8) where the flow area is (36cm2). Approximating the flow as isentropic,
determine the flow area at the location where the Mach number is (0.9).
5- Air enters a nozzle at (0.5MPa), (420K), and a velocity of (110 m/s).
Approximating the flow as isentropic, determine the pressure and temperature of air at
a location where the air velocity equals the speed of sound. What is the ratio of the
area at this location to the entrance area?
6- Steam flowing at (15 m/s), (0.18MPa), (300◦C), expands to (0.16MPa) in a
converging nozzle. Find the exit velocity and area ratio Ae/Ai.
7- A convergent nozzle has a minimum area of (0.1m2) and receives air at (175kPa),
(1000K), flowing at (100m/s). What is the back pressure that will produce the
maximum flow rate? Find that flow rate.
8- A convergent-divergent nozzle has a throat area of (100mm2) and an exit area of
(175mm2). The inlet flow is helium at a total pressure of (1.0MPa) and a stagnation
temperature of (375K). What is the back pressure that will produce a sonic condition
at the throat but a subsonic condition everywhere else?
9- A jet plane travels through the air with a speed of (1000km/h) at an altitude of 6
km, where the pressure is (40kPa) and the temperature is (−12 oC). Consider the inlet
diffuser of the engine, where air leaves with a velocity of (100m/s). Determine the
pressure and temperature leaving the diffuser and the ratio of inlet to exit area of the
diffuser, assuming the flow to be reversible and adiabatic.
10- Air flows into a convergent-divergent nozzle with an exit area of (1.59) times the
throat area of (0.005m2). The inlet stagnation state is (1MPa), (600K). Find the back
pressure that will cause subsonic flow throughout the entire nozzle with (M =1) at the
throat. What is the mass flow rate?
11- A nozzle is designed assuming reversible adiabatic flow with an exit Mach
number of (2.8) while flowing air with a stagnation pressure and temperature of
(2MPa) and (150oC), respectively. The mass flow rate is (5kg/s), and k may be
assumed to be (1.40) and constant. Determine the exit pressure, temperature and area,
and the throat area.
12- An air flow at (600kPa), (600K), (M =0.3) flows into a convergent-divergent
nozzle with (M =1) at the throat. Assume a reversible flow with an exit area twice the
throat area and find the exit pressure and temperature for subsonic exit flow to exist.
Find also the exit pressure and temperature for supersonic exit flow.
13- Air is expanded in a nozzle from a stagnation state of (2MPa), (600K), to a back
pressure of (1.9MPa). If the exit cross-sectional area is (0.003 m 2), find the mass flow
rate.
14- Air is expanded in a nozzle from a stagnation state of (2MPa), (600K), to a static
pressure of (200kPa). The mass flow rate through the nozzle is (5kg/s). Assume the
flow is reversible and adiabatic and determine the throat and exit areas for the nozzle.
15- Air flows into a convergent-divergent nozzle with an exit area (2.00 times the
throat area of (0.005m2). The inlet stagnation state is (1.2MPa), (600 K). Find the
back pressure that will cause a reversible supersonic exit flow with (M = 1) at the
throat. What is the mass flow rate?
16- A supersonic wind tunnel nozzle is to be designed for (M=2) with a throat section,
(0.11m2) in area. The supply pressure and temperature at the nozzle inlet, where the
velocity is negligible, are (70kPa) and (37oC) respectively. Compute the mass flow
rate, the exit area, and the fluid properties at the throat and exit. Take k=1.4
17- An ideal gas flows into a convergent nozzle at a pressure of (0.565MPa), a
temperature of (280oC), and negligible velocity. After reversible adiabatic expansion
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
in the nozzle the gas flows directly into a large vessel. The gas in the vessel may be
maintained at any specified state while the nozzle supply state held constant. The exit
area of the nozzle is (500mm2). For this gas (k=1.3 and Cp=1.172kJ/kg.K). Determine
(a) The pressure of the gas leaving the nozzle when its temperature is (225 oC) and
(b) The gas mass flow rate when the pressure in the vessel is (0.21MPa).
18- Air flows adiabatically through a pipe with a constant area. At point 1, the
stagnation pressure is (0.35MPa) and the Mach number is (0.4). Further downstream
the stagnation pressure is found to be (0.25MPa). What is the Mach number at the
second point for subsonic flow?
19- A stream of air flowing in a duct is at a pressure of (150kPa), has a Mach number
of (0.6), and flows at a rate of (0.25kg/S). The cross-sectional area of the duct is
(625mm2). (a) Compute the stagnation temperature of the stream. (b) What is the
maximum percentage reduction in area which could be introduced without reducing
the flow rate of the stream? (c) For the maximum area reduction or part (b), find the
velocity and pressure at the minimum area, assuming no friction and heat transfer.
20- A rocket combustion chamber is supplied with (12kg/s) of hydrogen and (38kg/s)
of oxygen. Before entering the nozzle all the oxygen is consumed, the pressure is
(2.3MPa) and the temperature is (2800oC). Neglecting dissociation and friction, find
the throat area of the nozzle required. Assume k=1.25.
The energy equation for an ideal gas across the shock becomes
V2 V2
CpTx x CpTy y CpTo
2 2
And hox hoy ho and Tox Toy To
kR
Substituting Cp , cx kRTx , and c y kRTy
k 1
To k 1 2 To k 1 2
1 M x and 1 My,
Tx 2 Ty 2
k 1 2
Ty 1 Mx
2 (27)
Tx 1 k 1 M 2
y
2
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
Px P
Again xVx yVy and then Vx y V y
RTx RTy
Ty Py Vy Py M y c y Py M y Ty Ty Py M y
Or
Tx Px Vx Px M x cx Px M x Tx Tx Px M x
2 2
Ty P M
Or y y (28)
Tx Px Mx
From eq.(27) and eq.(28)
k 1 2
Py 1 Mx
Mx 2
(29)
Px M y 1 k 1 M 2
y
2
2
M x2
From eq.(29) and eq.(30) we get that M y2 k 1 (31)
2k
M x2 1
k 1
My
k 1M x2 2 (31a)
2kM x2 k 1
Py 2k k 1
Then from eq.(29), eq.(30) and eq.(31) M x2 (32)
Px k 1 k 1
Py 2kM x2 k 1
Px k 1
And from eq.(27) and eq.(31) we get that
k 1 2 2k
1 M x M x2 1
Ty 2 k 1
(33)
Tx k 12 M 2
2k 1
x
y Py Tx Py Ty
Then /
x Px Ty Px Tx
And by using eq.(32) and eq.(33) we get that
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
k 1 2 2k
1 M x M x2 1
y Py Ty 2k k 1 2 k 1
/ M x2 /
x Px Tx k 1 k 1 k 1 M 2
2
2k 1
x
k 1 k 1
2
2k
Mx
2
M x2
y k 1 k 1 2k 1
Then (34)
x k 1 2 2 k
1 M x 1
2
M x
2 k 1
The ratio of the stagnation pressure is a measure of the irreversibility of the shock
process, and
Poy Poy Py Px
Pox Py Px Pox
k k
Poy k 1 2 k 1 Pox k 1 2 k 1
And 1 My , 1 M x and eq.(32) we can get
Py 2 Px 2
from upper equation
k
k 1 2 k 1
1 My
Poy 2 2k M 2 k 1
k x
Pox k 1 k 1
k 1 2 k 1
1 Mx
2
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
Poy Poy Py
And also
Px Py Px
k
Poy k 1 2 k 1 2k k 1
1 My M x2 (36)
Px 2 k 1 k 1
For different values of Mx, and for k=1.4, the values of My, Py/Px, Ty/Tx, y/x,
and Pox/Poy and Poy/Px as computed from previews equations are listed in table of
normal shock.
To evaluate entropy change across the shock, for an ideal gas:
dT dP
ds Cp R
T P
Ty Py Ty k 1Cp Py
s y s x Cp ln R ln Cp ln R ln
Tx Px Tx k Px
k 1
T P k
s y s x Cp ln ln
y y
(37)
Tx Px
Cp k 1 Ty Tx
Where R then s y s x Cp ln
P Px k
k 1
k
y
Ty Tx P
s y s x Cp ln R ln oy (38)
P Px
k 1
y
k Pox
The strength of a shock wave, St, is defined as the ratio of the pressure increase to the
initial pressure:
Py Px Py 2k k 1
St 1 M x2 1
Px Px k 1 k 1
St
2k
k 1
M x2 1 (39)
Example-9
A spacecraft directional control thruster is a converging-diverging nozzle
that uses high-pressure and high-temperature air. The air enters with isentropic
stagnation properties of (7.0MPa) and (2000°C). The throat diameter is (0.020m)
and the diameter of the exit of the diverging section is (0.10m). Determine
a. The mass flow rate required for supersonic flow in the diverging section.
b. The Mach number, pressure, and temperature at the exit of the diverging
section with this mass flow rate.
c. The outside back pressure required to produce a standing normal shock wave
at the exit of the diverging section.
Solution:- Convergent-Divergent Nozzle with stagnation properties of Po=7.0MPa,
To=2000oC=2273K, Dt=0.02m, and De=0.1m. It is required to calculate (a) m max (b)
Me, Pe. Te (c) Pb for normal shock at the exit.
Analysis: (a) At=A*= At A* Dt2 0.02 2 0.000314m 2
4 4
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
Ae De2 0.12 0.00785m 2
4 4
We can find the maximum mass flow rate by using eq.( 22)
1.41
k 1 / 2 k 1
m max A * Po
k 2
RTo k 1
0.000314 7 10 6
1.4 2 1.41.41
2872273 1.4 1
m max 1.863kg / S
2 2
D 0.1
b- Here, Ae / A* e 25 : Then, Eq. (23) can be inverted to find Me
D * 0.02
k 1/ 2 k 1
Ae 1 2 k 1 2
1 M e
A * M e k 1 2
1.41 / 2 1.41 2.4
2 1.4 1 2
25
1
Me 1.4 1 1 2 M e
1 1
M e 1.2
1 0.2 M e2
20.4
3
1
1
25M e 1 0.2 M e2 M e 51.225M e 3 1 =5 by using
1.2
iteration method.
k 1.4
k 1 2 k 1 1.4 1 2 1.41
Pe Po / 1 M e 7 / 1 5 0.013MPa 13.23kPa
2 2
k 1 2 1. 4 1 2
And Te To / 1 M e 2273 / 1 5 378.833K
2 2
These quantities can also be found from the Table of one-dimensional flow
c- the pressure that will make normal shock at the exit
where Mx=5.0, Tx=378.833K, Px=13.23kPa
2
M x2
be using eq.(31) M y2 k 1
2k
M x2 1
k 1
2
5
2
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
the exit are is (25cm2) estimate the exit Mach number, exit pressure, loss in stagnation
pressure, and entropy increase, during the flow between the tanks.
1.41 / 2 1.41 3
2 1.4 1 2 1 2
1.5
1
M 3e 1.4 1 1 2 M e
1
Me
1.2 1 0.2M e
1
M 51.21.5M x 3 1 and by iteration Mx=1.85 or from table of
isentropic flow Mx=1.85 . At that Mach number we can find the static pressure Px
k 1.4
k 1 2 k 1 1. 4 1
1.852 33.8 kPa
1.41
Px Po / 1 M x 210 / 1
2 2
For normal shock at Mx=1.85 then
My
k 1M x2 2 1.4 11.852 2 0.606
2kM x2 k 1 21.4 1.85 1.4 1
2
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
k 1/ 2 k 1
Ay 1 2 k 1 2
k 1 1 2 M y
A* M y
1.41 / 2 1.41
1 2 1.4 1
A1
1 0.6062 1.23
A * 0.606 1.4 1 2
A2 A2 Ay 25
1.23 1.64
A * Ay A * 18.75
And from eq.(23) we can obtain M2
k 1/ 2 k 1
A2 1 2 k 1 2
1 M 2
A * M 2 k 1 2
1.41 / 2 1.41 3
1 2 1.4 1 2 1 1 2
1.64 1
M 2 1.4 1 2
M 2 M2
1.64 1.2
1 0.2 M 2
And by iteration we get M2=0.385
k 1.4
k 1 2 k 1 1.4 1
0.3852 149.87kPa
1.41
Then P2 Poy / 1 M 2 166 / 1
2 2
The loss in stagnation Pressure occurs only across the shock
Po ( LOSS ) Pox Poy 210 166 44kP
Poy
The entropy increase is s s y s x R ln
166
0.287 ln 0.0675kJ / kg.K
Pox 210
Problems-3
1- A normal shock wave occurs in a diverging section when air is flowing at a
velocity of (420m/s), pressure (100kPa), and temperature (10°C). Determine :
(i) The Mach number before and after the shock, (ii) The pressure rise, and
(iii) The velocity and temperature after the shock.
2- A normal shock wave occurs in air flowing at a Mach number of (1.5). The
static pressure and temperature of the air upstream of the shock wave are
(100kPa) and (300K). Determine the Mach number, pressure and temperature
downstream of the shockwave. Also estimate the shock strength.
3- Fluid is air and can be treated as a perfect gas. If the conditions before the
shock are: Mx =2.0, Px =140kPa and Tx = 350K; determine the conditions after
the shock and the entropy change across the shock.
4- Air has a temperature and pressure of (300K and (300kPa)., respectively. It is
flowing with a velocity of (868m/s) and enters a normal shock. Determine the
density before and after the shock.
5- A small converging-diverging nozzle having an exit area of (4cm 2) is to be
designed to produce an exit flow of air at (100kPa) and (M=2.5). The
upstream stagnation temperature is (125oC). Calculate (a) the stagnation
pressure, (b) the exit temperature, (c) the throat area, and (d) the mass flow
rate, (e) to what value must the back pressure be raised to just produce a
normal shock wave at the exit of the nozzle.
6- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle, shown in Fig. 16a, at (1.0MPa)and
(800K) with negligible velocity. The flow is steady, one-dimensional, and
isentropic with (k=1.4). For an exit Mach number of (M=2) and a throat area
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
of (20cm2), determine (a) the throat conditions, (b) the exit plane conditions,
including the exit area, and (c) the mass flow rate through the nozzle. If the air
flowing through this converging–diverging nozzle experiences a normal shock
wave at the nozzle exit plane (Fig. 16b), determine the following after the
shock: (d) the stagnation pressure, static pressure, static temperature, and static
density; (e) the entropy change across the shock; (f) the exit velocity; and (g )
the mass flow rate through the nozzle. Approximate the flow as steady, one-
dimensional, and isentropic with (k=1.4) from the nozzle inlet to the shock
location.
7- Air enters a normal shock at (26kPa), (230K), and (815m/s). Calculate the
stagnation pressure and Mach number upstream of the shock, as well as
pressure, temperature, velocity, Mach number, and stagnation pressure
downstream of the shock. Calculate the entropy change of air across the
normal shock wave.
8- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle with low velocity at (2.0MPa) and
(100oC). If the exit area of the nozzle is (3.5) times the throat area, what must
the back pressure be to produce a normal shock at the exit plane of the nozzle?
9- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle of a supersonic wind tunnel at
(1MPa) and (300K) with a low velocity. If a normal shock wave occurs at the
exit plane of the nozzle at (M=2.4), determine the pressure, temperature, Mach
number, velocity, and stagnation pressure after the shock wave .
10- A flow into a normal shock in air has a total pressure of (400kPa), a stagnation
temperature of (600K), and (Mx = 1.2). Find the upstream temperature Tx, the
specific entropy generation in the shock, and the downstream velocity.
REFRENCES
1- Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 8th edition by Claus Borgnakke and Richard E.
Sonntag University of Michigan University of Michigan Wiley 2013
2- Engineering Thermodynamics, 5th edition by P. K. Nag , McGraw Hill Education
Office New Delhi- 2013
4- Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach 8Th Edition by Yunus A. Cengel.
Michael A. Boles McGraw-Hill 2015
5- Engineering Thermodynamics 3rd edition by R.K. RAJPUT LAXMI Publication
(P)LTD-NEW DELHI 2007
6- Modern Engineering Thermodynamics Robert T. Balmer, Elsevier Inc 2011
اENGELYUNUS A.
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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed
اENGEL
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