OSHA Module 2
OSHA Module 2
OSHA Module 2
ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is defined as the science of confirming (fit or be suitable) the work place and all
its elements to the worker. The word ‘Ergonomics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Ergon’
means to work and ‘Nomos’ means laws or studies. Therefore, ergonomics means “work
laws”. In practical it consists of the scientific principles applied in minimizing the physical
stress associated with the work place.
Benefits of Ergonomics
1. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
General observation of a worker or workers performing the task can be an effective
technique for task analysis. The effectiveness is enhanced if the workers are not aware
that they are being observed. While observing employees at work, especially attentive
to task require manual material handling and repetitive movements.
2. QESTIONNAIRES AND INTERVIEWS
This method can be used for identifying ergonomic problem. Questionnaires are
easier to distribute, tabulate and analyse in short period of time but interviews
generally provide more in depth information’s.
3. VIDEOTAPING AND PHOTOGRAPHY
Videotaping technology has simplified the process of task analysis considerably.
Videotaping records the work being observed as it is done; it is silent process so it is
not intrusive. If photography is used be aware that photo flash can be disruptive. High
speed film will allow making photographs without flash.
4. DRAWING AND SKETCHING
Making a neat sketch of a work station or a drawing showing work flow can help to
identify problems. Before using a drawing or sketch make sure that it is accurate.
ERGONOMIC PROGRAMS
Ergonomic programs are best performed by a professional ergonomist. The ergonomic team
or any qualified person can use analysis program to conduct work site analysis and identify
stressors in the work place. The work site analysis program is divided into four main
categories.
Incidence rate
Incidence rate for upper extremity disorders, back injuries should be calculated by
counting the incidence of CTD’S and reporting the number of each 100 full time
workers per year by the facility. Incidence is calculated by using the following
formula.
Incident rate =
2. Conducting baseline screening surveys to determine which job need closer analysis.
The second step in worksite analysis is to conduct baseline screening surveys identify
jobs that put employees at risk of developing CTD’S
CHECKLIST
The survey is performed with an ergonomic checklist. This check list should include
components such as posture, materials handling and upper extremity factors.
ERGONOMOC RISK FACTORS
It includes conditions of a job process work station or work method that contribute to
the risk of developing CTD’S.
CTD RISK FACTOR
1. Repetitive or prolonged activities
2. Forceful exertion
3. Prolonged static postures
4. Awkward postures of the upper body including reaching above the shoulders or
behind the back and the twisting the wrist and other joints to perform task
5. Inappropriate / inadequate hand tools
6. Continued physical contact with work surface
7. Excessive vibrations from power tools
8. Cold temperatures
BACK DISSORDER RISK FACTOR
Risk factor for back disorders include items such as the following
1. Bad body mechanics such as the following bending over at the waist, continued
lifting from below the knees from above the shoulders and twisting at waist while
lifting.
2. Lifting or moving objects of excessive weight.
3. Prolonged sitting especially with poor posture.
4. Lock of adjustable chairs footrests body supports in work surface at work
stations.
5. Poor grips on handles.
6. Slippery foots.
3. Performing ergonomic job hazard analysis of those work station with identified risk factor
and after implementing control measures.
The job hazard analysis should be routinely performed by a qualified person for jobs
that put workers at risk of developing CTD’S. This type of analysis helps to verify
risk factors at light duty of restricted activity and at work positions.
WORK STATION ANALYSIS
An adequate work station analysis could be expected to identify all risk factors
present in each studied job or work station. Tools should be checked for excessive
vibration, the tools, PPE’S and dimensions and adjustability of the work station
should be noted for each job hazard analysis.
LIFTING HAZARDS
For manual material handling the maximum weight lifting values should be
calculated.
VIDEOTAPE METHOD
The use of video tape were feasible is suggested as a method for analysis of the work
process. Slow motion video tape or equivalent visual records of workers performing their
routine job tasks should be analysed to determine the demands of the task on the worker
and how each worker actually performs each task.
4. Conducting periodic surveys by taking feed backs and follow up studies to evaluate changes.
The 4th step in work site analysis is to conduct periodic preview. Periodic surveys should
be conduct to identify previously unnoticed factors or failures or deficiencies in work
practices or engineering controls. The periodic preview process should include feedback,
follow up and trend analysis.
FEED BACK AND FOLLOW UP
A reliable system should be provided for employees to notify management about
conditions that appear to be hazardous and to utilize their insight and experience to
determine work practice and engineering controls. This may be initiated by ergonomic
questionnaire and maintained through an active and safety and health committee or by
employee participation with the ergonomic team. Reports of ergonomic hazard or
signs and symptoms of potential CTD’S should be investigated by screening surveys
and ergonomic hazard analysis in order to identify risk factors.
TREND ANALYSIS
Trends of injuries and illness related to actual or potential CTD’S should be
calculated using several years of data, trends should be calculated for several
departments and process units and work stations. These trends may be used to
determine which work position are most hazardous and need to be analysed by the
qualified person.
Use tools that fit the hand, have no sharp edges, and eliminate awkward hand and
wrist positions.
Change where materials are stored to minimize reaching.
Design containers with handles or cut-outs for easy gripping.
Improving the workplace is the heart of ergonomics: changing the work to fit the worker. The
design should accommodate the wide range of people assigned to the task.
A 'workspace envelope' is a 3-dimensional space within which you carry out physical work
activities when you are at a fixed location. The limits of the envelope are determined by your
functional arm reach which, in turn, is influenced by the direction of reach and the nature of
the task being performed. Most of the things that you need to use to carry out your tasks
should be arranged within this area. Workspace envelopes should be designed for the 5th
percentile of the user population, which means that 95% of users will be able to reach
everything placed within the envelope.
SEATED WORKSPACE
In general, the maximum work area is the area within comfortable reach of your extended
arm, while the normal work area is within the limits of a comfortable sweeping movement of
your arm, with your elbow bent at a right angle or less. You should also consider any
potential restraint caused by clothing that you might have to wear, as well as personal factors
such as age, gender (women have greater flexibility than men), and any disabilities.
The type of task being performed also affects the boundary of the workspace envelope. For
tasks that require the activation of a switch, it is common to use anthropometric
measurements from the fingertip reach of the users to set the envelope boundary. However,
where a grasping action is involved, the reach of the user is reduced as your fist has to be
clenched.
Working with relaxed upper arms and elbows at approximately 90° provides comfort
and helps maintain straight wrists, which reduces the strain of repetitive tasks.
Adjustable height work surfaces allow each user to fit the work surface to their own
needs. If this is not possible, fix the work surface height to be at a level that places the
working item, for example, a keyboard, at elbow height.
Make sure that there is adequate clearance for your thighs under the work surface.
Small users whose feet do not touch the floor when seated should have a footrest.
For fine work, requiring better visibility, the work surface can be raised, but elbow
support must be provided.
STANDING WORKSPACE
The limit of the workspace envelope for a standing user can be seen as the space in which an
object can be reached and gripped comfortably, when you are standing up straight. Your arms
and hands are most powerful when your elbows are close to your sides and bent at right
angles or more, that is, extended slightly. The work surface should allow this kind of posture
for manual work requiring strength. For precise, fine work, as well as for writing, drawing
and reading, the work surface should be higher so that the elbows can be rested on it. This
will also bring the work closer to your eyes.
For work that requires the application of force from the shoulder and back muscles,
the work surface should be about 100-250mm lower than the level of the elbows.
For normal tasks that do not require much strength, the worktop should be about
elbow height or just below.
For precision work, the work surface should be about 50-100mm above elbow height.
Precision work should preferably be done sitting, when the back muscles should be
supported and relieved by suitable seating and elbow support. The provision of high
stools allows users to alternate between a standing and a 'perched' position.
Adjustable height work surfaces allow each user to fit the work surface to their own
needs. If this is not possible, design for the largest user, and supply platforms to those
that are smaller.
VISUAL ERGONOMICS
Visual ergonomics is the multidisciplinary science concerned with understanding human
visual processes and the interactions between humans and other elements of a system.
Eye-to-screen distance: Locate the monitor at least 25 inches from the eyes,
preferably more.
Vertical location: Locate the entire viewing area of the monitor between 15° and 50°
below horizontal eye level.
Monitor tilt: Tilt the monitor back so that the top is slightly farther away from the
eyes than the bottom.
Lighting: Ceiling suspended indirect lighting. Control outside light with blinds and
shades. Keep ambient light levels low and supplement with task lighting.
Screen colours: Dark letters on a light background.
Fig 1 shows Visual Ergonomics in the Office and Fig 2 shows Horizontal line of sight
and preferred viewing area.
It is a hazard review conducted all information is not necessarily available for a system. This
may enables recognize hazards early; it serves as a guide for more in depth analysis. As more
information becomes available PHA focuses on about the process, product or change. It often
consists of formulating a list of hazard which might be related to materials, plant,
equipment’s, work environment maintenance and safety equipment’s etc. PHA depends on
the experience and expertise of the staff members involved. A team should be involved rather
than a single person, to avoid biased errors each team members should have a basic
knowledge of intentions and effects of possible deviations. PHA can often serve to provide
check lists for formal safety review committee to examine many complex systems on a
routine basis and to provide guidelines for future PHA’S.
Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a step-by-step approach for identifying all
possible failures in a design, a manufacturing or assembly process, or a product or service.
“Failure modes” means the ways, or modes, in which something might fail. Failures are any
errors or defects, especially ones that affect the customer, and can be potential or actual.
“Effects analysis” refers to studying the consequences of those failures. Failures are
prioritized according to how serious their consequences are, how frequently they occur and
how easily they can be detected. The purpose of the FMEA is to take actions to eliminate or
reduce failures, starting with the highest-priority ones.
Failure modes and effects analysis also documents current knowledge and actions about the
risks of failures, for use in continuous improvement. FMEA is used during design to prevent
failures. Later it’s used for control, before and during on-going operation of the process.
Ideally, FMEA begins during the earliest conceptual stages of design and continues
throughout the life of the product or service.
Begun in the 1940s by the U.S. military, FMEA was further developed by the aerospace and
automotive industries. Several industries maintain formal FMEA standards.
The HAZOP has been widely adopted by chemical processing plant identify operation
problem. It was originally developed to anticipate hazards and operability problems for new
process was past experience were limited but have been found to be helpful in every stage.
HAZOP concepts are simple using brainstorming technique for a multi-disciplinary team
with 5-7 members. The purpose of brain storming is the generation of ideas. A HAZOP
requires detailed planned and equipment description as well as full understanding of the
process and controls, therefore team members must be experts of that area. Each team
members is provided with a set of blueprints of equipment’s flow sheets and equipment’s
manuals. The most common approach for HAZOP review is guide word approach which is
recommended by AICHE (American Institute of Chemical Engineers) the guide words are
given in the following table.
These guide words are related to operation of a specific component in the system or specific
part of an overall operation. A node is a study point in the process or designed where
potential deviations and there causes and effects can be examined. The HAZOP review
defines the purpose objectives and scope of study and selections of team. Team leader and
record and communicate the results to manager.
HAZOP procedure in step by step manner these steps are summarised as follows:
Human Error Analysis provides a systematic method of considering the possible errors and
other human failures that may occur when performing a task. Human error analysis is used to
predict human error and not as a fact after the process. Although records of past accidents can
be studies to identify trends that can or in turn be used to predict accidents. HEA should be
used to identify hazards before they cause accidents. Two approaches HEA are:
Regardless of how HEA is conducted it is good idea to perform it in conjunction with FMEA
and HAZOP; this will enhance the effectiveness of all processes.
A Fault tree analysis is a deductive reasoning method that focuses on one particular event and
provides a method for determining basic cause of that event. This method is used to identify
combinations of equipment failures and human errors that can result in accident or an
initiating event. FTA allows the safety analyst to focus on preventive measures on these basic
causes to reduce the probability of an accident.
AND gate- the output exists only if all the inputs are present simultaneously
OR gate- the output exists if any (any combinations) of the inputs are present
Basic cause (root cause) by a component failure or human error for which a
Probability can be assigned.
EXAMPLE
The figure below shows the process of fault tree analysis. The top event must be carefully
selected and properly defined because the entire tree stems from this single event. When
constructing fault tree, proceed through levels of faults events which must take place alone or
in combination to cause the top event, ending with most basic contributing causes. At each
level describe precisely what event is and when it occurs. Fault tree should be completed in
levels and each level should be completed before beginning the next level.
The below examples depicts that causes B1,B2,B3,B4 and B5 are the basic events, which can
lead to top event T, which is “No light in room on demand” and the mathematical expression
for the top event is
T=G1’G2
= (B1+B2)’ (B3+B4+B5)
= B1B3+B2B3+B2B4+B1B5+B2B5 (6 minimal cut characters)
This indicates the occurrence of either of basic events B1 or B2 along with occurrence of any
of the basic events B3, B4 and B5 would lead to top event T.
NO LIGHT IN
ROOM ON T-TOP EVENT
DEMAND
AND
NO NATURAL NO ARTIFICIAL
LIGHT G1 LIGHT G2
OR
OR
FAULT IN
ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT
B5
An Emergency Action Plan should have at least the following elements i.e. alarm systems,
evacuation plan, a mechanism or procedure for emergency shutdown of the equipment and a
procedure for notifying emergency response personal.
Companies that opt to respond internally to chemical spills must have an emergency response
plan that includes the provision of comprehensive training of employees, OSHA’S standard
(29 CFR 1910.120) specifies the type and amount of training required ranging from
awareness to in depth technical training for employees who will actually deal with the spill.
It is important to note that OSHA refuses to allow the involvement of untrained employees
responding to a spill.
ERP is a network system which focuses on emergency centred centres (ECC), the incident
controller (IC) and incident site (IS). Personal of emergency response team are:
1. Site main controller (SMC): The top executive in charge of the unit (ECC).
2. Incident controller (IC): Shift in charge.
3. Deputy Incident controller (DIC): Shift person next to incident controller.
4. Essential work men (EWM): Are the shift people from various departments.
5. Other key persons: Includes heads of various departments.
The above personnel will be the people who monitor the emergency plan at the work place.
In case of emergency or any incident takes place above personnel will take care of the
situations.
In hazard control the first step is hazard identification then this should be communicated to
management with recommendation. These recommendations should improve risk assessment,
task assessment and alternative solutions. There are 3 basic decisions management can make
after reviewing the information and recommendations, i.e., they can do nothing, take action to
modify the work system or take action to redesign the work system. The easiest choice is to
do nothing because doing nothing may also be correct when the remedy cannot be finalised.
The cost of remedial action is normally associates with the level of risk. For example:
Remedial action for low risk hazards is expensive because they occur frequently; on the other
hand the costs are also high for high risk hazard because the injuries can be severe. When
hazard is identified action is necessary weather the management decides to eliminate it
entirely or simply reduces the chance of it causing an incident. Re-design is usually a long
term and expensive decision which often involves the purchase of new and safer equipment’s.
It is important that emphasis given for the modification of the work system because this is the
way to control the impact of hazard.
QUESTION BANK
1. Define the term ergonomics and discuss its benefits at work place.
2. What is task analysis? Explain the process of ergonomic task analysis.
3. Write a brief note on preventing ergonomic hazard.
4. What is work space envelop? Explain in brief about sitting workspace and standing
workspace.
5. Write short notes on Visual ergonomics and its need at work place.
6. Explain in detail about ergonomic standards and ergonomic programs.
7. Briefly describe the following hazard analysis methodology
i. Hazard and operability review (HAZOP)
ii. Fault tree analysis (FTA)
iii. Human error analysis (HEA)
iv. Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA)
8. Discuss the application of fault tree analysis method with an example.
9. Explain the process of emergency response plan and decision for action.