Andrews Uniuersity Semina~yStudies, Summer 1988, Vol. 26, No. 2, 159-170.

Copyright @ 1988 by Andrews University Press.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE STUDY OF THE

BOOK OF REVELATION

JON PAULIEN
Andrews University

The book of Revelation is currently recovering from 35 years

of critical neglect. We are entering a new era of scholarly interest in
the Apocalypse that may surpass even that of the beginning of this
century, which is associated with such names as Charles, Swete,
Allo, and Lohmeyer. This essay offers an overview and critique of
four recently published books on Revelation. Two function as
critical introductions to the book,' one addresses the issue of its
Semitic background,Z and one is a thematic study of Revelation's
relationship to the NT g ~ s p e l . ~

1. T w o Critical Approaches
Elisabeth Schiissler Fiorenza's Book of Revelation: Justice and
Judgment is a collection of essays published in various places over
a seventeen-year p e r i ~ dThe
. ~ prologue attempts to bring unity to
the essays by summarizing them in such a way as to reveal the
unifying purpose behind their composition. The collection is a
preliminary introduction to the author's forthcoming commentary
on Revelation in the Hermeneia series.
Many readers will be disappointed that the previously pub-
lished articles were not more extensively revised. Although there

'Elisabeth Schiissler Fiorenza, The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment

(Philadelphia, 1985); Adela Yarbro Collins, Crisis and Catharsis: The Power of the
Apocalypse (Philadelphia, 1984).
2Steven Thompson, The Apocalypse and Semitic Syntax, Society for New
Testament Studies Monograph Series 52 (Cambridge,Eng., 1985).
SGraeme Goldsworthy, The Lion and the Lamb: The Gospel in Revelation
(New York, 1984).
*Of the volume's nine essays (including the prologue), six were published
previously in journals and multi-author volumes, two were in the publication
process, and one (the prologue) is unique to the book. See p. vi for a complete
listing.
160 JON PAULIEN

were hundreds of editorial change^,^ they were not major and the
literature citations were not updated. Nevertheless, the book is
helpful for a number of reasons. First, it collects essays that many
readers would have difficulty assembling otherwise. Second, the
essays are far more impressive as a group than they are when read
individually. Although published over a seventeen-year period,
there is a remarkable consistency in the author's work. The volume
reads as though it was written as a unit.
Schussler Fiorenza asserts in her introduction that the failure
of critical scholarship to provide a definitive interpretation of Reve-
lation in its original setting argues for new approaches to the
book's language and imagery. She calls for the integration of
historical-critical and literary-critical paradigms so that a new
literary-historical model of interpretation can emerge.
In the first two chapters, Schussler Fiorenza explores whether
Revelation is to be understood in terms of Jewish apocalyptic or
NT eschatology. She contends for the latter on the grounds that the
focus in Revelation is on the final judgment, the vindication of the
Christian community, the shortness of time until the end, and
God's k i n g d ~ mrather
,~ than on world history as a whole (pp. 46-
51). She realizes that this assertion can be disputed with regard to
the two scrolls (Rev 4: 1- 15:4),but she views them as thematic rather
than chronological.
Chapters 3-5 assess the relationship between the theology of
Revelation and other Christian theologies which had an impact on
the contemporary churches of Asia Minor. With exceptional thor-
oughness, the author shows that Revelation has as much in com-
mon with Paul and the Synoptic Apocalypse as it has with the
Gospel of John. She suggests that the author of Revelation made
an eclectic use of OT, apocalyptic, Pauline, and Johannine tradi-
tions, while perhaps being most at home with an early Christian
prophetic-apocalyptic tradition.

5These changes consisted primarily in the rearrangement of words or their

replacement with ones the author preferred. The most significant change was the
consistent replacement throughout the book of the word "Apocalypse" with the
word "Revelation." Several charts were also omitted. In the reviewer's opinion, the
content of the essays was not altered significantly.
GSchiissler Fiorenza views God's kingdom in Revelation as a reality only in the
Christian community, and not in the larger world.
 DEVELOPMENTS I N THE STUDY OF REVELATION 161

Schussler Fiorenza identifies John's opponents in Revelation

with the enthusiasts of Corinth rather than with the Judaizers of
Galatia or Colossae. These "Nicolaitans" practiced some form of
libertine gnosticism which enabled them to participate in pagan
society while professing Christianity. She argues that both Paul
and John countered this libertine theology and its overrealized
eschatology with the help of apocalyptic categories. Thus, the
theology of Revelation was quite at home in the Pauline commu-
nities of Asia Minor.
In her last two chapters, Schussler Fiorenza outlines her under-
standing of Revelation's message and the impact it might have had
on the social situation of the Christian communities of Asia Minor.
The heart of the author's message, a prophetic interpretation of the
political and religious situation of the community, is indicated by
the material in the structural center of the book (i.e., Rev 10:1- 15:4).
That situation was characterized by social isolation, persecu-
tion, temporal deprivation, and the threat of violent death. As a
result, many Christians (characterized as Nicolaitans, Balaam, and
Jezebel) were advocating theological compromises which would
enable them to participate actively in the commercial, political,
and social life of their cities. In the face of this challenge, John
paints the picture of heavenly realities to motivate them to take up
his uncompromising stand toward the world. The readers are faced
with a decision which will jeopardize either their lives and fortunes
here and now or their lives and fortunes in the coming New
Jerusalem. Through his symbolic universe the author transports
the community onto a cosmic plane where decision for Christ can
be seen in its true significance, independent of the vicissitudes of
individual existence.
In contrast to Schussler Fiorenza, Adela Yarbro Collins spends
more time on traditional introductory questions, such as author
and date, although the heart of her book is also concerned with
issues of interpretation.
Yarbro Collins begins by addressing some of the basic assump-
tions with which people approach the book of Revelation. The
historical-critical method, she asserts, while enlightening the mod-
ern reader as to the situation which a work addressed, also creates
distance between the reader and the text. One must overcome this
distance in order to determine the normative meaning of the text.
Readers of Revelation have attempted to do this in three different
162 JON PAULIEN

ways: precri tically, critically, and postcri tically. The precritical

reader of a text is naive and gullible. He accepts his reading,of the
text at face value, totally unaware of the philosophical and socio-
logical presuppositions that shape the way one understands the
text. The critical reader attempts to examine both the text and
the self with objectivity and detachment. While Yarbro Collins sees
the critical reading of any text as basic, she hopes to lead her
readers to a postcritical reading. "A postcritical reading of a text,"
she writes,

is one based on a lived, experienced knowledge of the text as a

product of another time and place and as a flawed human product.
At the same time there is an openness to a personal reinvolvement
on a new level. There is recognition that a flawed, broken myth
can still speak to our broken human condition (p. 22).

Following the Introduction are chapters on the authorship

and date of Revelation. Yarbro Collins agrees with most scholars
that the date is Domitianic. In dialogue with Schussler Fiorenza,
however, she contends that the author is an unknown Palestinian
Jew whose self-understanding had been shaped by the traditions of
the classical prophets rather than by some early Christian "pro-
phetic school."
Yarbro Collins breaks new ground when she points out that
there is very little evidence that Domitian persecuted the Christians
(pp. 69-73). As a result, she argues that John was not so much
writing to comfort Christians in a time of persecution, as to call
their attention to a crisis that many of them did not perceive-a
crisis brought about by the willingness of many to accommodate
themselves to the pagan culture for economic, political, and social
reasons.
Since the crisis that produced Revelation may not have been
all that obvious to most Christians at the time, Yarbro Collins
argues that apocalyptic arises out of the condition of "relative
deprivation." In other words, the crucial element is not so much
"whether one is actually oppressed, but whether one feels oppressed"
(p. 84). The apocalyptic mentality arose because of the disparity
between expectations and their satisfaction. Thus, "it was the ten-
sion between John's vision of the kingdom of God and his envi-
ronment that moved him to write his Apocalypse" (p. 106).
Yarbro Collins addresses the social situation of the author and
his readers in her first three chapters. Chapters 4 and 5 turn to the
 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE STUDY OF REVELATION 163

effect that the Apocalypse had on its first readers and how it
produced that effect. These chapters argue that Revelation's task
was to overcome cognitive dissonance-the intolerable tension be-
tween hopeful faith and the reality that Christ had not returned
and that the social situation of the Christian addressees had not
improved when they became Christians (p. 141). The imagery of
the Apocalypse was designed to provide a logical model capable of
overcoming the tension. Yarbro Collins calls that model "social
radicalism." John was advocating social, political, and economic
withdrawal from the life of the cities of Asia Minor.
How could he motivate the community to withdraw? Yarbro
Collins suggests that the feeling of powerlessness caused by a
marginal social situation was mitigated by the assurance that the
community had access to privileged information of heavenly origin.
That powerless situation was exactly where God wanted them to
be. Although the forces of chaos were dominant at that time, their
defeat was certain; and then roles would be reversed. This vision of
a heavenly reality and of a radically new future, she asserts, func-
tioned as compensation for the relatively disadvantaged situation
of the first-century readers and hearers of the Apocalypse.
Yarbro Collins, however, goes even further. She argues that the
book of Revelation exemplifies a type of transference. "When aggres-
sive action," she writes, "is not desirable and aggressive feelings
cannot simply be suppressed or converted into other feelings and
activities, the aggressive feelings may be transferred." The aggres-
sion is transferred from the community to Christ, who makes war
on its enemies, and from the past to the future, when Christ will
deal with the community's opponents both within and without.
In her conclusion, Yarbro Collins takes off the mantle of the
scholar and puts on the robe of the ordinary Christian who strug-
gles to understand in what sense a book like the Apocalypse should
be authoritative for him or her personally. A critical and post-
critical reading of the book of Revelation has led Yarbro Collins to
the conclusion that there is a failure of love in the Apocalypse.
Love has been subordinated to justice. While Revelation does pro-
mote the cause of the poor and the powerless, the book tends to
divide people and ideas in to uncompromising categories of right
and wrong which oversimplify the complexities of human society.
Violence is portrayed as a solution to injustice.
In spite of these perceived shortcomings, Yarbro Collins argues
that the Apocalypse can be taken critically and seriously in the
164 JON PAULIEN

second half of the twentieth century. It encourages the church

today to protest all institutions which reflect the characteristics of
the demonic, and to ally itself with all movements that promote
freedom, peace, justice, and reconciliation.
Although they disagree on many points of detail, both Schuss-
ler Fiorenza and Yarbro Collins break new ground in the study of
the book of Revelation. They have issued a clarion call to under-
stand the Apocalypse in terms of its author's concerns and his
social situation before addressing what authority the book might
have for the twentieth century. While this is not a new insight,
sociological and literary paradigms are shedding fresh light on
both the author's original situation and the needs a book like
Revelation might address in today's world. These books cannot be
ignored in the future study of Revelation. It is to be hoped that
each of these scholars will soon provide a commentary on the text
of the Apocalypse that will flesh out the insights expressed in their
introductory works.'
These words of commendation do not ignore the fact that there
are problems in both books. Schiissler Fiorenza seems to have dis-
missed the role of history in Revelation too lightly. Like 2 Thess 2
and the Synoptic Apocalypse, Revelation could well be addressing
the community's concerns in terms of its place in history as well as
its place in the kingdom of God. Likewise, although she has made
a powerful case for the dissimilarity between Revelation and the
fourth gospel, other lines of research suggest a fundamental unity
of thought between the two.8 One could also wish that Schussler
Fiorenza had given more attention to the Judaizing heresy and its
impact on Revelation (cf. Rev 2:9 and 3:9). But these are mere
quibbles.
The major concern with Yarbro Collins's book is the suspicion
that her postcritical approach has at times been overly critical

'Schiissler Fiorenza has been commissioned to produce the commentary on

Revelation in the Hermeneia series. In Nov. 1985 she indicated that publication was
still a few years away. Another capable scholar, David Aune, may complete a
commentary along similar lines before the end of the decade for the Word Biblical
Commentary series.
%ee Otto Bocher's contribution to the Uppsala Colloquium, "Das Verhaltnis
der Apokalypse des Johannes zum Evangelium des Johannes," in LJApocalypse
johannique et 17Apocalyptique duns le Nouveau Testament (Gembloux, 1980), pp.
289-301.
 DEVELOPMENTS I N THE STUDY OF REVELATION 165

toward the text. She freely admits that the bottom line of post-
critical interpretation is the reader's own "critically interpreted
present experience" (p. 167). Unfortunately, human beings are
often naive, even in their self-critical objectivity. Time and again
scholarly debate has uncovered flaws in the interpretation of even
the most self-critical scholars. The scholarly consensus of one gene-
ration becomes the precritical naivete of the next. Thus, we must
approach Yarbro Collins's concluding assertions with great care.
For example, she faults the author of Revelation for seeing the
world in discrete categories of right and wrong. But we must not
forget that Paul and Jesus were also intolerant by our standards
(see, e.g., Matt 12:30; Luke 11:23; 14:26-33; Mark 9:43,45,47; 1 Cor
5:l-5; 2 Thess 3:6,14). The NT documents exhibit a continual ten-
sion between loving acceptance and uncompromising faithfulness.
At what point can the text be allowed to challenge our "critically
interpreted present experience"? In Revelation we experience an
author who speaks to those who "have their backs against the
wall." While he offers them encouragement in Christ, he also
exhorts them to uncompromising faithfulness at a time in which
tolerance might only breed compromise, resulting in the loss of the
gospel and the gravest of consequences for a world under judgment.
Perhaps it is a secular generation like ours, in which tolerance and
acceptance are proclaimed as a way of life, that needs to be reminded
by John that there are truths that are worth dying for.
While acknowledging the danger inherent in Yarbro Collins's
concluding assertions, we must commend her for the openness
with which she has approached an issue that many with less
courage have wrestled with in private. The best safeguard against
precritical naivete is the self-correcting influence of scholarly debate.
In her willingness to dialogue publicly with us, Yarbro Collins has
served us well.

2. A Linguistic Approach
Another recent book that is important for every Revelation
scholar's library is Steven Thompson's Apocalypse and Semitic
Syntax. Thompson's observations impact on nearly every exegetical
detail of the book of Revelation.
The book grows out of a doctoral dissertation supervised by
Matthew Black at the University of St. Andrews. After a brief
166 JON PAULIEN

survey of previous work on the Semitic background of the Apoca-

l y p ~ eThompson
,~ offers a short chapter on the current status of the
text. The heart of his book deals with specific examples of Semitic
influence on the meaning of Greek verbs (chapter Z), on the verbal
syntax'(chapter 3), and on the clause (chapter 4) in the Apocalypse.
He closes the volume with some observations concerning the larger
implications of his work for the ongoing study of the book of
Revelation (chapter 5). In addition to a bibliography and general
index, there is an index of references to biblical and other ancient
materials. This makes T h e Apocalypse and Semitic Syntax an
invaluable reference tool for the study of Revelation.
Of the multitude of exegetical insights afforded by the book,
space permits listing only a few. For example, Thompson indicates
that the Greek aorist tense in the Apocalypse normally translates
the Hebrew perfect. Thus it is not necessarily punctiliar, but often
expresses the sense of the Hebrew prophetic perfect (p. 37). In
addition, the Greek present tends to translate the Hebrew participle,
the future translates the imperfect, and the Greek perfect generally
carries the force of one of the derived conjugations in the Hebrew
(cf. the chart on p. 53). Thompson also notes that verbal clauses in
Revelation often retain the word order that would be common to
such a construction in the Hebrew, and that one should not expect
to find a precise temporal relationship between the participle and
the main verb, as is the case in classical Greek. As one can see from
these examples, much previous work on the book of Revelation
may need to be revised in the light of Thompson's findings.
Thompson's most basic contribution is to clarify the nature of
Revelation's peculiar language. Most of the "barbarisms," he sug-
gests, are due to the influence of Semitic syntax, which overpowers
the rules of Greek grammar (p. 107). "In the Apocalypse," he
writes, "the Greek language was little more than a membrane,
stretched tightly over a Semitic framework, showing many essential
contours from beneath" (p. 108). While this is not a new sugges-
tion, the book broadens the base of evidence. Thompson speculates
that for the author "the necessity of expressing sacred themes in a
Gentile tongue was rendered less distasteful" by preserving the
syntax of O T language.

gBousset, Laughlin, Charles, Scott, Allo, Torrey, Lancelloti, Mussies, Rydbeck,

Mandilaras, Bakker, Turner, and Beyer.
 DEVELOPMENTS I N THE STUDY OF REVELATION 167

That conclusion leads to Thompson's most radical proposi-

tion: the book of Revelation was little influenced by the Hebrew
and Aramaic of the first century, since its primary source was the
language of the O T prophets-i.e., biblical Hebrew and Aramaic
(pp. 1, 34, 56, 57, 107). This points the exegete to the O T back-
ground of the thought and imagery of the book. While the social
and literary setting of Asia Minor (discussed above in relation to
the books by Schiissler Fiorenza and Yarbro Collins) is important,
Thompson holds that the author of Revelation will be misunder-
stood unless full weight is given to the overwhelmingly OT flavor
of his account. In the drive to understand the first-century meaning
of Revelation, therefore, examination of the O T background must
play a central role.
Thompson's book does not make for light reading. It is, as one
would expect from the subject matter, rather ponderous and full of
minute details. That, however, is typical of most reference works,
and many of its purchasers will use it primarily for reference. The
reader will note that in a number of places Thompson's examples
could be interpreted differently than they are. On the other hand,
the work exudes a general solidity which lends confidence to his
conclusions. The Apocalypse and Semitic Syntax should change
the way exegetes of the Apocalypse do things. From now on the
student of Revelation's language must be fully aware of Hebrew
meanings, grammar, and syntax, as well as of NT Greek.

3. A Theological Approach
Graeme Goldsworthy's The Lion and the Lamb is fittingly
subtitled The Gospel in Revelation. The author addresses the ques-
tion of how the content of Revelation relates to the NT gospel.
Although the book has a contemporary emphasis that is almost
devotional at times, it argues persuasively that the gospel is the
central theme of the Apocalypse.
Goldsworthy takes a theological approach in which he assesses
the relationship of various aspects of Revelation to its central
theme. Following an introduction, in which he argues the need to
take the author's perspective seriously, Goldsworthy has written
ten chapters to demonstrate that all portions of the Apocalypse-
the prologue and epilogue, the letters to the churches, the key
symbols, the hymnic material, and even the prophetic and apoca-
lyptic visions-share in the basic NT perspective of justification by
168 JON PAULIEN

faith and the tension between the two ages. Following an appendix
on the mark of the beast, the book concludes with a subject index
and a list of biblical references.
If Goldsworthy's basic thesis is correct, that Revelation shares
the same basic theological substructure as the rest of the NT, it
would further underline recent scholarly studies in to the apocalyp-
tic nature of Paul's letters and the gospels. The N T writers saw no
dichotomy between salvation and eschatology. For them the salvific
coming of Jesus ushered in the O T "Day of Yahweh." Though the
consummation was still future, in Christ the new age had over-
lapped the old. Goldsworthy's contribution is to show that while
Revelation, in its use of the language and structure of the OT,
seems to share in its eschatological viewpoint, it has modified that
viewpoint to reflect the N T perspective of the two ages. Thus
John's apocalyptic visions cannot be rightly understood unless
they are approached from the NT eschatological point of view,
whether or not Christ or the gospel is explicitly named in a given
passage. Recent studies demonstrating the essential unity of the
Apocalypse support this thesis, since the gospel perspective of the
letters to the churches and the hymnic material is unquestionable.
The weakness of Goldsworthy's book lies in the fact that he
appears to have an ax to grind. His definition of the gospel is
limited to the historical act of the Christ-event, and is not to be
confused with regeneration or sanctification. While one may not
disagree with his reiteration of the classical Protestant position
over against Trent and Cardinal Newman, it is to be questioned
whether that debate fairly addresses what is going on in the book of
Revelation. Goldsworthy fears that traditional interpretations of
Revelation undermine this "pure gospel," and in his zeal to reclaim
John's Apocalypse for the Reformation he at times overstates his
case.
In spite of this weakness, Goldsworthy's basic thesis is true to
the text. Revelation opens with a summation of the Christian view
of God, Christ, salvation, and eschatology (Rev 1:4-8). The major
apocalyptic visions are then preceded by images of Christ that
transform the O T sanctuary into a Christian house of worship
(note esp. Rev 1:12-20; and chapters 4 and 5). The victory of God is
founded on the Lamb that was slain, and the Lion and the Lamb
become symbols of the two ages of suffering and glory (Rev 5:5,6).
The letters to the churches emphasize that "the good works of the
 DEVELOPMENTS I N THE STUDY OF REVELATION 169

people of God are part of the apocalyptic struggle between the

reigning Christ and the powers of darkness" (p. 80). Goldsworthy
is of the opinion that John uses the hymnic material scattered
throughout the book as a gospel-oriented framework to mitigate
the apparently Christless bleakness of the apocalyptic sections.
Even the apocalyptic material, with no readily apparent Christian
emphasis, contains themes and vocabulary common to other N T
passages.1° In so doing, it becomes apparent that the apocalyptic
war is played out in everyday life as much as at the cosmic level.
Thus it is a distortion to see Revelation as primarily a vengeful
diatribe against Rome. The heart of the book is the work of Christ
and the experience of those who are faithful to him.

4. S u m m a r y Evaluation
What direction should the study of Revelation take in the light
of the four books reviewed here? Current scholarly interest focuses
on historical, literary, and sociological concerns. Schiissler Fiorenza
and Yarbro Collins have reaped well-deserved acclaim for their
contributions to the discussion. Exegetes cannot ignore these con-
cerns if they wish to understand John's message and the impact it
may have had on his audience in Asia Minor.
Current scholarly interests, however, are often pursued to the
neglect of other areas of equal importance. The impact of the O T
and the early Christian traditions on the thought of the author and
his audience has been seriously neglected in much recent scholar-
ship. The books by Thompson and Goldsworthy provide a correc-
tive to the current trend.
Thompson forces us to note that the language and imagery of
Revelation betray much more dependence on OT language and
thought than on Jewish or Greek apocalypses. It is now also clear
that John studiously avoided the constructions common to the
rabbis and sectarian Jews in favor of the syntax of the Hebrew OT.
Thus, as Thompson points out, John models himself on the OT
prophets rather than on any contemporary model. Goldsworthy

lONote, e.g., the allusion to Luke 10:17-20 in Rev 9: 1-4. Apocalyptic passages
also contain exhortations to the individual reader that are reminiscent of other N T
writers. Cf. Rev 16:15 with Mark 13:35-37, Matt 24:43,44, Luke 12:39,40, 1 Thess
5:2,4, and 2 Pet 3:lO. Cf. Rev 18:4 with 2 Cor 6:17, Matt 24:15,16, and parallel
passages.
170 JON PAULIEN

reminds us that the basic message of Revelation is one that is

Christian. Although heavily symbolic in nature and written in the
language of O T history and prophecy, Revelation is more a Chris-
tian book than a Jewish one. The recent books by these two
authors indicate that an overemphasis on the historical, literary,
and social setting of Revelation to the neglect of the O T and NT
backgrounds will result in a misunderstanding of the message of
the Apocalypse.
That fact does not deny the need for basic exegesis of the
Apocalypse. But the complexity of that book, indicated anew by
the divergent concerns our four authors have expressed, suggests
that a broader, more theological method of exegesis is necessary to
do justice to Revelation.
Therefore, having done the basic exegesis, the exegete needs to
consider the impact of the O T language and idioms on the passage.
An essential part of the exegetical process must be to assess, on the
basis of the context, the extent to which a given passage is to be
read in terms of standard Greek or in light of the Semitic back-
ground. Attention must also be given to literary and thematic
allusions to the OT.ll
Finally, it is clear that John's experience with Jesus has led
him in the Apocalypse to transform thoroughly the O T materials
with which he was working. Thus, rather than trying to impose
O T concepts and structures upon Revelation, we must interpret
these concepts through the prism of the Christ-event. The correct
interpretation of Revelation will be one that is fundamentally
Christian.
Taken together, the four books we have discussed are helpful
toward providing a balanced basis for future study of Revelation.
The wealth of recent literature suggests that significant advances in
the understanding of this enigmatic book may be forthcoming.

"This is an area of great complexity in which much work needs to be done.

This reviewer plans to publish in the field of OT allusions in Revelation at a future
time.