Wear 440-441 (2019) 203065

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Wear
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

Abrasive wear behavior of austempered ductile iron with niobium additions

Amanda Souza Oliveira Pimentel a, *, Wilson Luiz Guesser a,
William Jos� �dio da Silva a, Pedro Dolabella Portella b, Mathias Woydt c,
e Rodrigues Custo
d
John Burbank
a
Programa de P�
os-Graduaç~
ao em Ci^encias e Engenharia de Materiais, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Joinville, Brazil
b
BAM Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung, Berlin, Germany
c
MATRILUB, Berlin, Germany
d
FUCHS Schmierstoffe GmbH, Mannheim, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Carbidic Austempered Ductile Iron (CADI) microstructures containing eutectic carbides can be produced by the
Ductile iron addition of carbide stabilizing elements, such as chromium. Carbides formed from the addition of Cr are eutectic
Niobium alloying of M3C type. The presence of such hard phases can enhance the abrasion wear resistance of ductile iron. A new
Abrasion
CADI can be produced by the addition of Nb. Niobium carbide particles are formed in the beginning of solidi­
Carbidic austempered ductile iron
fication and remain stable once they are insoluble in solid iron matrix. The dry sand abrasive wear resistance of
ductile irons alloyed with 1.0, 1.8, and 2.4 wt% Nb were tested in both “as-cast” and “heat treated” conditions
using standard ASTM G65. Results were compared to abrasive wear data obtained on ductile iron alloyed with
1 wt% Cr, CADI (1 wt% Cr), and the basic composition of iron without carbide stabilizing elements. In the “as-
cast” condition, the addition of Nb did not lead to a reduction in wear, while CADI with Nb is a promising
substitute for CADI with Cr addition, because both materials showed very similar values of abrasion resistance.
Micro-ploughing and micro-cutting mechanisms were observed on the worn surfaces of ductile irons. Abrasive
wear resistance of these alloys was correlated with the volume fraction of carbides.

1. Introduction [3] and hardness of 1100 HV [4].

Another option for alloying ADI involves the use of niobium. In
Austempered ductile iron (ADI) is widely used in the dynamic en­ stainless steels, niobium is a micro-alloying element and additions occur
gineering world. Construction equipment components demand high up to 0.7 wt% [5]. The micro-alloying practice is also applied to cast
wear resistance. Neglecting this property, ADI presents a combination of irons, and has yielded good results [6]. High niobium concentrations in
good ductility and high strength. In addition, the use of ADI instead of cast iron alloys are a relatively novel approach. The NbC carbides are
steel presents some advantages: acoustic damping capacity is three times effortlessly obtained by foundry processing. The hardness of NbC par­
higher and density is 10% lower (due to the presence of graphite) [1]. ticles is 2400 HV and its melting temperature is 3520 � C [4]. The
Furthermore, relative cost per unit of ADI yield strength is among the niobium is added as standard FeNb65. Primary NbC cubes grow above
lowest of all engineering materials [2]. liquid in the melt, because NbC has a low solubility in melt and is
In order to improve the wear resistance of ADI alloying elements are insoluble in austenite [7]. During heat treatment, the NbC is stable [8,9]
added. The result of this process is the presence of hard carbides and insoluble in the solid iron matrix.
immersed in the ausferritic matrix. The main advantage is the The addition of Nb in gray cast iron was found to increase tensile
improvement of abrasive wear behavior. The modified ADI is called strength [10,11]. Some authors [12,13] also found better abrasive wear
CADI (Carbidic Austempered Ductile Iron). Production of this material resistance for Nb-additions of up to 1.48 wt%. The addition of Nb was
involves alloying with carbide stabilizing elements, such as chromium, found to increase the hardness of the iron due to the refinement of the
molybdenum or titanium. The carbides formed from the addition of Cr interlamellar spacing of pearlite, the austenitic grain size and of the NbC
are M3C type, they have PC6 (primary carbide type 6) spatial geometry nano-precipitation in matrix, which increases tensile strength [11–13].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: amandasopimentel@gmail.com, amandaprod@yahoo.com.br (A. Souza Oliveira Pimentel), w.guesser@tupy.com.br (W. Luiz Guesser).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2019.203065
Received 29 May 2019; Received in revised form 15 September 2019; Accepted 20 September 2019
Available online 5 October 2019
0043-1648/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Souza Oliveira Pimentel et al. Wear 440-441 (2019) 203065

Table 1
Elemental composition of the base ductile iron alloy.
Elements Elemental range [wt.%]

C 3.40–3.60
Si 2.80–2.90
Cu 0.64–0.65
Mo 0.20–0.23
Mn 0.14 (maximum)
Mg 0.05–0.07

Table 2
Content of the alloying element in heat and in matrix, Cr for DI Cr 1 wt% and Nb
for the alloys with Nb.
Elemental range [wt. Alloy Alloy DI Alloy DI Alloy DI Alloy DI
%] DI 1 Cr 1 Nb 1.8 Nb 2.4 Nb

Cr 0.019 0.98 0.019 0.025 0.026

Nb 0.003 0.003 0.97 1.83 2.38
Sb 0.002 0.002 0.105 0.156 0.142
Alloying element (Cr, – 0.7 Cr 0.02 Nb 0.03 Nb 0.03 Nb
Nb) in the matrix

In white cast iron alloy with high Cr, the addition of Nb revealed iron
that has better wear performance than with the addition of Mo [14].
According to the literature, the addition of niobium of up to 2 wt% in
ductile cast iron provides significant enhancement of mechanical
properties [15,16]. Moreover, better resistance to adhesive wear and
abrasive wear resistance results from the addition of 0.40 wt% and
0.60 wt% of Nb [8]. In the case of ADI, the benefits of niobium are not
fully established. For ADI with 0.25 wt% Nb, the mechanical properties
of the material depends on the time of austempering treatment [17].
Some authors found that niobium improved hardness and impact
Fig. 1. Microstructure of “as cast” samples. Nital etched. The composition is
toughness of ADI with 0.2 wt% Nb [18]. For higher niobium additions, indicated in the images. White particles represent ferrite phase, except for DI
as 1.5 wt% Nb in ADI, higher abrasive resistance is reported, as well as Cr, where the white particles are M3C carbides.
high fracture toughness [19].
Some practical examples of cast iron alloyed with Nb are: piston TOP
Carbide particles maximum length was analyzed by SEM (Scanning
and compressing rings of martensitic ductile iron [8], cylinder lines of
Electron Microscopy) in the BSE mode and Image C software was used.
gray iron [20] and brake discs of gray iron [12].
At least 30 fields were analyzed per specimen before the heat treatment.
The purpose of this work is to investigate the performance of
The carbides remain stable, once the solubility of niobium in austenite is
pearlitic and carbidic austempered ductile irons with various Nb con­
low. The NbC particles are not eutectic carbides, they are primary car­
tents in abrasive tests. These materials were also compared to a carbidic
bides, formed in the beginning of solidification. As observed in Table 2,
austempered ductile iron alloyed with Cr.
the content of niobium in matrix varies from 0.02 to 0.03 wt % Nb.
The volume fraction of ferrite in “as cast” samples were analyzed by
2. Experimental procedures metallography. A contrast analysis was performed using Image Pro Plus
software. The white areas were designated as ferritic, despite the fact
The material used in the present investigation has the base compo­ that the carbide particles also appear as white areas.
sition showed in Table 1. The study was carried out on pearlitic ductile The mechanical properties of the specimens were analyzed. Micro­
iron and austempered ductile iron (ADI). The samples were obtained in hardness tests were performed on the matrix areas, then graphite nod­
an industrial foundry, casting 1 inch Y-blocks, according to dimensions ules and carbide particles were avoided. The microhardness was
specified in ASTM A536 [21]. From the base composition, five different measured using a Shimadzu (HMV – 2T) Microhardness Tester under a
alloyed materials were studied: 0–1 wt% Nb – 1.8 wt% Nb – 2.4 wt% Nb load of 500 g (0.5 HV) for 10 s. The tension tests were performed in an
– 1 wt% Cr. EMIC machine (6000 C) at 20 MPa/s. Three samples of each composition
The content of the alloying elements in the as cast matrix was combination and heat treatment were tested.
analyzed using a Jeol microprobe (see Table 2). In contrast to Nb, Cr
goes into solution and shows higher concentration in the matrix. In
consequence, niobium is more effective in forming hard phases than 2.1. Wear tests
chromium. Also noteworthy is the presence of Sb in Nb alloyed cast
irons, which comes from the Ferroniobium as a contamination. A series of abrasive wear tests were performed. The tests were con­
The heat treated samples were austenitized at 900 � C for 1 h and ducted on a dry sand/rubber wheel apparatus according to ASTM G65
austempered in a salt bath at 310 � C for 110 min. test method [22]. The dry sand was rounded quartz sand with a U.S.
The samples were sanded, polished and etched with 2 vol % Nital sieve size 50/70. The moisture of the sand was controlled to 0.5 wt %.
solution for metallographic analysis. The carbide volume fraction and The coefficient of angularity of the dry quartz sand (a measurement of
the density of carbides of alloyed with Nb and Cr samples were analyzed the sand roundness) is 1.44 (according to Ref. [23]) and density of
using optical microcopy and Image Pro Plus software. The samples were approximately 1.6 g/cm3, which was fed between 300 and 400 g/min.
etched with Behara etchant (3 g of K2S2O5 and 10 g of Na2S2O3). At least Two procedures of the G65 test were performed: Austempered
20 fields were analyzed per specimen. samples were tested according to procedure A, which is a relatively

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A. Souza Oliveira Pimentel et al. Wear 440-441 (2019) 203065

Fig. 2. SEM images of DI 1.8% Nb (a) and CADI 1.8% Nb (b). The white particles are niobium carbides. In image (b) the ausferritic matrix. BSE mode.

Fig. 3. CADI 1% Cr. The white particles are M3C carbides. Ausferritic matrix.
Nital etched.

severe test, and the “as cast” samples were tested according to procedure Fig. 4. Volume fraction of ferrite of “as cast” ductile irons in box plot graphic.
B, which is a short variation of procedure A [3]. Considering the rela­ The squares indicate the average value and the asterisks represent the
tively low mechanical properties of the “as cast” material, low abrasive extreme values.
resistance is expected for these samples. Therefore, procedure B was
chosen for DI. analysis. In Fig. 2, the niobium carbide particles are represented by the
From the bottom section of the Y-blocks the test specimens of size white phase. Image (a) shows DI 1.8% Nb before heat treatment and (b)
75 � 25 � 10 mm3 were machined. The specimens were sanded and shows CADI 1.8% Nb after heat treatment. The carbide particles remain
polished in order to obtain ground surface finishing lower than 0.8 μm. stable. Ausferritic matrix is observed in image (b). Fig. 3 shows CADI 1%
Before the test, the specimens were cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner and Cr, where the white particles are M3C carbides enriched with Cr.
accurately weighed. After the tests, the specimens were cleaned again The result of the volume fraction of ferrite analysis is shown in Fig. 4.
and weighed. The loss of weight was converted to volume loss in (mm3) The material with Cr reveals the lowest quantity of ferrite because Cr is a
by using a ductile iron density value of 7.2 g/cm3. Three samples of each pearlite promoter. As the content of Nb increases, the volume fraction of
condition were tested. The wear resistance is defined as the inverse of ferrite decreases. It is important to notice that, in this case, addition of
the weight loss. Nb brought together Sb, due the composition of Ferroniobium. Sb is a
After the tests, the specimen surfaces were analyzed using a ZEISS strong pearlite promoter, so the decrease of ferrite is attributed to this
scanning electron microscope, model DSM 940A, under the working element, not to Nb. Many results in the literature [12,13] must be
distance of 10 mm and accelerating voltage between 15 and 20 kV. reviewed with consideration of this contamination. The as-cast materials
exhibited bull-eye ferrite, except the material with Cr. The box plot
3. Results analysis reveals higher quantity of adjacent values for the niobium
addition materials. This is an indication of microstructures with higher
The samples alloyed with Nb or Cr developed carbides throughout heterogeneity when Nb addition occurs.
the matrix. The carbides formed from the addition of Cr have EC4 Experimental results of mechanical properties are given in Table 3.
(eutectic carbide type 4) spatial geometry of arrangement A2, while the The microhardness of austempered samples are higher than the micro­
carbides from the addition of Nb are polygonal PC4 (primary carbide hardness of “as cast” samples, as expected. However, higher hardness for
type 4). During heat treating, the carbides remain stable, once they are ductile irons alloyed with Nb or Cr were not observed. Tensile strength is
NbC and M3C carbides enriched with Cr. Fig. 1 shows the ferritic- reduced with Cr and Nb alloying, especially for “as cast” condition. A
pearlitic matrix of the “as cast” ductile iron samples. The white parti­ great reduction of elongation was detected for samples alloyed with Nb
cles in the images represents the ferrite phase. Bull-eye structures are and Cr. The elongation is lower for samples with Cr because the element
observed, except for Cr. In DI Cr condition, the white particles are M3C segregates to eutectic cells boundaries. The cracks in the material are
carbides. The niobium carbides are also white particles for DI samples, propagated through the carbides connecting the cells boundaries.
however, they are too small to be observed by the magnification of the The wear resistance results from “as cast” samples show the best

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Table 3
Mechanical properties and microstructure of the samples. SD is the standard deviation.
Sample Matrix Tensile strength SD Yield strength SD Elongation SD Microhardness (HV SD
(MPa) (MPa) (%) 0.2)

DI 1 wt% Cr Pearlite þ M3C particles 693 23.4 552 5.4 1.4 0.3 356 44.3
DI Pearlite þ ferrite 772 14.0 467 2.6 7.8 1.7 379 22.9
DI 1 wt% Nb Pearlite þ ferrite þ NbC 705 49.9 468 2.4 3.5 1.2 354 46.6
particles
DI 1.8 wt% Nb Pearlite þ ferrite þ NbC 659 29.4 473 11.3 2.2 0.3 336 32.1
particles
DI 2.4 wt% Nb Pearlite þ ferrite þ NbC 617 102.3 476 9.5 2.8 0.5 297 50.5
particles
CADI 1% Cr Ausferrite þ M3C particles 1032 28.7 995 11.9 0.9 0.1 537 44.3
ADI Ausferrite 1295 6.6 1046 15.8 4.1 0.3 537 29.3
CADI 1 wt% Nb Ausferrite þ NbC particles 1232 23.5 1055 9.9 2.1 0.4 531 14.0
CADI 1.8 wt% Ausferrite þ NbC particles 1252 14.6 1058 8.0 2.3 0.3 537 13.8
Nb
CADI 2.4 wt% Ausferrite þ NbC particles 1195 16.0 1050 11.0 1.5 0.2 531 29.3
Nb

Fig. 5. Dry abrasive wear resistance of different ductile irons after abrasive Fig. 6. Worn surface of DI 2.4 wt % Nb, 100 X, SEM, SE mode. The arrows
tests in box plot graphic. The squares indicate the average value. The asterisks indicate pitting.
represent the extreme values.
resistance. Furthermore, large grooves were formed on the “as cast”
samples surface (see Fig. 7 (d and e)). These grooves are larger than the
Table 4 carbide dimensions, which leads to the pulling-out of the niobium car­
Wear mechanisms and wear resistance values of “as cast” samples. SD is the bide particles. The carbide particles maximum length analysis is shown
standard deviation.
in Table 5.
3
Material Wear mechanism Wear resistance (mm ) SD Fig. 7 shows the pitting on the DI 1.8 wt% Nb surface in SE (a) and
DI 1 wt% Cr Absence of grooves 0.0182 0.0002 BSE (b) mode. The BSE image confirms that in the deepness of the pitting
DI Ploughing 0.0307 0.0028 remains graphite. The grooves produced on the worn surface are seen in
DI 1 wt% Nb Ploughing, pitting 0.0213 0.0020 Fig. 7 (c, d and e). Typical micro-ploughing features are observable by
DI 1.8 wt% Nb Ploughing, pitting 0.0177 0.0015
the deformation of the matrix, the prows at the end of the grooves and
DI 2.4 wt% Nb Ploughing, pitting 0.0335 0.0202
the ridges adjacent to the grooves. The presence of chips in prow,
especially for DI 1.8 wt%Nb (d), confirms the micro-cutting mechanism.
result for ductile iron with Cr, as seen in Fig. 5. The ductile irons with Nb Aside from the deformation of the matrix, detaching of the material
showed very similar results to ductile iron base result. The niobium occurs due to micro-cutting and low cycle fatigue during micro-
carbide particles are smaller than the abrasive particles. Indeed, they did ploughing [24]. The DI 1 wt% Cr samples presented less deformation
not act as a barrier to scratching on the ferritic-pearlitic matrix, but of the matrix and the absence of grooves. Fig. 7 (f) shows the BSE mode
rather, the carbide particles may have been removed. The box plot analysis of DI 1 wt% Cr. The arrow indicates a graphite nodule, which
analysis shows high dispersion of the result values. The dispersion exists was covered by the matrix deformation.
probably due to the heterogeneity of the samples with carbides. The results for austempered irons with carbides are promising, as
Table 4 summarizes the wear resistance and wear mechanisms of seen in Fig. 8. CADI with Cr and CADI with Nb showed similar wear
ductile cast irons. The main wear mechanism is ploughing due to the performance. The presence of hard particles embedded in the matrix is
presence of a soft matrix. Pitting like craters were observed in the effective when the matrix is hard enough to prevent the removal of the
samples with niobium, according Fig. 6. This indicates that the presence particles. According to the box plot analysis, higher variability of data is
of niobium contributes to the propagation of cracks and reduces its wear observed for CADI 1% Nb, some samples showed lower performance

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A. Souza Oliveira Pimentel et al. Wear 440-441 (2019) 203065

Fig. 8. Dry abrasive wear resistance of different types of austempered ductile

irons after abrasive tests in box plot graphic. The squares indicate the average
value. The asterisks represent the extreme values.

Table 6
Wear mechanisms and wear resistance values of austempered ductile irons. SD is
the standard deviation.
3
Sample Wear mechanism Wear resistance (mm ) SD

CADI 1 wt% Cr Micro-cutting 0.0143 0.0008

ADI Micro-cutting 0.0089 0.0007
CADI 1 wt% Nb Micro-cutting 0.0133 0.0015
CADI 1.8 wt% Nb Micro-cutting 0.0143 0.0010
CADI 2.4 wt% Nb Micro-cutting 0.0143 0.0007

Fig. 7. Worn surfaces of “as cast” ductile irons, 1000 X. (a), (c) and (d): SEM in
SE mode. (b) and (e): SEM in BSE mode. Micro-ploughing was observed for the
samples, except for DI Cr.

Table 5
Maximum length of niobium carbide particles. SD is the standard deviation.
Material Minimum length Maximum length Average SD
(μm) (μm) (μm)

DI 1 wt % Nb 1.04 14.27 3.6 2.13

DI 1.8 wt % 1.00 17.48 4.37 2.83
Nb
DI 2.4 wt % 1.04 39.26 4.97 4.23
Nb

than the expected for CADI samples.

Table 6 summarizes the wear resistance and wear mechanisms of
austempered ductile irons. The ADI samples presented micro-cutting,
since no deformation of the matrix was observed.
The ADI base samples showed more pronounced wear signs on the
surface as the presence of grooves/risks is more evident, as presented in
Fig. 9 (a). CADI with Cr samples revealed a more flattened surface Fig. 9. Worn surfaces of austempered ductile irons, 500X, SE mode. Micro-
comparing to the CADI with Nb samples (see Fig. 9 (b)). Tongue-like cutting mechanism was observed. The arrow in image C indicates a tongue-
extensions of the matrix were found for all austempered compositions, like extension of the matrix.
as indicated by the arrow in Fig. 9 (c). The reason for the tongues for­
mation is the break-off of the matrix due to the low ductility and the

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Fig. 11. Dry abrasive wear resistance of austempered ductile irons versus the
yield strength. The proper combination of high abrasive wear and high yield
strength is achieved for CADIs with Nb.

and high yield strength is achieved for CADIs with Nb.

The DI or CADI with Nb or Cr are inhomogeneous materials, because
they comprise hard carbide particles in an iron matrix. The volume
content, the size, the density, the type and the shape of carbides vary
between materials. The desired features of the microstructure of iron
Fig. 10. Worn surfaces of austempered ductile irons, 1000X, (a): SE mode, (b) with carbides consist of:
and (c): BSE mode. Micro-cracks propagate by the graphite nodules, which are
the dark particles in BSE mode. � hard carbide particles
� homogeneous distribution of particles
presence of hard carbides in alloyed materials. � particles with a rounded shape to prevent crack nucleation and
On both materials, CADI 1.8 and 2.4 wt% Nb, it is possible to observe propagation
micro-cracks propagated by the graphite nodules in the brittle material � carbides larger than the width and depth of wear grooves produced
(see Fig. 10). Image 10 (c) shows the plastic deformation of the matrix � a matrix hard enough to support the embedded brittle carbides
over a graphite nodule (the dark particle). Indeed, the graphite nodules
play an important role as “internal notches” during abrasive wear. They It is clear that it also depends on the abrasive properties and the
favor crack initiation and propagation by increasing the local stress in­ tribosystem itself. Smaller carbide volumes allows grooving of the ma­
tensity [24]. For CADI with Nb, clusters of Nb are seen on the worn trix. The carbide size is very important, however, the mean free path
surface. They are represented by the white particles on BSE images, between massive carbides is more important [24]. Short mean free path
indicated by the arrows. prevents the penetration of abrasive particles in matrix. In order to
obtain a short mean free path, a high density of carbides as well as large
4. Discussion carbides, which leads to high carbide volume, is desirable.
The NbC particles are harder than the chromium-rich carbides.
Regarding the tribosystems evaluated in this research, the abrasive However, the chromium-rich carbide particles are substantially larger in
particle is “hard” because the quartz sand hardness (900–1300HV) [24] size than the NbC carbides and present the skeletal shape while NbC
is at least 60% greater than the hardness of the unworn materials. In this carbides present the polygonal shape. The M3C are eutectic carbides and
case, the wear resistance tends to be influenced by the hardness of the their distribution form a network, while the NbC carbides are primary
wearing or workpiece material when using the model developed by and their distribution is random. As a result, the distribution of carbides
Rabinowicz [25]. The hardness of the heat-treated materials, however, is more homogeneous for iron with Nb than with Cr. The shape of NbC
for the present investigation, is very similar. The main difference be­ particles is preferable to the shape of chromium-rich carbides, once M3C
tween the materials is the presence of hard carbides. particles are long and asymmetric and so are more susceptible to crack.
The presence of carbides leads to variation of mechanical properties. Despite the distribution and the form, the great advantage of
The elongation tends to reduce due to carbides presence, once they act as chromium-rich carbides is the size. The chromium-rich carbides are
a barrier for scratching and reduce surface deformation. The elongation much larger than the NbC particles and present dimensions greater than
for “as cast” materials is reduced due to the reduction of volume fraction the grooves. This fact prevents the pullout of the carbide particles from
of ferrite in the presence of Cr and Nb (in the case of Nb, due to the Sb the matrix. The chromium-rich carbide net is strongly fixed to the ma­
effect). Moreover the presence of 0.7 wt% Cr in solid solution in the trix. In this way, the carbides can act as an invincible barrier to wear.
matrix of DI Cr and CADI leads to reduced deformation of the material. This is probably the reason why DI 1 wt% Cr presented the highest wear
Tensile strength and yield strength did not show the same tendency resistance for “as cast” condition, as the carbides were not removed from
by the addition of Cr and Nb in the austempered condition. CADI with the soft matrix. For the materials with Nb in “as cast” condition, the
Nb properties presented similar results of ADI while exhibiting the wear addition of this element did not yield a substantial reduction of wear,
resistance of CADI with Cr. Furthermore, CADI with Nb retain the because the soft matrix allowed the formation of deep grooves and,
elongation properties. The wear resistance data was plotted against the consequentially, the removal of the carbide particles. For the heat-
yield strength in Fig. 11. The proper combination of high abrasive wear treated condition, the hard matrix prevented the formation of grooves

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A. Souza Oliveira Pimentel et al. Wear 440-441 (2019) 203065

Fig. 12. Dry abrasive wear resistance of ductile irons versus density of car­
bides. High values of wear resistance correlate to low density carbide values Fig. 15. Dry abrasive wear resistance of austempered ductile irons versus
probably due to the removal of carbide particles. carbide volume fraction. The wear resistance of CADI with Nb in “heat-treated”
condition increased with increasing volume fraction of carbide.

and supported the carbide particles effectively.

As the carbide size contributes to wear resistance, the abrasion
resistance is expected to increase with increasing volume fraction of
carbides. The volume fraction is a function of the ratio of carbide size
and the mean free path [24]. The mean free path is shorter for a higher
density of carbides. Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 show abrasive wear resistance
against density of the carbide particles for “as cast” and “heat treated”
conditions. Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 show abrasive wear resistance vs. volume
fraction of carbides for the “as cast” and “heat treated” conditions. In the
“as cast” condition, high values of wear resistance correlate to low
density carbide values. Furthermore, the analyses of volume fraction for
the “as cast” condition is disturbed. The reason is probably the removal
of carbides. The mean free path is shorter for iron with Nb than for iron
with Cr, but not short enough to prevent the cutting and spalling of the
carbides in “as cast” condition. The best wear result appears for iron
with Cr, which did not have a high density value of carbides, since the
chromium-rich carbides are larger.
In Fig. 15, for CADI with Nb, which presents harder matrix than the
Fig. 13. Dry abrasive wear resistance of austempered ductile irons versus
“as cast” material, increasing density of carbides leads to high wear
density of carbides. Increasing density of carbides leads to high wear resistance
due to the reduction of the mean free path. resistance due to the reduction of the mean free path. For the same
reasons as in the case of increased carbide size, the wear resistance of
CADI with Nb in “heat-treated” condition increased with increasing
volume fraction of carbide (see Fig. 15). As the wear resistance increases
with the volume fraction of carbide particles, the results show that
micro-cracking of carbide particles does not occur.
Regarding to the performance of the materials, the Nb alloyed CADI
is a promising substitute for the Cr alloyed CADI. Both tensile strength
and yield strength of CADI Nb are comparable to ADI without alloying
elements, while presenting the resistance of CADI Cr. Despite the higher
cost of Nb compared to Cr, there are technical advantages that can be
very useful in some applications. However, more experiments are
needed in different tribo-conditions.

5. Conclusions

From the results of the present study with dry sand abrasive wear the
following conclusions can be drawn:

1. For the “as cast” condition (ferritic-pearlitic matrix), the addition of

niobium did not improve the dry sand abrasive wear resistance,
while DI with 1 wt% Cr exhibited a remarkable increase in abrasive
Fig. 14. Dry abrasive wear resistance of ductile irons versus carbide volume
wear resistance.
fraction. Higher carbide volume fraction did not lead to higher wear resistance
for CADI with Nb.

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2. In austempered condition, CADI with Nb showed higher dry sand [6] X. Chen, J. Xu, H. Hu, H. Mohrbacher, M. Kang, W. Zhang, A. Guo, Q. Zhai, Effects
of niobium addition on microstructure and tensile behavior of as-cast ductile iron,
abrasive wear resistance than ADI.
Mater. Sci. Eng. 688 (March) (2017) 416–428, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
3. CADI alloyed with Nb is a promising substitute for chromium alloyed msea.2017.01.032.
CADI in applications with demanding abrasive wear, whereas the [7] V.K. Lakshmanan, J.S. Kirkaldy, Solubility product for niobium carbide in
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