Computer Maintenance and Technical Support

Chapter Four

Memory

Memory refers to the electronic components of the PC that store data and instructions either
temporarily or in various degrees of permanence. Technically, memory is any storage device on
the computer, including the hard disk, floppy disks, ROM, RAM, and cache. However, in its
more common usage and in this chapter, memory is the part of the computer’s hardware used to
hold data and instructions before and after they are passed to the CPU for analysis and execution.
RAM is the computer’s short-term memory. Program instructions and data are stored on the
RAM chips, which the processor accesses directly. The more RAM you have, the more
instructions and data you can load. The amount of RAM greatly affects the performance of the
PC. However, if power is discontinued to the RAM, as when you shut off your PC, the contents
of the RAM disappear. This is why disks are used for long-term storage.

MAIN MEMORY
It is the central storage unit in a computer system. It is a relatively large and fast memory used to
store programs and data during the computer operation. The principal technology used for the
main memory is based on semiconductor integrated circuits. Integrated circuit RAM chips are
available in two possible operating modes, static and dynamic.

The static RAM (SRAM) consists essentially of internal flip flops that store the binary
information. The stored information remains valid as long as power is applied to the unit.

The dynamic RAM (DRAM) stores the binary information in the form of electric charges that
are applied to capacitors. The capacitors are provided inside the chip by MOS transistors. The
stored charge on the capacitors tend to discharge with time and the capacitors must be
periodically recharged by refreshing the dynamic memory. Refreshing is done by cycling
through the words every few milliseconds to restore the decaying charge. The dynamic RAM
offers reduced power consumption and larger storage capacity in a single memory chip. The
static RAM is easier to use and has shorter read and write cycles.

The ROM portion of main memory is needed for storing an initial program called a Bootstrap
Loader. The bootstrap loader is a program whose function is to start the computer software
operating when power is turned on. The contents of ROM remain unchanged after power is
turned off and on again. The start-up of a computer consists of turning the power on and starting
the execution of an initial program. Thus when power is turned on, the hardware of the computer
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sets the program counter to the first address of the bootstrap loader. The bootstrap program loads
a portion of the operating system from disk to main memory and control is then transferred to the
operating system, which prepares the computer for general use.

RAM, which has become synonymous with the primary working storage (memory) of the PC, is
referred to by several names, including main memory, system memory, and primary storage.
Virtually every piece of data and every instruction processed or executed by the CPU are stored
in RAM at one time or another. RAM is random access because each memory location is
individually addressed and can be accessed randomly and directly. The term random access was
first used to differentiate internal core memories (little round doughnut-like iron bits) from
external memory units, such as tape drives or other sequentially accessed devices, which had to
be accessed sequentially and serially, front to back. RAM is organized to support access requests
for data and instructions placed in randomly assigned locations. The memory types that can be
used as RAM vary from PC to PC depending on either the age of the system or how actively it
has been upgraded. RAM and the memory used to create it are identified through a variety of
characteristics. Perhaps the more important characteristics of memory are

◆Volatility

◆Synchronization

◆Speed

◆Technology

◆Packaging

When matching memory speeds to your motherboard’s bus speeds, choose the memory that’s the
best possible fit. Using a slower memory speed slows the system down accordingly

Dealing with memory technologies

Several different RAM technologies and types are in use in PCs. The most common memory
technologies, in general terms, are
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◆DRAM (Asynchronous DRAM):Pronounced dee-ram, this is the common RAM type used in
desktop and laptop PCs. DRAM is inexpensive and can store a large number of bits on a single
small chip. Each DRAM storage cell contains a capacitor, which holds one bit of data. A
capacitor is an electronic component that stores an electric charge. In the DRAM cell, the
capacitor holds either a positive or negative voltage value to indicate a 1 or 0 binary values.
DRAM must be refreshed every two milliseconds by reading and writing the contents of every
cell by a refresh logic circuit, whether the cell is in use or not. DRAM is the slowest type of
memory, with clock speeds of around 50 ns or higher. Remember: Higher means slower.

◆SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM):Pronounced ess-dee-ram, this type of RAM is found in many

newer desktop and portable PCs. Like all forms of DRAM, SDRAM is dynamic and must be
refreshed. However, it is the fastest form of DRAM

◆SRAM (Static RAM):Pronounced ess-ram, this memory technology is used primarily for PC
cache memory and in PC Cards (PCMCIA). The primary differences between DRAM and
SRAM are that SRAM is faster, more expensive, and requires more physical board space.
However, another difference is that SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed. The primary use for
SRAM is for Level 1 and 2 caching, often as onboard caching built into the microprocessor or
motherboard.

◆ VRAM (Video RAM):Pronounced vee-ram, this is used exclusively for video and color
graphics support. Video RAM is not technically a discrete memory technology exactly. Rather, it
is memory placed on the video adapter to provide for better and faster graphics support. VRAM
requires a feature called dual-porting, in which data is being written to VRAM by the system
CPU at the same time that data is being simultaneously read from RAM by the video controller
to refresh the display image. Here are a few of the video memory types in use:

■ Video RAM (VRAM):Not to be confused with the general VRAM, this VRAM (pronounced
vee-ram) is DRAM that has been dual-ported and needs refreshing less often than ordinary
DRAM. VRAM is a special type of DRAM that acts as a buffer (it’s also called the frame buffer)
between the CPU and the video display.
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■ Window RAM (WRAM):This video memory type is also dual-ported, but because its contents
can be accessed in blocks, it’s faster than VRAM.WRAM(pronounced double-you-ram), which
has absolutely nothing todo with any Microsoft operating system, is a high-performance video
RAM type that’s about 25 percent more efficient than standard VRAM.

■ Synchronous Graphics RAM (SGRAM): SGRAM is a single-ported, clock-synchronized video

RAM that runs as much as four times faster than conventional DRAM memories. SGRAM
(pronounced ess-gee-ram)uses a number of specialized instructions, such as its masked write and
block write commands to combine what would be a series of instructions for other forms of
VRAM to allow data to be handled more efficiently

DEALING WITH COMMON MEMORY ERRORS

Memory errors that show up during the boot process are usually caused by physical defects or
installation problems with the RAM chips. These problems should be identified by the POST and
signaled with beep codes or text messages. Memory errors that occur after the operating system
has started running are identified with a range of error messages.

Some of the more common memory-related error messages are:

◆Divide by zero error: A divide operation attempted to use zero as the dividend, and an error
has occurred. This means that some operation on the computer returned an erroneous value, there
is a serious logic flaw is in a running program, or (more likely) this message is the result of an
operation with a value too large to fit a register

◆General protection fault: A program in memory has been corrupted and has provided an
erroneous memory address outside of its addressable space. This could be the result of a program
flaw or a bad patch of memory. This message usually indicates that the offending program has
been terminated. In many cases, this error is repeatable, but you will need to exactly reconstruct
the load that was on the PC at the time of the error.

◆Fatal exception error: An illegal instruction has been encountered, an invalid operation code
was passed to the CPU, or data was attempted to be read from an erroneous memory location,
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typically from an address outside of the memory allocated to a function. However, faulty
memory could be the cause; it’s worth checking

Memory hierarchy is a concept that is necessary for the CPU to be able to manipulate data.

Computer memory is classified in the below hierarchy.

1 . Internal register is for holding the temporary results and variables. Accessing data from
these registers is the fastest way of accessing memory.

Register: A register is a very small place which is used to hold data of the processor. A register
is used to store information such as instruction, storage address and any kind of data like bit
sequence or any characters etc. A processor’s register should be large enough to store all the
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given information. A 64-bit processor should have at least 64-bit registers and 32-bit register for
a 32-bit processor. The register is the fastest of all the memory devices.

2. Cache is used by the CPU for memory which is being accessed over and over again. Instead
of pulling it every time from the main memory, it is put in cache for fast access. It is also a
smaller memory, however, larger than internal register.

Cache Memory is a type of memory which is placed in the processor’s chip or may be placed
separately connected by a bus. The use of Cache Memory is to store program instructions which
are again and again used by software for an operation. When the CPU processes data, the data is
first looked into the cache memory. If the data is found, then it uses the data accordingly and if
not, then the processor start to look in the larger memory, which is actually time-consuming.
Cache memory is costly but it’s really lightning fast.
Cache memory, also called CPU memory, is high-speed static random access memory (SRAM) -
that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular random
access memory (RAM). This memory is typically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed
on a separate chip that has a separate bus interconnect with the CPU. The purpose of cache
memory is to store program instructions and data that are used repeatedly in the operation of
programs or information that the CPU is likely to need next. The computer processor can access
this information quickly from the cache rather than having to get it from computer's main
memory.
Cache is further classified to L1, L2 and L3:
a) L1 cache: It is accessed without any delay.
b) L2 cache: It takes more clock cycles to access than L1 cache.
c) L3 cache: It takes more clock cycles to access than L2 cache.

3) Main memory or RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a type of the computer memory
and is a hardware component. It can be increased provided the operating system can handle it.

The main memory in a computer is called Random Access Memory. It is also known as RAM.
This is the part of the computer that stores operating system software, software applications and
other information for the central processing unit (CPU) to have fast and direct access when
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needed to perform tasks. It is called "random access" because the CPU can go directly to any
section of main memory, and does not have go about the process in a sequential order.

RAM is one of the faster types of memory, and has the capacity to allow data to be read and
written. When the computer is shut down, all of the content held in RAM is purged. Main
memory is available in two types: Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and Static
Random Access Memory (SRAM).
DRAM Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the most common kind of main memory
in a computer. It is a prevalent memory source in PCs, as well as workstations. Dynamic random
access memory is constantly restoring whatever information is being held in memory. It
refreshes the data by sending millions of pulses per second to the memory storage cell.
SRAM
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) is the second type of main memory in a computer. It is
commonly used as a source of memory in embedded devices. Data held in SRAM does not have
to be continually refreshed; information in this main memory remains as a "static image" until it
is overwritten or is deleted when the power is switched off. Since SRAM is less dense and more
power-efficient when it is not in use; therefore, it is a better choice than DRAM for certain uses
like memory caches located in CPUs. Conversely, DRAM's density makes it a better choice for
main memory.

4) Hard disk: A hard disk is a hardware component in a computer. Data is kept permanently in
this memory. Memory from hard disk is not directly accessed by the CPU, hence it is slower. As
compared with RAM, hard disk is cheaper per bit.

5) Magnetic tape: Magnetic tape memory is usually used for backing up large data. When the
system needs to access a tape, it is first mounted to access the data. When the data is accessed, it
is then uncounted. The memory access time is slower in magnetic tape and it usually takes few
minutes to access a tape.
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Auxiliary Storage

Auxiliary storage is any storage that is made available to the system through input/output
channels. This term refers to any addressable storage that is not within the system memory
(RAM). These storage devices hold data and programs for future use and are considered
nonvolatile storage that retains information even when power is not available. They trade slower
read/write rates for increased storage capacity.

Auxiliary storage, secondary storage, or external storage are devices that store noncritical system
data like documents, multimedia and programs, which are used whenever they are required.
These files are invoked from the auxiliary storage when needed and then transferred to the
primary storage so that the CPU can process them.

Memory troubleshooting steps

1. Restart the system. If a memory error is detected during the POST, a memory chip or
module might be defective or improperly installed. If the POST doesn’t detect a memory
error, check the BIOS setup for the memory’s speed in the timing parameters.
2. If the BIOS setup does provide a memory timing parameter, reset the memory speed to
the BIOS or setup default values, which are usually the slowest of the available options.
If you make any changes to the BIOS settings, save the changes and reboot the system. If
the system successfully reboots, the source of the problem was an incorrect BIOS setting.
If the POST still beeps or displays a memory error message, you probably have a bad
SIMM or DIMM. Other possibilities are that a memory module is not installed or seated
properly or the SIMM modules might not be installed in matching pairs.
3. Remove all but the first bank of memory modules and reboot the system. If you have a
memory error at this point, you know that it’s in the first bank of RAM
4. Replace the memory in the first bank and reboot. If the system boots, continue adding the
rest of the untested memory until you either run out of replaced memory or experience
another failure. You might even want to reinstall the seemingly bad modules into another
bank to see whether they’ve been miraculously healed during the testing. If you move or
replace the memory modules and the system still won’t boot, it’s possible that the
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motherboard itself is bad. Unfortunately, the best way to verify whether the motherboard
is faulty is to replace it and retest.

Installing memory modules

Before beginning to install any new memory modules in your PC, especially if you plan to mix
different types, sizes, or speeds of memory, you should take these precautions:

◆Back up the hard disk drive.

◆Work in a well-lighted and anti-static environment.

◆Always wear a static strap

◆Keep memory modules in their protective packaging until you’re ready to install them.

◆Handle memory modules by their edges only and avoid touching a module’s connectors

Removing memory modules

To remove a DIMM, release the locking tabs on the socket and pull the module straight up and
out of the socket. Remember: SIMMs install at an angle, so a SIMM module is removed at an
angle after the locking tabs are released. After the SIMM is at an angle in the socket, lift it up
and out of the socket

Install the RAM

Like the CPU and the heat sink/fan assembly, random-access memory (RAM) is installed in the
motherboard before the motherboard is secured in the computer case. Before you install a
memory module, consult the motherboard documentation or website of the manufacturer to
ensure that the RAM is compatible with the motherboard. RAM provides temporary data storage
for the CPU while the computer is operating. RAM is volatile memory, which means that its
contents are lost when the computer is shut down. Typically, more RAM enhances your
computer’s performance.

Follow these steps for RAM installation:

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1. Align the notches on the RAM module to the keys in the slot, and press down until the
side tabs click into place.
2. Make sure that the side tabs have locked the RAM module. Visually check for exposed
contacts.

Repeat these steps for additional RAM modules

Upgrade and Configure RAM

Increasing the amount of system RAM almost always improves overall system performance.
Prior to upgrading or replacing the RAM, there are some questions you must answer:

■ what type of RAM does the motherboard currently use?

■ Can the RAM be installed one module at a time, or should it be grouped into matching banks?

■ Are there any available RAM slots?

■ Does the new RAM chip match the speed, latency, type, and voltage of the existing RAM?

Caution: When working with system RAM, work on an antistatic mat and wear a wrist strap.
Place the RAM on the mat until you are ready to install it. Store RAM in antistatic packaging

Remove the existing RAM by freeing retaining clips that secure it. Pull it from the socket.
Current dual-inline memory modules (DIMM) pull straight out and insert straight down. Earlier
single-inline memory modules (SIMM) were inserted at an angle to lock into place. Insert the
new RAM, as shown in Figure 11-16, and lock it into place with the retaining clips.

Caution: Make sure to insert the memory module completely into the socket. RAM can cause
serious damage to the motherboard if it is incorrectly aligned and shorts the main system bus.